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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20O%27Hagan
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Martin O'Hagan
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Owen Martin O'Hagan (23 June 1950 – 28 September 2001) was an Irish investigative journalist from Lurgan, Northern Ireland. After leaving the Official Irish Republican Army (Official IRA) and serving time in prison, he began a 20-year journalism career, during which he reported on paramilitary activity in Northern Ireland before being murdered in September 2001.
Born in Lurgan to Catholic and republican parents, several members of his family became prominent in paramilitary activities and politics. After returning to Lurgan from West Germany, where his father had worked for the British Army, he left school to work at his family's television repair shop. He soon became involved in both the Official Sinn Féin (which, after renouncing paramilitary activity, evolved into the Workers' Party) and the Official IRA. He was arrested and questioned over various crimes, including the murder of a police officer and a soldier, and was eventually sentenced for firearms offences in 1973.
After serving five years in Long Kesh prison, O'Hagan began a journalism career with Fortnight and the Sunday World. He reported on violent and drug-related crimes committed by paramilitaries, like Robin Jackson, and worked with the Channel 4 programme Dispatches on alleged killings by security forces and Loyalists. He was abducted in 1989 by members of the Provisional IRA, and angered Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) leader Billy Wright after reporting on his activities.
While Wright was killed in prison in 1997, threats continued to be made against O'Hagan by members of the new Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF), which Wright had founded. On 28 September 2001, while walking home from the pub with his wife, O'Hagan was shot from a moving car and died at the scene. The chief suspects were members of the LVF, but no one has yet been sentenced for the crime. Trials were held against five men in the late 2000s and early 2010s, but the cases soon collapsed and one suspect was dismissed as a witness. Security forces have been accused of covering for O'Hagan's murderers, with accusations of direct police involvement in the killing. O'Hagan was the only journalist killed while working during The Troubles, and the last killed in the United Kingdom before the death of Lyra McKee in 2019.
Early life and family
O'Hagan was born in Lurgan in the north-east of County Armagh in 1950, the oldest of six children. Both his parents were from Lurgan, but O'Hagan spent a large period of his childhood in British military bases across West Germany due to his father's career with the British Army. His grandfather had also served in the military, being evacuated from Dunkirk. When O'Hagan was four his family returned to Lurgan, where he attended school and his father ran a television repair shop. Following his O Levels, he left education and began working at his father's shop. His parents soon separated, and his father left for London.
His family had a history of Irish republicanism: his uncle was J. B. O'Hagan, who escaped from Mountjoy Prison in 1973, and his cousin was Sinn Féin politician Dara O'Hagan. The family were Catholic. His brother, Rory O'Hagan, was convicted in the 1970s after an Official Irish Republican Army (Official IRA) shootout with the Gardaí in County Cork.
Official IRA membership
As a teenager, O'Hagan joined the Official Sinn Féin (later the Workers' Party), and made friends with then-general secretary Máirín de Burca, with whom he pelted Richard Nixon's car with eggs during a 1970 visit to Dublin. He was fined £2 for the incident and let go. His mother had insisted he live in the Irish capital for a while to escape the political troubles of Lurgan, but this appears to have backfired.
While his membership of the Official IRA was known publicly, alleged key details remained practically unknown until the publication of a 2002 book entitled Milestones in Murder, by Sunday World reporter Hugh Jordan. The details were summarised in a November 2002 article by Barrie Penrose in The Spectator. Back home from Dublin, O'Hagan had joined the Lurgan unit of the Official IRA, enjoying their socialist-republican policies and military wing. He soon became the "adjutant" of the group. In 1971, a few years after The Troubles began, O'Hagan was one of many republican suspects who was interned at the paramilitary detention centre at Long Kesh (also known as "The Maze").
On 15 December 1972, Police Constable George Chambers and his colleagues were driving through Lurgan's Kilwilkie estate after delivering Christmas presents to the house of an injured child. While there, they noticed a stolen Ford Cortina and suspecting it to be booby-trapped began evacuating the area. O'Hagan and his active service unit were hid in a flat nearby, from which they planned to rob a van later that day. Upon noticing the police, the group left the flat and attacked. The group fired semiautomatic guns towards the police, with Chambers being shot. O'Hagan allegedly then stood over his injured body and fired bullets until he had died. Following this, he shot another in the mouth before running away down an alley.
In May 1973, O'Hagan and his men were arrested on suspicion of the crimes. 19-year-old Gerald Duff admitted his role in the murder and was given a life sentence. The unit's commander, James Shanks, was also jailed. Both named O'Hagan as Chambers' killer in signed statements, and other group members confirmed the matter. While being interrogated O'Hagan remained silent, and was never charged with the murder. Later that year, he was arrested after a shooting in a Lurgan bar, where a Protestant man named William Houston was shot in the leg by O'Hagan's group. He was released again, but caught by a British Army patrol transporting an Armalite rifle and an M1 carbine across Lurgan. He was charged with the attempted murder of Private Ian Matterson of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, but the charge was dropped. However, he was found guilty of firearms offences and was sentenced to another seven years at Long Kesh.
While serving this sentence, he slowly began to turn away from his paramilitary past. He soon began studying sociology with the Open University and later the University of Ulster. He was released from prison in 1978.
Journalism career
After he was released from prison, O'Hagan returned to north Armagh and began reporting on clashes between loyalist and republican paramilitaries. While his journalism career began in the late 1970s, he was involved with local paramilitary activities until the early 1980s, being a suspect in the armed robberies of a Lurgan post office and a shop. In 1982, he was given an unpaid position with the left-wing Irish periodical Fortnight. Then-editor Andy Pollak described him as "full of enthusiasm and hugely committed", stating he had "a courage bordering on recklessness. He'd go and get the stories other people were afraid to touch". He continued writing for Fortnight throughout the 1980s, becoming assistant editor underneath Pollak.
O'Hagan soon began doing freelance work for The Irish Times, and in 1987 he joined the Belfast office of the Irish tabloid Sunday World, managed by Jim Campbell at the time. The paper reported on the sectarian violence of the Troubles, with a specific focus on the crimes of Robin Jackson (known as "The Jackal"), an Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) leader who had been involved in various brutal killings. In 1984, Campbell was shot by UVF members after revealing information on an assassination.
In the late 1980s, O'Hagan was a key source for the Channel 4 Dispatches documentary The Committee, which aired in 1991. The show concerned the Ulster Loyalist Central Co-ordinating Committee, a group of Loyalists and security force members who allegedly carried out sectarian killings. Both the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and mainstream paramilitaries denied the existence of the committee. The show led to a series of libel cases and prosecutions, with Channel 4 being fined £75,000 for failing to inform the RUC about allegations within the show. O'Hagan was accused of receiving £5,000 for his part in the programme. In 2000, he appeared at London's High Court during one of the libel cases, where he stated "I have always tried to be squeaky clean because people will always try to cast this up in my face". The programme was later turned into a book by Sean McPhilemy.
National Union of Journalists
O'Hagan served as joint Belfast secretary of the National Union of Journalists, having a focus on contracts and bullying within the workplace. In 1999, he campaigned for Ed Moloney regarding the handing over of vital information, and gave evidence on behalf of Sean McPhilemy in his libel case against the Sunday Times.
IRA abduction
Despite his republican background, O'Hagan was abducted in September 1989 by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) after his name had appeared in the diary of a RUC officer who had been murdered by the IRA earlier that year. He had been invited to south Armagh under the guise of an interview, but was then bound by members of the South Armagh Brigade. While in their possession, he underwent an interrogation with the IRA's Internal Security Unit (known as the "Nutting Squad"), and allegedly spent two nights with a hood placed over his head. He was eventually released after convincing them he was not a police agent. The abduction was covered in Rebel Hearts, a book by O'Hagan's former friend and journalist Kevin Toolis.
Later years
O'Hagan's investigating continued after his abduction. In 1991, he reported that Margaret Perry, a young woman from Portadown, had been murdered by the IRA and buried in a shallow grave across the border in the Republic of Ireland. Her body was found the next year, but the IRA denied involvement. In the 1990s, he gained the attention of Billy Wright, who had become leader of the UVF Mid-Ulster Brigade before subsequently founding the Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF). While Wright's group called themselves the "Bratpack", O'Hagan nicknamed them the "Ratpack" and christened Wright "King Rat". He began reporting on the murders, drug deals, and other crimes that happened under his watch.
In 1992, the Belfast offices of the Sunday World were bombed by the UVF; O'Hagan was not present during the bombing, instead having been lured into another trap and beaten up at the Maze. After the bombing, reporter Jim McDowell was called to the UVF headquarters and made to deliver a personal threat to O'Hagan from Wright: "If anything happens to Billy Wright or his family, he will visit the same tenfold on Martin O'Hagan and his family". Due to these threats, O'Hagan was moved by the Sunday World to Dublin in November of that year, and then moved again to County Cork following loyalist death threats made against him. His wife and daughters remained in Lurgan.
O'Hagan continued working for the newspaper, and soon moved back to Lurgan in 1994. While the situation was more peaceful now, threats continued to be made against O'Hagan's life. In the final years of his life, O'Hagan continued reporting on paramilitaries and crime, publishing stories about the actions of neo-Nazi group Combat 18 regarding Lurgan solicitor Rosemary Nelson and the supposed ethnic cleansing of Portadown. He interviewed Christopher "Crip" McWilliams, a member of the Irish National Liberation Army and one of the killers of Billy Wright, which angered loyalists, before separately publishing an article on McWilliams apparently stalking a girl.
While he often engaged in investigative journalism and serious stories, he was largely seen as a tabloid writer, with his colleague Jim McDowell saying "All he wanted was to be a hack". O'Hagan's reporting was often supported by insider information, such as former loyalist activist Barrie Bradbury, whose life was threatened several times by paramilitary groups. Bradbury later claimed to know the identity of O'Hagan's killer and had informed the Sunday Business Post.
Personal life
O'Hagan was married to Marie (), a Protestant woman who he met at the Carnegie Inn (better known as "Father Joes" or "Fa' Joes") in Lurgan. As one of the few "mixed" pubs in the town, the Catholic/Protestant couple would visit the pub often, including on the night of his murder. They had three daughters together, Cara, Niamh, and Tina.
While he had earlier republican ties, O'Hagan was later seen as being unsectarian, with Toolis describing O'Hagan's attempts to drink at a loyalist bar on the night preceding The Twelfth. He was an atheist and a Marxist.
Assassination
O'Hagan had expressed concerns that he was being followed by members of the LVF, who he had angered by reporting their crimes. A week prior to his death, he had been intimidated by a familiar loyalist living in Lurgan, who told him "You have been clocked walking down here".
A year prior, O'Hagan had bought a new house at Westfield Gardens, near the loyalist Mourneview estate where his mother-in-law lived.
On 28 September 2001, O'Hagan and his wife Marie went for their weekly drink at The Central Bar, popularly known as Fa' Joe's pub, on Lurgan's Market Street, arriving there at around 8pm. Two hours later, they began to walk home, taking a different route than their normal one. At 10:30pm, while walking down Westfield Gardens and near the Mourneview estate, a silver Subaru Impreza parked outside a neighbour's house began to slowly move forwards. A gunman leaned out the driver's window and shot towards the couple. Marie reported that O'Hagan had called out "It's Mackers" as he saw the shooter, suggesting that he knew who his killers were. O'Hagan pushed his wife into their neighbour's hedge, while he took three bullets in the back. Following the impact, he told his wife to phone an ambulance, but he died before she returned from making the call. A silver Ford Orion used by the shooters to escape was later found burned out on the Mourneview estate. Police suggested the Orion may have been left as a decoy.
Investigation
Police stated that their chief suspects were members of the LVF and associates of Billy Wright. They confirmed the existence of two key suspects, including the "Mackers" whom O'Hagan had recognised. The gun used to kill him had supposedly been used before in a feud murder, brought to Lurgan from Dungannon in County Tyrone, with Susan McKay suggesting the killer was a member of Billy Wright's original Ratpack. The weapon was confirmed to have been used to kill Grahame Marks in April 2001 in Tandragee, another killing attributed to the LVF.
O'Hagan's murder was later claimed by members of the LVF, who often operated as the Red Hand Defenders (RHD). They accused him of committing "crimes against the loyalist people". The RHD name was previously used following the murder of Rosemary Nelson in 1999.
Reaction
On 29 September 2001, John Reid, then-Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, described O'Hagan's death as a "barbaric killing" and vowed to track down his murderers. Hours before O'Hagan's death, Reid had warned the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) over its ceasefire breaches, but had not gone as far as fully condemning them. Martin McGuinness, then-Education Minister for Sinn Féin, called Reid "very foolish" for walking back on actions to declare the ceasefire broken, following O'Hagan's murder. Sir Ronnie Flanagan, Chief Constable of the RUC, said the killing "definitely carries the hallmark of the LVF". Suggestions were made that Mark Fulton, Wright's successor in the LVF, had ordered the killing over O'Hagan's reporting of assassinations and drug dealing.
Bertie Ahern, the then-Taoiseach, called it "senseless and brutal", while Sir Reg Empey, the Acting First Minister of Northern Ireland, referred to it as "an attack on democracy itself". Upper Bann MLA and leader of the Ulster Unionist Party David Trimble stated that "[he was] shocked and appalled by this cowardly act, which must be condemned by all right-thinking people" and called on the government to consider whether the LVF ceasefires had been broken. The general secretary of the National Union of Journalists, John Foster, also questioned whether the killing had caused the ceasefire between paramilitary groups to be broken, saying "one of our members has died and that's one too many".
Soon after the killing, new graffiti appeared on the Mourneview estate with the words "Shove ur dove, and Marty", and members of the Orange Volunteers website welcomed his death as "making the news instead of writing it".
Funeral
On 1 October 2001, O'Hagan's funeral was held in Lurgan. The funeral was led by Father Brian D'Arcy, who also worked as a columnist for the Sunday World. More than 1,500 people attended, including:
Jim Campbell, O'Hagan's colleague at the Sunday World
Des Browne, Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Northern Ireland Office
Bríd Rodgers, local SDLP MLA
A minute of silence was held by MLAs at Stormont in tribute to O'Hagan. Neither John Reid nor David Trimble attended O'Hagan's funeral.
Aftermath
Just over a month after O'Hagan's death, a Catholic taxi driver attending a call in the Mourneview estate was shot at in a murder attempt. Sinn Féin MLA for Upper Bann Dara O'Hagan said the attack was part of an ongoing attempt by loyalists to draw republicans back into conflict. A similar event happened in Lurgan five years earlier, when Billy Wright's men murdered a Catholic taxi driver as a "birthday present" for their leader.
Murder trial
On 16 September 2008, four men appeared at Lisburn Magistrate's Court over O'Hagan's murder:
28-year-old Neil Hyde – a member of the LVF since 1996, accused of killing O'Hagan
43-year-old Nigel William Leckey – accused of killing O'Hagan
42-year-old Robin Andrew “Billy” King – a leading member of the LVF in the Mid-Ulster area, accused of trying to destroy or conceal a silver car
28-year-old Mark Kennedy – accused of helping to facilitate the disposal or concealment of the getaway car and impeding the apprehension of the offenders
Kennedy was granted bail in his first appearance, but the others remained in custody. King's brother, Andrew Robert "Drew" King, was also wanted by police in connection with the murder. He had played the bagpipes at Billy Wright's paramilitary-style funeral, and was removed from the RUC and Prison Service pipe bands as a result. Following a request by police to interview him in June 2002, he fled to the Bellshill area of Glasgow, and then to a LVF-owned council house in Bargeddie. He denied any involvement in O'Hagan's killing.
At a bail hearing in October 2008, prosecution lawyers said it was alleged that Leckey had stored the car used by O'Hagan's killers. A witness, known as "Witness A", claimed that on the night of 28 September 2001, he was contacted by one of the accused to arrange a meeting the following morning. The accused had apparently lost control of the car following the shooting, and required help picking up debris from the scene. According to the witness, they then went to a yard owned by Leckey, who had cleaned the car. Leckey was granted bail by the judge, as he was not a "principal party" in the shooting.
In July 2010, murder charges were dropped against Drew King and three of the other men. In September of that year, King took the Sunday World to court, claiming damages for alleged harassment and misuse of private information. Jim McDowell, then-editor of the paper, had published information regarding King's relationships with women, which he defended as part of a character profile.
Hyde had confessed to a number of offences in September 2008 as a member of the LVF involving drugs, arson, firearms, and withholding information regarding a murder. In 2012, he was sentenced to three years in prison. In January 2012, Belfast Crown Court was informed that Hyde had agreed to become an "assisting offender" or supergrass in investigating O'Hagan's death. Hyde stated that he was inside a Lurgan flat on the evening of the murder: he was aware that a loaded gun was present, but was not involved in the killing. He gave the police the names of those in the flat, and also shared information regarding the murder of Graham Edward Marks in 2001. While Hyde originally agreed to testify against O'Hagan's killers, a decision was made by Director of Public Prosecutions Barra McGrory in January 2013 to dismiss the use of his witness statement as unreliable. In June 2013, the Public Prosecution Service for Northern Ireland appealed his lenient sentence with the changed circumstances, but they later dropped the review. The appeal was the first of its kind under the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. Hyde was placed into witness protection.
Calls for investigation
The NUJ has called for investigations into O'Hagan's death several times. On the 18th anniversary of O'Hagan's death, NUJ general secretary Michelle Stanistreet and Irish general secretary Séamus Dooley called for an independent inquiry focusing on the assassination itself and the failures of the police in securing a conviction. Dooley has reiterated his concerns multiple times, especially following the murder of Lyra McKee in 2019. On the 19th anniversary of his death, the NUJ released a statement calling for UK and Ireland leaders Boris Johnson and Micheál Martin to support an independent inquiry, and said the failure to convict O'Hagan's killers "emboldens those who see themselves as being above the law".
In September 2014, OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media Dunja Mijatović called for UK authorities to launch an investigation into the murder, arguing that "the failure to prosecute can create an environment of impunity for those who might attack journalists".
In May 2015, O'Hagan's family announced a £50,000 reward for anyone who had information leading to the conviction of his killers.
Allegations of corruption and involvement
In 2003, a security source claimed that a loyalist paramilitary questioned over O'Hagan's murder was an informer and Army intelligence agent. They claimed to have accessed files detailing the informer's handlers and the locations of their meetings, including Dungannon (where the gun used to kill O'Hagan was from). A PSNI detective refused to comment on the allegations, but families of those believed to have been killed by the informant had suspected his links previously.
Several of O'Hagan's former colleagues at the Sunday World have alleged police involvement in covering up his death:
Jim Campbell suggested that police were reluctant to convict anyone due to members of the LVF being "paid police informers". He claimed the names of O'Hagan's assassins were known by the police within hours of his death, and had been warned that LVF members were "driving round Lurgan as if they were looking for someone".
According to Jim McDowell, the names of O'Hagan's killers have been known to him and others for years, saying "We've named and shamed Martin's killers in the Sunday World on numerous occasions. They've never sued". He referred to them as "touts", and suggested they knew too much about their police handlers to be convicted.
Richard Sullivan, the Sunday World Belfast Bureau Chief, confirmed the paper's exposing of his killers and promised to continue to "highlight the deficit in Martin's case".
On 28 May 2015, BBC aired a Panorama documentary entitled Britain's Secret Terror Deals, which investigated claims that British security forces colluded with paramilitary groups. PSNI Chief Constable George Hamilton denied any police cover-up regarding O'Hagan's death and the subsequent investigations. In the episode, former Police Ombudsman Nuala O'Loan said that state agencies had "operated outside the rules" and were responsible for the deaths of "hundreds and hundreds and hundreds of people".
In 2017, Séamus Dooley also hinted at links between the police and those responsible for the murder, saying the lack of conviction "cast a long shadow over the criminal justice system and policing in Northern Ireland".
Police Ombudsmen reports
In October 2006, O'Hagan's siblings made a formal request to Police Ombudsman Nuala O'Loan, raising concerns that no one had been charged in the five years since the murder despite the police apparently knowing who was responsible. Eight years into the investigation, new Police Ombudsman Michael Maguire was able to secure police intelligence regarding the murders of O'Hagan and around 60 others, after he threatened the PSNI with a court case.
Following the dismissal of Hyde as a witness, the murder case was referred by Barra McGrory to Michael Maguire in September 2013.
Effects on the Sunday World
Since O'Hagan's death, Sunday World owner Independent News & Media has afforded security measures to its journalists, such as installing bulletproof windows and panic buttons in their houses.
Staff at the paper had received around 50 recorded threats by September 2011, such as former crime editor Paul Williams. In June 2018, the paper's Dublin office was sent a bottle labelled "sulphuric acid", which was seen an attack on its staff. The package was addressed to a former employee of the paper, and one administrator was injured while receiving it. In May 2020, the Sunday World and the Sunday Life were warned by police that the Ulster Defence Association were planning attacks on their journalists. Sunday World crime reporter Patricia Devlin, who like O'Hagan has reported on drug gangs and their paramilitary connections, has received threats and been doxed by fake accounts and criminals featured in her stories.
See also
Veronica Guerin
References
1950 births
2001 deaths
20th-century Irish male writers
21st-century Irish male writers
Alumni of the Open University
Alumni of Ulster University
Assassinated Irish journalists
Assassinated British journalists
Assassinated people from Northern Ireland
Deaths by firearm in Northern Ireland
Columnists from Northern Ireland
Irish republicans
Irish republicans interned without trial
Journalists from Northern Ireland
Male non-fiction writers from Northern Ireland
Murder victims from County Armagh
Official Irish Republican Army members
People from Lurgan
People killed by the Loyalist Volunteer Force
Atheists from Northern Ireland
Irish Marxists
2001 murders in the United Kingdom
21st-century assassinated people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEXUS
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NEXUS
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NEXUS is a joint Canada Border Services Agency and U.S. Customs and Border Protection-operated Trusted Traveler and expedited border control program designed for pre-approved, low-risk travelers. Members of the program can avoid waits at border entry points by using reserved lanes at land crossings into Canada and the United States (including from Mexico), by using self-serve kiosks at airports in Canada, the US and some international locations, or by phoning border officials for a marine entry. A NEXUS membership card is a valid document under the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), so it can be used in place of a passport, including by air if flying between the US and Canada. However, carrying a valid passport is still recommended, in the rare event that a flight is diverted to an airport without NEXUS support.
History
NEXUS began as a pilot project in 2000 at the Port Huron–Sarnia border crossing to reduce traffic congestion. At the time, delay-free crossing was available via two independent programs—Port Pass, for crossing into the U.S., and CanPass, for those entering Canada. Customs officials began taking NEXUS applications in October 2000, and the program began operation on November 28, 2000, using a dedicated lane at the Blue Water Bridge. Interest in the program was very high, with 550 approved and 2000 total applicants in the eight-week period leading up to that day. The pilot program was set to last six months, after which it would be put to an independent third party evaluation. As a result of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the NEXUS lanes were closed and applications suspended while security measures associated with the Smart Border Declaration were implemented. The NEXUS lanes on the Blue Water Bridge reopened in December 2001.
NEXUS officially launched in September 2002 along with the Free and Secure Trade (FAST) program in a joint announcement by President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Jean Chretien held at the Ambassador Bridge.
Eligibility
To qualify for the program, an applicant must be a citizen or permanent resident of Canada or the United States or citizen of Mexico that holds a Viajero Confiable membership. Permanent residents of the United States or Canada may need to reside in their respective country for three years before applying for NEXUS membership. A previous requirement to have resided in either country for three years has been removed to allow Canadian and American citizens living abroad, and those who have recently returned, to apply for NEXUS. Applicants must also be legally admissible to both Canada and the United States, must have complied with immigration and customs regulations during previous travel, and must undergo a criminal history check. Additionally, if the applicant is under 18, both parents must provide their written consent or attend the interview.
Application process
NEXUS applications are submitted online via the U.S. Customs and Border Protection website. Paper applications are no longer accepted. The application fee is $50 USD but is waived for applicants under the age of 18.
Applicants are screened for citizenship and immigration status, and checked for criminal history and positive matches on U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS), Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), Interpol terrorism and no-fly list, United Nations databases, and the United Kingdom Police National Computer. Applicants who pass the initial screening are granted "conditional approval" and then must be interviewed in person by agents of both the Canada Border Services Agency and U.S. Customs and Border Protection (typically one right after the other or at the same time). That is, members must interview with both agencies (unlike Global Entry, another Trusted Traveler Program via US Customs and Border Protection only). An interview does not guarantee final acceptance even if the applicant was granted conditional approval. After final approval, members are mailed an RFID-enabled NEXUS card, valid for five years from the applicant's birthday following card issuance. Renewal typically takes place six months prior to expiration, and some members may be selected to attend another interview to verify that they still qualify for the program.
Shortly after the announcement of the US requirement for a WHTI document for all travelers by 2009, CBP and CBSA announced their commitment to streamline the membership renewal process for the NEXUS program, and now will waive the interview for members who have not had changes to their information and have maintained their low-risk status. The United States and Canada also announced that they had begun enrollment blitzes to expedite the processing of NEXUS applications and had launched an outreach and awareness plan to increase membership in NEXUS.
Viajero Confiable Program
Mexican nationals who are also members of Mexico's Viajero Confiable Program may apply for the NEXUS Program online as of 2016. US citizens who are members of Global Entry and meet other requirements may apply for the Viajero Confiable card.
At the 2016 North American Leaders’ Summit it was announced that by the end of 2016, "Canadian and American citizens who are members of the NEXUS Program will be eligible to apply to the Viajero Confiable Program, providing them with expedited immigration screening upon arrival at select international airports in Mexico."
Use at land crossings
NEXUS cardholders are generally screened more quickly than non-NEXUS cardholders at Canadian and United States border crossings offering NEXUS, Ready and SENTRI lanes. However, such trusted travelers are still subject to standard immigration and customs checks, and may be selected for secondary screening. This is true for any type of border crossing, regardless of which Trusted Traveler Program the person is a member.
Entering Canada by land
Participating border crossing points typically have one lane solely reserved for NEXUS use, and some will also designate a second lane for NEXUS use on an as-needed basis. A vehicle can only use the NEXUS lane if all of its passengers (including children) hold a valid NEXUS card and nothing requiring a special customs declaration or payment of duty is being brought into Canada (see below). Members may also use Ready Lanes when entering the US from Canada or Mexico.
Entering the US by land
NEXUS cards are valid for RFID Ready Lanes at land crossings into the United States from Canada and Mexico. Ready lanes do not exist in the opposite direction of crossing.
Along the Mexican border, NEXUS members may utilize Secure Electronic Network for Travelers Rapid Inspection (SENTRI) lanes when entering the US by land, but must be traveling in an approved, registered vehicle (SENTRI requires members to register their vehicles into the program, which involves a thorough inspection by CBP, whereas NEXUS has no such requirement). Regardless of whether the traveler is in an approved vehicle or not, the NEXUS card is a WHTI compliant document, and may be used in any standard lane from Mexico into the United States as proof of identity and citizenship. Pedestrians can use dedicated SENTRI lines for expedited entry into the U.S. from Tijuana at the San Ysidro border crossing.
Items permitted in a NEXUS lane
Alcohol within a traveler's personal entitlement (the traveler must be out of country of residence for 48 hours)
Tobacco products that are marked "Canada-Duty Paid"
Gifts up to $60 each (into Canada) or up to $100 total (into the United States)
Any reasonable amounts of personal effects
Land crossings with NEXUS lanes
Alberta | Montana:
Coutts, AB/Sweetgrass, MT
British Columbia | Washington:
Abbotsford, BC-Huntingdon/Sumas, WA
Boundary Bay/Point Roberts, WA
Douglas/Peace Arch (Surrey, BC/Blaine, WA)
Pacific Highway/Blaine, WA
Manitoba | North Dakota:
Emerson, MB/Pembina, ND
New Brunswick | Maine:
St. Stephen, NB (3rd Bridge)/Calais, ME
Woodstock, NB/Houlton, ME
Ontario | Michigan / Minnesota / New York State:
Ambassador Bridge (Windsor, ON/Detroit)
Blue Water Bridge (Sarnia, ON/Port Huron, MI) (also special NEXUS lane on the bridge and entering from Canadian side)
Detroit-Windsor Tunnel (Windsor, ON/Detroit) (also special NEXUS lane when entering from Canadian side)
Fort Frances, ON/International Falls, MN
Peace Bridge (Fort Erie, ON/Buffalo)
Queenston-Lewiston Bridge (NEXUS available Canada-bound only).
Rainbow Bridge (Niagara Falls, ON/Niagara Falls, NY) (NEXUS available US-bound only. Canada-bound lane discontinued in January 2011)
Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge (Sault Ste. Marie, ON/Sault Ste. Marie, MI)
Thousand Islands Bridge (Hill Island, Ont/Wellesley Island NY) (NEXUS available US-bound only)
Whirlpool Rapids Bridge (Niagara Falls, ON/Niagara Falls, NY) (NEXUS traffic only)
Quebec | New York State / Vermont:
Derby Line-Rock Island (Derby Line, Vermont, Stanstead, Quebec), (limited hours CAN-bound, N/A US-bound)
Highgate Springs–St. Armand/Philipsburg Border Crossing (St. Armand-Philipsburg/Highgate Springs, VT) (limited hours US-bound, 24/7 Canada-bound)
St. Bernard-de-Lacolle/Champlain, NY
Use at marine crossings
NEXUS members can report to approximately 450 designated sites in Canada or land in the United States by phoning CBSA or CBP as applicable between 30 minutes and 4 hours before landing with specified information and appropriate declarations.
Use at airports
Canada
NEXUS members entering Canada from anywhere in the world may use a NEXUS machine to make customs declarations. NEXUS originally used iris scans for authentication in these kiosks, but starting in fall 2019 iris scanning has been replaced by facial recognition. If there is no facial scan on file with the CBSA the user will be prompted to scan their passport and face for subsequent use.
US and Canadian citizens may fly between the US and Canada using their NEXUS card, without the need for a passport.
NEXUS allows travelers flying from many Canadian airports, even on domestic flights, to bypass the regular security screening line and use an expedited trusted traveler line. Starting June 21 2023 CATSA's new Verified Traveller program introduced additional security screening benefits for NEXUS members.
Airports with customs and priority security screening
Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport (Toronto island)
Calgary International Airport
Edmonton International Airport
Halifax Robert L. Stanfield International Airport
Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport
Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport
Toronto Pearson International Airport
Vancouver International Airport
Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport
Airports with priority security screening only
Charlottetown Airport
Greater Moncton International Airport
Kelowna International Airport
Québec City Jean Lesage International Airport
Regina International Airport
Saskatoon John G. Diefenbaker International Airport
St. John's International Airport
Victoria International Airport
United States
NEXUS fits with the US Global Entry program for expedited customs and immigration clearance. It also affords users TSA PreCheck (without a separate application) for expedited airport security checks. As in all cases, this benefit is not guaranteed: all persons are subject to any kind of screening and may be randomly selected for standard security lanes (though in practice, such selection is rare).
U.S. Global Entry
All NEXUS members can use their NEXUS membership at Global Entry kiosks regardless of where they are coming from, though NEXUS card facilities are only available at preclearance areas in Canada; however, in other areas, a passport or a U.S. permanent resident card is required. Those using a Global Entry kiosk don't need to fill out a customs declaration card: instead, it is completed digitally on the kiosk (an option for no to all/nothing to declare appears on the GE kiosk, saving even more time, when applicable). If the member needs to see an immigration officer, they get front-of-line privileges (as with all Global Entry members).
Travelers holding a valid passport are not required to use the NEXUS card in the kiosk, but they are advised that it is prudent to carry it on their person. There is no additional cost to use Global Entry services, and it can be used for the duration of the NEXUS membership.
Canadian and US citizens flying between Canada and the US may use a NEXUS card in lieu of a passport because a NEXUS card is a WHTI compliant document. However, Canadian citizens with only a NEXUS card can only use Global Entry kiosks at designated Canadian airports with US preclearance, which are listed below and include Global Entry self-service kiosks:
Calgary International Airport (YYC)
Edmonton International Airport (YEG)
Halifax Stanfield International Airport (YHZ)
Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport (YUL)
Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport (YOW)
Toronto Pearson International Airport (YYZ)
Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport (YWG)
Vancouver International Airport (YVR)
Global Entry kiosks are also located at the following airports in the United States and internationally:
Anchorage – Ted Stevens International Airport (ANC)
Austin – Austin-Bergstrom International Airport (AUS)
Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport (BWI)
Boston-Logan International Airport (BOS)
Burlington International Airport (BTV) *
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Chicago Midway International Airport (MDW) *
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Aruba – Queen Beatrix International Airport (AUA) *
Shannon Airport (SNN) *
Nassau – Sir Lynden Pindling International Airport, Bahamas (NAS) *
Dublin Airport (DUB) *
TSA PreCheck
Canadian and US citizens as well as U.S. permanent residents who are NEXUS members may use TSA PreCheck on all participating airlines, for check-in on both international and domestic US flights, by entering the Customs and Border Protection PASS ID / KTN (Known Traveler Number) from their NEXUS card into their flight reservation information or into their frequent flyer account. Note that this only applies to flights departing from the U.S. and for select airports with U.S. Preclearance facilities (such as in Canada and Ireland). In other words, those undergoing screening in a foreign flight destined for the U.S. or Canada are not entitled to expedited screening (unless they are a member of a joint program, such as those offered in South Korea, Australia, et al.).
Legal status of NEXUS card
In the United States, a trusted traveler card, such as NEXUS, is a valid secured document under the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative and may be used by itself to reenter the United States from Canada, including (in the case of NEXUS specifically) by air. Although the card creates a presumption of nationality, neither US nor Canadian law views the NEXUS card as full proof of citizenship. NEXUS cards issued after September 2010 are accepted as proof of citizenship (if the card holder is a citizen of either country), and the traveler is no longer required to carry the passport.
NEXUS and FAST membership cards are accepted as proof of identity and as documents that denote citizenship when entering Canada at all land and marine ports of entry. This means that citizens of Canada and the United States who are NEXUS or FAST members, and are carrying their valid membership cards, are no longer required to carry other supplementary documents such as passports or birth certificates with them when entering Canada by boat or by land, when using non-NEXUS or non-FAST lanes.
NEXUS and FAST members who are not citizens of Canada or the United States are still required to travel with a passport and proof of permanent residence, and they are required to present them at same time to the examining officer.
For form I-9 employment verification, a NEXUS card is an acceptable List B identity document as an ID card issued by a federal agency.
See also
CANPASS
FAST / EXPRES (similar program for international truck drivers)
References
Further reading
External links
Official American site.
Official Canadian site.
Canada–United States border
Canada–Mexico relations
Customs services
United States Department of Homeland Security
Expedited border crossing schemes
Borders of the United States
Mexico–United States border
2009 establishments in Canada
2009 establishments in the United States
Identity documents of Canada
Identity documents of the United States
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5267928
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmina%20Burana%20%28Orff%29
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Carmina Burana (Orff)
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is a cantata composed in 1935 and 1936 by Carl Orff, based on 24 poems from the medieval collection Carmina Burana. Its full Latin title is ("Songs of Beuern: Secular songs for singers and choruses to be sung together with instruments and magical images"). It was first performed by the Oper Frankfurt on 8 June 1937. It is part of Trionfi, a musical triptych that also includes Catulli Carmina and Trionfo di Afrodite. The first and last sections of the piece are called "" ("Fortune, Empress of the World") and start with "O Fortuna".
Text
In 1934, Orff encountered the 1847 edition of the Carmina Burana by Johann Andreas Schmeller, the original text dating mostly from the 11th or 12th century, including some from the 13th century. was a young law student and an enthusiast of Latin and Greek; he assisted Orff in the selection and organization of 24 of these poems into a libretto mostly in secular Latin verse, with a small amount of Middle High German and Old French. The selection covers a wide range of topics, as familiar in the 13th century as they are in the 21st century: the fickleness of fortune and wealth, the ephemeral nature of life, the joy of the return of spring and the pleasures and perils of drinking, gluttony, gambling, and lust.
Structure
Carmina Burana is structured into five major sections, containing 25 movements in total, including one repeated movement and one purely instrumental one. Orff indicates attacca markings between all the movements within each scene.
{| class=wikitable
|-
!
!colspan=2| Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi
!colspan=2| Fortune, Empress of the World
|-
| 1
| O Fortuna || Latin
| O Fortune || choir
|-
| 2
| Fortune plango vulnera || Latin
| I lament the wounds that Fortune deals || choir
|-
!
!colspan=2| Primo vere
!colspan=2| In Spring
|-
| 3
| Veris leta facies || Latin
| The joyous face of Spring || small choir
|-
| 4
| Omnia Sol temperat || Latin
| All things are tempered by the Sun || baritone
|-
| 5
| Ecce gratum || Latin
| Behold the welcome || choir
|-
!
!colspan=2| Uf dem anger
!colspan=2| In the Meadow
|-
| 6
| Tanz || || Dance || instrumental
|-
| 7
| Floret silva nobilis || Latin / Middle High German
| The noble woods are burgeoning || choir
|-
| 8
| Chramer, gip die varwe mir || Middle High German
| Monger, give me coloured paint || 2 choirs (small and large)
|-
| 9
| (a) Reie ||
| Round dance || instrumental
|-
|
| (b) Swaz hie gat umbe || Middle High German
| They who here go dancing around || choir
|-
|
| (c) Chume, chum, geselle min || Middle High German
| Come, come, my dear companion || small choir
|-
|
| (d) Swaz hie gat umbe (reprise) || Middle High German
| They who here go dancing around || choir
|-
| 10
| Were diu werlt alle min || Middle High German
| If the whole world were but mine || choir
|-
!
!colspan=2| In Taberna
!colspan=2| In the Tavern
|-
| 11
| Estuans interius || Latin
| Seething inside || baritone
|-
| 12
| Olim lacus colueram || Latin
| Once I swam in lakes || tenor, choir (male)
|-
| 13
| Ego sum abbas || Latin
| I am the abbot (of Cockaigne) || baritone, choir (male)
|-
| 14
| In taberna quando sumus || Latin
| When we are in the tavern || choir (male)
|-
!
!colspan=2| Cour d'amours
!colspan=2| Court of Love
|-
| 15
| Amor volat undique || Latin
| Love flies everywhere || soprano, boys' choir
|-
| 16
| Dies, nox et omnia || Latin / Old French
| Day, night and everything || baritone
|-
| 17
| Stetit puella || Latin
| There stood a girl || soprano
|-
| 18
| Circa mea pectora || Latin / Middle High German
| In my breast || baritone, choir
|-
| 19
| Si puer cum puellula || Latin
| If a boy with a girl || 3 tenors, 1 baritone, 2 basses
|-
| 20
| Veni, veni, venias || Latin
| Come, come, pray come || double choir
|-
| 21
| In trutina || Latin
| On the scales || soprano
|-
| 22
| Tempus est iocundum || Latin
| Time to jest || soprano, baritone, choir, boys' choir
|-
| 23
| Dulcissime || Latin
| Sweetest boy || soprano
|-
!
!colspan=2| Blanziflor et Helena
!colspan=2| Blancheflour and Helen
|-
| 24
| Ave formosissima || Latin
| Hail to the most lovely || choir
|-
!
!colspan=2| Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi
!colspan=2| Fortune, Empress of the World
|-
| 25
| O Fortuna (reprise) || Latin
| O Fortune || choir
|}
Much of the compositional structure is based on the idea of the turning Fortuna Wheel. The drawing of the wheel found on the first page of the Burana Codex includes four phrases around the outside of the wheel:
Within each scene, and sometimes within a single movement, the wheel of fortune turns, joy turning to bitterness, and hope turning to grief. "O Fortuna", the first poem in the Schmeller edition, completes this circle, forming a compositional frame for the work through being both the opening and closing movements.
Staging
Orff subscribed to a dramatic concept called "Theatrum Mundi" in which music, movement, and speech were inseparable. Babcock writes that "Orff's artistic formula limited the music in that every musical moment was to be connected with an action on stage. It is here that modern performances of Carmina Burana fall short of Orff's intentions." Orff subtitled Carmina Burana a "scenic cantata" in his intention to stage the work with dance, choreography, visual design and other stage action; the piece is now usually performed in concert halls as a cantata.
John Butler was the first of several choreographers to tackle the score. His Carmina Burana was premiered by the New York City Opera on September 24, 1959, featuring Carmen de Lavallade, Veronika Mlakar, Scott Douglass, and Glen Tetley. It has since been performed by numerous companies including Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater, Ballet West, and Richmond Ballet and is now considered a canonical modern-ballet work.
A danced version of Carmina Burana was choreographed by Loyce Houlton for the Minnesota Dance Theatre in 1978. In honour of Orff's 80th birthday, an acted and choreographed film version was filmed, directed by Jean-Pierre Ponnelle for the German broadcaster ZDF; Orff collaborated in its production.
Kent Stowell choreographed the work for Pacific Northwest Ballet in Seattle. It premiered on October 5, 1993, with scenic design by Ming Cho Lee.
Musical style
Orff's style demonstrates a desire for directness of speech and of access. Carmina Burana contains little or no development in the classical sense, and polyphony is also conspicuously absent. Carmina Burana avoids overt harmonic complexities, a fact which many musicians and critics have pointed out, such as Ann Powers of The New York Times.
Orff was influenced melodically by late Renaissance and early Baroque models including William Byrd and Claudio Monteverdi. It is a common misconception that Orff based the melodies of Carmina Burana on neumeatic melodies; while many of the lyrics in the Burana Codex are enhanced with neumes, almost none of these melodies had been deciphered at the time of Orff's composition, and none of them had served Orff as a melodic model. His shimmering orchestration shows a deference to Stravinsky. In particular, Orff's music is very reminiscent of Stravinsky's earlier work, Les noces (The Wedding).
Rhythm, for Orff as it was for Stravinsky, is often the primary musical element. Over all, it sounds rhythmically straightforward and simple, but the metre will change freely from one measure to the next. While the rhythmic arc in a section is taken as a whole, a measure of five may be followed by one of seven, to one of four, and so on, often with caesura marked between them. These constant rhythmic changes combined with the caesura create a very "conversational" feel – so much so that the rhythmic complexities of the piece are often overlooked.
Some of the solo arias pose bold challenges for singers: the only solo tenor aria, Olim lacus colueram, is often sung almost completely in falsetto to demonstrate the suffering of the character (in this case, a roasting swan). The baritone arias often demand high notes not commonly found in baritone repertoire, and parts of the baritone aria Dies nox et omnia are often sung in falsetto, a rare example in baritone repertoire. Also noted is the solo soprano aria, Dulcissime which demands extremely high notes. Orff intended this aria for a lyric soprano, not a coloratura, so that the musical tensions would be more obvious.
Instrumentation
Carmina Burana is scored for a large orchestra consisting of:
Reception
Carmina Burana was first staged by the Oper Frankfurt on 8 June 1937 under conductor (1892–1967) with the , staging by and sets and costumes by Ludwig Sievert. Shortly after the greatly successful premiere, Orff said the following to his publisher, Schott Music: "Everything I have written to date, and which you have, unfortunately, printed, can be destroyed. With Carmina Burana, my collected works begin."
Several performances were repeated elsewhere in Germany. The Nazi regime was at first nervous about the erotic tone of some of the poems, but eventually embraced the piece. It became the most famous piece of music composed in Germany at the time. The popularity of the work continued to rise after the war, and by the 1960s Carmina Burana was well established as part of the international classic repertoire. The piece was voted number 62 at the Classic 100 Ten Years On and is at number 144 of the 2020 Classic FM Hall of Fame.
Alex Ross wrote that "the music itself commits no sins simply by being and remaining popular. That Carmina Burana has appeared in hundreds of films and television commercials is proof that it contains no diabolical message, indeed that it contains no message whatsoever."
Subsequent arrangements
The popularity of the work has ensured the creation of many additional arrangements for a variety of performing forces.
In 1956, Orff's disciple Wilhelm Killmayer created a reduced version for soloists, SATB mixed choir, children's choir, two pianos and six percussion (timpani + 5), and was authorized by Orff. The score has short solos for three tenors, baritone and two basses. This version is to allow smaller ensembles the opportunity to perform the piece.
An arrangement for wind ensemble was prepared by (born 1921), who wanted both to give wind bands a chance to perform the work and to facilitate performances in cities that have a high quality choral union and wind band, but lack a symphony orchestra. A performance of this arrangement was recorded by the North Texas Wind Symphony under Eugene Corporon. In writing this transcription, Mas Quiles maintained the original chorus, percussion, and piano parts.
Carmina Burana in Greece became popular because of its use, at the beginning and at the end of Andreas Papandreou's election speeches from the 1974 legislative election of to those of 1993 legislative election.
Notable recordings
Herbert Blomstedt with the San Francisco Symphony, and the San Francisco Symphony Chorus, led by Vance George, won the Grammy Award for Best Choral Performance in 1992. The recording was released by Decca on October 11, 1991.
Rafael Frühbeck de Burgos with the New Philharmonia Orchestra, the New Philharmonia Chorus (chorus master: Wilhelm Pitz), Wandsworth School Boys' Choir, John Noble, Raymond Wolansky, Lucia Popp, Emi, 1966.
Seiji Ozawa with the Boston Symphony Orchestra, Children's Chorus Of The New England Conservatory, New England Conservatory Chorus, Evelyn Mandac, Stanley Kolk, Sherrill Milnes, RCA, 1970.
Charles Dutoit with the Orchestre Symphonique de Montréal and Saint Lawrence Choir (Beverly Hoch (s), Stanford Olsen (t), Mark Oswald (bar). 1997, Decca 028945529028. High quality recording technically (balancing orchestra and choir)
Kurt Eichhorn with the Munich Radio Orchestra and , Tölzer Knabenchor; Lucia Popp, John van Kesteren, Hermann Prey; film directed by Jean-Pierre Ponnelle for ZDF; recorded July 1973, released 1974 on Eurodisc; CD reissues on BMG in 1984 and 1995. Both the film adaptation and recording were endorsed by Carl Orff himself (Orff also collaborated on the film in honour of his 80th birthday)
Eugen Jochum (conductor) with the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra and the Bavarian Radio Chorus (Chor und Symphonieorchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks), Munich, Germany, with choir master Josef Kugler, as part of Trionfi: Carmina Burana (recorded October 1952) with Elfriede Trötschel (soprano), Paul Kuën (tenor), Hans Braun (baritone); reissued in 2012 on Major Classics, M2CD016, 5 060294 540168
Eugen Jochum with the choir and orchestra of the Deutsche Oper Berlin and Gundula Janowitz, Gerhard Stolze, and Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau. Recorded October 1967 in Berlin's Ufa-Studio, released 1968 (Deutsche Grammophon). This version was also endorsed by Carl Orff himself and was the first choice of the BBC Radio 3 CD Review "Building a Library" review in 1995.
Herbert Kegel with the MDR Rundfunkchor, the MDR Leipzig Radio Symphony Orchestra and , Hans-Joachim Rotzsch, Kurt Hübenthal and Kurt Rehm. Recorded and released 1960 (VEB Deutsche Schallplatten). Orff himself loved this version.
Ferdinand Leitner with the Kölner Rundfunk-Sinfonie Orchester, the Kölner Rundfunkchor led by Herbert Shernus, and the Tölzer Knabenchor, led by Gerhard Schmidt-Gaden, was "Carl Orff's authorized recording"; Ruth-Margret Pütz (soprano), Michael Cousins (tenor), Barry McDaniel (baritone), Roland Hermann (bass). Released 1973 by Acanta and as part of seven CD set "Carl Orff Collection" (Acanta, 1992) and on Arts Archives (2003).
James Levine with Chicago Symphony Orchestra and Chorus and June Anderson, Philip Creech, and Bernd Weikl. Recorded 1984 (Deutsche Grammophon). This version won the 1987 Grammy Award for Best Choral Performance.
Ray Manzarek, keyboard player for the Doors, produced by Philip Glass and Kurt Munkacsi. Arrangements by Ray Manzarek. Carmina Burana, released 1983 on A&M Records. Genres: Rock music, Progressive rock, Art rock.
Riccardo Muti with Philharmonia Orchestra and Chorus and Arleen Auger, John van Kesteren and Jonathan Summers. Recorded 1979 (EMI), featured in the top three of BBC Radio 3's review and is also recommended by Classics Today.
New York Choral Society accompanied by Jeffrey Reid Baker using synthesizers. A 1988 recording.
Eugene Ormandy, with the Philadelphia Orchestra and the Rutgers University Choir, Recorded and released, 1960, reissued, 1987 CBS Masterworks Records
Seiji Ozawa with the Berlin Philharmonic and Shin-Yu Kai Chorus; Kathleen Battle, Frank Lopardo and Thomas Allen; 1990 Philips DVD video.
Simon Rattle with the Berlin Philharmonic and Berlin Radio Choir; Sally Matthews, Lawrence Brownlee and Christian Gerhaher; 2005 EMI Classics. Very fast, percussive emphasis.
Robert Shaw with the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra, Atlanta Symphony Orchestra Chorus, and Atlanta Boy Choir; Judith Blegen (sop.), William Brown (ten.), and Håkan Hagegård (bar.); recorded 1981, released 1983 by Telarc.
Leonard Slatkin with St. Louis Symphony Orchestra and Chorus, RCA 09026 61673-2, featured in the top three of BBC Radio 3's review
Leopold Stokowski with the Houston Symphony, Guy Gardner, Virginia Babikian, Clyde Hager, the Houston Chorale and the Houston Youth Symphony Boys Choir. Released 1959 Capitol Records
John Williams with the Boston Pops at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta.
Christian Thielemann with the choir and orchestra of the Deutsche Oper Berlin and Knabenchor Berlin. Released 1999 by Deutsche Grammophon GmbH, Hamburg. Named "Editor's Choice" by Gramophone
Michael Tilson Thomas with the Cleveland Orchestra, Chorus and Boys Choir; Judith Blegen, Kenneth Riegel and Peter Binder; recorded 1974, released 1975 CBS Records (quadrophonic); CD re-release 1990 MK 33172 CBS Records Masterworks. This recording was used in Michael Smuin's 1997 ballet Carmina Burana, choreographed for Smuin Ballet.
Jos Van Immerseel with Anima Eterna Brugge, Collegium Vocale Gent, and Cantate Domino; Yeree Suh (sop.), Yves Saelens (ten.) and Thomas Bauer (bar.); 2014 Zigzag. Recorded on period instruments.
References
Sources
Further reading
Babcock, Jonathan. "Carl Orff's Carmina Burana: A Fresh Approach to the Work's Performance Practice". Choral Journal 45, no. 11 (May 2006): 26–40.
Fassone, Alberto: "Carl Orff", in: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, London: Macmillan 2001.
Lo, Kii-Ming, "Sehen, Hören und Begreifen: Jean-Pierre Ponnelles Verfilmung der Carmina Burana von Carl Orff", in: Thomas Rösch (ed.), Text, Musik, Szene – Das Musiktheater von Carl Orff, Mainz etc. (Schott) 2015, pp. 147–173.
Steinberg, Michael. "Carl Orff: Carmina Burana". Choral Masterworks: A Listener's Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, 230–242.
Werner Thomas: Das Rad der Fortuna – Ausgewählte Aufsätze zu Werk und Wirkung Carl Orffs, Schott, Mainz 1990, .
External links
, Coro Sinfônico Comunitário da Universidade de Brasília
Text, original and translated in English, as it appears in Orff's libretto
Program notes on Carmina Burana, 28 March 2004, Mendelssohn Club of Philadelphia
"The Lasting Appeal of Orff's Carmina Burana", sound files and transcription at NPR
Full lyrics to Carmina Burana
"Carl Orff: Carmina Burana" (complete performance, 1:11 hours), University Chorus and Alumni Chorus, UC Davis Symphony Orchestra and the Pacific Boychoir at the Mondavi Center (4 June 2006)
"The Story of the Carmina Burana", Radio Netherlands Archives, December 19, 2004
Cantatas
Compositions by Carl Orff
1937 cantatas
ja:カルミナ・ブラーナ#カール・オルフの「カルミナ・ブラーナ」
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5267945
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gathering%20of%20the%20Vibes
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Gathering of the Vibes
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Gathering of the Vibes (often abbreviated as GOTV) was an annual four-day music, camping and arts festival that celebrated the Grateful Dead and showcased a diverse variety of music. Over the course of the event, styles would often include funk, bluegrass, rock, jam band, jazz, reggae, R&B and folk music. Beginning in 1996, GOTV brought many bands to the New England area during the summer season. There existed two main stages which would alternate bands so that festival-goers could experience music all day and into the night. A short stroll down the beach was the "Green Vibes Stage", which showcased some of the Northeast's finest talent.
In addition to music, festival goers had access to food and beverage vendors, a variety of both handmade crafts and imported goods along the "Craft Vendor Row" that was known as Shakedown Street, and which was highlighted by and many types of vendors, an Art Gallery, along with Vibes merchandise. The Vibes also showcased non-profit organizations in a Non-Profit "Village" with an emphasis on local groups. Information and demonstrations included everything from environmental awareness to social consciousness. Beginning in 1999, The Vibes also hosted an annual non-perishable food and hygiene product drive to benefit a local food bank.
On November 27, 2015, it was announced that Gathering of the Vibes would not take place in 2016, though it was stated that the festival planned to return in 2017. This did not occur, however, and it appears that 2015 was the last gathering.
History
For 30 years, the Grateful Dead were an American musical institution. Born out of a decade of social upheaval and consciousness expanding, the group sparked the creation of an unparalleled sub-culture of loyally devoted enthusiasts. The Grateful Dead inspired thousands of self-proclaimed Deadheads, and Deadheads could record Live tape.
For decades, Grateful Dead shows served as a community-building institution where followers of the group could revel with friends both old and new. But when Jerry Garcia died in the summer of 1995, many fans were left with a void in their lives. One man who was determined to keep the fire burning was Ken Hays, who at the time ran Terrapin Tapes, a media distribution outlet for live concert tapers and traders.
In 1996, Sally Ansorge Mulvey and John Dwork (publishers of the Grateful Dead Fanzine "Dupree's Diamond News") and Ken Hays (of Terrapin Tapes) threw a memorial party for Garcia at SUNY Purchase. Aptly named "Deadhead Heaven - A Gathering of the Tribe", the event provided a forum for music lovers to celebrate the life of the Grateful Dead frontman and reunite for a weekend of spiritual renewal. In 1997, Hays continued the festival and relocated it to Croton Point Park, NY and it was renamed "Gathering of the Vibes."
In each of the years since, Gathering of the Vibes has carried the spirit of these initial events forward by creating wholly unique musical experiences for attendees from far and wide. The folks who come to the Vibes annually to build and renew their bonds of friendship compose the community that has affectionately become known as the Vibe Tribe.
After moving to Plattsburgh, NY for GOTV 1998, the Vibes found what seemed to be a natural home for the annual event at Seaside Park in Bridgeport, CT in 1999 & 2000. In 2000, Bob Weir became the first Grateful Dead alumni to grace the Vibes' stage, performing both with his band Ratdog and in a memorable sit-in with bass virtuoso Les Claypool.
In 2001, as Seaside Park began to undergo major renovations, the Vibes moved to Red Hook, NY for its most well-attended event to date. Following the year in Red Hook, the Vibes took up a five-year residency at Indian Lookout Country Club in Mariaville, New York from 2002 through 2006, highlighted by a two-night performance by Phil Lesh & Friends over Independence Day weekend 2002.
In 2007, Gathering of the Vibes came home to Seaside Park, re-kindling the magic of the unforgettable 1999 & 2000 shows. With the help of the Vibe Tribe and the generous support of the City of Bridgeport, Vibes returned to seaside park in 2008 and 2009.
Wavy Gravy has been the master of ceremonies since 2002 and shared those duties with Mike Potashnick, GOTVs first production manager, until 2010. In January 2011, Mike Potashnick died and Bob Kennedy, one of the co-founders of GOTV, took his place and shared the emcee duties with Wavy for the festival that year. In 2012, Gordon Taylor, Radio Vibes co-producer, was the co-emcee with Wavy Gravy. Wavy Gravy is a link to the past and one way the Vibes pays homage to its roots.
In 2012, GOTV took place July 19–22, returning to the site of the 1999, 2000, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011 festivals: Seaside Park in Bridgeport, Connecticut.
In December 2012, Ken Hays announced that GOTV will return to Seaside Park July 25–28, 2013.
1996
SUNY Purchase, Purchase, New York, May 24–26, Originally named "Deadhead Heaven: A Gathering of the Tribe."
Artist Lineup:
Jazz Mandolin Project, Max Creek, moe., Ominous Seapods, Somah, Solar Circus, Stone Cold, Strangefolk, Voices of Joy, Zen Tricksters
1997
Croton Point Park, Croton-on-Hudson, New York, Also the name of the festival was changed from Deadhead Heaven to "The Gathering of The Vibes"
Artist Lineup:
Agents of Good Roots ~ Charlie Hunter Quartet ~ David Gans & Friends ~ Deep Banana Blackout ~ God Street Wine ~ Hubinger St ~ Jazz Mandolin Project ~ Jeh Kulu Dance & Drum Theater ~ Kevin Hays Trio ~ Laughin' Bones ~ Max Creek ~ Moon Boot Lover ~ New Brown Hat ~ Ominous Seapods ~ Position 17 ~ Percy Hill ~ Strangefolk ~ Warren Haynes ~ Zen Tricksters
1998
June 19–21 Plattsburgh, New York, 16 miles from the Canada–US border.
Artist Lineup:
Conehead Buddah ~ Deep Banana Blackout ~ The Disco Biscuits ~ Ekoostik Hookah ~ Fat Mama ~ Gordon Stone Trio ~ Gov't Mule ~ Jazz Mandolin Project ~ Jeh Kulu Dance & Drum Theater ~ Late night Terrapin Jam ~ Max Creek ~ Michael Ray & The Cosmic Krewe ~ moe. ~ Ominous Seapods ~ Percy Hill ~ South Catherine St. Jug Band ~ Strangefolk ~ Zen Tricksters
1999
June 18 - June 20 @ Seaside Park, Bridgeport, Connecticut
Artist Lineup:
Deep Banana Blackout ~ Gov't Mule ~ Jazz Mandolin Project ~ John Scofield Band ~ Max Creek ~ Merl Saunders Trio ~ moe. ~ Percy Hill ~ Schoolhouse Rock ~ Strangefolk ~ The Big Wu, ~ The Disco Biscuits ~ The Radiators ~ The Slip ~ Viperhouse ~ Zen Tricksters
2000
June 23 - June 25 @ Seaside Park, Bridgeport, Connecticut
Artist Lineup:
David Grisman Quintet ~ Deep Banana Blackout ~ Dennis McNally ~ Gibb Droll ~ Gordon Stone Band ~ Harlem Gospel Choir ~ John Scofield Band ~ Joules Graves ~ Les Claypool and the Rat Brigade ~ Max Creek ~ Merl Saunders and Friends ~ moe. ~ Original P ~ Percy Hill ~ Peter Prince ~ RatDog ~ Schleigho ~ Schoolhouse Rock ~ Sonia Dada ~ Soulive ~ Sound Tribe Sector 9 ~ Strangefolk ~ Tony Trischka ~ Trans Global Millinium Ensemble ~ Upright Citizens Brigade ~ Walter "Wolfman" Washington ~ Warren Haynes ~ Zen Tricksters
Notes:
with the first appearance from Grateful Dead guitarist, now of RatDog fame, Bob Weir
2001
June 29 - July 2 @ Red Hook, New York
30 Year Tribute to Hendrix/Joplin/Morrison.
Artist Lineup:
Addison Groove Project ~ BareBones and WildFlowers ~ Blue Floyd ~ Bruce Hornsby ~ Deep Banana Blackout ~ Dickey Betts Band ~ Disco Biscuits ~ Femi Kuti ~ Grapes of Vaudevillian Fantasy ~ Jacob Fred Jazz Odyssey ~ Jiggle ~ Joanne Shenandoah ~ John Scofield Band ~ Joules Graves ~ Lake Trout ~ Les Claypool's Frog Brigade ~ Max Creek ~ Medeski, Martin and Wood ~ Merl Saunders and his Funky Friends ~ Murali Coryell ~ Organically Grown Gospel Choir ~ Ray Manzarek ~ Rafter Bats ~ Robert Randolph ~ Sloan Wainwright ~ Soulive ~ Steve Kimock Band ~ Strangefolk ~ Terrapin Thirty Year Jam ~ Tom Tom Club ~ Topaz ~ Ulu ~ Uncle Sammy ~ Upright Citizens Brigade and Friends ~ Wild Magnolias ~ Zen Tricksters
2002
July 4 - July 7 @ Indian Lookout Country Club, Mariaville, New York
Artist Lineup:
Aaron Katz Band ~ Andrew Gromiller ~ Bomb Squad ~ Carl Big Heart ~ Deep Banana Blackout ~ Deni Bonet ~ Fuzz and Stephen Kellogg ~ Gov't Mule ~ Grapes of Vaudevillian Fantasy ~ Jess Klein ~ John Mooney ~ Lake Trout ~ Les Claypool ~ Lightnin' Wells ~ Lucy Chapin ~ Max Creek ~ MoFro ~ NRBQ ~ Peter Prince ~ Phil Lesh and Friends ~ Rafter Bats ~ Reid Genauer ~ Robert Kowal ~ Soulive ~ Steve Kimock Band ~ Strangefolk ~ Third World ~ Waking Dream ~ Warren Haynes ~ Wavy Gravy ~ Zen Tricksters
Notes:
Phil Lesh's first appearance.
2003
July 10 – July 13 @ Indian Lookout Country Club, Mariaville, New York
GOTV with the Allman Brothers Band and James Brown
Artist Lineup:
Addison Groove Project ~ Allman Brothers Band ~ Andrew Gromiller ~ Bomb Squad ~ Dan Bern ~ David Grisman Quintet ~ Deep Banana Blackout ~ Derek Trucks Band ~ Dickey Betts and Great Southern ~ Gov't Mule ~ Holmes Brothers ~ James Brown ~ Jim Donovan Rhythm and Drum ~ Jorma Kaukonen and Blue Country ~ Karl Denson's Tiny Universe ~ Keller Williams ~ Max Creek ~ Michael Franti and Spearhead ~ Nerissa & Katryna Nields ~ Oak Street Jam Band~Particle ~ Peter Prince ~ Rafter Bats ~ Raisinhill ~ Reed Foehl ~ Reid Genauer and the Assembly of Dust ~ Rusted Root ~ Strangefolk ~ Susan Tedeschi ~ Waking Puppets ~ Warren Haynes ~ Wavy Gravy ~ Zen Tricksters
2004
July 15 - July 17 @ Indian Lookout Country Club, Mariaville, New York
Artist Lineup:
Assembly of Dust ~ Benevento/Russo Duo ~ Bomb Squad ~ Dark Star Orchestra ~ Martin Sexton ~ Masters of Bluegrass ~ Masters of Funk ~ Rafter Bats ~ Scarecrow Collection ~ Steve Kimock Band ~ Strangefolk ~ The Breakfast ~ The Radiators ~ The Slip ~ U-Melt ~ Zen Tricksters
Notes:
Featured Masters of Funk and Masters of Bluegrass
2005
August 12 - August 14 @ Indian Lookout Country Club, Mariaville, New York
Special 10 Year Anniversary of Jerry Garcia's death, with performances by Bob Weir and an "all-star tribute" jam with the Dark Star Orchestra, Reid Genauer and Keller Williams.
Artist Lineup:
Assembly of Dust ~ Church ~ Dark Star Orchestra ~ David Gans ~ Deep Banana Blackout ~ Del McCoury Band ~ Depth Quartet ~ Jazz Mandolin Project ~ John Brown's Body ~ John Scofield ~ Jonah Smith ~ Juggling Suns ~ Keller Williams ~ Leo Nocentilli ~ Medeski, Martin and Wood ~ New Deal ~ Ominous Seapods ~ Rafter Bats ~ Railroad Earth ~ RAQ ~ Ratdog ~ Ryan Montbleau Band ~ Scarecrow Collection ~ Stephen Kellogg and the Sixers ~ Tribute to Jerry Garcia ~ Wavy Gravy ~ Windfalls ~ Zen Tricksters ~ Zox
2006
August 17 - August 20 @ Indian Lookout Country Club, Mariaville, New York
Artist Lineup:
Assembly of Dust ~ Bud & Budd, The Kind Buds ~ Burning Spear ~ Chuch ~ David Gans ~ Deep Banana Blackout ~ Everyone Orchestra ~ G. Love and Special Sauce ~ Hot Tuna ~ Juggling Suns ~ Keller Williams ~ Kettle Joe's Psychedelic Swamp Review ~ King For A Day ~ Martin Sexton ~ New Riders of the Purple Sage ~ North Mississippi Allstars ~ Papa Mali ~ Rafter Bats ~ Ratdog ~ Rhythm Devils ~ Ryan Montbleau ~ Scarecrow Collection ~ Strangefolk ~ Tea Leaf Green ~ Walter Wolfman Washington ~ Wavy Gravy ~ Yonder Mountain String Band ~ Zero
Notes:
Bob Weir sat-in during Keller's set, played with Jorma Kaukonen and Jack Casady, and also jammed with Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann's Rhythm Devils which featured Steve Kimock on guitar and Phish's Mike Gordon on bass.]
2007
August 9 - August 12 @ Seaside Park, Bridgeport, Connecticut
Artist Lineup:
Assembly of Dust ~ Bindlestiff Family Circus ~ Bob Weir & RatDog ~ Bomb Squad ~ Boris Garcia ~ Brothers Grim ~ Bud & Budd, The Kind Buds ~ Buddy Guy ~ Christopher Robin Band ~ Chuch ~ Clip ~ Corkscrew (the Band) ~ Cosmic Jibaros ~ Darian Cunning ~ Dark Star Orchestra ~ David Gans ~ Deep Banana Blackout ~ Depth Quartet ~ Dickey Betts & Great Southern ~ Dirty Dozen Brass Band ~ Donna Jean & The Tricksters ~ Electric Hill ~ Fro ~ Fungus Amungus ~ George Clinton and Parliament Funkadelic ~ HOE ~ Hubinger Street ~ Jay Stollman ~ Jen Durkin's Equinox ~ John Brown's Body ~ Juggling Suns ~ Keller and the Keels ~ Kevin Hays Jazz Session ~ King For A Day ~ Larissa Delorenzo ~ Les Claypool ~ Los Lobos ~ Manchado ~ Martin Sexton ~ Mickey Hart Band ~ Nardy Boy ~ Railroad Earth ~ Roamer ~ Rolla ~ Ryan Montbleau Band ~ Scarecrow Collection ~ Strangefolk ~ Tea Leaf Green ~ U-Melt ~ The Wailers ~ Wavy Gravy ~ Zero
Notes:
With a Thursday night Jerry Garcia celebration led by Dark Star Orchestra and a Friday night tribute to James Brown led by George Clinton & P-Funk, Deep Banana Blackout and Guests.
2008
July 31 - August 3 @ Seaside Park, Bridgeport, Connecticut
Artist Lineup:
Alternate Routes ~ American Babies ~ Assembly of Dust ~ Bill Kreutzmann Trio ~ The Black Crowes ~ Bud & Budd ~ Dark Star Orchestra ~ David Gans ~ Deep Banana Blackout ~ Derek Trucks & Susan Tedeschi ~ Donna Jean & The Tricksters ~ Jackie Greene Band ~ The Kind Buds ~ King For A Day ~ Mike Gordon ~ Neville Brothers ~ New Riders of the Purple Sage ~ The Organically Grown Gospel Choir ~ Phil Lesh & Friends ~ Porter Batiste Stoltz ~ Ryan Montbleau Band ~ Sam Bush ~ Strangefolk ~ Taj Mahal Trio ~ Umphrey's Mcgee ~ Zappa Plays Zappa~ Graylight Campfire
Notes:
Thursday night was a tribute to the life and times of Jerry Garcia led by Dark Star Orchestra and Donna Jean & The Tricksters
2009
July 23 - July 26 @ Seaside Park, Bridgeport, Connecticut
Artist Lineup:
Assembly of Dust ~ Big Moon ~ Bob Weir & RatDog ~ Buddy Guy ~ Crosby, Stills & Nash ~ Dark Star Orchestra ~ Deep Banana Blackout ~ Donna Jean Godchaux Band ~ George Clinton & P-Funk ~ Grace Potter & The Nocturnals ~ Guster ~ Harlem Gospel Choir ~ JJ Grey & MOFRO ~ John Brown's Body ~ Keller Williams with Moseley, Droll & Sipe ~ King For A Day ~ Lettuce ~ Levon Helm Band ~ The Machine ~ Max Creek ~ Moe. ~ Moonalice ~ Perpetual Groove ~ P. J. Pacifico ~ Ryan Montbleau Band ~ Strangefolk ~ Bud & Budd The Kind Buds ~ Reckoning
Notes:
State Radio was scheduled to appear but canceled at the last minute. Bob Weir sat-in with the Levon Helm Band. Donna Jean Godchaux sat in with Keller Williams, Max Creek and Bob Weir & RatDog. moe.'s set was cut short after seven songs due to inclement weather, as was Crosby, Stills & Nash. Bud & Budd ~ The Kind Buds played in the VIP Tent late night Saturday after Bob Weir & RatDog.
2010
July 29 - Aug 1 @ Seaside Park, Bridgeport, Connecticut
Artist Lineup:
Assembly of Dust ~ Big Sam's Funky Nation ~ Damian Marley & Nas ~ Dark Star Orchestra ~ Deep Banana Blackout ~ Donna Jean Godchaux Band ~ Furthur ~ Galactic ~ Harlem Gospel Choir ~ Jackie Greene Band ~ Jimmy Cliff ~ Little Feat ~Bronze Radio Return~ Martin Sexton featuring Ryan Montbleau ~ Max Creek ~ Mix Master Mike ~ New Riders of the Purple Sage ~ Primus ~ The Radiators ~ Rhythm Devils featuring Keller Williams ~ Robert Randolph & The Family Band ~ Sharon Jones & The Dap-Kings ~ Steve Kimock Crazy Engine ~ Umphrey's McGee ~ Zach Deputy
2011
July 21–24 @ Seaside Park, Bridgeport, Connecticut
The
Artist Lineup:
Assembly of Dust ~ Dark Star Orchestra ~ Deep Banana Blackout ~ Dr. John & Lower 911 ~ Elvis Costello ~ Furthur ~ Ivan Neville's Dumpstaphunk ~ Jane's Addiction ~ John Butler Trio ~ Levon Helm ~ McLovins ~ moe. ~ Ryan Montbleau ~ Taj Mahal Trio ~ Tea Leaf Green ~ Tedeschi Trucks Band ~ Toots & Maytals ~ Big Gigantic ~ New Mastersounds ~ Rhythm Devils ~ Big Sam's Funky Nation ~ Dr. John & the Lower 911 ~ Sister Sparrow & the Dirty Birds ~ Primate Fiasco ~ Caravan of Thieves
~ Giant Panda Guerrilla Dub Squad ~ The Infamous Stringdusters
2012
July 19–22 @ Seaside Park, Bridgeport, Connecticut
Artist Lineup:
Primus, Phil Lesh and Friends, Bob Weir & Bruce Hornsby with special guest Branford Marsalis, STS9, 7 Walkers Featuring Bill Kreutzmann, Mickey Hart Band, Strangefolk Reunion, Yonder Mountain String Band, Steel Pulse, Zappa Plays Zappa, The Avett Brothers, The Greyboy All Stars, George Porter Jr. & Runnin' Panders, Keller Williams, Dark Star Orchestra, Mates of State, Deep Banana Blackout, ALO, Ryan Montbleau Band, Max Creek, Assembly of Dust, Zach Deputy, Kung Fu, Joe Pug, Toubab Krewe, The Stepkids, Outernational, Bad Rabbits, David Gans, The McLovins, Dangermuffin & Yarn, Dopapod, Cosmic Jibaros, TWIDDLE, Band Together, Andy The Music Man, Lucid, The Primate Fiasco, Quincy Mumford and The Reason Why, MIZ, School of Rock Teen Vibes Stage, Royal Family Ball featuring Soulive and Lettuce, Conspirator, Gigantic Underground Conspiracy, The Machine, Papadosio, Graylight Campfire, ConectIcon
Master of Ceremony: Wavy Gravy
2013
July 25–28 @ Seaside Park, Bridgeport, Connecticut
Artist Lineup:
Phil Lesh and Friends featuring John Scofield, John Medeski, Joe Russo and John Kadlecik (2 nights), Govt Mule, The Black Crowes, Tedeschi Trucks Band, Grace Potter & The Nocturnals, The Roots, Funky Meters, John Butler Trio, Galactic, Dark Star Orchestra, John Scofield Uberjam, Original Strangefolk, Railroad Earth, Wild Adriatic, Fishbone, Assembly of Dust, Max Creek, The Kind Buds, Ryan Montbleau Band, Lord Huron, The Revivalists, Tribal Seeds, The Nigel Hall Band, David Gans, McLovins, Band Together, Lukas Nelson & P.O.T.R., Cosmic Jibaros, Borboletta: A Tribute to Santana, Jimkata, Andy the Music Man, Consider The Source, Blues Traveler
Master of Ceremonies: Wavy Gravy
Late Night:
Deep Banana Blackout, Papadosio, Kung Fu & Dojo Allstars, DJ Sets by James Murphy (LCD Soundsystem), and Rob Garza (Thievery Corporation), Silent Disco
2014
July 31-August 3 @ Seaside Park, Bridgeport, Connecticut
Artist Lineup:
Widespread Panic, John Fogerty, The Disco Biscuits feat. Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann, Dispatch, Lotus: Talking Heads Deconstructed, Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros, Umphrey's McGee, moe., Slightly Stoopid, Ziggy Marley, Maceo Parker, Rodrigo y Gabriela, Dumpstaphunk, Allen Stone, Trombone Shorty & Orleans Avenue, Dark Star Orchestra, Joe Russo's Almost Dead, Leftover Salmon, Keller Williams' Grateful Grass featuring Jeff Austin & Reed Mathis, Rusted Root, Ryan Montbleau & Friends, Stanley Jordan, Strangefolk, Langhorne Slim & The Law, White Denim, Kung Fu, Assembly of Wine, Bronze Radio Return, Crash, American Babies, Twiddle, Donna The Buffalo, Orgone, Nahko and Medicine for the People, Barefoot Truth, Love Canon, The Main Squeeze, McLovins, David Gans, The Primate Fiasco, Band Together CT, Funky Dawgz Brass Band, Cosmic Dust Bunnies, Banooba, Andy the Music Man, School of Rock All Stars, World Peace Ceremony, The Brummy Brothers
Master of Ceremonies: Wavy Gravy
Late Night:
Deep Banana Blackout, EOTO, Karl Denson's Tiny Universe, Digital Tape Machine, Dopapod, Silent Disco
2015
Lineup:
Warren Haynes and the Seaside All-Stars (Featuring George Porter Jr, Branford Marsalis, Jackie Greene, Joe Russo, Marco Benevento & Friends), The String Cheese Incident (With Special Guests David Grisman, Peter Rowan & Friends), Wilco, Ben Harper & The Innocent Criminals, Weezer, Gregg Allman, Warren Haynes (Featuring Railroad Earth), Tedeschi Trucks Band, Billy & The Kids, Sharon Jones & The Dap-Kings, The Gaslight Anthem, The Word, Zappa Plays Zappa, Dark Star Orchestra Featuring Melvin Seals, Greensky Bluegrass, Preservation Hall Jazz Band, Tea Leaf Green, Deep Banana Blackout, John Brown's Body, Kung Fu, Twiddle, Max Creek, Jaimoe's Jasssz Band, Strangefolk, Turkuaz, Doyle Bramhall II, New Riders of the Purple Sage, Ryan Montbleau, Cabinet, Trevor Hall, Bombino, Moon Hooch, Earphunk, The Primate Fiasco, Banooba, Nattali Rize & Notis, Band Together, Fly Golden Eagle, The Maniac Agenda on the Slience Disco Beach stage David Gans, World Peace Flag Ceremony
Master of Ceremonies: Wavy Gravy
Late Night: Karl Denson's Tiny Universe, Lettuce, Electron, The Nth Power
2016
After the 20th Anniversary Vibes in 2015, the organizers decided to take a year break, using the time to plan ahead and envision how the event could continue to grow in a fun and exciting way. Gathering of the Vibes said they planned to return in 2017. On January 31, 2017, a message posted by the Gathering of the Vibes retracted their previous statement and stated that they "made the difficult decision not to move forward with Vibes in 2017."
See also
List of jam band music festivals
References
External links
The Gathering of the Vibes official website
Vibes Message Board
Rock festivals in the United States
Events in Bridgeport, Connecticut
Jam band festivals
Music festivals established in 1996
Music festivals in Connecticut
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson%20River%20Park
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Hudson River Park
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Hudson River Park is a waterfront park on the North River (Hudson River) that extends from 59th Street south to Battery Park in the New York City borough of Manhattan. The park, a component of the Manhattan Waterfront Greenway, stretches and comprises , making it the second-largest park in Manhattan after the Central Park.
Hudson River Park is a joint state and city collaboration, but is organized as a New York State public-benefit corporation. Plans for the park were devised in the late 1980s following the cancellation of the Westway plan, which had proposed an interstate highway to replace the deteriorated West Side Elevated Highway. The park was established in 1998 and was built in several stages in conjunction with the construction of the surface-level West Side Highway. Additional phases were completed between the 2000s and the 2020s.
Hudson River Park connects many other recreational sites and landmarks. It runs through the Manhattan neighborhoods of Lower Manhattan (including Battery Park City, World Trade Center, and Tribeca), Greenwich Village (including the West Village and Meatpacking District), Chelsea, and Midtown West (which includes Hudson Yards and Hell's Kitchen/Clinton). The park connects two other waterfront parks: Riverside Park to the north and The Battery to the south.
Bicycle and pedestrian paths, spanning the park north to south, open up the waterfront for recreational use. The park includes tennis and soccer fields, batting cages, children's playground, dog run, and many other features. The parkland also incorporates several rebuilt North River piers along its length, formerly used for shipping.
Management
The Hudson River Park Trust is a partnership between New York State and New York City charged with the design, construction and operation of the four-mile Hudson River Park. The trust operates on a premise of financial self-sufficiency, supporting the staff as well as the operations and maintenance of the park through revenue generated within the park by rents from commercial tenants, fees, concession revenues, grants and donations. Capital funding has historically come primarily from the state, the city, and Federal budget appropriations. The trust is guided by a thirteen-member Board of Directors. There is also a fifty-member Advisory Council which plays an integral role in the park planning process. The management team is headed by Noreen Doyle, President and CEO. In 2017, the trust had operating expenses of $31.38 million and a level of staffing of 117 people.
History
Land use
Prior to colonization of New Netherland, Native Americans lived on the shore of the southernmost portion of the Hudson River—where the park now is—seasonally, in a place called Sapohanikan. It was near the present-day intersection of Gansevoort Street and Washington Street. It was probably a hunting and fishing site, and Native Americans probably used the oyster reefs on the shore as well; the newly settled Europeans also began using these reefs.
Later, oyster barges, selling high volumes of oysters, opened along the Hudson River shore, within several North River piers. Because of their quantity, they were often sold at cheap prices, and many immigrants to New York City relied on eating oysters. These oyster barges closed when the oysters died due to overfarming and to water pollution resulting from the shore's industrialization.
In 1807, the first steamboat in passenger operation, Clermont, was launched from present-day Pier 45, in the West Village. The first successful boat of its kind in the United States, it helped give Robert Fulton control over all steamboat operations on the rest of the Hudson River. The English White Star Line, including the Olympic, and the Titanic, had a terminal at Pier 59. The competing Cunard Line was located at Pier 54, and this location received survivors of the sinking of the Titanic rescued by the Carpathia in 1912, as well as being the departure point for the ill-fated Lusitania, which was sunk by a German U-boat in 1915.
By the late 19th century, the Slaughterhouse District was created along the Hudson River shoreline in present-day Hell's Kitchen. A stretch of 39th Street between 11th and 12th Avenues was called Abattoir Place until the early 20th century. In the 1870s, tunnels to herd cattle under 12th Avenue were created at 34th and 38th Streets. The cattle industry in this area continued through the 1960s.
Conception and construction
What is now Hudson River Park emerged from the failed 1970s and 1980s Westway proposal to replace the dilapidated West Side Highway with an interstate highway connecting the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel (I-478), the Holland Tunnel (I-78), and the Lincoln Tunnel (then I-495). The right-of-way of the new six-lane highway would have demolished the then-existing West Side piers and replaced them with of landfill, through which the new highway would have tunneled. In addition to of development, the plan also had provisions for of continuous parkland to be laid on top of the highway, including four waterside parks and a tree-lined promenade and bike path on the waterfront. Around 90% of the funds for the project were to come from federal aid. The project was abandoned on September 19, 1985, due to political as well as environmental objections, particularly concerns in Congress over excessive cost as well as concerns by federal courts over the Hudson River striped bass habitat. Much of the estimated $2 billion in federal funds allocated for the Westway was diverted to mass transit. Plans for the park still persisted, with $265 million of the park's proposed $500 million cost having been secured by 1990. The park would be built on all of the land not occupied by the future West Side Highway, as well as the remaining piers.
During the 1980s and 1990s, there were plans to redevelop many of the old piers as parkland. A new plan for development was announced in 1992 by then-Governor Mario Cuomo and then-Mayor David Dinkins, targeting Pier 76 opposite the Javits Center, Chelsea Piers, and Pier 40 as key locations for commercial development that would support the park. The 1992 memorandum also created the Hudson River Park Corporation, quickly renamed the Hudson River Park Conservancy, a government agency composed of members appointed by the governor and mayor.
Construction of the Chelsea Piers complex began in July 1994, opening in stages beginning in May 1995. Legislation creating the park was signed in September 1998 by Governor George Pataki, combining land owned by New York State (the southern half, from Battery Park to 35th Street) and the city (the northern half, from 35th Street to 59th). Both halves were leased to the joint entity now known as the Hudson River Park Trust. The plan also guaranteed that half of two commercial locations, Piers 40 and 76, and all of pier 84, would be reserved for parkland. The park was initially expected to be completed by 2003, with construction costs estimated at $300 million. The first complete section of the park started construction in 1998 and opened in 2003 in Greenwich Village.
Afterward, construction stalled, and much of the park remained incomplete. Clinton Cove opened in 2005, and Piers 66 and 84 opened the next year. Half of the park was complete by 2009, and as of 2015, seventy percent of the park has been finished, at a cost of nearly $500 million.
2010s and 2020s
Parts of the Hudson River Park remained without power in the months after Hurricane Sandy in October 2012, due to damaged electrical cables. As a result, the Hudson River Park temporarily limited hours after nightfall in the park. Before Hurricane Sandy, the park's paths alongside the river remained open until 1 am EDT. After Hurricane Sandy, the park worked to return to normal operating hours once they restored power to affected areas. Full power was restored in June 2014, 20 months after the storm, with total damages accumulating to $32 million. By June 2013, the Hudson River Park trust was in debt. A bill passed in June 2013 ended maintenance of a section of the park in Battery Park City, as well as the purchase of liability insurance, which would give $750,000 in savings to the park. However, the park was to run a $8.5 million deficit for fiscal year 2014. To further ameliorate the debt, the bill provided for the trust to make passengers pay to board sightseeing cruise ships in the park. Finally, the bill allowed the park to sell air rights across the street from the park, specifically St. John's Terminal across from Pier 40. In addition, Pier 40, which would have garnered large profits for the park, would cost more than $100 million to renovate.
In 2014, the Hudson River Park Trust planned a river-ecology research center at Pier 26 in Tribeca, to be run by Clarkson University. In October 2017, as part of a plan to reactivate the Pier 54 project (see ), Andrew Cuomo agreed to complete the remaining 30% of the park.
The state's first memorial to the LGBT community was dedicated in June 2018, at Hudson River Park near the Christopher Street Pier. The memorial, an abstract work by Anthony Goicolea, consists of nine boulders arranged in a circle. The memorial honors the victims of the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting, most of whom were gay. The Pier 54 project, later renamed Little Island, opened in May 2021. Additionally, in early 2020, Cuomo announced that he would expand the park onto Pier 76, which contained a New York City Police Department tow pound that was in the process of closing. Pier 76 opened on June 9, 2021, under the existing canopy of the former tow pound. In 2022, Manhattan borough president Mark Levine proposed converting one lane of the West Side Highway into a bike path due to heavy traffic on Hudson River Park's bike lane. Gansevoort Peninsula opened in the West Village in late 2023. By then, the park attracted 17 million annual visitors and had spurred commercial development along the West Side, including the IAC Building and a redevelopment of St. John's Terminal.
Description and amenities
Hudson River Park is a 550-acre waterfront public park located along over miles on the west side of Manhattan.
Recreation
Recreational facilities of many kinds are located throughout Hudson River Park, catering to organized and individual sports, leisure activities, and activities for children. A defining physical feature of Hudson River Park is the bike and running path that runs the park's length, connecting northward to Riverside South north of 59th Street and southward to Battery Park. Constructed by the State Department of Transportation, it is "the busiest bikeway in America" according to the Park Trust.
Scattered throughout the park are numerous fields and courts, such as Chelsea Waterside Park bounded by 24th Street, 11th Avenue, and 12th Avenue. The park contains a sports field, a basketball court, a playground with water features during the summer months, and a dog run named "Best of New York" by New York Magazine in May 2005. Pier 84 at West 44th Street is also packed with activities. Free fishing with Big City Fishing is available on the pier as well as free rowing and boat building at the Village Community Boathouse on the south side of Pier 40. Other maritime related activities include outrigger rowing and kayaking at Pier 26. The New York Water Taxi stops at Pier 42 near Christopher Street. Also on the pier are a dog run and playground, and the casual restaurant PD O'Hurleys. Other sporting facilities include basketball courts at Canal Street and at Harrison Street, tennis courts south of Pier 40 between Houston and Canal Streets, beach volleyball, and a California-style skate park at West 30th Street.
The largest sporting complex in Hudson River Park is the Chelsea Piers Sports and Entertainment Complex, which holds a variety of athletic spaces. Chelsea Piers sports a batting cage, bowling lanes, playing fields, a driving range, an ice skating rink, rock climbing facilities, and gymnastics space, among other exercise and fitness related spaces. Along with these indoor recreational facilities, Chelsea Piers offers boating activities and several restaurants on premises.
Hudson River Park offers opportunities for outrigger canoeing on Pier 66 at West 26th Street, rowing and sailing on Piers 40 and 66, and free kayaking on Piers 96, 84, and 40. The free kayaking attraction, run by New York City-based nonprofit organizations and volunteers, allows visitors to kayak along the Hudson River. The kayaking attraction, which are open five days a week including Saturdays and Sundays, serve as an affordable activity for tourists and resident New Yorkers alike, provided that the kayakers sign waivers and wear life vests.
Abundant open grassy areas in the park permit non-athletic leisure activity. Suntanning is a popular pastime in many areas. Clinton Cove (55th Street), Pier 84 (44th Street), the 14th Street Park, and Pier 45 are all wide unobstructed green spaces for sunbathing, and are popular locations.
Structures
Points of interest along the park's route include:
Battery Park at its south end
Battery Park City
Brookfield Place and Winter Garden
Chelsea Piers
Day's End
Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum
Little Island
Riverside Park at its north end
The World Trade Center and surroundings
Notable piers
Pier 25 is a sports and docking facility at the foot of North Moore Street and part of Hudson River Park featuring the Mauro Memorial mini golf course.
Pier 26 was rebuilt from 2008 to 2009. A new park, designed by OLIN and Rafael Viñoly, opened in October 2020.
Pier 34 is located at Canal Street and consists of two narrow walkways or "finger piers". At the end of the pier is a ventilation shaft for the Holland Tunnel, a five-story, building with a trapezoidal footprint.
Pier 40, at Houston Street, is home to the New York Knights of the American National Rugby League, and the primary offices of the Hudson River Park Trust. Built as a terminal for the Holland America Line in 1962, it primarily serves youth and amateur sports with various playing fields, and also contains a commercial parking lot with long-term parking spaces. The Trapeze School of New York is also located here. According to the Hudson River Park Trust, the facility generates $6 million in operating revenue and 40% of the entire park's annual operating budget.
The term "Christopher Street Pier" usually refers specifically to Pier 45 opposite West 10th Street in Greenwich Village. However, it refers to three other piers as well, between Piers 42–51. Pier 51 houses a water-themed playground, part of Hudson River Park.
Gansevoort Peninsula is located in Hudson River Park between Gansevoort Street and Little West 12th Street, in the Meatpacking District, across from the Whitney Museum of American Art, between Gansevoort and Little West 12th streets, which affords it remarkable views of the Lower Manhattan skyline. In January 2019, it was announced that a park would be designed on the site by James Corner Field Operations. The space now includes a public art project commissioned by the Whitney Museum, Day's End, a ghostly exoskeletal architectural outline of a pier by David Hammons, and a public beach. Gansevoort Peninsula opened on October 2, 2023, with a beach, sports field, sunning lawn, promenades, two dog runs, a picnic area, fitness equipment, and a beachfront landing for non-motorized boats.
At the site of Pier 54 (shut down in 2011), plans arose in November 2014 for Little Island, a new park designed by Heatherwick Studio and costing between $130 million and $160 million. The park, a partnership between Barry Diller and Diane von Fürstenberg's foundation, the city and state, and Hudson River Park Trust, would float completely above the water. Plans for the pier were scrapped in September 2017 due to cost overruns and lawsuits, as the budget had gone over $200 million by then. The project was revived in October 2017 as part of an agreement to finish the park.
Pier 57, at 15th Street and 11th Avenue, formerly served as a terminal for shipping and storage of cargo for the Grace Line. Between 1969 and 2003, Pier 57 housed the Hudson Pier Bus Depot for the New York City Transit Authority. Since then, it has been designated for commercial development. During the 2004 Republican National Convention protests, the New York City Police Department used Pier 57 as a makeshift jail to hold people arrested during protests related to the convention. The holding pens were dubbed "Guantanamo on the Hudson" by activists and in the media. Various lawsuits were filed against the city related to conditions at the site and allegedly illegal arrests, including those of bystanders. Plans created in 2009 call for an improved pier design for commercial use, dubbed the SuperPier, which was slated to be completed in 2019.
Piers 59–62 are used as Chelsea Piers, which were originally a passenger ship terminal in the early 1900s that was used by the RMS Lusitania and was the destination of the RMS Titanic. The Chelsea Piers Sports & Entertainment Complex opened at the site in 1995.
Pier 63 was originally located near 23rd Street, adjacent to Chelsea Piers and Hudson River Park. The site was formerly the location of a Pavonia Ferry terminal that opened in 1869. The ferries traveled to Jersey City, located opposite Manhattan. By the beginning of the 20th century ferries were already aging and deteriorating under heavy use, and in 1942 the terminal itself was demolished. The pier then housed a Baltimore and Ohio Railroad transfer barge. In the late 1980s, boat enthusiast John Krevey converted an old railroad barge on the Hudson River to Pier 63. A restaurant was opened on the pier. The lightship Frying Pan and the fire vessel John J. Harvey were also originally moored to Pier 63, with both listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 2007, the barge was moved to Pier 66 on 26th Street.
Pier 66 is located at 26th Street and is used for sailing and paddle sports.
Pier 79 is the West Midtown Ferry Terminal used by NY Waterway, while Pier 83 is used by Circle Line Sightseeing Cruises. The two companies played a prominent role in the rescue of passengers from US Airways Flight 1549, which made an emergency water landing on the Hudson in January 2009. Pier 79 connects to an Art Deco style ventilation shaft for the Lincoln Tunnel.
Pier 84 is on 12th Avenue and 44th Street. From 1981 until 1988, it served as a concert venue from the former Schaefer Music Festival. Headline acts such as The Clash, Frank Zappa, King Crimson, and Hot Tuna performed on the pier. Opened under Hudson River Park in 2006, it is the largest public pier in the park. The pier also houses a water-themed playground, part of Hudson River Park. In addition, Pier 84 is a stop for New York Water Taxi and has a bicycle rental shop and other businesses serving primarily tourists.
Pier 86 at West 46th Street is home to the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum, the centerpiece of which is the USS Intrepid, an aircraft carrier that served from World War II to the Vietnam War. This pier once served as the passenger ship terminal for the United States Lines.
Piers 88–92 are part of the New York Passenger Ship Terminal, used by numerous modern cruise ships and ocean liners. In 1942, the USS Lafayette (formerly SS Normandie) caught fire at Pier 88, remaining capsized there for a year. Pier 94 was formerly also part of the Passenger Ship Terminal, and now houses the "Unconvention Center", the second-largest exhibition hall in New York City.
Pier 97 was until 1975 the home of the Swedish American Line passenger ship terminal. The terminal was demolished some time after 1984 and the pier is currently home to a live event venue, JBL.
Incidents
On June 23, 2006, a New York City Police Department truck turned onto the bike lane, hitting a cyclist, who later died due to injuries. On December 3, 2006, in the second fatal incident on the bike lane that year, a drunken driver drove on the bike lane south from Chelsea Piers before fatally hitting a cyclist near Clarkson Street, more than a mile away. At the time, it was noted that there were no protective barriers on the path, only three-inch-thick flexible bollards. The bike path was also criticized for generally bad design after several other deadly incidents, including a drunk-driving fatality at Chambers Street. After these deaths, Transportation Alternatives pushed for stronger bollards for several years, but the only fixes made to the path were clearer road markings.
On October 31, 2017, 29-year-old Uzbek immigrant Sayfullo Habibullaevich Saipov intentionally drove a pickup truck for a mile through the park's bike path between Houston Street and Chambers Street, killing eight people and injuring at least 11. Most of those who were hit were bike riders. The incident was considered the city's first deadly terrorist attack since the September 11 attacks. According to investigators, Saipov indicated allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant terror group. After the attack, several media sources wrote about how easy it was to drive down the bike lane, either by accident or on purpose, referencing the lack of bollards and the previous fatalities caused by drivers on the bike path. City and state officials also worked on ways to improve the bike lane's safety measures, and two days after the attack, the city started placing temporary concrete barriers on the path. Permanent safety bollards were installed starting in July 2018.
See also
Boulevard East
New York Convention Center Operating Corporation
Lower Manhattan Development Corporation
Municipal Assistance Corporation for the City of NY
North River Piers
Roosevelt Island Operating Corporation
United Nations Development Corporation
West Side Highway
References
External links
Friends of Hudson River Park
Parks in Manhattan
Urban public parks
West Village
State parks of New York (state)
Rugby league stadiums in the United States
Rugby league in New York (state)
Chelsea, Manhattan
Historic American Engineering Record in New York City
Hudson Yards, Manhattan
Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan
Tribeca
Skateparks in the United States
World Trade Center
Eleventh Avenue (Manhattan)
Parks on the Hudson River
Meatpacking District, Manhattan
Protected areas established in 1998
1998 establishments in New York City
Greenways in New York City
Skateparks in New York City
West Side Highway
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenzo%20Da%20Ponte
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Lorenzo Da Ponte
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Lorenzo Da Ponte (; 10 March 174917 August 1838) was a Venetian, later American, opera librettist, poet and Roman Catholic priest. He wrote the libretti for 28 operas by 11 composers, including three of Mozart's most celebrated operas: The Marriage of Figaro (1786), Don Giovanni (1787), and Così fan tutte (1790). He was the first professor of Italian literature at Columbia University, and with Manuel Garcia, the first to introduce Italian opera to America. Da Ponte was also a close friend of Mozart and Casanova.
Early career
Lorenzo Da Ponte was born Emanuele Conegliano in 1749 in Ceneda in the Republic of Venice (now Vittorio Veneto, Italy). He was Jewish by birth, the eldest of three sons. In 1764, his father, Geronimo Conegliano, then a widower, converted himself and his family to Roman Catholicism in order to marry a Catholic woman. Emanuele, as was the custom, took the name of Lorenzo Da Ponte from the bishop of Ceneda who baptised him.
Thanks to the bishop, the three Conegliano brothers studied at the Ceneda seminary. The bishop died in 1768, after which Lorenzo moved to the seminary at Portogruaro, where he took Minor Orders in 1770 and became Professor of Literature. He was ordained a priest in 1773. He began at this period writing poetry in Italian and Latin, including an ode to wine, "Ditirambo sopra gli odori".
In 1773 Da Ponte moved to Venice, where he made a living as a teacher of Latin, Italian and French. Although he was a Catholic priest, the young man led a dissolute life. While priest of the church of San Luca, he took a mistress, with whom he had two children. In 1777, he met for the first time Giacomo Casanova, who will become a close friend for over 20 years, and be featured in his memoirs. Both were Venetians adventurers, kindred spirits, and seducers.
At Da Ponte's 1779 trial, where he was charged with "public concubinage" and "abduction of a respectable woman", it was alleged that he had been living in a brothel and organizing the entertainments there. He was found guilty and banished for fifteen years from Venice.
Vienna and London
Da Ponte moved to Gorizia (Görz), then part of Austria, where he lived as a writer, attaching himself to the leading noblemen and cultural patrons of the city. In 1781 he believed (falsely) that he had an invitation from his friend Caterino Mazzolà, the poet of the Saxon court, to take up a post at Dresden, only to be disabused when he arrived there. Mazzolà however offered him work at the theatre translating libretti and recommended that he seek to develop writing skills. He also gave him a letter of introduction to the composer Antonio Salieri. In 1784, he met his friend Casanova once again in Vienna, and with his newly made fortune, financed him and received his counsels.
With the help of Salieri, Da Ponte applied for and obtained the post of librettist to the Italian Theatre in Vienna. Here he also found a patron in the banker Raimund Wetzlar von Plankenstern, benefactor of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. As court poet and librettist in Vienna, he collaborated with Mozart, Salieri and Vicente Martín y Soler.
Da Ponte wrote the libretti for Mozart's most popular Italian operas, The Marriage of Figaro (1786), Don Giovanni (1787), and Così fan tutte (1790), and Soler's Una cosa rara, as well as the text on which the cantata Per la ricuperata salute di Ofelia (collaboratively composed in 1785 by Salieri, Mozart and Cornetti) is based. All of Da Ponte's works were adaptations of pre-existing plots, as was common among librettists of the time, with the exceptions of L'arbore di Diana with Soler, and Così fan tutte, which he began with Salieri, but completed with Mozart. However the quality of his elaboration gave them new life.
In the case of Figaro, Da Ponte included a preface to the libretto that hints at his technique and objectives in libretto writing, as well as his close working with the composer:
I have not made a translation [of Beaumarchais], but rather an imitation, or let us say an extract. ... I was compelled to reduce the sixteen original characters to eleven, two of which can be played by a single actor and to omit, in addition to one whole act, many effective scenes. ... In spite, however, of all the zeal and care on the part of both the composer and myself to be brief, the opera will not be one of the shortest. ... Our excuse will be the variety of development of this drama, ... to paint faithfully and in full colour the divers passions that are aroused, and ... to offer a new type of spectacle. ...
Only one address of Da Ponte's during his stay in Vienna is known: in 1788 he lived in the house Heidenschuß 316 (today the street area between Freyung and Hof), which belonged to the Viennese archbishop. There he rented a three-room apartment for 200 Gulden.
With the death of Austrian Emperor Joseph II in 1790, Da Ponte lost his patron and position as court theater poet. He was formally dismissed from the Imperial Service in 1791, due to intrigues, receiving no support from the new Emperor, Leopold. At this time, he was still banished from Venice (until the end of 1794), so he would travel elsewhere. In Trieste he met the half-jewish daughter of an English chemist Nancy Grahl (who he would never marry but eventually have four children with).
In August 1792, he set off for Paris via Prague and Dresden armed with a letter of recommendation to Queen Marie Antoinette that her brother, the late Emperor Joseph II, had given Da Ponte before his death. On the road to Paris, on learning about the worsening political situation in France and the arrest of the king and queen, he decided to head for London instead, accompanied by his companion Grahl and their then two children.
During this time, he met for the last time Casanova in Vienna, looking for his old friend to settle a debt but after seeing Casanova's poor situtation, he decided to not recall the debt. He still accompanied him on his way to Dresden while he was serving as Secretary to Count Waldstein, the patron of Ludwig van Beethoven, and advised him to not go to Paris but London.
Da Ponte would later comment in his memoirs on Casanova's arrest at the Piombi prison in the Doge's Palace in Venice.
After a precarious start in England, exercising a number of jobs including that of grocer and Italian teacher, he became librettist at the King's Theatre, London, in 1803. He remained based in London, undertaking various theatrical and publishing activities until 1805, when debt and bankruptcy caused him to flee to the United States with Grahl and their children.
American career (1805-1838)
Having moved to the United States in 1805, Da Ponte settled in New York City first, then Sunbury, Pennsylvania, where he briefly ran a grocery store and gave private Italian lessons while entertaining in some business activities in Philadelphia. He returned to New York to open a bookstore. He became friends with Clement Clarke Moore, and, through him, gained an unpaid appointment as the first professor of Italian literature at Columbia College.
He was the first Roman Catholic priest to be appointed to the faculty, and he was also the first to have been raised a Jew. In New York he introduced opera and produced in 1825 the first full performance of Don Giovanni in the United States, in which Maria García (soon to marry Malibran) sang Zerlina. He also introduced Gioachino Rossini's music in the U.S., through a concert tour with his niece Giulia Da Ponte.
In 1807 he began to write his Memoirs (published in 1823), described by Charles Rosen as "not an intimate exploration of his own identity and character, but rather a picaresque adventure story." In 1828, at the age of 79, Da Ponte became a naturalized U.S. citizen.
In 1833, at the age of eighty-four, he founded the first purpose-built opera theater in the United States, the Italian Opera House in New York City, on the northwest corner of Leonard and Church Streets, which was far superior to any theater the city had yet seen. Owing to his lack of business acumen, however, it lasted only two seasons before the company had to be disbanded and the theater sold to pay the company's debts. In 1836 the opera house became the National Theater. In 1839 the building was burned to the ground, but it was speedily rebuilt and reopened. On 29 May 1841 however, it was destroyed by fire again. Da Ponte's opera house was, however, the predecessor of the New York Academy of Music and of the New York Metropolitan Opera.
Da Ponte died in 1838 in New York; an enormous funeral ceremony was held in New York's old St. Patrick's Cathedral on Mulberry Street. Records indicate that he was originally buried in a Catholic Cemetery on 11th Street between First Avenue and Avenue A. That cemetery was later paved over and the remains of the people buried there were removed to Calvary Cemetery in 1909. While the exact location of his grave at Calvary is unknown, Calvary Cemetery does contain a stone marker as a memorial.
In 2009 the Spanish director Carlos Saura released his Italian film Io, Don Giovanni, a somewhat fictionalized account of Da Ponte, which attempted to link his life with his libretto for Don Giovanni.
Da Ponte's libretti
The nature of Da Ponte's contribution to the art of libretto-writing has been much discussed. In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, it is pointed out that "the portrayal of grand passions was not his strength", but that he worked particularly closely with his composers to bring out their strengths, especially where it was a matter of sharp characterization or humorous or satirical passages.
Richard Taruskin notes that Mozart, in letters to his father Leopold, had expressed concern to secure Da Ponte, but was worried that the Italian composers in town (e.g. Salieri) were trying to keep him for themselves.
He specifically wished to create a buffa comedy opera which included a seria female part for contrast; Taruskin suggests that "Da Ponte's special gift was that of forging this virtual smorgasbord of idioms into a vivid dramatic shape." David Cairns examines Da Ponte's reworking of the scenario for Don Giovanni, (originally written by Giovanni Bertati and performed in Venice as Don Giovanni Tenorio, with music by Gazzaniga, in 1787).
Cairns points out that "the verbal borrowings are few", and that Da Ponte is at every point "wittier, more stylish, more concise and more effective." Moreover, Da Ponte's restructuring of the action enables a tighter format giving better opportunities for Mozart's musical structures. David Conway suggests that Da Ponte's own life 'in disguise' (as a Jew/priest/womaniser) enabled him to infuse the operatic cliche of disguise with a sense of Romantic irony.
Family
With Nancy Grahl he had five children :
Louisa (Da Ponte) Clossey (1798–1823)
Frances (Da Ponte) Anderson (1799–1844)
Joseph Da Ponte (1800–1821)
Lorenzo Luigi Da Ponte (1804–1840)
Charles Grahl Da Ponte (b. 1806)
Frances Da Ponte married Knight commander Henry James Anderson. Their son, Maj. Elbert Ellery Anderson (1833–1903), married to Augusta Chauncey (b. 1835), granddaughter of Commodore Isaac Chauncey. Maj. Ellery Anderson was of the family of Founding father William Ellery, and his cousin Elbert Jefferson Anderson, was a millionaire in 1892.
Their son, Peter Chauncey Anderson, was married to Mary Yale Ogden, who was the daughter of Elias Hudson Ogden and Martha Louise Goodrich. Her grandparents were Dr. Oren Goodrich and Olivia Yale, daughter of Colonel Braddam Yale, members of the Yale and Ogden families. She was a distant relative of Edith Ogden, wife of Carter Harrison Jr., Mayor of Chicago, and cousin of US President William Henry Harrison, and of Senator Aaron Ogden, Governor of New Jersey.
Works
Opera libretti:
La Scuola de' gelosi (1783) – composer Antonio Salieri
Il ricco d'un giorno (1784) – composer Antonio Salieri
Il burbero di buon cuore (1786, from the play by Carlo Goldoni) – composer Vicente Martín y Soler
Il Demogorgone ovvero Il filosofo confuso (1786) – composer Vincenzo Righini
Il finto cieco (1786) – composer Giuseppe Gazzaniga
Le nozze di Figaro (1785/86, from the play by Pierre Beaumarchais) – composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Una cosa rara (1786, from the comedy La Luna de la Sierra by Luis Vélez de Guevara) – composer Vicente Martín y Soler
Gli equivoci (1786) – composer Stephen Storace
L'arbore di Diana (1787) – composer Vicente Martín y Soler
Il dissoluto punito o sia Il Don Giovanni (1787, from the opera by Giuseppe Gazzaniga) – composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Axur, re d'Ormus (1787/88, translation of the libretto Tarare by Pierre Beaumarchais) – composer Antonio Salieri
Il Talismano (1788, from Carlo Goldoni) – composer Antonio Salieri
Il Bertoldo (1788) – composer
L'Ape musicale (1789) – Pasticcio of works by various composers
Il Pastor fido (1789, from the pastoral by Giovanni Battista Guarini) – composer Antonio Salieri
La cifra (1789) – composer Antonio Salieri
Così fan tutte (1789/90) – composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
La Caffettiera bizzarra (1790) – composer Joseph Weigl
La Capricciosa corretta (1795) – composer Vicente Martín y Soler
Antigona (1796) – composer Francesco Bianchi
Il consiglio imprudente (1796) – composer Giuseppe Francesco Bianchi
Merope (1797) – composer Giuseppe Francesco Bianchi
Cinna (1798) – composer Giuseppe Francesco Bianchi
Armida (1802) – composer Giuseppe Francesco Bianchi
La grotta di Calipso (1803) – composer Peter Winter
Il trionfo dell'amor fraterno (1804) – composer Peter Winter
Il ratto di Proserpina (1804) – composer Peter Winter
Cantatas and oratorios:
Per la ricuperata salute di Ofelia (1785) – composers Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Antonio Salieri and "Cornetti"
Il Davidde (1791) – Pasticcio from works by various composers
Hymn to America – composer Antonio Bagioli
Poetry:
Letter of complaint in blank verse to Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor
18 sonnets in commemoration of his wife (1832)
Other
translations from English into Italian
several books of elementary instruction in the Italian language
Memorie (autobiography)
History of the Florentine Republic and the Medici (2 vols., 1833).
See also
Teresa Bagioli Sickles
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Baker, Felicity (2021) (edited by Magnus Tessing Schneider). Don Giovanni's Reasons: Thoughts on a masterpiece. Bern: Peter Lang.
Bolt, Rodney, The Librettist of Venice: The Remarkable Life of Lorenzo Da Ponte – Mozart's Poet, Casanova's Friend, and Italian Opera's Impresario in America, New York: Bloomsbury, 2006
FitzLyon, April, Lorenzo Da Ponte: A Biography of Mozart's Librettist, London: John Calder, and New York: Riverrun Press,
1982
Hodges, Sheila, Lorenzo Da Ponte: The Life and Times of Mozart's Librettist, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2002
Jewish Museum Vienna (pub.), Lorenzo Da Ponte – Challenging the New World, exhibition catalogue from the Jewish Museum
Steptoe, Anthony, Mozart–Da Ponte Operas: The Cultural and Musical Background to "Le nozze di Figaro", "Don Giovanni", and "Così fan tutte", New York: Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press, 1988
External links
Acocella, Joan, "Nights At The Opera: The Life of the Man who put Words to Mozart", The New Yorker, 8 January 2007
Holden, Anthony, "The phoenix", The Guardian (London), 7 January 2006
Keats, Jonathon, "Lorenzo's Toil", review of Rodney Bolt's The Librettist of Venice, The Washington Post, 16 July 2006
Lazare, Christopher, "That Was New York: Da Ponte, the Bearer of Culture", The New Yorker, 25 March 1944, pp. 34–51
Lorenz, Michael, "Lorenzo Da Ponte's Viennese Residence in 1788", michaelorenz.blogspot.com, (Vienna, 1 February 2013)
1749 births
1838 deaths
18th-century Italian Roman Catholic priests
Italian opera librettists
18th-century Italian poets
18th-century Italian male writers
19th-century Italian poets
19th-century Italian male writers
18th-century Italian musicians
18th-century male musicians
18th-century musicians
19th-century Italian musicians
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's librettists
Columbia University faculty
Italian emigrants to the United States
18th-century Italian Jews
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Judaism
American booksellers
American people of Italian-Jewish descent
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Opera managers
American grocers
People from Vittorio Veneto
Burials at Calvary Cemetery (Queens)
People from Sunbury, Pennsylvania
Catholics from Pennsylvania
19th-century Italian male musicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20monarchy%20in%20Canada
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History of monarchy in Canada
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The history of monarchy in Canada stretches from pre-colonial times through to the present day. The date monarchy was established in Canada varies; some sources say it was when the French colony of New France was founded in the name of King Francis I in 1534, while others state it was in 1497, when John Cabot made landfall in what is thought to be modern day Newfoundland or Nova Scotia, making a claim in the name of King Henry VII. Europeans in the 16th and 17th centuries often considered the territories belonging to different aboriginal groups to be kingdoms. Nevertheless, the present Canadian monarchy can trace itself back to the Anglo-Saxon period and ultimately to the kings of the Angles and the early Scottish kings; monarchs reigning over Canada have included the those of France (to King Louis XV in 1763), those of the United Kingdom (to King George V in 1931), and those of Canada (to King Charles III as King of Canada today). Canadian historian Father Jacques Monet said of Canada's Crown, "[it is] one of an approximate half-dozen that have survived through uninterrupted inheritance from beginnings that are older than our Canadian institution itself."
Canada's first European monarchs instigated, funded, and supported the exploration and settlement of the country. After the Glorious Revolution in 1689, the sovereigns had their powers constrained by the tenets of constitutional monarchy and responsible government, thereby having less, and then no say in colonization, or policy, in general, the Crown coming to function as the guarantor of Canada's continuous and stable governance and as a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power. Concurrent with constitutional developments, the Canadian colonies of France were, via war and treaties through the 18th century, ceded to King George III; four colonies were confederated by Queen Victoria in 1867 to form the Dominion of Canada, with other colonies and territories joining over the decades up to 1949; and Canada became a fully independent kingdom through the Statute of Westminster, 1931—enacted by King George V—and then the Constitution Act of 1982—brought into force by Elizabeth II, the Queen of Canada.
Pre-colonial
While no indigenous North Americans in what is now Canada had what would be seen today as an official monarchy, some aboriginal peoples, before their first encounters with French and British colonisers, were governmentally organised in a fashion similar to the occidental idea of monarchy. Europeans often considered territories belonging to different aboriginal groups to be kingdoms—such as along the north shore of the St Lawrence River, between the Trinity River and the Isle-aux-Coudres, and the neighbouring kingdom of Canada, which stretched west to the Island of Montreal—and the leaders of these communities were referred to as kings, particularly those chosen through heredity. Many had chieftains, whose powers varied from one nation to the next; in some instances, the chief would exercise considerable authority and influence on the decisions of the group, while, in others, he was more of a symbolic or ceremonial figure. In the latter cases, considering that many First Nations societies were governed by unwritten customs and codes of conduct, wherein the chieftain was bound to follow the advice of a council of elders, the form of government would have closely resembled a modern constitutional monarchy.
Hereditary chieftainship continues today; though, the chiefs are not sovereign and only have jurisdiction over traditional territories that fall outside of band-controlled reservation land; on reservation land, it is "up to the community's tolerance, or its politics, on how much [the hereditary chiefs are] involved in governance." The hereditary chiefs often serve as knowledge-keepers, responsible for the upholding of a First Nation's traditional customs, legal systems, and cultural practices.
Establishment of European colonies
The first French colonies in North America were established in the name of King Henry IV, one at Acadia (today Nova Scotia), founded three years into the 17th century, and the second at Port Royal, named to honour Henry. By 1610, the first British settlements were established on Newfoundland, which had been claimed in 1583 for Queen Elizabeth I. The following year, Henry Hudson embarked on the first trading voyage that led to the formation of the Hudson's Bay Company by royal charter from King Charles II; with it, the King claimed an area that covered what is now Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Minnesota, North Dakota, and more and called the area Rupert's Land, after Prince Rupert, who helped to form the HBC.
The French monarch also moved quickly and it was in 1602 that Aymar de Chaste was appointed as Viceroy of Canada to represent King Henry IV. In 1615, Quebec City was, on the recommendation of Samuel de Champlain, made a royal capital of the French empire in the Americas, with Champlain—who had previously been representative of, or lieutenant governor to, most viceroys of Canada—installed as the first viceregal representative of the King in New France.
Some 60 years later, New France was designated as a royal province of France itself and the governor general acted as the monarch's stand-in. One of the king's decrees was to send the (daughters of the King) to the province. As the population expanded, infrastructure such as the (King's Highway) was built and, through the 18th century, the kings gave financing to the construction of cities like Île-Royale and Louisbourg; the names of these locations reflecting their royal patronage.
As Europeans moved inland, they encountered the aboriginal peoples. Relations with them were originally considered to be between European and North American monarchs; though, for the French, that later changed to be one between sovereign and subject and, for the British, between European and aboriginal nations under one monarch, leading to the incorporation of treaties with the Crown into the political culture of Canada.
Respect between the British sovereign and indigenous chiefs was maintained, exemplified by gestures such as Queen Anne welcoming the "Four Mohawk Kings" at St James's Palace in 1710 and Anne paying for the construction of a chapel for the Mohawks (as they requested) and furnishing it with a reed organ and set of silver chalices (still held by the Mohawk Chapel in Brantford, Ontario) in 1712. Governor Frederick Haldimand, in the name of George III, granted land to the Six Nations of the Grand River after they lost their ancestral territories in what is now the state of New York during the American Revolution.
While the aboriginal chiefs aided the monarchs with their North American conflicts, affairs in Europe would also affect the dealings of the New World and, eventually, almost all of the French king's possessions in what was known as Canada were relinquished by him to the British Crown, providing Canada with one singular monarchy. But, this placement of French people under a British sovereign did not come without friction; the Acadians refused to affirm their allegiance to George III and insisted upon remining Catholic, leading to their deportation in what became known as the Great Upheaval.
The American Revolution
Following the Treaty of Paris, concluding the Seven Years' War, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, setting the Appalachian Mountains as the division between the Thirteen Colonies, to the east, and "Indian Reserve", to the west. Being the first legal recognition by the British Crown of aboriginal rights, the document is today viewed as fundamental for First Nations land claims and self-government in Canada.
The Quebec Act—shaped by the views of the anti-assimilationist Governor of Quebec, Guy Carlton and supported by King George—was passed in 1774, by which the Crown guaranteed the continued free practice of Catholicism, as well as restored the French system of civil law for issues relating to private law. This originated the tradition of Canadian constitutional law protecting linguistic, religious, and legal rights in Quebec.
The Royal Proclamation and Quebec Act were regarded by American colonists as two of the Intolerable Acts that eventually led to the outbreak of the American Revolution. But, the American hostility toward the spirit of those laws is what led most Québécois to rebuff the revolution; they fought, in provincial militas, alongside British soldiers repelling invasions by the republican revolutionaries. Others, though—especially the peasant habitants—aided the Americans.
The conflict resulted in some 46,000 United Empire Loyalists fleeing north from the United States, the King-in-Council granting each family of land in his various colonies, mostly in Nova Scotia, but, also in Quebec and what is today Ontario and Manitoba. At the same time, approximately 3,000 former slaves of African ancestry, known as Black Loyalists, moved to the Maritimes and thousands of Iroquois, Mohawks, and other aboriginals expelled from New York and other states resettled under the protection of the Crown in what is now southern Ontario. In all, so many arrived that, for administrative purposes, the colony of New Brunswick was split out of Nova Scotia and Upper Canada (today Ontario) split from the Province of Quebec (the remainder becoming Lower Canada, today Quebec). Since then, Ontario residents descended from these original refugees retain the post-nominals UE, standing for United Empire, and may employ coronets in their coats of arms.
The loyalists who settled in the Maritimes, however, found themselves among some residents aligned with the United States and its republican cause.
Royalty and rebellions
Prince William (later King William IV) arrived in the Canadas in July 1786, on board and in command of . The Prince spent time in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Quebec, being the first member of the royal family to visit the latter and "making Canada's royal family one of the earliest families to call the country its home." Two of William's 10 illigitimate children with Dorothea Jordan eventually lived in Halifax: Mary, in 1830, and Amelia, from 1840 to 1846, while her husband served as Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia.
Four years later, William's brother, Prince Edward, served in Canada from 1791 until the turn of the 19th century on military duties and as Commander of British North American troops. The Prince lived at Quebec City and took a French-Canadian mistress, with whom it is speculated he had two children. In 1792, when a riot, fuelled by ethnic character, broke out at a poll during the first elections for the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada, Prince Edward said to the crowd, "part then in peace. I urge you to unanimity and accord. Let me hear no more of the odious distinctions of English and French. You are all His Britannic Majesty's beloved Canadian subjects." It was reportedly the first time the word Canadian was used to refer to all colonists, rather than only Francophones.
Edward also lived in Halifax, Nova Scotia, between 1794 and 1798 and, again, from 1799 to 1800, making a significant mark on the city through projects such as Fort George, the Halifax Town Clock, the Prince's Lodge, and St George's Church, which the King and Edward's brother, Prince Frederick, supported. Edward also initiated construction of fortifications on Prince Edward Island, which was named in his honour. In 1811, Edward sought to obtain the appointment as governor general of the Canadas, although failed to do so.
The Americans once again attempted to conquer the Canadas in the War of 1812, assuming Canadians would greet them as liberators from the British Crown's "tyranny". While the many Americans who had previously immigrated to Upper and Lower Canada to take advantage of the free land remained neutral, the free-African-, other English-, and French-Canadians, as well as First Nations warriors, resisted every incursion attempted by US troops, fighting off the "immoral and excessively democratic American republic." By the time the Treaty of Ghent was signed on 24 December 1814, ending the war, the United States made no gains into the Canadas.
Prince Edward's only legitimate daughter, Victoria, was born on 24 May 1819, at Kensington Palace. However, Edward died shortly thereafter, leaving Victoria as heir to the throne until, upon the death of her uncle, William IV, she acceded as queen at the age of 18. Though she would never visit Canada, she received numerous Canadians in audience (especially her father's friends) and her image, thanks to the spread of newspapers and the invention of photography, was reproduced sufficiently to maintain popularity and loyalty in her colonies.
Insurrections against the Crown did still take place, though; notably the Rebellions of 1837, which had been stirred up, in part, by the rise in power and influence of the United States and republican sentiment, as well as local political factors. The Queen took a personal interest in the conflicts, expressing her concerns in her diary. However, most colonists did not espouse a break with the Crown and the rebellions were put down. The leader of the insurrection in Upper Canada, William Lyon Mackenzie, fled and established the briefly-lived Republic of Canada on Navy Island, in the Niagara River.
In the wake of the disturbances, the Queen called on her people in Upper Canada to eschew vengeance on the perpetrators in favour of justice. A mark of her coronation, Victoria granted pardons to the rebels. Further, Victoria requested from her representative, Governor General the Earl of Durham, a report on the protesters' grievances. Though Durham did, in 1838, recommend the assimilation of French-Canadians into British-Canadian culture, that was ignored in favour of the other suggestions: the union of Upper and Lower Canada and the implementation of responsible government. The British Parliament granted both to the Canadas, with the support of Victoria herself, despite its decrease of the political influence in the colonies of both she and her representatives.
The first royal tours
Where royal influence was lessened, it increased in other areas; Canadians celebrated momentous moments in Queen Victoria's life, such as her marriage to Prince Albert; royal events were inaugurated, such as the Queen's Plate, created with Queen Victoria's blessing in 1860; and, while she was monarch, Victoria's children and grandchildren would come to Canada as either the governor general or viceregal consort, or to undertake tours of the country that included meeting Canadians from a heterogeneity of communities and backgrounds and displaying local cultures.
In response to a petition from the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada, the Queen sent her eldest son and heir, Prince Albert Edward (later King Edward VII) to tour the Maritimes and Canada for four months in 1860, laying the final stone of the Victoria Bridge in Montreal, setting the cornerstone of the parliament building in Bytown (today Ottawa), and officially opening Queen's Park in Toronto. Sectarian tensions were high in Canada at the time, requiring a deft handling of symbolism by the Prince and his handlers.
Albert Edward was followed by his younger brother, Prince Alfred, who embarked on a five week tour of the same areas the next year.
Confederation and the early Dominion
The idea of joining the various colonies in the Canadas was being floated as early as 1814. That year, Chief Justice of Lower Canada Jonathan Sewell sent a copy of his proposal, A Plan for the federal Union of British Provinces in North America, to Prince Edward, who Sewell had befriended when they both lived in Quebec City. The Prince replied, "nothing can be better arranged than the whole thing is, or more perfectly," and made suggestions that were cited by the Earl of Durham in his report in 1838 and in the constitutional conferences of 1864.
Prior to the confederation of Canada, in the 1850s and 1860s, a number of issues were of prime concern in the deliberations on the amalgamation of four Canadian colonies into a country; most notably, the threat of invasion by the United States, especially considering that country's policy of Manifest Destiny. It was the explicit intention of the Fathers of Confederation to unite the disparate British entities in North America into a single state under a constitutional monarchy; at the 1864 Charlottetown Conference, the deligates, including those from Canada East (now Quebec), agreed unanimously that the new federation should have that form of government, the men seeing it as a balance between the autocracy of the Russian Empire and the popular sovereignty of the United States. The latter had just led to the American Civil War, which was seen as "the final stage in the discredit of [American] democracy and republicanism." A Canadian crown, the Fathers thought, would ensure diversity and racial harmony in Canada, thereby strengthening its legal and cultural sovereignty.
The Queen herself was a unifying influence not only for the Fathers, but, for the provinces, as well. She took personal interest in the project of Confederation, favouring the idea as a way to lower the costs of defence and improve relations with the United States. At first, Victoria remarked on "the impossibility of our being able to hold Canada; but, we must struggle for it; and by far the best solution would be to let it go as an independent kingdom under an English prince." Later, though, to the delegates from Nova Scotia to whom Victoria granted an audience, she said, “I take the deepest interest in [Confederation], for I believe it will make [the provinces] great and prosperous.” When the British North America Act, 1867, was passed in the Parliament in Westminster, the Queen said to John A. Macdonald, who was then in London, "I am very glad to see you on this mission [...] It is a very important measure and you have all exhibited so much loyalty.”
By the mid-1860s, neither the name nor the location of the capital of the hypothetical new union had been settled. On the former issue, various suggestions were put forward—including Victorialand, in honour of the Queen—but John A. Macdonald and then Governor General of the Province of Canada, the Viscount Monk, supported the name Kingdom of Canada, to "fix the monarchical basis of the constitution." The proposal, however, caused worries in the Foreign and Colonial Office in London that such a title would provoke the republican United States and a compromise term, dominion, was adopted instead. This new Dominion was formed by the British North America Act, 1867, to take effect on 1 July of that year. As it was Queen Victoria's royal assent that enacted the bill into law and she had taken such an interest in the endeavour of Confederation, she has since been dubbed the "Mother of Confederation".
The matter of which city would serve as the country's capital was left by the British North America Act, 1867, to be decided by the Queen. From a list that included various well-established cities in Upper and Lower Canada, Victoria chose the small community of Bytown (later renamed as Ottawa) on the grounds that it was defensible, located on a major waterway, and sat on the border between the two largest provinces of Canada, Quebec and Ontario. The buildings originally intended to house the parliament of the Province of Canada were also already in Bytown.
The new constitution vested in the Queen responsibility for peace, order, and good government, as D'Arcy McGee had desired. In practice, though, the Second Reform Act, 1867, and the emergence of a two-party system decreased Victoria's personal room for manoeuvre. Still, the ceremonial role for the monarchy remained unaltered and the first visit of a member of the royal family to the Dominion of Canada took place two years after its creation; the sovereign's second son, Prince Arthur, arrived for training with the Rifle Brigade based at Montreal. Arthur toured the country for eight weeks, was made a chief by the Iroquois of the Grand River Reserve, and, in 1870, attended a fancy-dress skaing carnival at Victoria Skating Rink in Montreal. Of the Prince, Lady Lisgar, wife of then Governor General of Canada the Lord Lisgar, noted in a letter to Victoria that Canadians seemed hopeful Prince Arthur would one day return as governor general.
In the same year, Rupert's Land was ceded to the Crown in Right of Canada from the Hudson's Bay Company, pulling it into the jurisdiction of the North-West Territories. This move sparked a Métis rebellion and the establishment by Louis Riel of a provisional republican government in the Red River Valley. Following negotiations with Riel's administration, the province of Manitoba was established in 1870 by the granting of royal assent to the Manitoba Act by Governor General the Earl of Dufferin.
A royal viceregal consort
After the death of her husband, Prince Albert, in 1861, Queen Victoria had gone into deep mourning and retreated from public life. As that situation carried on for over a decade, resentment toward the Queen grew in Britain, along with republican sentiment. But, because Victoria had never visited Canada, and therefore Canadians did not perceive of any change in her behaviour, the Queen's popularity remained high throughout the country. John Charles Dent wrote in 1880, "In Canada, loyalty has by no means degenerated into a mere feeble sentiment of expediency. Throughout the length and breadth of our land, the name of Queen Victoria is regarded with an affectionate love and veneration which is felt for no other human being.” In 1872, Canada celebrated a day of thanksgiving after Prince Albert Edward recovered from a near-fatal bout of typhoid.
As successor to Dufferin, rather than sending Prince Arthur to Canada as her representative, Queen Victoria, on the advice of her British Privy Council, appointed her son-in-law, John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, in 1878. This meant that, for the first time, Rideau Hall would have a permanent royal resident: Victoria's fourth daughter, Princess Louise. When the news reached Canada that a daughter of the Queen would be viceregal consort of Canada, a "thrill of joy burst upon the Dominion"; it was felt the Princess would be a strong link between Canadians and their sovereign.
However, the couple were initially not received well by the Canadian press, which complained about the imposition of royalty on the country's hitherto un-regal society, something that was only exasperated by mishaps and misunderstandings and the resulting negative press horrified the Princess. Louise endeared herself by making clear she had no pretenses and, eventually, the worries about a rigid court at the Queen's Canadian residence turned out to be unfounded; the royal couple were found to be more relaxed than their predecessors, as demonstrated at the many Ice skating and tobogganing parties, balls, dinners, and other state occasions hosted by Lord Lorne and Princess Louise.
The pair also undertook extensive tours of the country; some with other members of the royal family, such as when the Princess' younger brother, Prince Leopold, visited and spent time with Louise and the Governor General at their cabin on the Gaspé Peninsula and Louise's nephew, Prince George (later King George V) travelled with the Lornes in 1883 to Ottawa, Toronto, and Niagara Falls. The royal couples' three-month visit to British Columbia in 1882 did much to reconcile the local inhabitants to Confederation. The Princess proved so popular that, when the Governor General announced that the route of the awaited transcontinental railway would pass through Kicking Horse Pass into what has since become Vancouver, rather than by the Yellowhead Pass to Bute Inlet, Premier Robert Beaven asked Lord Lorne whether it would be possible for Vancouver Island to become a separate kingdom with Princess Louise as queen. First Nations titled Lord Lorne as Great Brother-in-Law as he and Louise travelled across the Prairies.
Princess Louise and Lord Lorne made a number of lasting contributions to Canadian society, especially in the realm of the arts and sciences, including the establishment of the Royal Society of Canada, the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts, and the National Gallery of Canada. Louise was proficient in watercolour and oil painting, hanging many of her own works around Rideau Hall and painting sprigs of apple blossoms on doors along the palace's Monck wing corridor (one of which remains to the present), as well as overseeing the creation of the statue of Queen Victoria that stands on McGill University's campus. Various locations were named for her, including the province of Alberta, and the Princess herself gave the name Regina to the capital of Saskatchewan. In all, Louise made such an impression on Canadian life that, at her funeral, on 12 December 1939, her coffin was bourne by her own Canadian regiment, the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada.
The end of Victoria's reign
In Queen Victoria's latter years, both her Golden and Diamond Jubilees—held in 1887 and 1897, respectively—were marked with great displays and public ceremonies in Canada. Victoria was the first of Canada's monarchs to reach those milestones. Thanksgiving holidays were held to celebrate the occasions. Prime Minister John A. Macdonald was in London for the Golden Jubilee and there, along with the premiers of the other Dominions, attended a conference that turned out to be the forerunner of the modern Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. The anniversary was monumentalized in Canada by the establishment of public service institutions, such as the Royal Jubilee Hospital in Victoria, British Columbia.
For the Diamond Jubilee in Britain, Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier was invited and Canadian cavalrymen, five-abreast and followed by Laurier in a carriage, led the Dominions contingent of the royal procession through London on 22 June. The Toronto Grenadiers (today the Royal Regiment of Canada) and the Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada also took part. In Canada, a series of commemorative stamps, the first ever produced by the country, was issued on 19 June and streets were decorated in cities and towns to mark Accession Day and the 22 June public holiday, on which fêtes brought Canadians of different ethnicities together. On that day, the Queen sent a telegram to all the Dominions, the message arriving in Canada five minutes after being sent from Buckingham Palace. To Canadians, she wrote, “from my heart, I thank my beloved people. May God bless them." Led by the Marchioness of Aberdeen (then the viceregal consort of Canada), Canada’s gift to the Queen was the creation of the Victorian Order of Nurses, which still operates today. In contemporary popular culture, new songs were composed in the Queen’s honour and buildings named for her.
In between the jubilees, in December 1894, Prime Minister John Thompson died at Windsor Castle when there to be admitted by the Queen to the imperial Privy Council, being struck with a heart attack mere hours after the ceremony. Victoria, then aged and using a wheelchair, was wheeled into St George's Chapel, where Thompson lay-in-state, and placed a wreath on her former prime minister's coffin. This moment was captured in a painting by Frederic Bell-Smith, but the canvas was destroyed in the burning of the Centre Block in 1916.
Victoria herself died at Osborne House on 22 January 1901, after a reign lasting almost 64 years, and was succeeded by her eldest son, King Edward VII. Canada mourned the loss of Victoria; news "brought much of the country to a halt"; Church bells were rung for hours, gun salutes fired at Parliament Hill and armouries across the country, and concerts and social events were cancelled. The day of the funeral was a nationwide period of mourning, with the majority of businesses closed; Victorian mourning etiquette dictated Canadians continue to wear black clothes or armbands for up to three months following Victoria's death and black crepe was draped over public buildings. The Earl of Minto, then Governor General, and Wilfrid Laurier were at odds over which church in Ottawa should host the official memorial service for the late Queen; Minto favoured the Church of England cathedral, respecting the church to which Victoria had belonged, while Laurier and other ministers attended services of their own communion.
Due to the transatlantic telegraph cable, this was the first time Canadians would learn of their monarch's passing within minutes of it being announced in the United Kingdom. However, otherwise, the country's denizens had been mostly unaware of the Queen having been in poor health; the media and society around the royal family was taciturn regarding the sovereign's frailties. As such, upon hearing of Victoria's death, many Canadians double-checked with the cable dispaches posted on bulletin boards outside newspaper offices.
Victoria's long and popular reign resulted in many places being named in her honour and monuments to her, such as statues on Parliament Hill and throughout the provinces. The Queen's reign was permanently memorialized in Canada when, in the spring of 1901, it was decided by parliament that 24 May would continue as a holiday marking the late Queen's birthday, named as Victoria Day, to distinguish it from the King's birthday celebration to be held in November.
Twentieth century and the First World War
The end of Victoria's reign marked the beginning of a new century and one that would see Canada's rapid growth as a nation. As modern modes of transportation allowed for easier travel across the oceans, more of the royal family came to tour the King's northern Dominion. The first since Queen Victoria's death was Prince George (later King George V)—the son of the reigning king—returning to Canada in 1901, accompanied by his wife, the Duchess of Cornwall and York (later Quen Mary), and her brother, Prince Alexander of Teck (who would, in future, serve as governor genereal of Canada). Events during the royal tour, which took in the country between Quebec City and Victoria, had a more casual atmosphere than their equivalents in the United Kingdom; it was reported that, at one official dinner, the couple "shook hands with between two and three thousand guests, never appearing tired, but always manifesting signs of interest, bowing, and smiling to all presented to them."
The Prince returned only once more before he became king: when he visited in 1908, by then as Prince of Wales, to celebrate the tercentenary of Quebec City's founding. He reviewed the Canadian armed forces on the Plains of Abraham, in addition to presenting a cheque for 90,000 pounds to aid the federal Crown in purchasing the area of the plains so as to establish a park, which was opened on 17 March 1908. The Prince wrote to his father, “I hope my visit has done good, especially to improve the relations between the English and French Canadians, which have never been so good as they are now.” The governor general at the time, the Earl Grey, reported back to King Edward VII that the Prince "has taught the people of Quebec how to cheer."
Edward VII died two years later, which led to a period of official mourning, with numerous memorials, military parades, and tributes held across the country; the funeral day was made an official holiday. However, due to Edward's relatively short reign, his passing was not as impactful on Canadians as his mother's had been. Newspapers were more forthright in their coverage than they had been at the time of Victoria's death; they reported right away on Queen Alexandra's last moments with the King and some even pointed at Edward's smoking habit as a contributor to his demise.
Edward was succeeded by Prince George and Canada sent 700 dignitaries and military personnel to take part in the celebrations in London. In 1911, the King appointed his uncle, Prince Arthur, as governor general of Canada, thereby fulfilling the desire of Canadians earlier expressed by the Lady Lisgar and bringing Arthur back to Canada for a fourth time and as the first natural member of the royal family to serve as the Canadian federal viceroy. King George V was reported to have had much to do with the appointment. Arthur brought with him to Canada his wife, Princess Louise, and his youngest daughter, Princess Patricia, and the family travelled extensively across Canada, the Prince performing ceremonial tasks, such as in 1917 laying the cornerstone of the reconstructed federal parliament building. The royal couple made a concerted effort to contribute to the social life of the capital, using Rideau Hall as a major site for events for Canadians from across the country.
The Prince was, though, sometimes thought to have overstepped the still un-cemented bounds of constitutional monarchy in Canada, particularly in his carrying out of the ceremonial duties of the commander-in-chief during the First World War. Overall, though, Prince Arthur stressed the importance of Canadian military contributions, promoting training and readiness for Canadian troops, but also sought to enhance charity at home. To put this preaching into practice, the Duchess of Connaught, in addition to establishing the Duchess of Connaught Hospital Fund and working for the Red Cross and other organisations, for Christmas in 1915 sent a card and a box of maple sugar to every Canadian serving overseas. She also had a knitting machine brought to Rideau Hall, which she used to make thousands of pairs of socks for soldiers. Prince Arthur was active in auxiliary war services and charities, conducted a number hospital visits, and, following the war, commissioned a stained glass window, located in St Bartholomew's Church, next to Rideau Hall, in memory of the Government House staff who lost their lives during the war.
The Connaughts' daughter became a prominent public figure during the Duke's time as Governor General, acting as hostess at Rideau Hall while her mother was ill. During the war, the Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry was created and named after Patricia, who embroidered the regimental colours herself. The Princess was, on 22 February 1918, appointed by the King as colonel-in-chief of the regmient; an appointment she held until her death.. She contributed her paintings to Canadian exhibitions and galleries and, in 1917, her image appeared on the $1 bill. Additionally, it was during her time in Rideau Hall that Patricia met her future husband, Alexander Ramsay, who was then acting as aide-de-camp to her father.
The King and Queen called on Canadian troops stationed in the United Kingdom, as well as the nurses of Canada's Red Cross Hospital. The King often visited the Western Front on the European continent, meeting with members of the Canadian Expeditionary Force and touring Canadian field hospitals. General Arthur Currie was, in June 1917, knighted by the George V on the battlefield at Vimy Ridge. The King kept up correspondence with Prince Arthur, discussing conditions on the home front in Canada. To deflect anti-German feelings away from the monarchy, George V issued in 1917 letters patent changing the name of the royal house from Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (established when Queen Victoria married Prince Albert) to Windsor and stripping German royal titles from anyone in the royal family who had them, such as his wife, who was a princess of Teck, and her brother, Prince Alexander, who took the surname Cambridge and became the Earl of Athlone.
At the end of 1916, Prince Arthur publicly expressed his regret at having to leave Canada, as he and his family had grown very comfortable there. The royal family left a legacy behind them: Port Arthur (now part of Thunder Bay, Ontario) was named in honour of the Prince, who also gave his name to the Connaught Cup for pistol marksmanship of recruits in the Royal North-West Mounted Police.
Interwar period
After the end of the war, Prince Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII), toured Canada in 1919, opening the third session of the 13th Canadian Parliament, amongst other duties performed when he had not disappeared to attend dances or to play golf, instead. He proved very popular with Canadians, though; when, in Toronto, he was greeted with enthusiasm by a crowd of soldiers just returned from Europe after the end of the war, who lifted Edward off his horse and "passed him, like a football, over their heads," and a veteran approached the Prince and casually said: "put it there, Ed." From that point on Edward shook hands with anyone who approached him, to the point where his right hand "became so black, swollen and painful from the continued enthusiastic handshaking that, in his own words, he 'retired it temporarily from Imperial service, and offered the left instead." Edward returned to Ottawa to lay the foundation stone of the Peace Tower before returning to the United Kingdom. Canada proved popular with the Prince as well; he purchased the E.P. Ranch near Pekisko, High River, in Alberta; Edward held this ranch, and stayed at it numerous times, before selling it in 1962, a decade before his death.
Events took place in 1926 that would set the course for a dramatic shift in the role of the federal viceroy and ultimately result in the creation of a distinct monarchy for Canada. Until that point, the governor general remained a representative in Canada of the British government—the King in his British Council—but was still able to exercise the royal prerogative over the Canadian prime minister without orders from the King acting on the advice of his British ministers back in Westminster. After the Governor General at the time, the Lord Byng of Vimy, did just that and independently decided to refuse the advice of his Canadian Prime Minister, William Lyon Mackenzie King, to dissolve Parliament, thus forcing Mackenzie King to resign in what came to be known as the King–Byng Affair, the latter was, once reappointed following that year's general election, motivated to raise at the 1926 Imperial Conference questions about the relationship between the Dominions and the United Kingdom.
The premiers were mostly receptive and, following the close of the meeting, the Balfour Declaration was issued, which stated that the Dominions of the Crown were to be considered equal to the United Kingdom, as Mackenzie King had wished. The governor general of Canada, as with all the other governors-general of the Empire, would be the direct, personal representative of the King, rather than a diplomatic channel between the Canadian and British governments.
The first evocation of these concepts in statute law was seen in 1927. Passed by the British Parliament, the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act altered part of the King's title to reflect his new status as monarch of each Dominion individually, rather than as king of the United Kingdom throughout all countries. Then, in 1931—following deliberations involving Canada's delegation, led by Minister of Justice and Attorney General of Canada Ernest Lapointe—the notions of independence and equality were manifested in the Statute of Westminster's legal end to the Westminster Parliament's ability to legislate for the Dominions without the expressed request and consent of the latter. As a result, laws outlining the succession—notably, the Act of Settlement, 1701—as pertaining to Canada, were now under the control of the Canadian Parliament and the King could only be advised on Canadian affairs by his Canadian ministers; the monarchy of Canada had "assumed its full constitutional meaning." This had widespread support from Quebec's political elite, as along with its own Crown, Canada gained control over it's foreign policy and became distinct from the United Kingdom and its empire.
Through 1927, King George V and his consort, Queen Mary, opened Canada House in London and the King's sons, Princes Edward and George, unveiled the Laurier monument on Parliament Hill and dedicated the Princes' Gates and opened Union Station in Toronto, after which Edward went to Alberta to spend time on his ranch.
Though the Canadian Cabinet had in 1930 suggested to the King that he appoint his other son, Prince Albert, Duke of York, as governor general of Canada, both George V and the Duke were hesitant; the latter had two young daughters—a toddler (later Queen Elizabeth II) and a newborn (Princess Margaret)—and the former wished that Albert remain close to compensate for the behaviour of the Prince of Wales. As the Statute of Westminster had not yet been implemented, the British Cabinet eventually advised against the Canadian idea and, instead, recommended the Earl of Bessborough as viceroy. This, though. was ultimately because the Lord Passfield, then the Minister for the Dominions, thought that, despite the request directly from their government, Canadians disliked the royal family. As Albert eventually went on to become King George VI, had the Canadian Privy Council's idea been accepted, a Canadian governor general who represented the King would have gone on to become king of Canada himself.
Canadians (and the Commonwealth as a whole) heard in 1932 the first Royal Christmas Message, as read by George V, who, three years later, celebrated his Silver Jubilee. The euphoria was short lived, however, as the King died on 20 January 1936. Announcements were made over radio; but, then the broadcasters fell silent for the rest of the night out of respect. Through the following week, courthouses were shut, the Legislative Assembly of Ontario delayed the opening of its new session so members of provincial parliament could recite new oaths of allegiance, and the University of Toronto cancelled social events (though, not classes). On 28 January, the day pf the late King's funeral, the Governor General issued a proclamation encouraging Canadians to attend church services and for Crown-owned buildings to be draped in black crepe.
The hope that surrounded the accession of Prince Edward as King Edward VIII did not, as with Edward's reign, survive the year. However, Edward was the first monarch of Canada to accede to the country's throne by Canada's own laws and, as such, it was deemed "constitutionally inappropriate" for Canada's (and the other Dominions') accession proclamations to be approved by a British order-in-council. Early into his time as monarch, Edward, in July 1936, took his only foreign trip as sovereign, to unveil the Canadian National Vimy Memorial in France, in his capacity as the king of Canada.
Abdication and the king of Canada comes home
Despite his popularity in Canada and elsewhere when he was Prince of Wales, the new King's relationship with the twice-divorced, American socialite Wallis Simpson caused serious concern; more so among Canadians, who were more familiar with the personal life of their sovereign than the populace of the UK, due to the British press imposing on itself a ban on publishing the exploits of the King and Simpson that the American newspapers did not. Governor General the Lord Tweedsmuir conveyed to Buckingham Palace and British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin his observations of Canadians' deep affection for the King; but, also the outrage towards Canadian puritanism—both Catholic and Protestant—that would occur if Edward VIII married a divorcée. Further, the Cabinet telegrammed the King, urging him to place his duty as sovereign above his feelings for Simpson. As popular anger mounted in tandem with the imminence of a marriage between Edward and Simpson, the King's prime ministers sought solutions to the crisis. Mackenzie King, along with the other Dominion first ministers, rejected the ideas of either a royal or morganatic marriage taking place. This left only Edward's abdication as the final option.
Edward VIII renounced his Canadian Crown on 10 December, giving, with the consent of his Canadian ministers, royal assent to His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. Consequently, his brother, Prince Albert, became Canada's king, choosing the regnal name George VI. A proclamation of accession was drafted by the Cabinet and read by the Prime Minister as a radio broadcast. The Canadian Parliament later passed the Succession to the Throne Act, 1937, to ratify the abdication into Canadian law and demonstrate Canada's independence from the United Kingdom. Mackenzie King wrote in his diary just before the abdication that he had "no fears about Canada [...] [I]n all probability, with the Duke and Duchess of York as king and queen, and with the little Princess Elizabeth in the picture, there will be a much happier situation in the new year than there has been at any time since the time of George V."
In an effort to foster Canadian identity, Tweedsmuir conceived in 1937 of a royal tour by the monarch, so that, through seeing "their king performing royal functions, supported by his Canadian ministers," Canadians might be made more aware of their country's status as an independent kingdom. Mackenzie King agreed with this notion; though, he also felt, along with officials in the United Kingdom, that the trip would have an element of public relations: the presence of the King and Queen, in both Canada and the United States, was calculated to shore up sympathy for Britain in anticipation of hostilities with Nazi Germany. Thus, Tweedsmuir put the suggestion to the King and the Prime Minister, while in London for the coronation in May 1937, formally consulted with George on the matter. More than a year later, the King agreed. Officials in the Dominions Office in London, however, resisted the reality of a separate role for George VI as Canada's sovereign.
On 17 May 1939, the king of Canada, accompanied by his royal consort, Queen Elizabeth, sailed up to Quebec City on the Canadian Pacific liner RMS Empress of Australia, escorted by two destroyers and two cruisers of the Royal Canadian Navy. George stepped ashore at Wolfe's Cove, becoming the first reigning sovereign of Canada to set foot on Canadian soil. The reaction by the public was positive beyond expectation and, from the start, it was noted that the King was present as Canada's sovereign; a newspaper at the time stated, "the King of Canada walked yesterday, as he walks today, among his own. There can be welcomes elsewhere in Canada equal to his reception in Quebec. None will surpass it."
Of the King and Queen's arrval Rideau Hall, on 20 May, official royal tour historian Gustave Lanctot wrote, "when Their Majesties walked into their Canadian residence, the Statute of Westminster had assumed full reality: the king of Canada had come home." While in the nation's capital, George set to carrying out his royal duties, including receiving the new American envoy to Canada, granting royal assent to nine bills passed by Parliament, and ratifying treaties, while the Queen laid the cornerstone of the Supreme Court of Canada building. The King presided over celebrations on Parliament Hill for his official birthday in Canada—the first time this had been marked in the presence of the sovereign himself—and he dedicated the National War Memorial. It was there that the King and Queen conducted the first-ever royal walkabout: rather than return to their motorcade at the end of the official ceremony, George and Elizabeth spent half an hour mingling casually among the 25,000 veterans, who were part of a crowd of some 100,000 people. The act was remarkable, as, at the time, royalty was generally perceived to be distant. Tweedsmuir captured the importance of the moment: "One old fellow said to me, 'aye, man, if Hitler could just see this.' It was wonderful proof of what a people's king means."
While travelling on the Royal Train to the west coast and back, meeting thousands of Canadians along the way (by the end of the first week alone, two million of Canada's 11 million inhabitants had turned out to see the royal couple), the King, from Government House in Winnipeg, Manitoba, delivered the Empire Day speech by radio to the Dominions and Britain and its colonies; met with the Îyârhe Nakoda outside of Calgary, Alberta; and presented the King's Colour to his Royal Canadian Navy in Victoria, British Columbia. During the return leg, the King and Queen also conducted, between 7 and 10 June, a state visit on behalf of Canada to the United States. The royal couple then returned to Canada, touring the Maritimes and the still separate Dominion of Newfoundland.
The Second World War and the resident monarchies
Only five months after the departure of George VI and his wife from Canada, Britain declared war on Nazi Germany. The King did so as King of the United Kingdom on 3 September 1939, but, as king of Canada, was not advised by his Canadian ministers to do the same until 10 September. Mackenzie King and Minister of Justice Ernest Lapointe initially argued that Canada was bound by Britain's declaration of war. However, after it was realised that Canada was absent from the list of belligerent states in President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt's declaration of neutrality, Parliament was summoned by the Governor General on 7 September and approved of Canada's need to defend itself. These were significant developments, as they became examples for other Dominions to follow, and, by the war's end, F.R. Scott concluded, "it is firmly established as a basic constitutional principle that, so far as relates to Canada, the King is regulated by Canadian law and must act only on the advice and responsibility of Canadian ministers."
Governor General the Lord Tweedsmuir died in February 1940, while still viceroy, and so an uncle of George VI, the Earl of Athlone, was appointed to the post, requiring he and his wife, Princess Alice (a granddaughter of Queen Victoria), and Athlone's Aide-de-Camp, Alastair Windsor, Earl of Macduff (the grandson of previous Governor General Prince Arthur), to make the trans-oceanic journey in the midst of the ongoing Battle of the Atlantic.
The Governor General and Princess Alice became supporters of the Canadian war effort; Alice was appointed Honorary Commandant of a number of women's military services, such as the Women's Royal Canadian Naval Service and the Royal Canadian Air Force Women's Division, while Athlone travelled extensively throughout the country in an effort to spread the message that King George VI was dedicated to fighting totalitarianism. The royal couple hosted the Quebec Conferences in 1943 and 1944, wherein Mackenzie King, Roosevelt, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill decided the strategies of the western allies that would lead to victory over Nazi Germany and Japan in 1945.
As the war threatened the royal family, plans were formed for the King, Queen, and their two children to reside for the duration of the conflict at Hatley Castle, in Colwood, British Columbia, which the King in his federal Council had purchased for use as a royal palace. It was, however, eventually settled that morale in the United Kingdom would be seriously diminished should the King abandon the European front and, so, the royal family would remain in London and Windsor. From there, Canada's monarch and his family engaged with Canadian militia, navy, and airmen and women. For example, to the first men from the 1st Canadian Division to arrive in the UK from Halifax, Nova Scotia, on 16 December 1939, the King wrote, “the British Army will be proud to have as comrades-in-arms the successors of those who came from Canada in the Great War and fought with a heroism that has never been forgotten.” Ahead of the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944, the King, along with his Canadian Prime Minister, inspected the formations that were to be sent across the English Channel, including 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion and the 3rd Canadian Division. With the Queen, George inspected the 1st Canadian Division at Aldershot on 8 June. Travelling incognito as “General Coilingwood”, the King visited Canadian units in Italy's Volturno Valley in August 1944, there presenting Major John Keefer Mahony with the Victoria Cross.
Prince George, Duke of Kent (the King's brother), visited air bases and training centres across Canada; Queen Elizabeth made an appeal to Canadian women to contribute to the war efforts; and her daughter, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), in 1940, posed for her first official Canadian portrait. With her parents, the Princess visited Canadian service personnel stationed in the United Kingdom and undertook solo duties, such as reviewing a parade of Canadian airwomen in 1945. Two years following, she was appointed by her father as Colonel-in-Chief of Le Régiment de la Chaudière and the 48th Highlanders of Canada, her first appointments in the Canadian military and which she held until her death in 2022. While Mackenzie King was speaking with the King at Buckingham Palace on 23 October 1945, the Princess said she was prepared to shoot the German Führer, Adolf Hitler, if given the chance.
Canada was also home to foreign royalty in exile during the war, many of whom resided at Rideau Hall. Among the royal guests were Crown Prince Olav and Crown Princess Martha of Norway; Grand Duchess Charlotte and Prince Felix of Luxembourg; King Peter II of Yugoslavia; King George II of Greece; Empress Zita of Austria and her daughters; as well as Crown Princess Juliana of the Netherlands and her daughters, Princesses Beatrix and Irene. While in Ottawa, Juliana gave birth to her third daughter, Margriet, at the Civic Hospital, where the delivery room was temporarily declared as extraterritorial soil to ensure that the Princess would have only Dutch nationality. At the same time, the former Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungary, Zita Bourbon-Parma, moved from Nazi occupied Belgium to Quebec City, so that her daughters could continue their education in French; one graduated from Laval University. Quebec was also the wartime home of Zita's sister-in-law, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg Joséphine-Charlotte. Olga Alexandrovna, a former Grand Duchess of Russia and the youngest daughter of Tzar Alexander III, left Denmark as Soviet troops drew closer after the Second World War. Olga and her husband, Nikolai Kulikovsky, purchased a farm in Campbellville, Ontario, before moving to Cooksville in 1952, while Olga, who was a talented watercolour artist, exhibited her paintings in Toronto. Olga died in an apartment above a beauty salon in Toronto in 1960.
Dawn of the second Elizabethan age
Mackenzie King's diary traces Princess Elizabeth's deepening involvement in national affairs as she grew into her 20s. He noted, for instance, conversing with the Princess about Canada at an official dinner for Commonwealth heads of government on 1 May 1944 and her presence at a meal, on 24 May 1946, during which the Prime Minister discussed with the King the case of Igor Gouzenko, a Russian spy who had defected to Canada; though Mackenzie King noted George's awareness of many details about the matter, the Prime Minister recorded that he sent the King a copy of Gouzenko's confession.
On 9 July 1947, Mackenzie King received both notice of Princess Elizabeth's wish to marry Philip Mountbatten and a request for the Canadian Privy Council's approval, as required by the Royal Marriages Act, 1772. The Cabinet (as a quorum of the Privy Council) gave its blessing and the Princess married Philip (made Duke of Edinburgh on the wedding day) in November of the same year, in a ceremony that attracted the attention of Canadians hungry for good news after the dark years of the war. The King-in-Council presented the newlyweds with a canoe and Elizabeth with a mink-fur coat (which she wore while in Canada for decades after).
The Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh toured Canada from coast-to-coast-and-back in late 1951. With her, the Princess brought a draft accession proclamation, in case the King, who was already ill at the time, should die while Elizabeth was in Canada. Among the many activities the royal couple took part in, they attended their first hockey game at Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto and enjoyed a square dance at Rideau Hall. The Princess and Philip also crossed into the United States to pay an official visit to President Harry S. Truman, who greeted Elizabeth as a "Canadian princess" at the reception she hosted at the Canadian embassy in Washington, DC.
Having suffered for some time with lung cancer, George VI eventually failed to recover from a pneumonectomy and died of a coronary thrombosis in his sleep on 6 February 1952, at Sandringham House, while Princess Elizabeth was in Kenya. The monarch's passing—which, despite his health, still caught Canadians off-guard—was communicated via cable between the late King's Private Secretary, Alan Lascelles, and Thibaudeau Rinfret, who was acting as Administrator of the Canadian government between the departure of Governor General the Earl of Tunis and the swearing-in of Tunis' replacement, Vincent Massey, who was in London at the time; the telegram read, "profoundly regret to state that His Majesty King George the Sixth passed away peacefully in his sleep early this morning." Rinfret immediately issued on the same day a proclamation of the King's death and the accession of Elizabeth II as Canada's queen, making Canada the first place in which this was done; her proclamation of accession for the United Kingdom was not read out until the following day, after which the new monarch met with her British Privy Council for the first time, with Massey in attendance.
With intercontinental air travel having become easier, a number of the new Queen's Canadian ministers flew to London to join Governor General-designate Vincent Massey at the funeral in London. The Prime Minister remained in Ottawa to take part in a wreath-laying ceremony on Parliament Hill. The date was not designated as a statutory holiday in all provinces, however; in others, it was left to the municipalities or businesses to decide whether or not to close for the day and not all did. As televisions were still a rarity in Canada, most listened to the funeral service in London by radio broadcast.
Wearing a gown that was, along with the floral emblems of the other countries of the Commonwealth, embroidered with Canada's maple leaf in green silk and gold bullion thread veined with crystal, the Queen was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, in a ceremony that included, like the Queen's dress, Canadian symbols and participants. The prime ministers and leading citizens of Canada were present in the abbey, among representatives of other Commonwealth and foreign states, and the ceremony was also, at the Queen's request, broadcast around the world on television; three times as the event carried on, Royal Air Force Canberra jet bombers flew film footage of the coronation to Canada for play on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, making the first ever non-stop flights between the United Kingdom and the Canadian mainland. Guests at the ceremony, television viewers, and radio listeners heard Elizabeth swear a revised Coronation Oath, wherein she reaffirmed her dedication expressed earlier in South Africa and swore to "govern the peoples of [...] Canada [...] according to their respective laws and customs." The separate mention of Canada mirrored the granting of royal assent, the day previous, to the Royal Style and Titles Act, which gave Elizabeth a distinctly Canadian title.
During a tour of Canada in 1957, the Queen made her first-ever live appearance on television, appointed her husband to her Canadian Privy Council at a meeting of which she chaired, and, on 14 October, opened the first session of the 23rd parliament; some 50,000 people descended on Parliament Hill to witness the arrival of the monarch, though, due to the financial austerity of the times, the pageantry was muted in comparison to what would be seen at a similar event in the United Kingdom. Elizabeth and her husband, accompanied by Canadian Prime Minister, John Diefenbaker, as the Queen's senior minister in attendance, also, on behalf of Canada, paid a state visit to the United States, attending the 350th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown, Virginia, and meeting with President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the White House.
Elizabeth met the President again two years later, at the official opening of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. As she made her way through a full tour of Canada, at the end of which she chaired a meeting in Halifax of her Canadian Privy Council and personally appointed Georges Vanier as her representative in Canada, the Queen crossed the border twice to pay a visit to the United States, stopping in Chicago and Washington. Again, Diefenbaker was her chief minister in attendance; the Prime Minister was insistent that it be made clear to Americans that Elizabeth was visiting them as the Canadian monarch and that it was "the Canadian embassy and not the British Embassy officials who are in charge" of the Queen's itinerary. In this vein, the Queen's speeches in Chicago, written by her Canadian ministers, stressed steadily the fact that she had come to call as Queen of Canada and she hosted the return dinner for Eisenhower at the Canadian Embassy in Washington. Elizabeth also did her part to assist in entrenching the newly emerging Canadian character, ensuring that the Red Ensign (then Canada's national flag) be flown on the Royal Yacht and she stood to attention for the duration of each playing of "O Canada", the country's then still unofficial national anthem, sometimes even joining in the singing.
What was unknown to all, besides Elizabeth herself, including Diefenbaker until he was confided in at Kingston, Ontario, was that the Queen was, at the time, pregnant with her third child. Though her Prime Minister urged her to cut the tour short, Elizabeth swore him to secrecy and continued the journey, leaving the public announcement of the upcoming birth until she returned to London.
Turbulent decades
The 1960s was a decade of swift change in terms of both politics and technology and Canada's monarch found herself affected by both; for instance, Elizabeth II inaugurated the first trans-Atlantic telephone cable—part of one laid to link all the Commonwealth countries—when she, at Buckingham Palace, called Prime Minister Diefenbaker, who was at the Château Laurier. However, the Queen's success in the other field was not as guaranteed; shifts were taking place in Canadian identity, due, in part, to the establishment of multiculturalism as an official policy, increased immigration from beyond the British Isles, and Quebec separatism, the latter becoming the major impetus of political controversy over the Crown.
Those involved with the Quebec sovereignty movement saw the monarchy as a symbol of federalism and/or the British aspects of Canada's history and publicly displayed their contempt for the institution on a few occasions: At the height of the Quiet Revolution, the Quebec press reported that extreme separatists were plotting to assassinate the Queen during her upcoming 1964 tour of the province, as well as to kidnap Premier Jean Lesage's son, should the Queen come to Quebec. Despite fears for the monarch's safety and talk of cancelling the trip, Prime Minister Lester Pearson assured the Queen nothing much would come of the threats, the sovereign arrived as planned and, in a speech delivered, in both French and English, to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec on 10 October, she spoke of Canada's two "complementary cultures" and the strength of Canada's two founding peoples; she stated, "I am pleased to think that there exists in our Commonwealth a country where I can express myself officially in French [...] Whenever you sing [the French words of] "O Canada", you are reminded that you come of a proud race." However, as her motorcade passed through Quebec City, the route was lined with Quebecers showing their backs to her; others booed her and shouted separatist slogans. Though the protesters were the minority in the crowds gathered to see the Queen (the Montreal Gazette reporting that those who opposed the visit were students numbering in the hundreds), the provincial police violently dispersed those demonstrators who took to marching through the streets following Elizabeth's address to the Legislative Assembly, arresting 36, including some who had been there to show loyalty to the Queen. Elizabeth's "calmness and courage in the face of the violence" was noted. Ben Pimlott wrote in his biography of Elizabeth II that "the public reaction in Quebec, and the lack of it elsewhere, led Pearson—who had initiated the visit in the first place—to warn the Queen that the monarchy’s days in the Dominion were numbered."
Despite calls by the Toronto Star for a move to a republic as a mark of Canada's centennial, Elizabeth, accompanied by Prince Philip, presided over the main celebration of the event, taking part in a ceremony on Parliament Hill and touring Expo 67, which had also been visited by her sister, Princess Margaret. Philip opened the Pan American Games in Winnipeg later in July.
A constitutional conference was held in Ottawa in February 1968, at which the delegates from Quebec indicated that a provincial president might suit the province better than the lieutenant governor, but the proposal was not accepted, the overall feeling being that the monarchy "has served us well and that its reform has no great priority in the present round of constitutional changes." Still, during constitutional talks 10 years later, alterations to the Crown were put back on the table by the Cabinet of Pierre Trudeau, which proposed that the governor general be made full head of state and renamed as First Canadian. The provincial premiers, including Quebec's, reacted strongly against these suggestions.
Over the same period, references to the monarch and the monarchy were slowly removed from the public eye. For instance, while a number of royal symbols did remain and new ones, like the monarch's royal standard, were created, the Queen's portrait was seen less and less in public schools, the federal government adopted a corporate identity program without royal insignia, the Royal Mail became Canada Post, and the Royal Canadian Navy and Royal Canadian Air Force were merged, along with the army, into the Canadian Armed Forces. Of the changes made, it was said, "the Crown was to be rooted in the future, not the past; for the historic Crown, with its anthem, emblems, and symbolism, made accessible a past the government of the day rejected," a policy never to be discussed, either publicly or at constitutional conferences, following the rejoinder to Trudeau's 1978 constitutional amendments. John Fraser called it "the process of gradual attrition".
These moves, in combination with the Cabinet's constitutional tinkering and the Prime Minister's antics and breaches of protocol in the presence of the monarch, fostered suspicion that Trudeau harboured republican notions; it was rumoured by Paul Martin Sr. that the Queen was worried the Crown "had little meaning for him." In response to Trudeau's attitude towards the monarchy, the Monarchist League of Canada was founded in 1970 to maintain and promote Canada's status as a constitutional monarchy.
When Prince Edward, Duke of Windsor (the former King Edward VIII), died on 28 May 1972, Canada's diplomats in the United Kingdom attended the lying-in-state at Windsor. In Canada, the official gestures of mourning were minimal: Governor General Roland Michener and Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau sent condolonces to the Queen, Edward's niece, and Parliament passed a motion expressing the sympathy of members. None of these messages mentioned the Duke's previous role as King; they simply referred to his times in Canada when Prince of Wales.
Elizabeth toured the country a number of times during the decade. That which was undertaken in 1970—involving the Queen, the Duke of Edinburgh, Prince Charles, and Princess Anne—to mark the centennials of the creation of the Northwest Territories and of Manitoba, was also intended, by way of the monarch's presence in Inuvik and Tuktoyaktuk, to assert Canadian sovereignty over the north, which was then being questioned by the United States. In 1973, the Queen and Prince Philip travelled to Charlottetown to celebrate centennial of Prince Edward Island and to Regina for the 100th anniversary of the establishment of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. At the same time she, on Trudeau's advice, attended that year's Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting—the first held on Canadian soil—initiating the tradition of the monarch attending such conferences, no matter the location. Three years later, Trudeau also, at the urging of Premier of Quebec Robert Bourassa, advised the Queen to open the Olympics in Montreal, which were attended by no less than six other members of the royal family: the Duke of Edinburgh, Mark Phillips, Prince Edward, Prince Andrew, Prince Charles, and Princess Anne, who competed in the games for the United Kingdom. Then, the following year, the Queen, accompanied by her husband, returned to undertake a coast-to-coast circuit marking her Silver Jubilee.
Though she decided against suggestions that she allow Prince Charles to attend university in Canada, for worry that he would be hounded by the press, in 1978, Prince Andrew was back in Canada to attend Lakefield College School for a semester, as part of a Round Square exchange programme, and he, too, was presented with a canoe by Elizabeth's Canadian Cabinet.
An independent kingdom
As the Queen consented to her representative in Canada undertaking more of her duties, it became common practice for the governor general to represent the Queen and Canada abroad on state visits; two successive governors general undertook 12 state and working visits, and Elizabeth performed one, herself, through the 1980s, whereas there had been only three through the 1970s and none the decade before that.
On 29 July 1981, with the required approval of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, Prince Charles married Lady Diana Spencer in a wedding that attracted the attention of millions of Canadians. The ceremony was attended by Governor General Edward Schreyer and, echoing the gift presented to the Queen and Prince Philip upon their wedding in 1947, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau commissioned a hand built canoe as the Cabinet's gift for the royal couple. Diana proved more popular with Canadians than the Prince of Wales; it was noted by a former member of Charles' household that, during a 1983 tour of the country, when the Prince emerged from the car, there would be groans, but cheers for Diana when she was seen. Charles' aunt, Princess Margaret, also received negative attention when, in 1981, her visit to the Royal Highland Fusiliers of Canada in Cambridge, Ontario, as their Colonel-in-Chief, was targeted by Irish nationalist protesters. At one of the ceremonies, which were boycotted by three city councillors, there was a scare when a gun barrel was thought to have been seen in the gathered crowd. But, it proved to be a mistake.
The Queen played host to the President of France, François Mitterrand, at the Bény-sur-Mer Canadian War Cemetery in Normandy, France, on 6 June 1984, the 40th anniversary of the Normany Landings. It was noted Elizabeth's motorcade consisted of only a few cars, whereas the President's "extended to the horizon" and included an ambulance. The Queen was accompanied by Trudeau and the Duke of Edinburgh and the President was joined by his wife, Danielle Mitterrand. After the royal and presidential parties laid wreaths at the Cross of Sacrifice, Elizabeth and the Duke conducted a walkabout, meeting with Canadian veterans and their families.
At the same time, the government was approaching a final resolution on the constitutional issues of the past decades. In 1981, Paul Martin Sr, John Roberts, and Mark MacGuigan were sent to the UK to discuss the patriation project; Martin noted that the Queen had taken a great interest in the constitutional debate and the three found the monarch "better informed on both the substance and politics of Canada's constitutional case than any of the British politicians or bureaucrats." Elizabeth continued to assist with the project until a conclusion was reached the following year, when, in Ottawa on 17 April, she proclaimed the Constitution Act, 1982, into force, which, among other changes and additions, patriated the constitution, making it fully Canadian law, and entrenched the monarchy in Canada; any change to the position of the monarch or the viceroys thenceforth required the consent of the federal and all 10 provincial legislatures. Trudeau commented in his memoir, "I always said it was thanks to three women that we were eventually able to reform our constitution[, including] the Queen, who was favourable [...] I was always impressed not only by the grace she displayed in public at all times, but by the wisdom she showed in private conversation."
However, the terms under which the constitution was patriated had not been agreed to by the Cabinet of Quebec, headed by Premier René Lévesque, a move that was viewed by Quebec sovereigntists as a betrayal. The Queen, aware this was the first time in Canadian history that a major constitutional change had been made without the agreement of the Quebec government, privately expressed to journalists her regret that Quebec was not part of the settlement.
In 1987, after the first agreements were reached among the 11 prime ministers in Canada on the Meech Lake Accord—which attempted to bring Quebec governmental support to the patriated constitution by introducing further amendments—the Queen made a rare foray into political matters when she publicly expressed on 22 and 23 October her personal support for the plan. She received criticism from opponents of the accord and Pierre Trudeau did not arrive for an official lunch with the Queen on 24 October. Also in 1987, Prince Andrew toured Canada with, for the first time, his wife, Sarah, Duchess of York, who proved popular with Canadians and relaxed among them. The royal couple spent 18 days canoeing through the Canadian north and the Duchess later reminisced that "Canada is like my second home." She also revealed in 2009 that, sometime during her marriage to the Duke of York, he had been offered the position of governor general of Canada; the couple agreed to decline and the Duchess speculated in hindsight that the choice may have ultimately been a contributing factor in their eventual divorce in 1996. The idea had also been floated that Canada abandon its status as a Commonwealth realm but retain a separate monarchy with Prince Andrew as king of Canada; this proposal, too, was never pursued.
The Queen undertook another tour of Canada in 1990, a trip originally planned for her to put the royal sign-manual to the constitutional amendment that would have implemented the Meech Lake Accord's plans, including recognising Quebec to be a distinct society. The accord, however, had failed, which inspired fears for the unity of Canada. At Canada Day celebrations on Parliament Hill, Elizabeth addressed the crowds, stating, "it is my fondest wish [...] that Canadians come together and remain together [...] I and members of my family have been with you on many special days in the life of this country [...] Canada is a country that has been blessed beyond most countries in the world. It is a country worth working for."
Despite the Queen's pleas, nationalism in Quebec gained vigour and another referendum on departure from Canada was held in 1995. Five days before the vote, the monarch was tricked into speaking, in both French and English, for 14 minutes with Pierre Brassard, a DJ for Radio CKOI-FM Montreal, who was pretending to be Elizabeth's Prime Minister, Jean Chrétien. When told that the separatists were showing a lead, the Queen revealed that she felt the "referendum may go the wrong way," adding, "if I can help in any way, I will be very happy to do so." However, she pointedly refused to accept the advice that she intervene on the issue without first seeing a draft speech sent by Chrétien. Overall, her tactful handling of the call won plaudits from the DJ who made it and the real Chrétien later, in his memoir, recounted the Queen's tongue-in-cheek comments to him regarding the affair: "'I didn't think you sounded quite like yourself,' she told me. 'But, I thought, given all the duress you were under, you might have been drunk.'" On 30 October, the day of the referendum, Queen Elizabeth was on her way to a Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in New Zealand and asked her pilot to remain at Los Angeles International Airport until the final tally from Quebec had been announced.
Peter Donolo, Chrétien's press secretary, leaked on 18 December 1998 that staff in the Prime Minister's Office and other Liberal Party members were working on a plan to abolish the monarchy by the turn of the millennium, though this was denied by Chrétien himself and disapproved of by the majority of incumbent provincial premiers. Save for some journalists, such as Lawrence Martin, who broke the story, the idea was also roundly denounced in the media.
The new millennium
The Queen and her husband undertook a 12-day tour of the country in 2002, to mark Elizabeth's Golden Jubilee and thousands turned out to the various occasions. The royal couple stopped in Iqaluit, Victoria, Vancouver, Winnipeg, Toronto, Hamilton, Hull, Fredericton, Sussex, Moncton, and Ottawa. In the capital of Nunavut, Elizabeth addressed the new Legislative Assembly, stating, "I am proud to be the first member of the Canadian royal family to be greeted in Canada's newest territory." In Vancouver, on 6 October, the Queen, accompanied by Wayne Gretzky, and in front of a crowd of 18,000 at General Motors Place, dropped the ceremonial first puck for the National Hockey League exhibition game between the Vancouver Canucks and San Jose Sharks—the first time any reigning monarch, Canadian or otherwise, had performed the task—and, in Saskatchewan, she unveilied a bronze equestrian statue of herself riding the Royal Canadian Mounted Police horse, Burmese. At an official dinner at the Canadian Museum of Civilization in Gatineau, Quebec, the Queen said, "[I wish] to express my profound gratitude to all Canadians [...] for the loyalty, encouragement, and support you have given to me over these past 50 years." However, approximately 100 Québécois protesters were seen when the royal motorcade crossed from Ottawa into Gatineau and Quebec Premier Bernard Landry stated that the provincial government would neither mount any celebrations of the anniversary, nor send representatives to any others, in protest of the Queen's signing of the Constitution Act, 1982.
Just prior to the tour, the group Citizens for a Canadian Republic was formed to promote the replacement of the constitutional monarchy with some kind of republic and attention was drawn to this cause when then-Deputy Prime Minister John Manley became the first-ever federal minister of the Crown to publicly support the end of the Canadian monarchy, saying in an interview that Canada should become a republic upon the demise of Queen Elizabeth II.
In December the next year, after lengthy discussions between the federal government and the Acadian community, Governor General Adrienne Clarkson put her signature on the Royal Proclamation of 2003, which expressed the Crown's acknowledgement of the 1754 deportation of the Acadians and established 28 July as the Day of Commemoration of the Great Upheaval; While not a formal apology, the gesture quelled demands by Acadians that one be issued by the Queen.
The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh toured Alberta and Saskatchewan in 2005, to partake in celebrations marking those provinces' centennials. The Cabinet of Alberta wished for the monarch to personally grant royal assent to a bill passed by the provincial legislature; however, the constitutionality of the Queen doing so was questioned and Rideau Hall stated the Queen's personal participation in the legislative process would conflict with the federal government's policy of the "Canadianization" of Canada's institutions.
In 2006, Stephen Harper was appointed as prime minister. In his first address to Parliament as head of government, Harper opened by paying tribute to the Queen and her "lifelong dedication to duty and self-sacrifice," referring to her specifically as Canada's head of state.
Prince Harry arrived in Canada to train, along with other soldiers of the Canadian and British armies, at Canadian Forces Base Suffield, near Medicine Hat, Alberta, ahead of a tour of duty in Afghanistan. Harry went off base during down time and journeyed to Calgary to take in the nightlife. At the same time, Harry's aunt, the Princess Royal, was in Saskatchewan meeting with family members of Saskatchewan soldiers killed in Afghanistan. This was part of a wider tour of the province that included her participation in ceremonies to mark the centennial of the Royal Regina Rifles, of which she is Colonel-in-Chief, as well as opening the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Heritage Centre and meeting with First Nations elders at Government House.
Nearing the end of 2007, it was revealed that the Queen was not going to attend the festivities for the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Quebec City, to take place the next year. The Executive Council of Quebec had requested that Ottawa make plans for the sovereign to be part of the celebration, having her follow in the footsteps of her grandfather, George V, who presided over the tercentenary celebrations of the same event in 1908. However, the federal Cabinet advised the Queen not to go, fearing her presence would provoke Quebec separatists, especially after the announcement of her possibly attending incited separatists to promise protests. Governor General Michaëlle Jean attended, instead.
The then-Duke and Duchess of Cambridge, just three months after their marriage, toured all regions of Canada in 2011, from the Arctic to the West Coast and the Maritimes. The journey fell on the 225th anniversary of the first royal tour of Canada, by then-Prince William (later King William IV). William and Catherine attended a citizenship ceremony on 1 July—the first time any member of the royal family had done so—and, on the same day, the Canada Day celebrations on Parliament Hill.
Official celebrations for Queen Elizabeth's Diamond Jubilee began two years before the event, during Elizabeth's tour of Canada in 2010. During it, she, among other things, planted an Amber Jubilee Ninebark shrub—a cultivar created specifically for the Jubilee—in the newly-dedicated Queen Elizabeth II Garden outside her official residence in Manitoba and, at Rideau Hall, unveiled a stained glass window, depicting herself and Queen Victoria (the only other monarch of Canada who marked a diamond jubilee), that would, later that year, be installed in the Senate foyer and unveiled by Governor General David Johnston. The jubilee proper started with Diamond Jubilee week, starting on 6 February (Accession Day) 2012, with the raising of the Queen's Canadian royal standard on Parliament Hill and at all government houses and viceregal offices across the country; permission for the breach of protocol (the flag is normally flown only to mark the sovereign's presence) was granted by Elizabeth. Event were organized and educational programs established throughout the country, by federal, provincial, and municipal governments and exhibitions were mounted at museums and institutions from the Canadian Postal Museum to the Canadian Museum of History. The Royal Canadian Mint also issued an "extensive set" of coins to mark the anniversary.
The Queen re-opened a renovated Canada House in 2015. In the same year, on 9 September, Elizabeth became the second-longest reigning monarch of Canada (after King Louis XIV of France), though she was still celebrated as the "longest-reigning sovereign in Canada's modern era". The Bank of Canada, Canada Post, and the Royal Canadian Mint issued a commemorative bank note, stamp, and coin, respectively. A 30-minute performance of music "reflecting Her Majesty's life and times" was played on the Peace Tower Carillon on Parliament Hill. The Governor General, lieutenant governors, and territorial commissioners delivered a loyal address to the Queen.
Elizabeth addressed Canadians by video on the first day of 2017, recognizing the 150th anniversary of Confederation; she said, "throughout the years, particularly since your centennial year, I have watched Canada develop into a remarkable nation. [...] Fifty years ago, on the eve of the centennial, I encouraged Canadians to continue to embody the values of equality, freedom, and inclusion. Today, these values remain deeply rooted in the Canadian experience [...] On this eve of national celebrations, my family and I are with you in spirit. As you prepare to mark this important milestone in your country’s history, I send my warmest good wishes to you all." Prince Charles represented his mother, the Queen, at the main sesquicentennial events in Ottawa.
In 2019, Prince Harry returned to Canada with his wife, Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, when the couple decided to spend Christmas on Vancouver Island with their baby son, Prince Archie. During a brief return to the United Kingdom the following year, the Duke and Duchess visited Canada House, on 7 January, to thank Canadians for their hospitality. Soon after, the couple announced that they were stepping back from their roles as senior members of the royal family and moved back to Vancouver Island. Harry, Meghan, and Archie remained in British Columbia until March 2020, when they moved to California.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Queen expressed her support for all Canadians and thanks to those who were caring for the vulnerable and providing essential services. As the pandemic waned into 2022, celebrations were mounted around the country and throughout the year to mark the Queen's Platinum Jubilee; the first-ever such event in Canadian history. It was also, though, the first time since at least Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee in 1887 that the federal Cabinet did not advise the Crown to issue an associated commemorative medal. In response, six provinces produced their own Platinum Jubilee medals; another first. From 2021 into 2022, the subject of reconciliation with Canada's indigenous peoples came to the forefront of the public consciousness, particularly in regard to residential schools. Statues of Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth II in Winnipeg were vandalized. On the first National Day for Truth and Reconciliation, Elizabeth made a public statement, saying she "joins with all Canadians [...] to reflect on the painful history that indigenous peoples endured in residential schools in Canada and on the work that remains to heal and to continue to build an inclusive society." In 2021, the Queen appointed Mary Simon as the first indigenous governor general in Canadian history.
After Elizabeth's reign
Queen Elizabeth II passed away on 8 September 2022, and was succeeded by her eldest son, King Charles III. The Queen's last public statement was on 7 September to express her condolences to, and support for, Canadians across the country in the aftermath of the 2022 Saskatchewan stabbings, saying she "mourn[s] with all Canadians at this tragic time". The monarch's death came as "an existential shock to Canadians who had known only one sovereign" in their lifetimes. Elizabeth's passing, however, did not disrupt daily life as much as those of her predecessors did; business outside of parliaments, ministries, the civil service, and the military largely carried on as usual; with only five day's notice of the national holiday called for the day of the funeral, financial sectors stated they would operate normally, while the decisions of provincial governments were mixed on whether public servants or schools would take the day off: Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and Alberta chose neither; the Maritime provinces and British Columbia chose both; and Manitoba chose one, but not the other. Still, many Canadians paid tribute at legislatures and city halls and online. The Internet—a technological system inconceivable at the beginning of Elizabeth's reign—allowed Canadians and news media, alike, to follow events in near-real- or real-time, from the moment the Queen's final illness was made known until her death was confirmed by Buckingham Palace, which it did through Twitter and other social media platforms, in addition to the traditional announcements on palace gates.
On 10 September, the proclamation of the new King took place at Rideau Hall, following a formal meeting of the King's Privy Council for Canada, at a ceremony that included heraldic trumpeting, a 21-gun salute and a moment of remembrance for Queen Elizabeth II. The accession of Charles III was the first since the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority in 1989, that the Chief Herald read the royal proclamation aloud.
After the 2022 Quebec general election, the elected Parti Québécois members of the Legislative Assembly, briefly joined by members of the equally separatist Québec solidaire party, refused to recite the oath of allegiance to the King of Canada, rendering them unable to take their seats in the provincial parliament. The legislature, with the nationalist Coalition Avenir Québec in the government benches, passed a law that attempted to amend the Canadian constitution to make the Oath of Allegiance optional for MNAs. It remains unclear if the law has any effect.
Monarchs of Canadian territories
The line of monarchs who reigned over territories that would become Canadian or over Canada itself begins approximately at the turn of the 16th century. The date of the first establishment a monarchical form of government in parts of the territory which now forms Canada varies: some sources give the year as 1497, when King Henry VII claimed parts of Newfoundland, while others put it at 1534, when New France was founded in the name of King Francis I. Monarchical governance thenceforth evolved under a continuous succession of French and British sovereigns, and eventually the legally distinct Canadian monarchy. Since John Cabot first lay claim to Canada in the name of Henry VII, there have been 33 sovereigns of Canada, including two sets of co-sovereigns.
See also
History of Canada
History of monarchy in Alberta
History of monarchy in British Columbia
History of monarchy in Manitoba
History of monarchy in New Brunswick
History of monarchy in Newfoundland and Labrador
History of monarchy in Nova Scotia
History of monarchy in Ontario
History of monarchy in Prince Edward Island
History of monarchy in Quebec
History of monarchy in Saskatchewan
Monarchism in Canada
Republicanism in Canada
Royal tours of Canada
History of monarchy in Australia
History of monarchy in the United Kingdom
Notes
References
External links
Royal Journey, a 1951 NFB documentary on the Royal Visit by Princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh
Fathers of Confederation
Canada, monarchy in
Legal history of Canada
Monarchy in Canada
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony%20Pateras
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Anthony Pateras
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Anthony Peter Pateras (born 1979) is an Australian-born composer, pianist and electronic musician. He has released several solo albums and collaborated with other artists. Pateras has performed and recorded in Australia, North America and Europe. At the APRA Music Awards' Art Music Awards, he has been nominated three times: 2011 for Performance of the Year for his composition, Refractions, performed by Clocked Out and Speak Percussion; 2012 for Work of the Year – Instrumental for Flesh and Ghost performed by Speak Percussion; and 2015 for Performance of the Year for Beauty Will Be Amnesiac or Will not Be at All performed by Synergy Percussion.
Early years
Anthony Peter Pateras was born in 1979 and grew up in Melbourne. He received classical training on the piano. His early band, Elemenopede, was formed in Melbourne in 1996 and played local venues including the Punters Club, Fitzroy. The line-up was Pateras on keyboards, Greg Craske on guitar, Luke Fitzgerald on drums, Dan Flynn on vocals and Mark Woodford on bass guitar. They released an extended play, I'm with Stupid, in May 1998, launched at the Punters Club, but they had disbanded by early 2001.
Pateras started tertiary education at La Trobe University, studying composition with Graeme Leak, Neil Kelly and John McCaughey. In 2007 he completed his PhD at Monash University with Thomas Reiner. Pateras' thesis was, "Exploratory combinations of composition, improvisation and electronics based on relationships between form and timbre."
Solo work
1999 to 2008
As an undergraduate Pateras scored numerous theatrical productions at La Mama, The Carlton Courthouse, LaTrobe Student Theatre and Belvoir St Theatre. He was a sound composer for a play, Carboni, written by John Romeril and performed at the Carlton Courthouse in June 1999. For William 37 (November–December 2001) at La Mama, Pateras worked with Jeremy Collings on the soundscape, which Kate Herbert of The Herald Sun reviewed, "[it] has some appropriate and interesting moments but is often too loud, intrusive and poorly placed."
Between December 1999 and June 2001, he recorded Malfunction Studies, in Melbourne, New York and Copenhagen. Fellow musicians were Collings on cello, Elemenopede bandmate Fitzgerald on percussion, Justine Anderson as soprano, Jane Burnside on clarinet, Kathy Cameron as alto, Tom Chiu on violin, Matt Dowling on violin, Emily Hayes as mezzo-soprano, Luke Peyton on turntable and percussion, Helle Thun as soprano and Victorian College of the Arts' Percusion Ensemble on various percussion instruments. It was released as a CD album in 2002.
From 2001 till 2006 Pateras scored short films; two of which were accepted in the Cinéfondation section at the Cannes Film Festival: Ben Hackworth's Martin Four (2001) and Pia Borg's Footnote (2004). He curated the Articulating Space concert series from 2001, which transformed into the Melbourne International Biennale of Exploratory Music, in 2008.
Pateras' early works include the percussion solo Mutant Theatre, written for Vanessa Tomlinson and premiered in March 2001 at the Melbourne Museum. Mutant Theatre was issued as his solo album via John Zorn's Tzadik Records in January 2004. It was rated by AllMusic's staff writer as three-and-a-half stars out-of five. Pateras composed the tracks, provided piano, prepared piano and vocals, and conducted the session musicians as well as co-producing the work.
"Chromatophore for 8 amplified strings" was composed for the inaugural Cybec Melbourne Symphony Orchestra 21st Century Composers' Program in 2003. The piece was selected as a Recommended Work at the International Rostrum of Composers in 2004, and in 2006 was performed at Walt Disney Concert Hall by the Los Angeles Philharmonic, conducted by Brett Dean. He toured with the Australian Chamber Orchestra in 2007, composing "Autophagy, for amplified string quintet, prepared piano and electronics." The Sydney Morning Heralds critic Peter McCallum observed, "[it's] a rough sound world of spikes, thuds and wispy slides like black lines painted roughly on bare brick." Both "Chromatophore for 8 amplified strings" and "Autophagy" appear on his solo album, Chromatophore (September 2008). AllMusic's François Couture described the album, "there is no real theme, genre, form, or instrumentation running through the six works... except [his] creativity and broad palette."
2009 to 2015
Pateras composed and conducted a performance, Percussion Portrait, at the Melbourne Recital Centre in 2009. It brought together two groups: Clocked Out (Nozomi Omote, Vanessa Tomlinson) from Brisbane and Speak Percussion (Nat Grant, Peter Neville, Matthias Schack-Arnott, Eugene Ughetti) from Melbourne. Steven Hodgson of Australian Music Centre (AMC) reviewed the work's last part, Refractions (2008), "highly sectionalised, progressing from texture to texture with a continued sense that pitch and rhythmic materials have been selected to serve the instrumental combination in use at any particular time." At the APRA Music Awards of 2011, Refractions, was nominated for an Art Music Award for Performance of the Year as delivered by Clocked Out and Speak Percussion.
At the APRA Music Awards of 2012 Pateras was nominated for Art Music Award for Work of the Year – Instrumental for Flesh and Ghost, which was performed by Speak Percussion in September 2011. The judging panel described Flesh and Ghost, as "a wonderfully epic piece where the composer utilises the 12-player percussion ensemble beautifully, creating a one sound world and a lovely sense of texture. It has a sense of space with spectrums of sound."
Pateras provided the score for the psychological thriller film, Errors of the Human Body (2012), directed by Eron Sheean and starring Michael Eklund, Karoline Herfurth, Tómas Lemarquis and Rik Mayall. The soundtrack album was released on Editions Mego. In that year he composed Ontetradecagon – his interpretation of jazz musician, Miles Davis' work. Pateras performed it live-in-the-studio for Andrew Ford's The Music Show on Radio National. RealTime journalist Chris Reid determined, "[it] pays homage to the experimentalism of both Davis and Stockhausen by exploring the conjunction of jazz improvisation and experimental music." The piece featured the composer on a Revox B77 tape recorder placed in the centre of the concert hall, with AAO members spaced about in six groups.
Synergy Percussion commissioned an hour-long percussion sextet from Pateras, Beauty Will Be Amnesiac or Will not Be at All for their 40th anniversary in 2014. The celebratory piece was premiered at Carriageworks. The Sydney Morning Heralds music critic David Vance noted "As the sound sources migrate from skins to metal, wood, and glass, individually or in combination, so too does the experience of these changing sonorities." At the APRA Music Awards of 2015 he was nominated for Art Music Award: Performance of the Year for Beauty Will Be Amnesiac or Will not Be at All, as performed by Synergy Percussion.
2016 to current
In 2016 BBC Symphony Orchestra presented Pateras' composition Immediata at Maida Vale Studios under Brett Dean, with Thomas Gould as soloist and Pateras on a Revox tape recorder. That same year Toronto Symphony Orchestra performed his Fragile Absolute at Roy Thomson Hall, also conducted by Dean. Pateras was a Fellow at Akademie Schloss Solitude in Stuttgart in 2018. While there he recorded pipe organ for the song, "Troubled Air", on SUNN O)))'s album, Life Metal (April 2019).
Pateras' concert work, Pseudacusis, was commissioned by the 2019 Musica Sanae project to explore relationships between sound and medicine. Musica Sanae is a collaboration of three European realities: Phonurgia, Naples, In Situ Foundation, Sokołowsko (Poland) and NK Projekt, Berlin. Pseudacusis was performed in Naples, Sokołowsko, Kraków and Berlin. According to Pateras it was inspired by "auditory pareidolia, exploding head syndrome, otoacoustic emissions and psychoacoustics, in general." Pseudacusis, which was later issued as an album, is based on a live performance, on 27 September 2019, at the Sacrum Profanum Festival in Małopolska Garden of Arts, Kraków. Ben Harper of Boring Like a Drill reviewed the album, "By the latter half of the work, you’re wondering how much of the frenzied, stuttering percussion solos are happening in front of the audience and whether you hallucinated Pateras playing some cocktail lounge jazz rhapsody in amongst it all."
Collaborations
Pateras has collaborated with various musical artists. He worked in bands: North of North, tētēma, Thymolphthalein, PIVIXKI, Beta Erko and Pateras/Baxter/Brown. He has formed duos with: Erkki Veltheim, Valerio Tricoli (as Astral Colonels), Jérôme Noetinger and Rohan Drape. Pateras has also collaborated with eRikm, Stephen O'Malley, Anthony Burr and Robin Fox.
Duo with Robin Fox
Pateras met Robin Fox at La Trobe University in the late 1990s, where Fox was archiving recordings. Fox, an electro-acoustic improviser and composer, introduced Pateras to obscure Australian experimental music. In May 2003 Pateras and Fox released their duo album, Coagulate, via Synaesthesia Records. AllMusic's Couture opined, "[it] is blatantly maximalist: loud, occasionally harsh, very in-your-face and occasionally quite entertaining."
Their second collaborative album, Flux Compendium (March 2006), had Couture observe, "the two electronicians toned down the harsh noise in favor of a more discreet – and intriguing – sound palette. It seems these two can build impromptu compositions out of any type of sound: breath, belches, coins, laughs, doors, and yes, even pure electronic tones."
End of Daze, his third album with Fox, followed in January 2007, which Couture felt was, "chock-full of exciting experimental music, and nicely sequenced into a fun yet challenging listen... Samples and glitches are digitally treated and combined on the fly to produce fast-paced pieces that stand somewhere between sound collage and digital noise music."
Pateras/Baxter/Brown
In 2002 David Brown and Sean Baxter were performing in an art collaborative, Western Grey. Western Grey supported the launch of Pateras' album, Malfunction Studies at Footscray Community Arts Centre in July 2002. Consequently Pateras/Baxter/Brown were formed as a trio in Melbourne in that year, with Pateras on prepared piano, Brown on prepared guitar and Baxter on drums. Their first album, Ataxia, appeared in June 2004. Cyclic Defrost reviewer, Bob Baker Fish observed that on the album, "the trio utilise a number of different techniques, yet repeatedly arrive at a similar minimal, almost silent location, which allows the individual sounds an additional emphasis or resonance."
In 2020 Baker Fish described the trio's music as "difficult to pin down but it was influenced by jazz, classical music, new music, extreme metal, sound art and free improvisational traditions." In Disclaimer, Baxter wrote, "Pateras/Baxter/Brown was originally conceived as a radical free jazz trio." He elaborated:
On their second album, Gauticle, AllMusic's Couture noticed, "[they] play their instruments in unorthodox ways, looking for quiet, delicate sounds. Pateras spends most of his time inside the piano, hitting, scraping, and rubbing its strings." Peter Blamey wrote in RealTime in 2007, "what is most interesting about this music is the way small percussive events coalesce into streams and layers of sound moving at different speeds, each of these layers containing elements from all 3 players". In an interview about the album, Baxter stated, "these three very familiar acoustic instruments, each with traditionally unique sonic identities, have been approached by us in ways where their sounds become very unfamiliar." Sean Baxter died on 15 March 2020.
Pivixki
Pateras, on piano, keyboards and electronics, formed a Melbourne-based experimental music duo, Pivixki (formatted as PIVIXKI), with Max Kohane on drums in 2009. They issued their debut self-titled album in August of that year. Jade Cantwell of TheDwarf.com.au cautioned, "for the majority of listeners don't even bother. Demanding. Chaotic. Jarring. Off-putting." Their second album, Gravissima, appeared in 2010. Chicago Readers Philip Montoro described Pivixki as grindcore piano, which "plays a futuristic, fractalized rendition of the style, a la Gridlink or Atomsmasher."
The duo sent a sampler to Ipecac Recordings, which was founded by Mike Patton (of Faith No More) and Greg Werckman (ex-DUH). Pateras caught up with Patton, when the latter visited Melbourne, they decided to perform together initially as Patton/Pivixki. Their show in San Francisco in 2011 was reviewed by Politusics writer, who felt "Just when you'd think the entire thing was about to dissolve into total chaos, they would snap together in an instant and transform the mood into yet another new form. The onstage chemistry between all three guys was intense and sometimes funny."
Another Other
In 2013 Pateras, who was then-based in Berlin, collaborated with Natasha Anderson, Sabina Maselli and Erkki Veltheim on a large-scale audio-visual work, Another Other, for the contemporary opera company, Chamber Made. It is response to Ingmar Bergman's film Persona (1966), Veltheim explained:
The production had a season in Castlemaine (2014) and Melbourne (February 2016). Owen Richardson of The Sydney Morning Herald gave the latter performance four-out-of-five stars. He described how the four performers, "sit between two banks of seats, separated from the audience by semi-transparent screens: there are also screens behind the seats and to one side."
tētēma
Pateras collaborated again with Patton to establish the tētēma project. They released their first album Geocidal at the end of 2014. Danny Baraz of Janky Smooth felt it was, "nothing short of an abstract, conceptual masterpiece. There are no hooks here. This will receive no radio play – except, possibly from the least commercial, college radio stations."
The second album by the group, Necroscape, appeared in April 2020, with Pop Matters Justin Vellucci declaring, "[it] is not a record of hits; instead, it unfolds in Bizarro chapters as a catalog of misses... [they] flesh out some interesting sonic touches and have a grasp on ambiance, sure. But, sadly, the compliments have to end there." While the staff writer from Smells Like Infinite Sadness observed, "[it's] very much a challenging listen... but its unique, crazy quilt mix of musical components should be just as engaging for any adventurous listener."
The tētēma project performed live at the 2017 MONA FOMA festival, Hobart. Writing in The Guardian, Shaun Prescott assessed that "tētēma didn't enrapture with anthems or token festival rock gestures, they enraptured with mood, with surprises, and with evocations rarely felt by audiences not inclined to spend their Friday and Saturday evenings in stuffy basement, warehouse or gallery venues."
Musical approach
Pateras' Immediata, was cited by Musicworks René van Peer as encapsulating his two compilation albums, Collected Works 2002–2012 (2012) and Collected Works Vol. II (2019) – each comprising five CDs. Specifically, van Peer felt that with Immediata, Pateras "synthesizes notation, improvisation and electroacoustic music." Philip Clark from Grammophone writes "there's no particular aural distinction between his composed and improvised work." Music critic Peter Margasak notes "Improvisation plays a big role in much of the music, but it's almost always situated within a rigorous compositional conceit." In an interview with The Quietus Patrick Clarke, Pateras detailed his approach:
Discography
Solo albums
Anthony Pateras and Robin Fox
Pateras/Baxter/Brown
Pivixki
Thymolphthalein
tētēma
Anthony Pateras and Erkki Veltheim
Astral Colonels
North of North
Rohan Drape and Anthony Pateras
Miscellaneous collaborations
Guest appearances
Awards and nominations
ARPA Music Awards
The APRA Music Awards are held in Australia and New Zealand by the Australasian Performing Right Association to recognise songwriting skills, sales and airplay performance by its members annually. The Australian ceremonies began in 1982. In 2001, APRA joined forces with the Australian Music Centre (AMC) to present awards for Australian classical music, initially known as Classical Music Awards. From 2011 they were renamed as the Art Music Awards. Pateras has been nominated for Art Music Awards three times.
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| 2011 || Refractions (Anthony Pateras} – Clocked Out and Speak Percussion || Performance of the Year || ||
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| 2012 || Flesh and Ghost (Pateras) – Speak Percussion || Work of the Year – Instrumental || ||
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| 2015 || Beauty Will Be Amnesiac or Will not Be at All (Pateras) – Synergy Percussion || Performance of the Year || ||
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Other awards and accolades
2004: Honourable Mention, Gaudeamus Music Week, for Twitch
2007: Ian Potter Emerging Composers Fellowship
2014: Sidney Myer Creative Fellowship
2017: ZKM GigaHertz Production Prize
2020: Michael Kieran Harvey Scholarship
References
External links
1979 births
Living people
Australian male composers
Australian composers
Australian classical pianists
Male classical pianists
Tzadik Records artists
21st-century classical pianists
21st-century Australian male musicians
21st-century Australian musicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debate%20on%20the%20monarchy%20in%20Canada
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Debate on the monarchy in Canada
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Debate between monarchists and republicans in Canada has been taking place since before the country's Confederation in 1867, though it has rarely been of significance since the rebellions of 1837. Open support for republicanism only came from the Patriotes in the early 19th century, the Red River Métis in 1869, and minor actions by the Fenians in the 19th century. However, paralleling the changes in constitutional law that saw the creation of a distinct Canadian monarchy, the emergence in the 1960s of Quebec nationalism, and the evolution of Canadian nationalism, the cultural role and relevance of the monarchy was altered and was sometimes questioned in certain circles, while continuing to receive support in others.
In 2005, it was estimated that only 0.6 per cent of the population was actively engaged in any debate about a republic. The Monarchist League of Canada's chief executive officer, Robert Finch, stated the greatest threat to the monarchy is not republicanism, "it is indifference."
The debate
The first 100 years
In the early 19th century, reform-minded groups began to emerge in the British colonies in Canada. From them rose William Lyon Mackenzie, who, along with Louis-Joseph Papineau, was the first prominent proponent of a republican Canada. Their causes were countered by the lieutenant governors and members of the executive councils at the time, as well as a majority of the colonists, who did not espouse a break with the Crown, and the rebellions ultimately failed. Still, in the lead-up to Confederation in 1867, there did take place debate over whether the new polity should adopt a republican or monarchical form of government.
Alistair Horne observed in the late 1950s that, while Canada's cultural mix grew, the monarchy remained held in high regard: "At its lowest common denominator, to the average Canadian—whether of British, French or Ukrainian extraction—the Crown is the one thing that he has that the rich and mighty Americans have not got. It makes him feel a little superior." However, at the same time, he noted that the institution was coming more into question in Quebec and that it was sometimes perceived as having a "colonial taint", but theorized that this was because Canadians had an inferiority complex in relation to the British. At the same time, controversy arose in the run-up to the Queen's 1959 tour, when Canadian Broadcasting Corporation personality Joyce Davidson, while being interviewed by Dave Garroway on NBC's Today Show, said that, as an "average Canadian", she was "pretty indifferent" to the Queen's arrival. Davidson was lambasted in the Canadian press and by many indignant Canadians for her comment.
Constitutional evolution
Debates over the monarchy and its place in Canada took place through the 1960s and 1970s, following the rise of Quebec nationalism. Republican options were discussed following the sovereigntist Parti Québécois' (PQ) election to power in Quebec, but only specifically in relation to the province. However, the non-Quebecer attendees at the 1968 constitutional conference agreed that the monarchy had worked well and was not a matter for discussion. In 1966, when the Queen of Canada's consort, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, undertook a royal tour through Montreal, Ottawa, and Toronto, he said that, if Canadians found the monarchy no longer useful, they could get rid of it without opposition from anyone in the royal family. As the Monarchist League of Canada later put it, "this characteristically outspoken remark—undoubtedly mirroring the sovereign’s views—allowed such republican sentiment as existed to be discussed openly in Ottawa and through the country with the result that, some 60 years on, the institution functions well and is entrenched in Canada’s constitution."
The Cabinet, in June 1978, put forward the constitutional amendment Bill C-60 that, among other changes, potentially affected the sovereign's role as head of state by vesting executive authority in the governor general and renaming the position as First Canadian. Some academics, such as Ted McWhinney, supported these proposals, though they were opposed by others, like Senator Eugene Forsey, who said that the government had managed to "[stir] up a hornet's nest with a short stick." From that year's First Ministers' conference in Regina, Saskatchewan, the provincial premiers (including that of Quebec) issued a statement against what they saw as a unilateral attempt by the federal government to push through alterations to the monarchy and expressed their opposition to "constitutional changes that substitute for the Queen as ultimate authority a governor general whose appointment and dismissal would be solely the pleasure of the federal Cabinet"—a message that was reiterated at the conclusion of the 1979 meeting and echoed in newspaper editorials. Decades later, David Smith stated that the federal government at the time had "misperceived the complexity of the Crown [and] failed [...] to recognize its federalist dimension."
Into the 21st century
Debate on the monarchy was seen through the first decade of the 21st century in other Canadian media, generally at times of national significance, such as Canada Day and Victoria Day, or during a royal tour.
After Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's press secretary, Peter Donolo, in 1998 unaccountably announced through a media story that the prime minister's office was considering the abolition of the monarchy as a millennium project, Chrétien stated that he was open to a public debate, but never pursued the matter and expressed concerns about resulting divisions, saying that he "already had enough trouble on [his] hands with the separatists of Quebec, and didn't want to take on the monarchists in the rest of Canada, too."
Other media at the time noted that, though there was "no longer any strong idea behind the Canadian monarchy and its representative", in the absence of which "there can be no pulse in common between the people and their constitution", there simply was no debate about any republic among the general populace, with discussion limited to a political and journalistic few. An inadequate number of willing participants was pointed to as a reason for this phenomenon—which was seen as a manifestation of what Carolyn Tuohy had called Canada's "institutionalized ambivalence"—as well as a lack of alternate model to be discussed, with no method put forward by which the powers of the Crown could be soundly transferred to a president, no definitive solution to where Canadian sovereignty would be placed should the sovereign be removed from Canada, nor any means by which the constitutionally required consent of all 11 parliaments (one federal and 10 provincial) could be achieved. It was also theorized that Canadians had a growing sense of distrust for politicians (which a president would be), more pressing issues to deal with, and no appetite for nationally divisive constitutional change. Political scholar David Smith expressed his thoughts on how the Canadian monarchy had benefited from this dearth of discussion.
In 2007, the Quebec Minister for Intergovernmental Affairs, Benoît Pelletier, expressed his opinion that it was "not impossible that we might have to reconsider the role of the monarch, the lieutenant governor, and the governor general [...] I'm not saying that the monarchy must be abolished, but it will take some thought, especially on its usefulness and relevance. Two years later, Andrew Coyne called for importing "not just a king of Canada, but a Canadian king" that would reside permanently in Canada.
Into the 2020s, the Monarchist League of Canada claimed, "opponents of the Canadian Crown frequently criticize the monarchy without fully being aware of the facts. In addition, opponents often deliberately spread misinformation." Peter Woolstencroft, a retired political science professor from the University of Waterloo, opined in 2021 that "the optimal republican pathway seems to rest upon attrition through rising indifference." However, he went on to write, "Canada’s constitutional straitjacket makes abolition here highly unlikely. At best, it would take a long and contentious process, something Canadians likely do not want;" considering the differences in methods of choosing a president, in the sizes of the provinces and territories, and of their populations, in addition to the treaty relationship between First Nations and the Crown, Woolstencroft observed "over the long arc of previous constitutional discussions, a clear pattern is discernible. Matters on the table become more diverse, more complicated, more symbolically existential, with a widening set of actors, making it harder and harder to produce a coherent agreement."
The reign of Charles III
Following Elizabeth II's death in September 2022, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau stated that the monarchy's role in Canada was not open for debate and did not see Canada replacing its monarchy in the near future. During an in-person meeting with King Charles III in London, UK, Trudeau described the monarchy as offering Canada "steadiness." The following month, Bloc Québécois leader Yves-François Blanchet tabled a motion in the House of Commons, proposing that the "House express its desire to sever ties between the Canadian state and the British monarchy [sic]." Blanchet did not suggest an alternative form of government. The motion was defeated 266 to 44. Most members of Parliament condemned the move as a political stunt, as the Bloc's main aim is the separation of Quebec from Canada. Some NDP MPs, one Liberal, one Green, and one independent MP supported the motion.
For some decades, many newspaper columnists and pundits had asserted the death of Queen Elizabeth II would be the moment to replace Canada's monarchy with a president, giving them time to formulate solid arguments both against the status quo and for the republican system Canada should adopt and how. After Elizabeth passed, however, "remarkably little talk of abolishing the monarchy" was heard and what was uttered was a repeat of what had "been written months or years ago." Among the little that was written, Andrew Cohen complained in The Globe and Mail about Canada's constitutional monarchy being "shallow" and "small-minded", without recommending any alternative system; though, he did argue a "national referendum" and "citizens' assembly" should be added to the constitutional amending process. Retired University of Ottawa professor John E. Trent proposed in the Ottawa Citizen that the governor general be made head of state and, recycling an idea proposed by "a Toronto newspaper" years before, asserted Officers of the Order of Canada should select who occupies the office, something Chris Selley argued in the National Post would politicize both the head of state and the Order of Canada, itself. Selley also opined that "the strangest argument in favour of reform is the notion that it [the monarchy] reflects an 'immature' nation" and, in response, quoted Andrew Wudrick, of the Macdonald-Laurier Institute: "We don't have fighter jets or ships for our military. We can't process passports. We have yearlong waitlists for critical medical procedures. We can't build anything. Maybe our constitutional architecture isn't what's keeping us in prolonged adolescence."
Former Prime Minister Stephen Harper argued, following Elizabeth II's funeral, that the monarchy is "not just the formal head of the country's institutions, but the embodiment of the lives of all the nation's families", making the monarch not just head of state, but head of a national family, and monarchy "performs its functions in a way that a presidency can barely dream of." He did, though, opine that the Canadian monarch has less impact on Canadians than does the British monarch on Britons, noting that the viceroys take the monarch's place in Canada and, therefore, how they are selected should be reconsidered, emphasizing that they not just have qualities of political non-partisanship and social diversity, but also understanding of the "constitutional nature of their position and [...] the wide responsibilities of such an office." Harper explained that his Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments had been conceived of as a beginning of a process of creating a more formal means of selecting governors general and lieutenant governors, beyond the sole judgment of the prime minister of the day.
Proposals for a solely Canadian monarch
The idea of an exclusively Canadian monarch has been poffered; Canadian monarchists have suggested that all Commonwealth realms should have their own resident monarchs. This figure could be descended from the House of Windsor; it was suggested in 2011 that Prince Harry become king of Canada. It has also been proposed that the Canadian monarch have a First Nations lineage, either as a hereditary monarchy or an elective monarchy, with a trilingual requirement in English, French, and a relevant Indigenous Canadian language. However, there has been no popular or official support for such a change.
Polls
Polls on the Canadian monarchy have been regularly conducted since the 1990s, typically coinciding with a royal tour or other major royal event. In 2008, Peter Boyce wrote that successive polls since the aforementioned decade showed an increasing disaffection with the monarchy, but also noted internal contradictions in specific poll results. Polls on the institution have been accused of using "inconsistent and sometimes ambiguous wording." Monarchists assert the use of the inaccurate adjective "British" in a poll question on the Canadian monarchy, or implications that the present Canadian head of state isn't Canadian, skews the results, while republicans say the same about the use of "sever" or "abolish". The polls sometimes ask about constitutionally impossible scenarios and consistently ignore both the constitutional requirements for a change to the Canadian monarchy and the existence of the provinces, which would also be affected by constitutional amendments that made Canada a republic. It has been further noted, and confirmed by polls, that Canadians are not well educated about the monarchy and its role. In 2002, the majority polled thought the prime minister was head of state, only 5 per cent knowing it was the Queen. Both republicans and monarchists in Canada have noted this fact in relation to polls on the monarchy.
1970s
When constitutional amendments were being considered in the 1960s, the role of the monarchy was not strenuously questioned, as it was deemed to be "no great priority in the present round of constitutional changes." This statement was reflected in the four opinion polls conducted in 1970, which showed that the monarchy was favoured by two-thirds of those questioned. The Canadian Institute of Public Opinion asked nationally: "Do you think Canada should continue to pay allegiance to the Queen, or do you think we should become a republic with an elected president?" To this, 50 per cent of respondents opted for retention of the status quo, 33 per cent favoured a republic, and the remainder declined to answer. Further, the answers differed by region: of the respondents who lived in Quebec, 46 per cent wished for a republic as against 23 per cent for monarchy, while, in Ontario, the monarchy was favoured well above the national average, and support was even higher in the western provinces. Older persons (over 50 years) were the strongest advocates for the monarchy than any other age group, although those in their 20s who answered the poll also gave their preference for the Crown. Similarly, another poll that year revealed that in Canada, exclusive of Quebec, the monarchy was of no issue to 37 per cent of the people polled and a further 41 per cent rated themselves as loyalists, although many of the older responders "recognised that youth had different ideas which might have an effect in the future."
1993
A 1993 poll by Angus Reid Group asked "thinking about the monarchy's role here in Canada, all things considered, do you think...", to which 45.5 per cent of respondents favoured the answer "preserve connection" and 54.5 per cent favoured "abolish connection".
2002
According to Ipsos-Reid, "Canadians [were] supportive toward the concept of the constitutional monarchy as Canada's form of government" and 62 per cent of respondents believed the monarchy helped to define Canada's identity. However, at the same time, 48 per cent of those polled agreed "constitutional monarchy is outmoded and would prefer a republican system of government with an elected head of state, like in the United States," and 65 per cent believed that the royals were simply celebrities who should not have any formal role in Canada. The same poll found that 58 per cent of respondents felt "the issue of the monarchy and the form of Canada's government isn't important to them and if the system is working OK why go through all the fuss to change it?" A poll by Léger Marketing found that 50 per cent of those polled believed the monarchy should be preserved, while 43 per cent disagreed.
2009
An August 2009 poll commissioned by the group Canadian Friends of the Royal Family found that the majority of those who answered, more than 60%, felt that a constitutional monarchy was outdated.
Three polls were conducted two months later: Léger Marketing found that 45 per cent of the respondents considered the monarchy "to be useless to Canada and feel that the country should sever all formal ties with the Queen", while 44 per cent considered the monarchy to be a tradition that should be maintained. Opposition to the institution was strongest in Quebec, where 78 per cent of those asked believed the monarchy is "useless to Canada" and should be ended, and 11 per cent wanted to maintain it. Angus Reid's results showed 27 per cent of those polled preferred Canada to remain a monarchy. The plurality. 35 per cent, preferred Canada to have an elected head of state. When asked whom they would prefer as a monarch after Queen Elizabeth II, the plurality, 37 per cent, of respondents said there should be no monarch after her. The poll by Ipsos Reid found that the majority, 53 per cent, of those who replied wanted Canada to end "its constitutional ties" to the monarchy after the Queen dies, while 49 per cent wanted to abolish the constitutional monarchy structure then and become a republic, with an elected head of state. The majority, 60 per cent, of respondents said the Queen and the royal family should have no formal role in Canadian society and that they are "simply celebrities and nothing more."
In November, another poll by Angus Reid found that two-thirds of those questioned would like to see a Canadian serving as Canada's head of state, while 18 per cent disagreed. Twenty seven per cent preferred Canada to remain a monarchy, while 43% preferred Canada to have an elected head of state.
2010–2013
In May 2010, a poll by Angus Reid found that more than two thirds of those who replied, a 69 per cent majority, would have liked to see a Canadian serving as Canada's head of state and a 52 per cent supported reopening the constitutional debate to discuss replacing the monarchy with an elected head of state, while only 32 per cent opposed doing so. Despite 69 per cent of respondents having a "mostly favourable" opinion of Queen Elizabeth II as a person, 33 per cent preferred Canada to remain a monarchy; 36 per cent said they would prefer to have an elected head of state, 21 per cent were indifferent, and 11 per cent were unsure. When asked who they would prefer as a monarch after Queen Elizabeth II, three-in-ten respondents said there should be no monarch after her and 31 per cent wanted members of the royal family to stop touring Canada. A national poll conducted a month later by the Association for Canadian Studies found 49 per cent of those asked had a negative reaction to the word "monarchy", compared to 41 per cent with a positive reaction. In the Maritimes, where the Queen would begin her Canadian tour that year, 60 per cent of those who replied registered a negative opinion of monarchy, compared to 37 per cent positive. (The poll did not refer to the Canadian monarchy or to the Queen specifically, but to the concept of monarchy.) A poll by Ipsos-Reid, also in June, found that two-in-three of those asked agreed the royal family should not have any formal role in Canadian society and reported growing sentiment that Elizabeth II should be Canada's last monarch. Fifty-eight per cent wanted Canada to end "ties" to the monarchy when Queen Elizabeth II's reign ends and 62 per cent believed that Canada's head of state should be the governor general, not the Queen.
A fifth poll, conducted by Harris-Decima for The Canadian Press a few days ahead of the Queen's nine-day tour in June, found that nearly half of respondents considered the monarchy to be "a relic of our colonial past that has no place in Canada today." The poll also found that 44 per cent of those asked wanted a national referendum to decide whether Canada should keep its monarchy. An Angus Reid poll run just after the Queen's tour found that 36% of responednts wanted Canada to remain a monarchy, 30 per cent preferred having an elected head of state, and 21 per cent felt it made no difference to them.
A poll conducted by Angus Reid in June 2011 found a decline in support for republicanism, with just 33 per cent of those who replied doing so in favour of abolishing the monarchy and 58 per cent supporting the country remaining a monarchy. When asked what words they would use to describe an upcoming royal tour, 44 per cent said "indifference", 34 per cent said "pride", 34 per cent said "enthusiasm", and 32 per cent said "joy", with the pollster noting that indifference was "largely driven by attitudes in Quebec". Elizabeth II, Prince William, and Catherine, were, among those asked, the most popular members of the royal family and, if Prince William were to be made king, 23 per cent would view the monarchy more favourably and 2 per cent would view it more unfavourably.
A 2012 poll by Harris-Decima found that the respondents, as a whole, were "relatively evenly split" over whether the monarchy should remain or be abolished, but, those from English Canada demonstrated a "growing consensus" in favour of the Crown. Overall, the number of those who found the monarchy to be an "important part of Canadian history and political culture that ought to be maintained" rose by six per cent. A Forum poll from July the following year, taken immediately after the birth of Prince George, found that 48 per cent of respondents were opposed to abolishing the monarchy, with 37 per cent in favour, and 15 per cent undecided.
2015–2021
A Forum poll, taken in May 2015, immediately after the birth of Princess Charlotte, found that 39 per cent of respondents favoured "abolishing the monarchy upon the death of the Queen," while 45 per cent were opposed; 54 per cent opposed Prince Charles (now Charles III) succeeding his mother on the throne. According to Forum, 73 per cent of those asked "agree the head of state of Canada should be Canadian-born and live in Canada," an increase from 63 per cent who had the same view in 2013.
A poll conducted in August 2017 found that 41 per cent of respondents wanted to abolish the monarchy following the death or abdication of Elizabeth II, with 43 per cent in favour of maintaining the status quo. In February 2019, a poll by Research Co concluded 31 per cent of those who replied said Canada should remain a monarchy, while 33 per cent believed Canada should have an elected head of state. Research Co's poll one year later found 32 per cent of respondents would have preferred for Canada to have an elected head of state, while 27 per cent would rather keep the monarchy. The proportion of those asked who said they did not care either way increased to 28 per cent. Another year after, Research Co ran a poll that found 45 per cent of people asked indicated a preference for Canada to have an elected head of state, while 24 per cent would rather keep the monarchy. The proportion who said they do not care either way dropped to 19 per cent.
2022–2023
In a poll conducted in February 2022 by Research Co, 49 per cent respondents claimed they would prefer for Canada to have an elected head of state, while 21 per cent would rather keep the monarchy. In addition, 34 per cent said they would like to see Prince William take over as king from Queen Elizabeth II, while only 17 per cent would rather have Prince Charles as monarch. Forty-eight per cent believed the country will “definitely” or “probably” be a monarchy two decades from now, while 30 per cent expected Canada to have an elected head of state by that time.
Research Co. took a poll in September 2022, finding more than a third of those questioned (36 per cent) said they would prefer for Canada to have an elected head of state, down 13 points since February. In contrast, just over three-in-ten (31 per cent; up 10 points) said they would like for Canada to remain a monarchy, while 24 per cent (up six points) did not care either way. Fifty two percent stated they believe Canada will still be a monarchy in 20 years; 31 percent said they think the country will have an elected head of state. The same company polled individuals again in March 2023, finding 19 percent of those questioned said they would prefer for Canada to remain a monarchy, 44 per cent would prefer for Canada to have an elected head of state, and 22 per cent have no opinion.
A web survey conducted by Leger in March 2023 found 67 per cent of those polled felt indifferent toward the accession of King Charles III and 80 percent had "no personal attachment" to the monarchy. Fifty-six per cent of respondents said it was time for Canada "to reconsider its ties with the monarchy", 44 per cent being against the idea.
A 2023 survey by Lord Ashcroft Polls found that 24 per cent of those questioned in Canada considered the institution of the monarchy to be favourable, with 41 per cent finding it unfavourable and 34 per cent neutral. The same poll recorded that 47 per cent would vote in a referendum for the country to become a republic, 23 per cent would vote for continuance of the monarchy, 22 per cent stated they did not know, and eight per cent would not vote.
Polls on "British" monarchy
Some Canadian polls have referred in their questions to British monarchy or called the British monarch Canada's head of state. This terminology is at odds with the contemporary situation in Canada, wherein the monarchy is a Canadian institution separate from that of the United Kingdom, being called the Canadian Crown and Canadian monarchy by the government and constitutional scholars, and the monarch is titled as King of Canada. The government of Saskatchewan has stated it is incorrect to denote the Canadian royal family as the British royal family. Additionally, the King of Canada is considered Canadian.
EKOS Research Associates concluded in 2002, the year of Queen Elizabeth II's Golden Jubilee, there were "highly polarized views" on the monarchy, with "little consensus for moving forward with institutional renewal." The respondents were said to be split on the relevance of the royal family, members being seen both as "interesting" and "tired", while their "historical-institutional significance" was "much more important" than their perception as celebrities; though, this question conflated the royal family with the monarchy and referred to the latter as "British". Support for abolition of the monarchy was noted as declining.
A 2005 poll by The Strategic Counsel reported Canadians to be uncertain "about the legitimacy and role of the British monarchy remaining as Canada's head of state". The poll found an equal number—47 per cent supporting and 47 per cent opposed—to retention of the "British monarchy". Two years later, Angus Reid Strategies reported that 53 per cent of respondents to its survey felt "Canada should end its formal ties to the British monarchy", while 35 per cent thought the contrary and 12 per cent were unsure. Angus Reid stated in March 2008 the majority of those it polled believe "it is time to end the country's official relationship with either the British monarchy or the monarchy."
In May 2010, an online poll by Leger Marketing for QMI Agency found that a majority (59 per cent) of Canadians said that they had little or no interest in the Queen's visit to Canada, while 39 per cent had interest. The poll found that 32 per cent of people aged 18 to 34 had an attachment to the crown. Among those 65 and older, 46 per cent reported an attachment. One-fifth of Canadians said the Queen should stay home, and that furthermore, "Canada should sever its ties with the British Crown".
Angus Reid conducted in April 2022 an online poll of members of the Angus Reid Forum, which found 51 per cent of those who answered were agreeable toward the idea of Canada "severing ties with the British monarchy". Respondents of all ages were also less keen on Elizabeth's successor, Charles, becoming king, with 67 per cent saying they moderately or strongly opposed recognizing him as Canada's next head of state. Seventy-six per cent were against the idea of Charles' wife becoming Queen Camilla. But, nearly two-thirds of those polled still viewed Queen Elizabeth II favourably. Nanos Research's poll a month later, conducted primarily around the question of whether or not Queen Elizabeth II should apologize for the Church of England's role in the Canadian Indian residential school system, found that 48 per cent of those polled opposed "cutting ties with the British monarchy" and replacing the head of state with the prime minister, while 43 per cent supported the idea. In the same poll, when asked if Canada should "cut ties" with the monarchy and replace the head of state with a governor general appointed by "the government", 48 per cent of Canadians opposed the idea, while 42 per cent supported it. Support for both proposals was strongest in Quebec, while opposition to the former proposal was strongest in the Maritimes and opposition to the latter proposal was strongest in the prairies. When asked if it was a good time to open up constitutional discussions on "cutting ties" with the monarchy, 41 per cent of those who answered said they thought it was a poor time to do so, while 39 per cent thought it was a good time to open up discussions.
A poll taken after the death of Queen Elizabeth found 54 per cent of those polled supported "sever[ing] ties" with the "British monarchy" and 58 per cent supported a national referendum on the question. The same poll found 55 per cent of respondents agree the country's constitutional monarchy helps define Canadian identity and ought to remain Canada's form of government, with six in ten agreeing Canada’s "relationship with the monarchy" is useful as it helps to differentiate Canada from the United States. Still, 63 per cent supported the idea the King and royal family should have no formal function in Canadian society, as they are "simply celebrities and nothing more".
See also
Republicanism in Canada
History of monarchy in Canada
National symbols of Canada
Annexation movements of Canada
Citizens for a Canadian Republic
Republicanism in Australia
Republicanism in the United Kingdom
Notes
References
Monarchy in Canada
Political history of Canada
Legal history of Canada
Republicanism in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism%20in%20Japan
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Feminism in Japan
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Feminism in Japan began with women's rights movements that date back to antiquity. The movement started to gain momentum after Western thinking was brought into Japan during the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Japanese feminism differs from Western feminism in the sense that less emphasis is on individual autonomy.
Prior to the late 19th century, Japanese women were bound by the traditional patriarchal system where senior male members of the family maintain their authority in the household. After the reforms brought by Meiji Restoration, the status of women in Japanese society also went through series of changes. Trafficking in women was restricted, women were allowed to request divorces, and both boys and girls were required to receive elementary education. Further changes to the status of women came about in the aftermath of World War II. Women received the right to vote, and a section of the new constitution drafted in 1946 was dedicated to guarantee gender equality.
In 1970, in the wake of the anti–Vietnam War movements, a new women's liberation movement called ūman ribu (woman lib) emerged in Japan from the New Left and radical student movements in the late 1960s. This movement was in sync with radical feminist movements in the United States and elsewhere, catalyzing a resurgence of feminist activism through the 1970s and beyond. The activists forwarded a comprehensive critique of the male-dominated nature of modern Japan, arguing for a fundamental change of the political-economic system and culture of the society. What distinguished them from previous feminist movements was their emphasis on . They did not aim for equality with men, but rather focused on the fact that men should also be liberated from the oppressive aspects of a patriarchal and capitalist system.
In 1979, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. The convention was ratified by the Japanese government in 1985.
Politics
Formation of the New Woman Association
In 1919, with the help of Ichikawa Fusae and Oku Mumeo, Raicho Hiratsuka created the New Woman Association: Shin Fujin Kyokai. Their goal was to achieve rights of protection and inclusion through identifying a female class. In November 1919, Hiratsuka delivered a speech at the All-Kansai Federation of Women's Organizations: “Toward the Unification of Women” stated that if women had rights, they would be able to be part of the state and help determine the future.
The following January, Ichikawa and Hiratsuka drafted the two demands of the New Woman Association.
Firstly, they wanted to amend the Public Peace Politic Law, a revised version of the 1890 Law on Political Association and Assembly, which banned women from joining any political party or attending or participating in political events.
Secondly, they wanted protection from husbands and fiancés with venereal diseases. The Revised Civil Code of 1898 stated that a woman who commits adultery is subject to divorce and up to two years in prison. However, a woman was unable to divorce her husband if he committed adultery. Challenging patriarchal society, the New Woman Association wanted reforms so that women could reject infected husbands or fiancés. They prepared petitions and any opposition was met by arguing that such measures would enable women to become better wives and mothers.
Two petitions were prepared. The first addressed the need to give women rights and to include women in the state by revising the Public Peace Police Law. The second addressed the need to protect women by testing future husbands for sexually transmitted diseases and would allow women to divorce husbands and collect compensation for medical expenses. The Diet was adjourned before the petitions could make it to the floor. On February 26, 1921, the House of Representatives passed a bill to allow women to attend political meetings. The bill was defeated in the House of Peers. In 1922, the Diet amended Article 5 in the 1900 Police Law, allowing women to attend political gatherings while continuing to forbid them from joining political parties and voting.
The Red Wave Society
The Red Wave Society, Sekirankai, was the first socialist women's association. Yamakawa Kikue and others organized the association in April 1921. The Red Wave's manifesto condemned capitalism, arguing that it turned women into slaves and prostitutes. Rural families were forced to contract their daughters to factories due to financial difficulties. These girls were required to live in dormitories, unable to leave except to go to work. They worked 12-hour shifts in poor conditions.
Many caught brown lung, a disease caused by exposure to cotton dust in poorly ventilated working environments, and other illnesses related to working in textile factories (Ravina). The state refused to enact legislation needed to protect women in the factories. There were no on-call doctors in the dorms and no medical compensation for contracting brown lung or any other illnesses. After the contract ended, they returned to the countryside to be married. The Red Wave Society mainly focused on suffrage and women's rights.
Shortly after its founding, women from The Red Wave Society took part in a demonstration on May 1, 1921. Preparation for this event prompted the creation of the first draft of the Red Wave Society manifesto to be written by Yamakawa Kikue. Kikue openly lived as a staunch socialist as early as the 1910s and believed in the complete abolition of capitalism. Kikue's socialist views were presented in the manifesto as well. This manifesto was printed and scattered during the protest with the hope that the leaflets would prompt other women to support The Red Wave Societies cause. All the women who attended this event were placed under arrest by police.
Other groups were formed concentrating on their own demands. Some women pushed for political rights while others looked to end prostitution. Housewives campaigned to improve their roles at home. After the devastating 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, Kubushiro Ochimi, a member of the Women's Reform Society, and many other women, turned to the relief effort. Socialists like Yamakawa, middle-class Christians and housewives worked together to organize and provide relief activities.
The Tokyo Federation of Women's Organizations
On September 28, 1923, 100 leaders from many organizations came together to form the Tokyo Federation of Women's Organizations: Tokyo Rengo Funjinkai. They divided into five sections: society, employment, labour, education, and government. The government section focused on women's rights and discussed ways to gain membership in the state. The leader of the government section, Kubushiro Ochimi, called a meeting in November 1924 for women interested in working for women's rights. The meeting created the principal women's suffrage organization called the League for the Realization of Women's Suffrage (Fujin Sanseiken Kakutoku Kisei Domei). The organization's goal was to improve the status of Japanese women. In their manifesto they declared that it was female responsibility to destroy the past 2,600 years of customs and to promote natural rights of men and women.
To achieve their goals, the league petitioned for civil rights. In February 1925, the Diet passed the universal manhood suffrage bill, allowing men to vote free from any economic qualifications, excluding women. They continued to lobby representatives to discuss their issues. In March 1925, four items were to be discussed in the Diet. Many women came to watch as the House of Representatives discussed amending the Public Peace Police Law of 1900, a petition for higher education for women, a petition for women's suffrage in national elections, and a petition to make changes to the City Code of 1888 and the Town and Village Code of 1888, which would allow women to vote and run for local offices. Through the 1930s feminists believed the best ways to achieve their goals were through protection of laborers, welfare for single mothers, and other activities producing social welfare reforms.
When women in Japan got to vote for the first time on April 10, 1946, it showed that they were truly citizens and full members of the state. Women like Hiratsuka Raicho, Yosano Akiko and Kubushiro Ochimi worked extremely hard to achieve self-transcendence and self-actualization.
With the commencement of Japanese women not only gaining the right to vote, but to run for office as well, many women began to become more politically involved. This resulted in the election of 39 women into the Japanese governments National Diet in the spring of 1946 and the first female Japanese Ministry Bureau Chief was elected the following year in 1947.
Women's suffrage
Although women's advocacy has been present in Japan since the nineteenth century, aggressive women's suffrage in Japan was born during the turbulent interwar period of the 1920s. Enduring a societal, political, and cultural metamorphosis, Japanese citizens lived in confusion and frustration as their nation transitioned from a tiny isolated body to a viable world power. Perhaps one of the most profound examples of this frustration is the fight for women's rights and recognition in Japan.
After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the concept of rights began to take hold in Japan. During the latter portion of the nineteenth century, the first proponents for women's rights advocated for reforms in the patriarchal society that had oppressed women (not for political inclusion or voting rights). Of prime importance to the early feminist movement was the call for women's education.
Policymakers believed that women's education was imperative to the preservation of the state because it would prepare girls to be knowledgeable wives and mothers capable of producing diligent, nationally loyal sons. Although policymakers did not necessarily have the same motives as women's rights advocates in their call for women's education, the development of such education opened the door for further advancements for women in Japanese society. Also occurring at the end of the nineteenth century was the fight for women's protection from some of the cultural practices that had long subordinated women.
As the topic of women's rights began to gain a larger following, women's advocacy groups slowly developed and tuned their interests to other issues impacting women in Japan. The interwar period, which followed the conclusion of World War I, brought about what has become known as the women's suffrage movement of Japan. Feminists opposed the nation's provision of civil rights to men exclusively and the government's exclusion of women from all political participation. Women in Japan were prohibited by law from joining political parties, expressing political views, and attending political meetings.
By 1920, the fight for women's political inclusion was at the forefront of the suffrage movement. In 1921 women were granted the right to attend political meetings by the Japanese Diet (parliament), which overruled Article 5 of the Police Security Act. Despite positive media coverage, institutional sexism was not completely eradicated. Many members of the Diet felt that it was unnecessary and selfish for women to participate in the government.
After women were granted the right to participate in and attend political assemblies, there was a surge in the development of women's interest groups. Alumni, Christian missionary, and other women's auxiliary groups began to sprout in the interwar period. After a massive earthquake struck Tokyo in 1923, representatives from 43 of these organizations joined forces to become the Tokyo Federation of Women's Organizations (Tokyo Rengo Fujinkai). The federation was designed to serve as a disaster relief organization that aided those impacted by the earthquake. As time progressed, it went on to become one of the largest women's activist groups of the time.
To efficiently address the specific issues impacting the women of Japan, the Tokyo Federation of Women's Organizations divided into five satellite groups: society, government, education, labor, and employment. The government sector was perhaps the most significant of the federation's satellite sectors because it spawned the League for the Realization of Women's Suffrage (Fujin Sanseiken Kakutoku Kisei Domei) which was the most influential and outspoken women's advocacy collective of the time. This League issued a manifesto in 1924. The manifesto was as follows:
It is our responsibility to destroy customs which have existed in this country for the past twenty six hundred years and to construct a new Japan that promotes the natural rights of men and women;
As women have been attending public school with men for half a century since the beginning of the Meiji period and our opportunities in higher education have continued to expand, it is unjust to exclude women from international suffrage;
Political rights are necessary for the protection of nearly four million working women in this country;
Women who work in the household must be recognized before the law to realize their full human potential;
Without political rights we cannot achieve public recognition at either the national or local level of government;
It is both necessary and possible to bring together women of different religions and occupations in a movement for women's suffrage.
The League for the Realization of Women's Suffrage, as well as numerous other women's advocacy groups, continued to fight for social and political inclusion, as well as protection under the law from the patriarchal traditions that continued to plague the country. Their fight continued to progress and make strides until women were finally granted the right to vote in 1946.
World War II
According to oral history studied by Thomas R.H. Havens, traditional paternalistic norms proved a barrier when the government wanted to exploit woman power more fully for the war effort. Compulsory employment in munitions factories was possible for unmarried women, but social norms prevented married women from doing that sort of work, in sharp contrast to Russia, Britain, Germany and the United States. The absence of so many young men dramatically disrupted long-standing patterns of marriage, fertility, and family life. Severe shortages of ordinary items, including food and housing, were far more oppressive than governmental propaganda efforts. Japanese women nonetheless obediently followed orders, and there were no serious disruptions such as rioting over food shortages. Forced prostitution for the benefit of Japanese soldiers created the "comfort women" program that proved highly embarrassing to Japan for decades after the war. Non-Japanese women from colonies such as Korea and Formosa were especially vulnerable.
Beginning in the late 20th century cultural historians turned their attention to the role of women in wartime, especially the Second World War. Sources often used include magazines published—by men—for female readers. Typically fictional and nonfictional stories focused on social roles as mothers and wives, especially in dealing with hardships of housing and food supplies, and financial concerns in the absence of menfolk at war. Problems of fashion wartime were a high priority in such magazines in all major countries. Historians report that the Japanese textile and fashion industries were highly successful in adapting to wartime shortages and propaganda needs. Magazines for teenage girls emphasized they must follow nationalistic demands that compelled them to give up their adolescent freedoms and transform themselves from "shōjo", which connotes adolescent playfulness, into "gunkoku shōjo" [girls of a military nation], with significant home front responsibilities. Evacuation of women and children from the major cities, out of fear of Allied bombing, was covered in detail to emphasize willingness to sacrifice for patriotism portrayed through fiction, news articles and photographs. The government controlled all the media, and supervise the popular magazines so their Content would strategically spread the government's goals and propaganda.
The descent into war marked a severe increase in government propaganda and censorship as early as the Manchurian Incident in September 1931. This, along with previously mentioned shortages and an emphasis on women remaining as domestic servants made revolution difficult during this time. Furthermore, an increasing amount of feminist and leftist groups which had previously been staunchly anti-government suddenly began to take on a nationalist point of view during this time. While some attribute this sudden shift to things like the states sudden emphasis on the importance of women and motherhood, police brutality and government pressure played a role as well. One activist who remained openly politically socialist during this time was Yamakawa Kikue. Early in the war, Kikue engaged in round table style discussions with popular political figures such as Katayama Tetsu, Tatewaki Sadayo, Hiratsuko Raicho, and Okada Junko. These discussions were frequently critical of the state and caused severe political backlash towards Kikue. Kikue’s involvement was eventually censored by the government as conflict in Asia increased, and her husband, Hitoshi Kikue, was arrested soon after for conspiring with the left wing Popular Front Movement which sought to prevent the spread of fascism in Japan.
Post World War II
Prior to World War II, women in Japan were denied the right to vote and other legal rights. After the surrender of Imperial Japan in 1945, the Allied occupation, on the order of general Douglas MacArthur, began drafting a new constitution for Japan in February 1946. A subcommittee including two women, Beate Sirota Gordon and economist Eleanor Hadley, were enlisted and assigned to writing the section of the constitution devoted to civil rights and women's rights in Japan. They played an integral role, drafting the language regarding legal equality between men and women in Japan, including Articles 14 and 24 on Equal Rights and Women's Civil Rights. Article 14 states, in part: "All of the people are equal under the law and there shall be no discrimination in political, economic or social relations because of creed, sex, social status or family origin". Article 24 includes:
These additions to the constitution were vital to women's rights in Japan. "Japanese women were historically treated like chattel; they were property to be bought and sold on a whim," Gordon said in 1999.
The end of World War II also marked a surge in popularity for the Women's Review (Fujin Kōron) magazine. This magazine featured articles from socialist authors like Yamakawa Kikue calling for equal financial and social rights for not only women, but the lower class in general. Previously, due to the 1893 Publication Law and 1909 Press Law, the Japanese Police Bureau of the Home Ministry was legally allowed to prohibit or fine any publications which encouraged anti-government sentiments. An overwhelming amount of this was found to be leftist and feminist political cartoons. This law was overturned with the imposition of the new Japanese constitution in 1946.
Second-wave feminism and birth control activism
The fight for reproductive rights in Japanese Feminism can be traced back as early as the 1920s with the work of socialist activist Ishimoto Shizue. Shizue relocated to New York City with her husband and collaborated with American activist Margaret Sanger who was currently advocating for women’s reproductive rights in the United States. Both women believed that both the lack of reproductive rights and the wage-labor currently affecting women could be alleviated with the implication of socialism. Birth control had not yet become a solidified concept in Japan, and upon her return in 1921 Shizue had a two-part article regarding birth control education published in Tokyo.
Despite attempts by several leftist groups to popularize it, the topic of birth control and contraception was still considered a heavily taboo topic. This changed with the arrival of Margaret Sanger in April 1922 who was visiting Japan to give a lecture at the request of the Kaizo Publishing Company. This openly sexual lecture brought openness to the previously disapproved concept of women’s rights not only with reproduction, but socially, financially, and politically as well. This visit from Sanger causing the resurgence of sexual openness is often referred to as “The Black Ship of Taisho”.
Practical applications of birth control were rejected for the most part by the Japanese government. Since this surge of socialist thought and birth control coincidentally occurred in the same year as the 1922 Washington Naval Conference, the Japanese government believed that the United States wished to limit their naval power as well as control their population. Due to this, along with her leftist political ties, Sanger's subsequent lectures were heavily censored by the government.
Mitsu Tanaka was the most visible individual figure in Japan's radical feminist movement during the late 1960s and early 1970s. She wrote a number of pamphlets on feminist topics, the most well-known being Liberation from Toilets. She was a tireless organizer for the women's liberation movement, helping to lead protests, co-founding the Fighting Women's Group of activists, and establishing the first women's centre and women's shelter in Japan during the 1970s. She dropped out of the public feminist movement by the late 1970s.
A multitude of feminist essays and texts were translated and published during the Japanese women's liberation movement in the 1970s.
Another activist to receive much media attention in Japan was Misako Enoki. Enoki was a pharmacist who organized activists to push for the legalization of the birth control pill. Her approach was to generate media attention by forming a protest group called Chupiren, who wore pink motorcycle helmets and took part in publicity stunts such as confronting unfaithful husbands in their offices.
The male-dominated media gave coverage to radical feminists such as Tanaka and Enoki but did not take them seriously. Like Enoki, Tanaka was an activist for birth control, organizing protests to protect women's legal access to abortion procedures. The birth control pill was legalized in Japan in 1999. Abortion in Japan, which is less stigmatized, is frequently used as the alternative. The Japan Family Planning Association, an affiliate of the International Planned Parenthood Federation, was established in 1954.
Matsui Yayori, a women’s rights activist, writer, and retired journalist, was a well-known organizer of the "Women's International War Crime Tribunal" in 2000. The panel held a symbolic trial to judge the war crimes committed by Japanese soldiers and officials against the collective victims of the 'comfort women' system that was active during World War II.
Later feminism
Prominent feminist academics in Japan in recent decades include the sociologist Ueno Chizuko and feminist theorist Ehara Yumiko.
In 2018, Japanese bullfighting organizers lifted a ban on women entering the bullfighting ring.
Language
Women's speech in Japan is often expected to conform with traditional standards of onnarashii (女らしい), the code of proper behavior for a lady. In speech, onnarashii is exhibited by employing an artificially high tone of voice, using polite and deferential forms of speech more frequently than men, and using grammatical forms considered intrinsically feminine. Feminists differ in their responses to gender-based language differences; some find it "unacceptable," while others argue that the history of such gender-based differences is not tied to historical oppression as in the West.
In Japan, marriage law requires that married couples share a surname because they must belong to the same koseki (household). Although it has been possible since 1976 for the husband to join the wife's family under certain circumstances, 98% of the time it is the woman who joins the man's family and therefore changes her surname. Men may take the wife's surname "only when the bride has no brother and the bridegroom is adopted by the bride's parents as the successor of the family."
Feminist groups have introduced legislation that would allow married couples to maintain separate surnames, a practice which in Japanese is referred to as , but such legislation has not yet been enacted despite "rising criticism".
Education
A manual widely spread throughout Japan from the Edo period to Meiji period was Onna Daigaku, Great Learning for Women, which aimed to teach women to be good wives and wise mothers. Women were to maintain the strict family system as the basic unit of Japanese society by unconditionally obeying their husbands and their parents-in-law. They were confined to their households and did not exist independent, and were essentially subordinate to their father's or husband's family. There were customary practices to divorce women based on disobedience, jealousy, and even talkativeness.
During the feudal era, women lucky enough to be educated were instructed by their fathers or brothers. Women of the higher class were discouraged from becoming educated more than women of the lower class. The men in the higher classes enforced social norms more strictly than men in lower classes. This made women of higher class more likely to be bound to the norms.
Soon after the Meiji Revolution, in an effort to spread practical knowledge and practical arts needed to build society, children were required to attend school. In 1890, forty percent of eligible girls enrolled in school for the allotted four years. In 1910, over ninety-seven percent of eligible girls enrolled in school for the then-allotted six years. These schools were meant to teach feminine modesty.
Arts
Literature
One of the earliest modern female writers was Higuchi Ichiyō (1872–1896). After her father died, she lived in poverty, supporting her mother and sister. In 1893, she began to publish her writings in order to earn money. Her novels and stories were critically acclaimed by the literary elite, but they were never a financial success. The family opened a toy and candy shop near Yoshiwara, the geisha quarter of Tokyo. Working in such a district, Ichiyo became more aware of women's conditions. One of her major works, Nigorie [Muddy Waters], portrays unfortunate women forced into becoming geisha due to economic circumstances. The women, no matter what role they took, were despised by society.
Jusanya [Thirteenth Night] is about two families joined by marriage. The woman is of low class and the man, a high-ranking government official. Through marriage families can secure their well-being and it was the only way to move upward in society. The woman sacrifices herself for her family to endure cruel and humiliating taunts from her husband and is unable to protect herself due to social norms. Ichiyo's stories offer no solutions beyond explicitly depicting the conditions of women. According to some, her four-and-a-half-year-long career marks the beginning of Japanese women's self-awareness.
Seito magazine
Yosano Akiko (1878–1942) is one of the most famous female poets in Meiji period Japan. As the daughter of a rich merchant, Yosano was able to attend school and learned to read and write. Later she became a sponsor of the magazine Seito Bluestocking and also a member of Myojo Bright Star, a poetry journal. In September 1911, Yosano Akiko's poem, “Mountain Moving Day,” was published on the first page of the first edition of Seito, a magazine that marked the beginning of the Seitosha movement. Named for literary groups in England known as "bluestocking", its editor Hiratsuka Raicho (1886–1971) was the financial and philosophical might behind the initial spark of the movement. The women of Seito used literary expression to fight Confucian-based thought and improve opportunities for women.
Other women brought other views to the magazine. Okamoto Kanoko (1899–1939) brought a Buddhist view. Her poetry was more concerned with spirituality. According to her, women could find success by not acknowledging the illusions of the world. Without attachment to the world, excluding the patriarchal society, women can find inner strength. Ito Noe (1895–1923) became editor of the magazine after Hiratsuka left due to pleading health issues in 1915. She explored women's rights to abortion, which remained a hot topic until the magazine's end in 1916.
Ito married an anarchist, Osugi Sakae. Both became political prisoners, then were murdered by military police in the aftermath of the Great Earthquake of 1923. Hayashi Fumiko (1904–1951) was the antithesis of Okanmoto Kanto. Hayashi was naturalistic describing life as an experience (Reich, 286). Her stories are about economic survival of women without men. However, the endings return to male society with no solution. She is the next most popular writer after Higuchi Ichiyō.
Seito was controversial as it became more concerned with social problems. Seito introduced the translated version of Ibsen’s A Doll's House. The play is about a woman who forges her father’s signature to save her husband's life. Instead of being grateful, her husband reacts with anger and disgust. She then decides to leave him.
The government did not like the dissemination of these types of values. Government opposition increased, deeming the content “harmful to the time-honored virtues of Japanese women”, and banning five issues of Seito (Raicho, 218). The first issue to be suppressed was a story, "Ikichi" ["Life Blood"] by Tamura Toshiko, about the reminiscences of a woman and a man who spent the night at an inn. Hiratsuka Raicho’s issue was banned because it challenged the family system and marriage. Ito Noe’s "Shuppon" ["Flight"] is about a woman who left her husband and then her lover betrayed her, another issue that was banned.
Manga
Manga is an especially popular medium among women writers in Japan; some argue that women use the form to "[deconstruct] traditional outlooks on sex and childbearing."
Anime
Magical girl is a subgenre of Japanese fantasy media (including anime, manga, light novels, and live-action media) centered around young girls who possess magical abilities, which they typically use through an ideal alter ego into which they can transform.
Sexuality
Prostitution
Japanese women's groups began campaigning against institutionalized prostitution in the 1880s, and banded together in 1935 to form the National Purification League (Kokumin Junketsu Dōmei). Early activists tended to express disapproval of the women who were prostitutes, rather than of the men who managed such services, particularly in the widespread military brothel system. Later Japanese feminists expressed concern about the management of sexuality and the reinforcement of racialized hierarchies in the military brothels.
Reproductive rights
Japanese feminists began to argue in favor of birth control in the 1930s; abortion was allowed by the government in 1948, but only for eugenic purposes. Women who gave birth to many children received awards from the government. The Family Planning Federation of Japan, an affiliate of the International Planned Parenthood Federation, is Japan's main reproductive rights organization, lobbying for the legalization of oral contraceptives and for the continued legality of abortion, and disseminating educational materials on family planning.
Motherhood
Traditionally, women in Japanese society have possessed most power as mothers. Some feminists argue this type of power only upholds a patriarchal system. At least one responds that to the Japanese, to make such a claim is to hold parenting and household duties in relatively low regard:
"Parasite singles"
A growing number of young women are remaining unmarried in Japan today, a development often viewed as a rebellion against the traditional confines of women's restrictive roles as wives and mothers. In 2004, 54% of Japanese women in their 20s were single, as opposed to 30.6% in 1985. Young women are instead living a lifestyle centred on friends and work.
Unmarried Japanese adults typically live with their parents, thus saving on household expenses and increasing the amount of money available to spend on their own entertainment. Sociologist Masahiro Yamada gave these young adults the label "parasitic singles". Some young women reacted by creating business cards with their names and the title "Parasite Single" on them. Japanese media has given heavy coverage to the decline in Japan's birthrate, but the trend continues.
Labor
Unions were legalized in 1946, after MacArthur declared the new law for unions in December 1945. However, unions had little effect on the conditions of women. Unions stayed in the male domain. Throughout most of the century, few women were allowed to hold office, even in unions with primarily female membership, and until at least the 1980s unions often signed contracts that required women workers (but not men) to retire early.
In 1986, the Women's Bureau of the Ministry of Labor enacted an Equal Employment Opportunity Law, the first "gender equality law formulated mainly by Japanese women."
Equal Employment Opportunity Law
There are no legal provisions prohibiting sexual harassment in Japan. The Equal Employment Opportunity Law merely creates a duty of employers to take measures to prevent sexual harassment. Recourse through the courts for the non-compliance of this duty would have to be done by invoking the clause for damages for tort under the Civil Code, just as it had been done before the adoption of the Equal Employment Opportunity Law.
On April 29, 2013, during the 50th session of the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, NGOs briefed the Committee which victims of sexual harassment would lose their cases in court because there are no explicit legal provisions prohibiting sexual harassment. On May 17, the Committee published its Concluding Observations including the recommendation:
"The Committee urges the State party to introduce in its legislation an offence of sexual harassment , in particular in the workplace, which carries sanctions proportionate to the severity of the offence. The Committee also recommends that the State party ensure that victims can lodge complaints without fear of retaliation. The Committee recommends that the State party continue to raise public awareness of sexual harassment ."
Womenomics
Goldman Sachs strategist Kathy Matsui coined the term Womenomics in 1999. It refers to a set of policies implemented in Japan to reduce gender gaps in the labor market. These policies include increasing female labor participation, women's presence in the labor force, and childcare provision. At the start of his administration in 2012, Prime Minister Shinzō Abe announced the implementation of an economic strategy, known as Abenomics, which included a number of policies aimed at increasing sustained female labor participation in Japan. The idea behind the introduction of these policies was that increasing women's presence in the workforce would boost Japan's economic growth.
The motivations for these policy measures were, on one hand, Japan's low female labor participation rate in 2013, relative to other high-income countries: 65% compared to the US (67.2); Germany (72.6); UK (66.4); and France (66.9). On the other hand, increasing female labor participation is expected to increase the fertility rate and alleviate the aging population problem, which is a major concern of the Japanese government. The fertility rate in Japan is now at 1.25, when the rate needed to ensure population replacement is 2.1.
Female Labor Force Participation
Regarding the female labor participation rate, Prime Minister Abe committed to a goal of 73% by 2020. In order to achieve this, the Japanese government is focusing on women in age groups 30-34 and 35-40, whom studies have shown have a hard time getting back to the labor force after having children and devoting time to childrearing during their late 20s and early 30s. The government's goal of increased labor participation for these specific age groups is of 3.15 million more female workers by 2020. Business organizations such as the Japan Association of Corporate Executives (Keitai Doyukai) and the Japan Business Federation (Keidanren) have expressed their support to the Government's policy with the hope that increasing female labor participation will lead to more adaptability to changes in the global economy.
In 2018, Tokyo Medical University (Japan) had been exposed to prioritizing male applicants to enter the medical school when female applicants had been scoring higher on their entrance exams. For the same year, 9.04 percent of male applicants passed the entrance exam while only 2.91 percent of female applicants were successful. This shows that men were accepted 3.11 times higher than that for women. While men were accepted at a level of 2.02 times higher than that of women in 2018 at the department, the rate was 0.87 times in the following year, meaning that women had been accepted in a higher rate.
With this news as a trigger, other universities such as Juntendo University (Japan) were found to have set different passing levels for male and female applicants and manipulating exam scores for female applicants so they can have more male medical students in their favor. The segregation towards women applicants derived as the school wanted to keep the female population low, from the concern that female applicants have a high possibility to quit their jobs or leave the medical industry after having children or once they start a family in the future.
Although this news was about university administration, this is also an issue for general employees in the workforce as well. In fact, studies by OECD show that more than 70% of Japanese women quit their jobs or stops working for more than a decade and do not come back after giving birth to their first child, whilst it is about 30% in the US.
Japanese women tend to choose between work, or family and the majority of them decide on the family over their careers. This is often due to the inflexibility of the workforce in terms of pay, working hours and lack of the welfare system for people that work but still wants to have a family.
The Japanese government has declared that they will be fining firms if they do not promote women employment and make some efforts in improving the flexibilities of the balance of work and motherhood after women employees give birth. Though the numbers of women employees have been improving in recent years, policy changes and equality in society is still in progress.
Women in Leadership Roles
Since the implementation of the Equal Employment Opportunity Law in 1986, the largest increase in female labor participation has been in the sector of part-time jobs. For women who are rejoining the workforce after taking some time off it to raise their children, this means that they disproportionately obtain jobs with lower salaries and precarious contracts. Motivated by this situation and the argument that more diversity in leadership positions leads to better management and more competitiveness, Prime Minister Abe has been encouraging companies and governmental agencies to create alternatives for women's career advancement.
This aspect of Womenomics mainly consists of campaigns and incentives for companies to promote more women to managerial positions, adopt internal gender-inclusiveness quotas, and disclose information regarding the share of female employees in different positions. The goal set for this element of the policy was to achieve 30% of leadership positions for women by 2020, where leadership positions were understood to encompass local and national parliaments; technical specialists; and chief positions in corporations. However, due to insufficient progress, the deadline was shifted in July 2020 to sometime within the decade.
On 31 July 2016, Yuriko Koike became the first female governor of Tokyo. She was re-elected in 2020.
Childcare Provision
There is a shortage of childcare facilities to accommodate at least 23,000 Japanese children who are in waiting lists. In light of this deficit, Prime Minister Abe's Womenomics plan included a goal of zero children in waiting lists. This will be done by a combination of renting childcare facilities, subsidizing childcare businesses, supporting new childcare providers to attain registration, and hiring new childcare workers. The goal set for this aspect of the policy is to provide childcare facilities for 400,000 children by 2017.
Criticism of Womenomics
There seems to be some international consensus about the effectiveness of promoting female labor participation as a means to increase economic growth. In 2012, the IMF pronounced that a 7% increase in the rate of women in the workforce could lead to a 4% increment in the GDP. However, there are some critical views regarding the likelihood that these policies will significantly increase female labor participation. Some authors point to the prevalent working culture in Japan as a major threat to achieving the set policies’ goals. Long working hours and overtime work are a common practice, as is the custom of going out with colleagues after work to drink alcohol. These features of the working culture in Japan can be irreconcilable with family obligations, particularly child rearing.
There is also some skepticism among academics about the expected effect of Womenomics on Japan's fertility rate. Many high-income, democratic countries have faced the challenge of aging populations, and to some extent they have addressed it by implementing social and labor policies that facilitate a balance between work and family duties. But one aspect of the solution that Japan continues to oppose is allowing some degree of immigration influx. It is unclear whether the policies under Womenomics alone will be enough to yield a substantial increase in fertility rates.
Another stream of critiques questions whether Womenomics policies are reinforcing gender labor segregation rather than reforming structural barriers to women's advancement, such as the predominance of the male breadwinner model and women's association with reproductive work.
See also
Family policy in Japan
Gender Equality Bureau, Japan
Kyariaūman, career woman
List of Japanese feminists
Overview of gender inequality in Japan
Women in Japan
Chiba Prefecture#Police
Virtual YouTuber
References
Citations
Bibliography
Japan
Social history of Japan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Carissa
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New Carissa
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MV New Carissa was a freighter that ran aground and broke apart on a beach near Coos Bay, Oregon, United States, during a storm in February 1999. An attempt to tow the bow section of the ship out to sea failed when the tow line broke, and the bow was grounded again. Eventually, the bow was successfully towed out to sea and sunk. The stern section remained on the beach for over nine years until was dismantled and removed in 2008.
The United States Coast Guard performed an investigation and found that error on the part of the captain was the main cause of the wreck; however, neither the captain nor the crewmembers were charged with any crime. There were significant financial consequences for New Carissas owners and insurer. Fuel on board the ship was burned off in situ with napalm, but a significant amount was also spilled from the wreckage, causing ecological damage to the coast.
Vessel
New Carissa was a Philippine-flagged dry bulk freighter optimized for carriage of woodchips (used for paper pulp production). The vessel was built by Imabari Shipbuilding of Japan using an all-steel construction and was laid down on 30 August 1989. She was long and wide, with a draft of when fully loaded. She had a gross tonnage of 36,571 and a net tonnage of 16,524 and was powered by an direct-drive diesel engine.
New Carissa was owned by the Japanese shipping concern Nippon Yusen Kaisha through a Panamanian subsidiary, Green Atlas Shipping. Her operator and manager, Taiheiyo Kaiun Co. Ltd. and TMM Co. Ltd. respectively, were also based in Japan. Her home port was Manila, Philippines, and her crew at the time of her grounding consisted entirely of Philippine nationals, commanded by Benjamin Morgado. New Carissas protection and indemnity insurance was provided by the Britannia Steam Ship Insurance Association Ltd. The ship's Certificate of Financial Responsibility, which is required by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 and included US$23 million of environmental liability insurance, was provided by Shipowners Insurance and Guaranty Company Ltd. (SIGCo) of Hamilton, Bermuda.
Grounding
In February 1999, New Carissa was bound for the Port of Coos Bay to pick up a load of woodchips. The local bar pilot advised the vessel not to enter the harbor on the evening of 3 February because of high seas and strong winds. Captain Morgado ordered the ship to drop anchor off the coast in order to ride out the storm. The crew used a single anchor to secure the ship. According to a United States Coast Guard review of the incident, the chain used was too short, which, combined with winds of , caused New Carissa to drag her anchor.
Poor navigational techniques and inadequate watchkeeping led to the crew's failure to notice that their ship was moving. Once movement was detected, the crew attempted to raise anchor and maneuver away from the shore, but the weather and sea conditions made this difficult. By the time the anchor was raised, New Carissa had been pushed too close to the shore to recover. The ship ran aground on the beach 2.7 statute miles (4.5 km) north of the entrance to Coos Bay. Attempts to refloat her failed. Two of the ship's five fuel tanks began to leak fuel onto the beach, eventually spilling approximately of viscous "bunker C" fuel oil and diesel onto the beach and into the water.
Neither the captain nor any of the 22-man crew was injured in the incident.
Rescue and recovery operations
Recovery operations began immediately when the grounding was first reported by the ship's crew. Several factors combined to severely complicate the operation. A Unified Command for the operation, consisting of representatives from the Coast Guard, the State of Oregon, and rescue party operations, was quickly established.
Initial rescue attempts
Initial rescue operations were hampered by inclement weather. Attempts to move New Carissa under her own power failed, and tugboat assistance was not available immediately after the grounding. Only one tugboat was available locally, but she was unable to cross the Coos Bay bar because of safety concerns. It was also uncertain whether or not the locally available tugboat could have successfully rescued New Carissa. The nearest salvage tugboat capable of towing a large ship off a beach, Salvage Chief, was moored at her home port of Astoria, 200 statute miles (320 km) to the north, a 24-hour journey away. Salvage Chief had not sailed in over a year, and it took 18 hours to fuel, provision, and find a crew for the ship. Once mobilized, poor weather in the Astoria area prevented the tugboat from crossing the treacherous Columbia River bar for an additional two days. Salvage Chief did not arrive in the area until 8 February, four days after the grounding occurred.
Continued poor weather drove New Carissa closer to the shore. Technical teams from two salvage contractors, Smit International and Salvage Master, had been working with the Coast Guard since 5 February and had drawn up plans to attempt to refloat the vessel, but when cracks in the hull and oil leaks were observed on 8 February, any refloating attempts were precluded by the focus on preventing of a large-scale oil spill. In addition, Salvage Chief, upon her arrival, was unable to reach New Carissa with her tow gear. On 10 February, New Carissa suffered major structural failure when the hull breached near the engine room, flooding the engines with seawater (and thus disabling them). The ship's insurers declared the vessel to be a total loss. As a result, New Carissa was no longer a salvageable vessel; instead, she had effectively become a shipwreck.
Wreck recovery operations
Since the vessel was no longer seaworthy and could not move under its own power, even if freed from the beach, the focus of the operation changed. Oil from the ship's fuel tanks continued to pose an environmental hazard, a situation exacerbated by both the ship's structural failure and continuing pounding from the surf. In order to mitigate the damage the Unified Command decided to set the fuel tanks on fire in order to burn off the oil. The first attempt was made on 10 February. Napalm and other incendiary devices were used to ignite the fuel, but only one of the diesel tanks was burned effectively. A second attempt was made on 11 February when US Navy explosive experts placed 39 shaped charges to breach the top of the fuel tanks from within the cargo holds. of napalm and nearly of plastic explosives were also used to ignite the fuel on board. The ship burned for approximately 33 hours. Additional smaller-scale attempts were made to burn more oil over the next two days, with limited success. The total amount of oil that was burned is estimated to be between . The structural stress caused by the fire, combined with continued severe weather, caused the vessel to break into two sections around midnight on 11 February.
After additional weather-related delays, on 26 February salvors managed to float the bow section and began the process of towing it out to sea for disposal. By 1 March, the tugboat Sea Victory had towed the bow from the beach and out to sea, initially followed by an oil skimmer vessel, OSRV Oregon Responder. However, another severe storm forced the skimmer back to port, and when the tug was off the coast, the tow line broke. The bow section floated for fourteen hours until it ran aground near Waldport, Oregon on 3 March, approximately to the north of the original grounding site. On 8 March, the bow was again refloated, and by 11 March it was successfully towed off the coast by Sea Victory and a second tug, Natoma. At this location, the Pacific Ocean is approximately deep. The bow was sunk by two US Navy ships, the destroyer and the submarine . Four hundred pounds (180 kg) of high explosives were attached to the bow and detonated. Sixty-nine rounds of gunfire from David R. Rays deck guns then punctured the hull. After 40 minutes, the ship was still afloat with darkness and a storm approaching. To expedite the sinking, Bremerton fired a Mark 48 torpedo at the underside of the ship. Within ten minutes, the bow section flooded and sank stern-first, trapping the remaining oil within.
The stern section remained aground, but did not pose a significant oil spill threat as the majority of the oil on board had already leaked or burned. Some remaining oil that was found on board was skimmed or pumped out manually. In June 1999, Green Atlas awarded a ship breaking contract to Donjon Marine Co. and Fred Devine Diving and Salvage. Although the two companies were able to remove approximately one-third of the stern, their attempts to dismantle the largest section or tow it to sea were unsuccessful and had to be abandoned over the winter. Work did not resume in the spring of 2000, and in 2001, a salvage expert hired by Green Atlas asserted that the stern should not be removed because it would create a dangerous work environment. The state later accused Green Atlas of sabotaging the stern removal effort in order to save money and a protracted legal battle ensued.
Dismantling and removal of stern section
Although the initial attempts to dismantle or tow the stern to sea failed, the State of Oregon still intended to see the remainder of the vessel removed from the beach. In 2006, the state's lawsuit against the ship's owners was settled, clearing the legal obstacles that prevented removal and providing the funds necessary to finance the project. Removal plans were complicated by the fact that the stern had become deeply embedded in the sand in the seven years since the wreck, with some portions of the stern estimated to be below the sand line.
A project to remove the stern by dismantling it on the beach was started in June 2008, after Oregon legislative approval. The dismantling, expected to cost US$18 million, was approved by the State Legislative Emergency Board in September 2006. The move was originally scheduled for 2007, but delays in the negotiations pushed the project back a year. Due to weather and surf conditions, the project had to be undertaken during the spring and summer months. Titan Maritime Company, a subsidiary of Crowley Maritime Corporation, signed a US$16.4 million contract with the Oregon Department of State Lands. Titan Maritime used large jackup barges, Karlissa A and Karlissa B, for the New Carissa dismantling project. Once the barges were in place, a cable car system was installed to allow the crews and their equipment access to the barges from the beach. The barges allowed the crews to access the wreck from above the surf. The crews cut New Carissa into removable pieces and then lifted them to the barges with cranes. The cutting portion of Titan's plan was largely completed by 31 July 2008, and the company then focused on pulling the stern from the sand, a process that was measured in inches. The project's managing director expressed confidence that the removal deadline of 1 October 2008 would be met. By September 2008, Titan had successfully removed the majority of the wreck; no part of the ship was visible from above the water and only a few small pieces remained submerged. Karlissa A and Karlissa B were relocated on 12 October 2008, and Titan's shore operations were completely removed by November 2008.
Debate about removal
Prior to the dismantling project, there was debate by local residents on whether the wrecked stern should be removed. Some local officials believed the stern, which lay on a remote area of the beach, was not a hazard or an eyesore. Arnie Roblan, a state representative from Coos Bay, called the wreck a potential tourist attraction. For some residents, uncertainty remained surrounding Titan's removal plan, with the worry that the stern would be unable to withstand the force of the hydraulic pullers and that parts of the ship already buried in the sand would be unmovable. The president of the Coos Bay city council expressed concern that the proposed removal operation could cause ecological damage that would not occur if the ship were left on the beach. He further noted that "shipwrecks on the Oregon Coast are part of our history. There are a lot of ways you could better spend the money here."
Many others argued that the ship should be removed. Louise Solliday, the director of the Oregon Department of State Lands, called the removal of the stern a necessary step to demonstrate that the state is "serious about removing wrecks". She stated that if the stern were not removed, the argument that the ship is trespassing on state property (used in the state's lawsuit against New Carissa owners) would be undermined should another vessel wreck off the Oregon coast. The sentiment was later echoed by Oregon Secretary of State Bill Bradbury, who also noted that the settlement of the lawsuit with the ship's owners leaves the state exposed to any liability issues concerning the ship. Many environmentalists, as well as federal biologists and residents of the local community, were concerned about the potential for further ecological damage should the vessel leak any of the fuel oil that remained on board. The editorial board of The Oregonian argued that allowing the stern to remain would send a message that the state is willing to "tolerate permanent damage to its beaches". The newspaper also rejected the notion that the wreckage should be compared to , a sailing ship that wrecked on a beach near Astoria in the early 1900s, the remnants of which are a popular tourist draw.
Environmental impact
The wreck of New Carissa caused one of the most serious oil spills to affect the state of Oregon, and the worst since a 1984 spill near Longview, Washington that dumped of oil into the Columbia River. As Oregon has no significant oil refinery facilities, oil tankers do not often dock at its ports, making the state relatively safe from oil spills. Analysis conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service determined that over 3,000 shorebirds and seabirds perished. The birds belonged to more than 50 species. Among the birds killed were 262 threatened marbled murrelets and between four and eight endangered western snowy plovers. Harbor seals, fish, and shellfish were also killed or affected. Several beaches were fouled, with tarballs continuing to wash up for more than a month after the wreck.
Despite the loss of marine life, the initial burning of the oil and the successful removal of the bow section prevented what could have been a worse spill. Captain Mike Hall of the Coast Guard stated that "at least 82 percent of the oil on board New Carissa never reached the wildlife or the pristine shoreline of Oregon's coast". The environmental impact of the sinking of the bow section was thought to be minimized since it was towed out beyond the continental shelf, into very deep water. Any remaining oil on board is unlikely to have affected marine life since the low temperatures at the bottom of the ocean would have caused it to solidify.
Prior to the stern section's removal from the beach, environmentalists and local officials were concerned that the remains posed a continuing environmental and safety hazard.
Legal aftermath
Subsequent litigation proved expensive for the ship's owners and insurers, and an investigation into the incident delayed most of the crew's return to their home country.
Litigation
In 2001, Green Atlas Shipping and its insurer, Britannia Steam Ship Insurance Association, sued the United States for US$96 million, claiming negligence on the part of the Coast Guard due to faulty nautical charts. They also alleged failure on the part of the local bar pilots to advise the ship's crew not to anchor in the area, and that dredging by the United States Army Corps of Engineers had exacerbated the problems with the anchor. The U.S. countersued for US$7 million in damages. In 2004, the two sides reached an agreement in which Green Atlas would pay the U.S. US$10.5 million to assist with cleanup costs, and the U.S. paid Green Atlas US$4 million in settlement of the faulty charts claim. The net result of the settlement was payment of US$6.5 million to the U.S. Although this was far less than the damages claimed by the U.S. for environmental cleanup and restoration costs, government officials still saw the settlement as a victory since the shipping company was forced to pay for part of the damage. Some Coos County officials were dissatisfied with the settlement and stated that it should have instead been paid to local business owners who were negatively impacted by the closure of the beach.
The State of Oregon demanded that the ship's owners or their insurers remove the ship or pay a US$25 million bond to cover the cost of removing the ship and for environmental damages. The state also filed a lawsuit in Coos County, demanding removal, storage fees of US$1,500 per day, restoration of the beach, and other unspecified damages. The state alleged negligence on the part of Morgado and also accused Green Atlas shipping of attempting to avoid the expense of the stern dismantling. On 13 November 2002, a Coos County jury found the ship's owners guilty of negligent trespass after a six-week trial; the state was awarded US$25 million in damages. That sum was placed in escrow, pending appeal. The circuit court judge later remarked that the case was the most memorable of his 37-year career, noting that "You don’t usually get trespass cases that involve a ship". On 23 May 2006, a settlement was reached in the appeal; the state kept US$20 million of the US$25 million in escrow, plus US$2.1 million in interest earned on the escrow account. The remaining US$5 million was returned to Green Atlas Shipping. Of the US$22.1 million that the state was awarded in the settlement, US$3.1 million was used to pay the state's legal fees. The remaining US$19 million was reserved for cleanup, including the removal of the vessel's stern.<ref name=oreg>
{{cite news|
author=O'Neill, Patrick|
title=Channel cleared for New Carissa'''s last trip|
newspaper=The Oregonian|
date=24 May 2006|
url=http://www.oregonlive.com/news/oregonian/index.ssf?/base/business/1148448877129200.xml&coll=7|
access-date=13 June 2006}}</ref>
Numerous private parties, including at least one oyster farmer whose beds were contaminated by oil, successfully sued for damages.
Crew investigation
The captain and most of the crew of the ship—all nationals of the Philippines had to face a U.S. Coast Guard Board of Inquiry, which required them to remain in the United States for several weeks after the wreck. In addition, a federal grand jury investigated the incident for criminal wrongdoing. Captain Morgado refused to answer many of the questions posed at the inquiry, citing his Fifth Amendment rights. The crew was released after their testimony and returned to the Philippines. On 16 September, the Coast Guard issued its findings that captain's error was the primary cause of the wreck, with the first and third officers of the ship also partly responsible. The investigation found no evidence of criminal wrongdoing, and no charges were filed against any member of the New Carissa'' crew.
Notes
References
Newport Internet New Carissa coverage, with original press releases
Official NOAA website
Oregon Department of Environmental Quality: New Carissa Review Committee
OregonLive.com coverage
Oregon Fish & Wildlife Department, Key Information on the New Carissa Oil Spill Final Restoration Plan
Oregon Department of State Lands coverage of the site
External links
Spinreel.com: The Shipwreck of the New Carissa
Ship Structure Committee: Case Study I: New Carissa, hull failure analysis
Satellite image from Google Maps
Buildings and structures in Coos County, Oregon
Environmental disasters in the United States
Oil spills in the United States
Oregon Coast
Shipwrecks of the Oregon coast
Disasters in Oregon
Maritime incidents in the United States
Maritime incidents in 1999
Environment of Oregon
1989 ships
Transportation disasters in Oregon
1999 in Oregon
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5270402
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deinstitutionalisation
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Deinstitutionalisation
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Deinstitutionalisation (or deinstitutionalization) is the process of replacing long-stay psychiatric hospitals with less isolated community mental health services for those diagnosed with a mental disorder or developmental disability. In the late 20th century, it led to the closure of many psychiatric hospitals, as patients were increasingly cared for at home, in halfway houses and clinics, in regular hospitals, or not at all.
Deinstitutionalisation works in two ways. The first focuses on reducing the population size of mental institutions by releasing patients, shortening stays, and reducing both admissions and readmission rates. The second focuses on reforming psychiatric care to reduce (or avoid encouraging) feelings of dependency, hopelessness and other behaviors that make it hard for patients to adjust to a life outside of care.
The modern deinstitutionalisation movement was made possible by the discovery of psychiatric drugs in the mid-20th century, which could manage psychotic episodes and reduced the need for patients to be confined and restrained. Another major impetus was a series of socio-political movements that campaigned for patient freedom. Lastly, there were financial imperatives, with many governments also viewing it as a way to save costs.
The movement to reduce institutionalisation was met with wide acceptance in Western countries, though its effects have been the subject of many debates. Critics of the policy include defenders of the previous policies as well as those who believe the reforms did not go far enough to provide freedom to patients.
History
19th century
The 19th century saw a large expansion in the number and size of asylums in Western industrialised countries. In contrast to the prison-like asylums of old, these were designed to be comfortable places where patients could live and be treated, in keeping with the movement towards "moral treatment". In spite of these ideals, they became overstretched, non-therapeutic, isolated in location, and neglectful of patients.
20th century
By the beginning of the 20th century, increasing admissions had resulted in serious overcrowding, causing many problems for psychiatric institutions. Funding was often cut, especially during periods of economic decline and wartime. Asylums became notorious for poor living conditions, lack of hygiene, overcrowding, ill-treatment, and abuse of patients; many patients starved to death. The first community-based alternatives were suggested and tentatively implemented in the 1920s and 1930s, although asylum numbers continued to increase up to the 1950s.
Eugenics and Aktion T4
The eugenics movement started in the late 19th century, but reached the height of its influence between the two world wars. One stated aim was to improve the health of the nation by ‘breeding out defects’, isolating people with disabilities and ensuring they could not procreate. Charles Darwin's son lobbied the British government to arrest people deemed as ‘unfit’, then segregate them in colonies or sterilise them.
At the same time, in Germany medics and lawyers joined forces to argue for the extermination of people with disabilities. The 1920 essay, “Permitting the Destruction of Life Unworthy of Life” is seen by many as a blueprint for the Nazis’ future crimes against humanity.
In 1939, the Nazi regime began ‘Aktion T4’. Through this programme, psychiatric institutions for children and adults with disabilities were transformed into killing centres. The government compelled midwives to report all babies born with disabilities, then coerced parents to place their children in institutions. Visits were discouraged or forbidden. Then medical personnel transformed a programme of institutionalisation into extermination.
More than 5,000 children were killed in the network of institutions for children with disabilities, followed by more than 200,000 disabled adults. The medical and administrative teams who developed the first mass extermination programme were transferred – together with their killing technology – to set up and manage the deathcamps of Treblinka and Sobibor.
The Nazi crimes against people with mental illness and disabilities in institutions was one of the catalysts for moving away from an institutionalised approach to mental health and disability in the second half of the 20th century.
Origins of the modern movement
The advent of chlorpromazine and other antipsychotic drugs in the 1950s and 1960s played an important role in permitting deinstitutionalisation, but it was not until social movements campaigned for reform in the 1960s that the movement gained momentum.
A key text in the development of deinstitutionalisation was Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates, a 1961 book by sociologist Erving Goffman. The book is one of the first sociological examinations of the social situation of mental patients, the hospital. Based on his participant observation field work, the book details Goffman's theory of the "total institution" (principally in the example he gives, as the title of the book indicates, mental institutions) and the process by which it takes efforts to maintain predictable and regular behavior on the part of both "guard" and "captor", suggesting that many of the features of such institutions serve the ritual function of ensuring that both classes of people know their function and social role, in other words of "institutionalizing" them.
Franco Basaglia, a leading Italian psychiatrist who inspired and was the architect of the psychiatric reform in Italy, also defined mental hospital as an oppressive, locked and total institution in which prison-like, punitive rules are applied, in order to gradually eliminate its own contents, and patients, doctors and nurses are all subjected (at different levels) to the same process of institutionalism. Other critics went further and campaigned against all involuntary psychiatric treatment. In 1970, Goffman worked with Thomas Szasz and George Alexander to found the American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalisation (AAAIMH), who proposed abolishing all involuntary psychiatric intervention, particularly involuntary commitment, against individuals. The association provided legal help to psychiatric patients and published a journal, The Abolitionist, until it was dissolved in 1980.
Reform
The prevailing public arguments, time of onset, and pace of reforms varied by country. Leon Eisenberg lists three key factors that led to deinstitutionalisation gaining support. The first factor was a series of socio-political campaigns for the better treatment of patients. Some of these were spurred on by institutional abuse scandals in the 1960s and 1970s, such as Willowbrook State School in the United States and Ely Hospital in the United Kingdom. The second factor was new psychiatric medications made it more feasible to release people into the community and the third factor was financial imperatives. There was an argument that community services would be cheaper. Mental health professionals, public officials, families, advocacy groups, public citizens, and unions held differing views on deinstitutionalisation.
However, the 20th century marked the development of the first community services designed specifically to divert deinstitutionalization and to develop the first conversions from institutional, governmental systems to community majority systems (governmental-NGO-For Profit). These services are so common throughout the world (e.g., individual and family support services, groups homes, community and supportive living, foster care and personal care homes, community residences, community mental health offices, supported housing) that they are often "delinked" from the term deinstitutionalization. Common historical figures in deinstitutionalization in the US include Geraldo Rivera, Robert Williams, Burton Blatt, Gunnar Dybwad, Michael Kennedy, Frank Laski, Steven J. Taylor, Douglas P. Biklen, David Braddock, Robert Bogdan and K. C. Lakin. in the fields of "intellectual disabilities" (e.g., amicus curae, Arc-US to the US Supreme Court; US state consent decrees).
Community organizing and development regarding the fields of mental health, traumatic brain injury, aging (nursing facilities) and children's institutions/private residential schools represent other forms of diversion and "community re-entry". Paul Carling's book, Return to the Community: Building Support Systems for People with Psychiatric Disabilities describes mental health planning and services in that regard, including for addressing the health and personal effects of "long term institutionalization". and the psychiatric field continued to research whether "hospitals" (e.g., forced involuntary care in a state institution; voluntary, private admissions) or community living was better. US states have made substantial investments in the community, and similar to Canada, shifted some but not all institutional funds to the community sectors as deinstitutionalization. For example, NYS Education, Health and Social Services Laws identify mental health personnel in the state of New York, and the two term Obama Presidency in the US created a high-level Office of Social and Behavioral Services.
The 20th century marked the growth in a class of deinstitutionalization and community researchers in the US and world, including a class of university women. These women follow university education on social control and the myths of deinstitutionalization, including common forms of transinstitutionalization such as transfers to prison systems in the 21st century, "budget realignments", and the new subterfuge of community data reporting.
Consequences
Community services that developed include supportive housing with full or partial supervision and specialised teams (such as assertive community treatment and early intervention teams). Costs have been reported as generally equivalent to inpatient hospitalisation, even lower in some cases (depending on how well or poorly funded the community alternatives are). Although deinstitutionalisation has been positive for the majority of patients, it also has shortcomings. Walid Fakhoury and Stefan Priebe suggest that modern day society now faces a new problem of "reinstitutionalisation". and many critics argue that the policy left patients homeless or in prison. Leon Eisenberg has argued that deinstitutionalisation was generally positive for patients, while noting that some were left homeless or without care.
Medication
There was an increase in prescriptions of psychiatric medication in the years following deinstitutionalization. Although most of these drugs had been discovered in the years before, deinstitutionalisation made it far cheaper to care for a mental health patient and increased the profitability of the drugs. Some researchers argue that this created economic incentives to increase the frequency of psychiatric diagnosis (and related diagnoses, such as ADHD in children) that did not happen in the era of costly hospitalized psychiatry.
In most countries (except some countries that are either in extreme poverty or are hindered from importing psychiatric drugs by their customs regulations), more than 10% of the population are now on some form of psychiatric medicine. This increases to more than 15% in some countries such as the United Kingdom. A 2012 study by Kales, Pierce and Greenblatt argued that these medicines were being overprescribed.
Victimisation
Moves to community living and services have led to various concerns and fears, from both the individuals themselves and other members of the community. Over a quarter of individuals accessing community mental health services in a US inner-city area are victims of at least one violent crime per year, a proportion eleven times higher than the inner-city average. The elevated victim rate holds for every category of crime, including rape/sexual assault, other violent assaults, and personal and property theft. Victimisation rates are similar to those with developmental disabilities.
Misconceptions
There is a common perception by the public and media that people with mental disorders are more likely to be dangerous and violent if released into the community. However, a large 1998 study in Archives of General Psychiatry suggested that discharged psychiatric patients without substance abuse symptoms are no more likely to commit violence than others without substance abuse symptoms in their neighborhoods, which were usually economically deprived and high in substance abuse and crime. The study also reported that a higher proportion of the patients than of the others in the neighborhoods reported symptoms of substance abuse.
Findings on violence committed by those with mental disorders in the community have been inconsistent and related to numerous factors; a higher rate of more serious offences such as homicide have sometimes been found but, despite high-profile homicide cases, the evidence suggests this has not been increased by deinstitutionalisation. The aggression and violence that does occur, in either direction, is usually within family settings rather than between strangers.
The argument that deinstitutionalization has led to increases in homelessness can also be viewed a misconception with some suggesting a correlative rather than causative relationship between the two. It has been argued that in United States, loss of low-income housing and disability benefits are the core causes of homelessness historically and placing the blame on deinstitutionalization is an oversimplification which does not take into account the other policy changes which occurred during the same time.
Reinstitutionalisation
Some mental health academics and campaigners have argued that deinstitutionalisation was well-intentioned for trying to make patients less dependent on psychiatric care, but in practice patients were still left being dependent on the support of a mental healthcare system, a phenomenon known as "reinstitutionalisation" or "transinstitutionalisation".
The argument is that community services can leave the mentally ill in a state of social isolation (even if it is not physical isolation), frequently meeting other service users but having little contact with the rest of the public community. Fakhoury and Priebe said that instead of "community psychiatry", reforms established a "psychiatric community". Julie Racino argues that having a closed social circle like this can limit opportunities for mentally ill people to integrate with the wider society, such as personal assistance services.
Other criticisms
Criticism of deinstitutionalisation takes on a number of forms. Some, like E. Fuller Torrey, defend the use of psychiatric institutions and conclude that deinstitutionalisation was a move in the wrong direction entirely. Torrey has opposed deinstitutionalisation in principle, arguing that people with mental illness will be resistant to medical help due to the nature of their conditions. These views have made him a controversial figure in psychiatry. He believes that reducing psychiatrists' powers to use involuntary commitment led to many patients losing out on treatment, and that many who would have previously lived in institutions are now homeless or in prison.
Another form of critique argues that while deinstitutionalization was a move in the right direction and had laudable goals, many shortcomings in the execution stage have made it unsuccessful thus far. New community services developed as alternatives to institutionalization leave patients dependent still on the support of mental healthcare without clear evidence of providing adequate treatment and support. Multiple for-profit businesses, non-profit organizations and multiple levels of government involved have been criticized as being uncoordinated, underfunded and unable to meet complex needs. In a 1998 study of the effects of deinstitutionalisation in the United Kingdom, Means and Smith argue that the program had some successes, such as increasing the participation of volunteers in mental healthcare, but that it was underfunded and let down by a lack of coordination between the health service and social services.
Thomas Szasz, a longtime opponent of involuntary psychiatric treatment, argued that the reforms never addressed the aspects of psychiatry that he objected to, particularly his belief that mental illnesses are not true illnesses but medicalized social and personal problems.
Worldwide
Asia
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, a number of residential care services such as halfway houses, long-stay care homes, supported hostels are provided for the discharged patients. In addition, community support services such as rehabilitation day services and mental health care have been launched to facilitate the patients' re-integration into the community.
Japan
Unlike most developed countries, Japan has not followed a program of deinstitutionalisation. The number of hospital beds has risen steadily over the last few decades. Physical restraints are used far more often. In 2014, more than 10,000 people were restrained–the highest ever recorded, and more than double the number a decade earlier. In 2018, the Japanese Ministry of Health introduced revised guidelines that placed more restrictions against the use of restraints.
Africa
Uganda has one psychiatric hospital. There are only 40 psychiatrists in Uganda. The World Health Organisation estimates that 90% of mentally ill people here never get treatment.
Australia and Oceania
New Zealand
New Zealand established a reconciliation initiative in 2005 to address the ongoing compensation payouts to ex-patients of state-run mental institutions in the 1970s to 1990s. A number of grievances were heard, including: poor reasons for admissions; unsanitary and overcrowded conditions; lack of communication to patients and family members; physical violence and sexual misconduct and abuse; inadequate mechanisms for dealing with complaints; pressures and difficulties for staff, within an authoritarian hierarchy based on containment; fear and humiliation in the misuse of seclusion; over-use and abuse of ECT, psychiatric medications, and other treatments as punishments, including group therapy, with continued adverse effects; lack of support on discharge; interrupted lives and lost potential; and continued stigma, prejudice, and emotional distress and trauma.
There were some references to instances of helpful aspects or kindnesses despite the system. Participants were offered counselling to help them deal with their experiences, along with advice on their rights, including access to records and legal redress.
Europe
Republic of Ireland
The Republic of Ireland formerly had the highest psychiatric hospitalisation rate of any Western country. The Lunatic (Asylums) Act, 1875, the Criminal Lunatics Act, 1838 and the Private Lunatic Asylums Act of 1842 created a network of large "district asylums". The Mental Treatment Act, 1945 caused some modernisation but by 1958 the Republic of Ireland still had the highest psychiatric hospitalisation rate in the world. In the 1950s and '60s there was a transition to outpatient facilities and care homes.
The 1963 Irish Psychiatric Hospital Census noted the extremely high hospitalisation rate of unmarried people; six times the equivalent in England and Wales. In all, about 1% of the population was living in a psychiatric hospital. In 1963–1978, Irish psychiatric hospitalisation rates were times that of England. Health Boards were set up in 1970 and the Health (Mental Services) Act 1981 was passed in order to prevent the wrongful hospitalisation of individuals. In the 1990s, there was still about 25,000 patients in the asylums.
In 2009, the government committed to closing two psychiatric hospitals every year; in 2008, there were still 1,485 patients housed in "inappropriate conditions". Today, Ireland's hospitalisation rate to a position of equality with other comparable countries. In the public sector virtually no patients remain in 19th-century mental hospitals; acute care is provided in general hospital units. Acute private care is still delivered in stand-alone psychiatric hospitals. The Central Mental Hospital in Dublin is used as a secure psychiatric hospital for criminal offenders, with room for 84 patients.
Italy
Italy was the first country to begin the deinstitutionalisation of mental health care and to develop a community-based psychiatric system. The Italian system served as a model of effective service and paved the way for deinstitutionalisation of mental patients. Since the late 1960s, the Italian physician Giorgio Antonucci questioned the basis itself of psychiatry. After working with Edelweiss Cotti in 1968 at the Centro di Relazioni Umane in Cividale del Friuli – an open ward created as an alternative to the psychiatric hospital – from 1973 to 1996 Antonucci worked on the dismantling of the psychiatric hospitals Osservanza and Luigi Lolli of Imola and the liberation – and restitution to life – of the people there secluded. In 1978, the Basaglia Law had started Italian psychiatric reform that resulted in the end of the Italian state mental hospital system in 1998.
The reform was focused on the gradual dismantlement of psychiatric hospitals, which required an effective community mental health service. The object of community care was to reverse the long-accepted practice of isolating the mentally ill in large institutions and to promote their integration in a socially stimulating environment, while avoiding subjecting them to excessive social pressures.
The work of Giorgio Antonucci, instead of changing the form of commitment from the mental hospital to other forms of coercion, questions the basis of psychiatry, affirming that mental hospitals are the essence of psychiatry and rejecting any possible reform of psychiatry, that must be eliminated.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the trend towards deinstitutionalisation began in the 1950s. At the time, 0.4% of the population of England were housed in asylums. The government of Harold Macmillan sponsored the Mental Health Act 1959, which removed the distinction between psychiatric hospitals and other types of hospitals. Enoch Powell, the Minister of Health in the early 1960s, criticized psychiatric institutions in his 1961 "Water Tower" speech and called for most of the care to be transferred to general hospitals and the community. The campaigns of Barbara Robb and several scandals involving mistreatment at asylums (notably Ely Hospital) furthered the campaign. The Ely Hospital scandal led to an inquiry led by Brian Abel-Smith and a 1971 white paper that recommended further reform.
The policy of deinstitutionalisation came to be known as Care in the Community at the time it was taken up by the government of Margaret Thatcher. Large-scale closures of the old asylums began in the 1980s. By 2015, none remained.
North America
United States
The United States has experienced two main waves of deinstitutionalisation. The first wave began in the 1950s and targeted people with mental illness. The second wave began roughly 15 years later and focused on individuals who had been diagnosed with a developmental disability. Loren Mosher argues that deinstitutionalisation fully began in the 1970s and was due to financial incentives like SSI and Social Security Disability, rather than after the earlier introduction of psychiatric drugs.
The most important factors that led to deinstitutionalisation were changing public attitudes to mental health and mental hospitals, the introduction of psychiatric drugs and individual states' desires to reduce costs from mental hospitals. The federal government offered financial incentives to the states to achieve this goal. Stroman pinpoints World War II as the point when attitudes began to change. In 1946, Life magazine published one of the first exposés of the shortcomings of mental illness treatment. Also in 1946, Congress passed the National Mental Health Act of 1946, which created the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). NIMH was pivotal in funding research for the developing mental health field.
President John F. Kennedy had a special interest in the issue of mental health because his sister, Rosemary, had incurred brain damage after being lobotomised at the age of 23. His administration sponsored the successful passage of the Community Mental Health Act, one of the most important laws that led to deinstitutionalization. The movement continued to gain momentum during the Civil Rights Movement. The 1965 amendments to Social Security shifted about 50% of the mental health care costs from states to the federal government, motivating state governments to promote deinstitutionalization. The 1970s saw the founding of several advocacy groups, including Liberation of Mental Patients, Project Release, Insane Liberation Front, and the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI).
The lawsuits these activist groups filed led to some key court rulings in the 1970s that increased the rights of patients. In 1973, a federal district court ruled in Souder v. Brennan that whenever patients in mental health institutions performed activity that conferred an economic benefit to an institution, they had to be considered employees and paid the minimum wage required by the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. Following this ruling, institutional peonage was outlawed. In the 1975 ruling O'Connor v. Donaldson, the U.S. Supreme Court restricted the rights of states to incarcerate someone who was not violent. This was followed up with the 1978 ruling Addington v. Texas, further restricting states from confining anyone involuntarily for mental illness. In 1975, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit ruled in favour of the Mental Patient's Liberation Front in Rogers v. Okin, establishing the right of a patient to refuse treatment. Later reforms included the Mental Health Parity Act, which required health insurers to give mental health patients equal coverage.
Other factors included scandals. A 1972 television broadcast exposed the abuse and neglect of 5,000 patients at the Willowbrook State School in Staten Island, New York. The Rosenhan's experiment in 1973 caused several psychiatric hospitals to fail to notice fake patients who showed no symptoms once they were institutionalized. The pitfalls of institutionalization were dramatized in an award-winning 1975 film, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest.
In 1955, for every 100,000 US citizens there were 340 psychiatric hospital beds. In 2005 that number had diminished to 17 per 100,000.
South America
In several South American countries, such as in Argentina, the total number of beds in asylum-type institutions has decreased, replaced by psychiatric inpatient units in general hospitals and other local settings.
In Brazil, there are 6003 psychiatrists, 18,763 psychologists, 1985 social workers, 3119 nurses and 3589 occupational therapists working for the Unified Health System (SUS). At primary care level, there are 104,789 doctors, 184,437 nurses and nurse technicians and 210,887 health agents. The number of psychiatrists is roughly 5 per 100,000 inhabitants in the Southeast region, and the Northeast region has less than 1 psychiatrist per 100,000 inhabitants. The number of psychiatric nurses is insufficient in all geographical areas, and psychologists outnumber other mental health professionals in all regions of the country. The rate of beds in psychiatric hospitals in the country is 27.17 beds per 100,000 inhabitants. The rate of patients in psychiatric hospitals is 119 per 100,000 inhabitants. The average length of stay in mental hospitals is 65.29 days.
See also
Homeless dumping
Obligatory Dangerousness Criterion
Outpatient commitment
General
Ableism
Ankang (asylum)
Institutional syndrome
Involuntary commitment
Inclusion (disability rights)
Mental health
Public housing
Psychiatric survivors movement
Right to housing
Voluntary commitment
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Medical terminology
Mental health law
History of mental health
Labeling theory
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5270636
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Xiaowu%20of%20Song
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Emperor Xiaowu of Song
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Emperor Xiaowu of Song (宋孝武帝; 19 September 430 – 12 July 464), personal name Liu Jun (劉駿), courtesy name Xiulong (休龍), childhood name Daomin (道民), was an emperor of the Liu Song dynasty of China. He was a son of Emperor Wen. After his older brother Liu Shao assassinated their father in 453 and took the throne, he rose in rebellion and overthrew Liu Shao. He was generally regarded as a capable, but harsh and sexually immoral emperor. He curtailed the powers of the officials and imperial princes greatly during his reign.
Background
Liu Jun was born in 430, as Emperor Wen's third son. His mother, Consort Lu Huinan, was not one of Emperor Wen's favorite consorts, and he was also not much favored by his father. In 435, he was created the Prince of Wuling. In 439, at age nine, he was made the governor of Xiang Province (湘州, modern Hunan), and for the next several years he was rotated through the provinces, although he did not appear to be actually at all in charge until 445, when he was made the governor of Yong Province (雍州, modern northwestern Hubei and southwestern Henan), an important province militarily due to its location on the border with rival Northern Wei, and with Emperor Wen interested in recovering provinces lost to Northern Wei during the reign of his brother Emperor Shao, Yong was considered a key post. As his mother was not favored by the Emperor, she mostly accompanied him rather than stay at the palace in the capital Jiankang.
In 448, Liu Jun was made the governor of the equally important Xu Province (徐州, modern northern Jiangsu and northern Anhui), with its capital at Pengcheng, and it was there that he was involved in a major war between Liu Song and Northern Wei. In 450, with Emperor Wen's northern advances not only repelled by Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei, but with Northern Wei troops under Emperor Taiwu attacking south in retaliation, Northern Wei troops quickly reached Pengcheng. Liu Jun's uncle Liu Yigong () the Prince of Jiangxia, the commander of the northern troops, wanted to abandon Pengcheng, at the suggestion of Zhang Chang (), Liu Jun insisted on defending Pengcheng, and Liu Yigong gave up his plan to flee. Emperor Taiwu, after diplomatic parlaying at Pengcheng, continued advancing south, all the way to the Yangtze River, before withdrawing in 451. Despite holding Pengcheng, Liu Jun was slightly demoted after the war. (During the war, at the instigation of Liu Jun, his older brother Liu Shao the Crown Prince, and He Shangzhi (), Emperor Wen put his brother Liu Yikang, the former prime minister who had been deposed in 440, to death.) In 452, Liu Jun was sent to be the governor of South Yan Province (南兗州, modern central Jiangsu), and then of Jiang Province (江州, modern Jiangxi and Fujian).
Uprising against Liu Shao
In 452, Liu Shao and another brother, Liu Jun the Prince of Shixing (different character), were caught in a scandal where they had engaged a witch to curse Emperor Wen to death so Liu Shao could become emperor faster, and Emperor Wen was set on deposing them. Liu Shao, in 453, then led a coup d'etat and assassinated Emperor Wen, taking over as emperor himself. At this time, Liu Jun the Prince of Wuling was at Wuzhou (五洲, a small island on the Yangtze River in modern Huanggang, Hubei) preparing to attack rebellious aborigines in the region. His communications officer Dong Yuansi () arrived from Jiankang and informed him how Liu Shao had assassinated Emperor Wen, and he in turn had Dong inform it to his subordinates.
Meanwhile, Liu Shao wrote a secret letter to the general Shen Qingzhi (), who at the time was with Liu Jun. However, Shen had no intentions of following Liu Shao's orders, and after showing the letter to Liu Jun, ordered his troops to enter a state of emergency, preparing a major rebellion against Liu Shao. Meanwhile, Liu Jun's uncle Liu Yixuan () the Prince of Nanqiao and governor of Jing Province (荊州, modern Hubei), and Zang Zhi () the governor of Yong Province both refused Liu Shao's promotions as well and sent messengers to Liu Jun, requesting that he declare himself emperor. Liu Jun first returned to the capital of Jiang Province, Xunyang (尋陽, in modern Jiujiang, Jiangxi), and then issued declarations requesting other governors to join him. Liu Yixuan and Zang Zhi soon arrived with their troops, and they quickly advanced toward Jiankang. Meanwhile, Liu Jun's brother Liu Dan () the Prince of Sui, the governor of Kuaiji Commandery along the southern shore of Hangzhou Bay, also declared support for Liu Jun.
In less than a month, Liu Jun arrived in the vicinity of Jiankang; during the journey, however, he suffered a major illness, during which his assistant Yan Jun () had to impersonate him to avoid public knowledge that he was ill. Initially, Liu Shao's troops had minor success over his, but one of Liu Shao's major generals, Lu Xiu (), soon sabotaged his efforts and then fled to Liu Jun's camp. Liu Jun soon declared himself emperor (as Emperor Xiaowu), while the battle was continuing to be waged. Seven days later, the palace fell, and Liu Shao and Liu Jun the Prince of Shixing were captured and executed. Emperor Xiaowu settled in Jiankang, welcoming his mother Consort Lu and his wife Princess Wang Xianyuan to the capital, honoring his mother as empress dowager and his wife as empress. He also created his oldest son Liu Ziye crown prince.
Early reign
One major issue with Emperor Xiaowu's personal conduct immediately became a political issue as well—as he was said to have engaged in incest with all of Liu Yixuan's daughters who remained in Jiankang, drawing Liu Yixuan's ire. Further, because of both Liu Yixuan's and Zang Zhi's contributions to his cause, they expected to be able to act with absolute powers within their domains (Jing and Jiang Province, respectively), and yet Emperor Xiaowu was trying to establish his personal authority and therefore often overrode and questioned their actions. Liu Yixuan and Zang therefore resolved to rebel. In spring 454, they sent messengers to persuade Lu Xiu's brother Lu Shuang () the governor of Yu Province (豫州, modern central Anhui) to join them in rebellion in the fall—but when the messengers arrived, Lu Shuang was so drunk that he misunderstood the messengers and declared a rebellion immediately, declaring Liu Yixuan emperor, and he was joined by Xu Yibao () the governor of Yan Province (兗州, modern western Shandong). Upon hearing Lu Shuang's premature actions, Liu Yixuan and Zang had to quickly declare rebellion as well, although they fell short of declaring Liu Yixuan emperor.
Emperor Xiaowu, hearing of the four provinces' rebellion, initially felt that he was unable to withstand them and considered offering the throne to Liu Yixuan, but at earnest opposition by his brother Liu Dan the Prince of Jingling, decided to resist. Most of the other provinces quickly declared their support for Emperor Xiaowu, and Yuan Huzhi () the governor of Ji Province (冀州, modern northwestern Shandong), along with Ming Yin () and Xiahou Zuhuan () quickly defeated Xu, forcing him to flee to Lu Shuang. Lu's ferocity in battle was feared by many, but he continued to drink heavily throughout the campaign, and when he encountered the troops of Emperor Xiaowu's general Xue Andu (), he fell off his horse and was killed, greatly discouraging Liu Yixuan's and Zang's troops. Liu Yixuan also did not personally trust Zang, and declined Zang's strategy of attacking Jiankang directly, instead choosing to engage Emperor Xiaowu's troops at Liangshan (梁山, in modern Chaohu, Anhui), and after some initial losses, Liu Yixuan's troops collapsed, and he fled. Zang was forced to flee as well, and soon was killed in flight. Liu Yixuan was captured and executed, ending this episode of opposition against Emperor Xiaowu. In response to the rebellion, Emperor Xiaowu decided to cut down on the strengths of the major provinces (Jing, Jiang, as well as the capital province Yang Province (揚州, modern Zhejiang and southern Jiangsu) by reducing them in size, carving East Yang Province (東揚州, modern central and eastern Zhejiang) out of Yang and Ying Province (郢州, modern eastern Hubei) out of Jing and Jiang Provinces, which had the side effect, however, of adding administrative expenses due to the multiplicity of provinces.
In 455, Emperor Xiaowu's 16-year-old younger brother Liu Hun () the Prince of Wuchang, the governor of Yong Province, in jest, wrote a declaration in which he referred to himself as the Prince of Chu and changed era name—but Liu Hun had no intention whatsoever to rebel. However, when this document was brought to Emperor Xiaowu's intention, Emperor Xiaowu stripped Liu Hun of his title and reduced him to commoner rank, and then further forced Liu Hun to commit suicide. This would start a trend in which Emperor Xiaowu suppressed the authority of his brothers. In addition, the authority of the provincial communication officers, because they served as liaisons between the emperor and the provincial governors and doubled as the emperor's watchdogs on the provincial governors, began to expand greatly.
Emperor Xiaowu, after he had completed the mourning period for his father Emperor Wen, began to spend his energy on various pleasures and construction projects. Yan Jun the mayor of Jiankang, who had assisted him greatly during his campaign against Liu Shao and who had been a long-time subordinate of his, repeatedly urged him to change his ways, and Emperor Xiaowu became displeased at him, and sent him away to be the governor of East Yang Province. Meanwhile, Emperor Xiaowu also became suspicious of his brother Liu Dan the Prince of Jingling, then the governor of South Yan Province, who was capable and who had gathered many warriors about him, and he set up military safeguards between Liu Dan's post at Guangling (廣陵, in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu) and the capital.
In 458, a coup plot by Gao Du () and the Buddhist monk Tanbiao () was discovered, and Emperor Xiaowu issued an edict reducing the number of monks and nuns greatly, but because members of Emperor Xiaowu's households often associated with nuns, the edict never actually took effect. (Emperor Xiaowu also took this opportunity to falsely accuse the official Wang Sengda (), who had disrespected Empress Dowager Lu's nephew Lu Qiongzhi (), of being involved in Gao's rebellion, after being urged to kill Wang by Empress Dowager Lu.)
With Emperor Xiaowu being distrustful of high level officials, he often consulted his long-time associates Dai Faxing (), Dai Mingbao (), and Chao Shangzhi (). The three became therefore very powerful and wealthy, notwithstanding their actual relatively low rank.
Late reign
By 459, there were many rumors that Liu Dan was going to rebel or that Emperor Xiaowu was going to act against Liu Dan, and Liu Dan built strong defenses around Guangling in response. Meanwhile, upon reports of Liu Dan's crimes (which appeared to have been instigated by Emperor Xiaowu himself), Emperor Xiaowu issued an edict demoting Liu Dan to marquess, and at the same time sent the general Yuan Tian () and Dai Mingbao to make a surprise attack on Guangling. When they approached, however, Liu Dan realized it and counterattacked, killing Yuan Tian. Liu Dan made public declarations of Emperor Xiaowu's incestuous relationships (including an allegation, which some historians believed to be true, that he had an incestuous relationship with his mother Empress Dowager Lu), infuriating Emperor Xiaowu, who proceeded to slaughter the families of all of Liu Dan's associates—many of whom had not been aware of Liu Dan's plans and had in fact fled out of Guangling back to Jiankang upon the battle being waged, only to find their families already dead.
Emperor Xiaowu sent Shen Qingzhi against Liu Dan, and Shen put Guangling under siege after cutting off Liu Dan's potential path of fleeing to Northern Wei. Liu Dan briefly abandoned Guangling and tried to flee, but upon urging by his associates returned to Guangling and defended it. Meanwhile, Emperor Xiaowu, also believing that Yan Jun had revealed his personal indiscretions, falsely accused Yan of having been a part of Liu Dan's rebellion, and first broke Yan's legs and then forced him to commit suicide, killing all male members of Yan's household after Yan had died. Shen soon captured Guangling and killed Liu Dan; upon Emperor Xiaowu's orders, most of Guangling's population was slaughtered in inhumane manners.
In 461, Emperor Xiaowu's impulsive younger brother Liu Xiumao () the Prince of Hailing, the governor of Yong Province, angry that his communications officers Yang Qing () and Dai Shuang () and military officer Yu Shenzhi () curbed his powers, started a rebellion that was quickly put down by Liu Xiumao's own subordinates. Knowing that Emperor Xiaowu had become increasingly suspicious of all of his brothers, his uncle Liu Yigong, now prime minister, suggested that imperial princes be prohibited from having weapons, from being governors of border provinces, and from associating with people other than members of their household. At the urging of Shen Huaiwen (), however, Liu Yigong's suggestions were not acted upon.
In 462, Emperor Xiaowu's favorite concubine Consort Yin died. (Most historians believe that Consort Yin was actually a daughter of Liu Yixuan, whom Emperor Xiaowu officially made a consort after Liu Yixuan's death but covered up the incestuous relationship by claiming that she was from the household of his official Yin Yan (), although some believe Consort Yin to have actually been from Yin's household and been given to Liu Yixuan before Emperor Xiaowu took her as his own after Liu Yixuan's death.) He mourned her so greatly that he was unable to carry on the matters of state, and he built a magnificent tomb and temple for her, forcing many commoners into laboring for these projects.
In 464, Emperor Xiaowu died, and was succeeded by his son Liu Ziye (as Emperor Qianfei). The historian Sima Guang, in his Zizhi Tongjian, made the following comments about the late years of Emperor Xiaowu's reign:
Late in his reign, [Emperor Xiaowu] was particularly greedy. Whenever provincial or commandery governors left their post and returned to the capital, the emperor ordered them to submit sufficient amounts of tributes, and also gambled with them without ceasing until he would win over their wealths. He was often drunk everyday and was rarely sober, but his reactions were quick. He often slept in stupor on his desk, but if there were emergency submissions from the officials, he could wake himself quickly and be alerted without sign of intoxication. Therefore, his officials were all fearful of him and did not dare to be idle.
Era names
Xiaojian (孝建 xiào jiàn) 454-456
Daming (大明 dà míng) 457-464
Family
Consorts and Issue:
Empress Wenmu, of the Wang clan of Langya (; 428–464), first cousin, personal name Xianyuan ()
Princess Kuaiji (; 446–466), personal name Chuyu ()
Married He Ji of Lujiang (; 446–482)
Princess Linhuai Kang'ai (), personal name Chupei (), third daughter
Married Wang Ying of Langya (; d. 516)
Liu Ziye, Emperor (; 449–466), first son
Liu Zishang, Prince Yuzhang (; 451–466), second son
A daughter, personal name Chuxiu ()
Princess Kangle (), personal name Xiuming ()
Married Xu Xiaosi of Donghai (; 453–499), and had issue (two sons)
Noble Consort Xuan, of the Yin clan (; d. 462), first cousin
Liu Ziluan, Prince Shiping Xiaojing (; 456–465), eighth son
Liu Ziyu, Prince Qijing (; 458–459), 14th son
Liu Ziyun, Prince Jinlingxiao (; 459–462), 19th son
Liu Ziwen (), 20th son
Liu Zishi, Prince Nanhai'ai (; 460–465), 22nd son
Princess (; d. 465), 12th daughter
Shuyuan, of the Chen clan (; d. 466)
Liu Zixun, Prince Jin'an (; 456–466), third son
Shuyi, of the He clan ()
Liu Zifang, Marquis Songzi (; 456–466), sixth son
Zhaohua, of the Shi clan ()
Liu Zixu, Prince Linhai (; 456–466), seventh son
Zhaoyi, of the Shi clan ()
Liu Ziyuan, Prince Shaoling (; 458–466), 13th son
Zhaorong, of the Xu clan ()
Liu Zishen (; b. 456), fifth son
Liu Ziren, Prince Yongjia (; 457–466), ninth son
Liu Zichan, Prince Nanping (; 459–466), 18th son
Zhaorong, of the Xie clan ()
Liu Zizhen, Prince Shi'an (; 457–466), 11th son
Liu Ziyong (), 24th son
Liu Zisi, Prince Dongping (; 463–466), 27th son
Jieyu, of the He clan ()
Liu Zifeng (; b. 457), tenth son
Liu Ziqu (; d. 466), 25th son
Jieyu, of the Jiang clan ()
Liu Zixuan (), 12th son
Liu Zikuang (; b. 459), 17th son
Liu Zixiao, Prince Huaiyangsi (; 461–464), 23rd son
Jieyu, of the Yang clan ()
Liu Zimeng, Prince Huainan (; 459–466), 16th son
Liu Ziyu, Prince Luling (; 460–466), 21st son
Ronghua, of the Ruan clan ()
Liu Zisui, Prince Jiangxia (; 456–466), fourth son
Ronghua, of the Du clan ()
Liu Ziyue (; d. 466), 28th son
Meiren, of the Jiang clan ()
Liu Ziheng (), 15th son
Liu Ziqi (; d. 466), 26th son
Unknown
Princess Angu ()
Married Wang Zhi of Langya (; 460–513)
Princess Linru ()
Married Jiang Xiao of Jiyang (; 452–495)
Princess Anji ()
Married Cai Yue of Jiyang (; 457–500)
Ancestry
References
Liu Song emperors
430 births
464 deaths
Liu Song generals
Generals from Jiangsu
Politicians from Nanjing
Political office-holders in Hunan
Political office-holders in Hubei
Political office-holders in Jiangsu
Political office-holders in Jiangxi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopi
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Shopi
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Shopi or Šopi (South Slavic: Шопи) is a regional term, used by a group of people in the Balkans. The areas traditionally inhabited by the Shopi or Šopi is called Shopluk or Šopluk (Шоплук), a mesoregion. Most of the region is located in Western Bulgaria, with smaller parts in Eastern Serbia and Eastern North Macedonia, where the borders of the three countries meet. In 2011 census in Serbia they are registered as a separate ethnicity and 142 people declared themselves as belonging to this ethnicity.
The boundaries of the Shopluk in Bulgaria are a matter of debate, with the narrowest definition confining them only to the immediate surroundings of the City of Sofia, i.e., the Sofia Valley. The boundaries that are most commonly used overlap with the Bulgarian folklore and ethnographic regions and incorporate Central Western Bulgaria and the Bulgarian-populated areas in Serbia. It is only rarely that the Shopluk is meant to include Northwestern Bulgaria, which is the widest definition (and the one used here).
Name
According to Institute for Balkan Studies, the Shopluk was the mountainous area on the borders of Serbia, Bulgaria and North Macedonia, of which boundaries are quite vague, in Serbia the term Šop has always denoted highlanders.
Shopluk was used by Bulgarians to refer to the borderlands of Bulgaria, the inhabitants were called Shopi. In Bulgaria, the Shopi designation is currently attributed to villagers around Sofia. According to some Shopluk studies dating back to the early 20th century, the name "Shopi" comes from the staff that local people, mostly pastoralists, used as their main tool. Even today in Bulgaria one of the names of a nice wooden stick is "sopa".
Shopluk area
Western Bulgaria (White Shopluk)
Sofia City Province (villages around Sofia, capital of Bulgaria)
Sofia Province (part of the Small Shopluk)
Pernik Province (part of the Small Shopluk)
Kyustendil Province (part of the Small Shopluk)
occasionally also the western parts of the Blagoevgrad Province as Black Shopluk
occasionally also the Montana Province
occasionally also the Vidin Province
occasionally also the Vratsa Province
Southeastern Serbia
Krajište region
Vlasina region
Northeastern North Macedonia
Northeastern statistical region
Eastern statistical region
Classification
It is important to mention that most Serbian researchers of the time wrongfully claimed that the Shtokavian dialect was the only dialect of the Serbian people, and therefore the misconception that there were no Serbs in Southern Serbia, Shopluk & Macedonia was made. Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić challenged this belief and, from his own research, wrote that the Serbian presence in Šopluk was much larger than it was thought at the time.
Most of the area traditionally inhabited by the Shopi is in Bulgaria. The majority of the Shopi (those in Bulgaria, as well in the Bulgarian territories annexed by Serbia in 1919) identify as Bulgarians, those in the pre-1919 territory of Serbia - as Serbs and those in North Macedonia - as ethnic Macedonians.
The noting of Shopi as a "group" began in the 19th-century migrational waves of poor workers from the so-called Shopluk, poor areas (villages) beyond Sofia.
The Bulgarian scholars put Shopi as a subgroup of the Bulgarian ethnos. As with every ethnographic group, the Bulgarian Academy notes, the Shopi in Bulgaria consider themselves the true and most pure of the Bulgarians, just as the mountaineers around Turnovo claim their land as true Bulgaria from time immemorial, etc.
In the 19th century, the Shopluk area was one of the centres of Bulgarian National Revival. As such, the enture region was made part of the Bulgarian Exarchate upon its establishment in 1870.
In 1875, during the tug-of-war regarding the basis of codificatin of modern Bulgarian, scholar Yosif Kovachev from Štip in Eastern Macedonia proposed that the "Middle Bulgarian" or "Shop dialect" of Kyustendil (in southwestern Bulgaria) and Pijanec (in eastern North Macedonia) be used as a basis for the Bulgarian literary language as a compromise and middle ground between what he himself referred to as the "Northern Bulgarian" or Balkan dialect and the "Southern Bulgarian" or "Macedonian" dialect.
When traveling across Bulgaria in 1841, French scholar Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui describes the population of the Sanjak of Niš and the Sanjak of Sofia as Bulgarian. Felix Philipp Kanitz recalled that in 1872 (during Ottoman rule), the inhabitants of the region had a Bulgarian national conscience.
By the end of the 19th century (after part of the region had been annexed by Serbia), the residents of Pirot were divided on the issue, with many in the older generation having a fondness for the Bulgarians.
According to the Czech Jireček the Shopi differed very much from the other Bulgarians in language and habits, and were regarded as a simple folk. He connected their name to the Thracian tribe of Sapsei.
The American Association for South Slavic Studies noted that the Shopi were recognized as a distinct sub-group in Bulgaria.
The rural inhabitants near Sofia were popularly claimed to be descendants of the Pechenegs. The Oxford historian C. A. Macartney studied these Shopi during the 1920s and reported that they were despised by the other inhabitants of Bulgaria for their stupidity and bestiality, and dreaded for their savagery.
In the past, some Serbian & Yugoslav scholars put the Šopi (also known as Šopovi) as a subgroup of the Serbian ethnos, claiming that the group is closer to Serbs. For example, Serbian ethnographer Jovan Cvijić, presented in 1919 at the Peace Conference in Paris a study in which he had divided the Shopluk into three groups: Serbs, mixed population, and a group closer to Bulgarians.
However, Cvijić is famous for publishing a number of different sets of ethnic maps of the Balkans, e.g., in 1906, 1913 and 1918. Ethnic borders in each of them have shifted, sometimes drastically, and usually depending on the state of affairs of the day. For example, in his 1913 map, Cvijić not only defined the then border between Serbia and Bulgaria as the ethnographic boundary between the two nations, but also described all of Macedonia east of Delčevo, Strumica and Nigrita as populated by Bulgarians. It is clear that the sudden border changes in Macedonia after the Balkan Wars and The Great War are a consequence of disagreement on the matter of self-determination and the overall imperialist attitude of all involved nations during the Macedonian Struggle.
According to A. Belitch and T. Georgevitch (1919), the Shopi were a mixed Serbo-Bulgarian people in Western Bulgaria of Serbian origin. This Serbian ethnographical group, according to them, inhabited a region east of the border as far as the line Bregovo-Kula-Belogradchik-Iskrets, thence towards Radomir and to the east of Kyustendil; to the east of that limit the Serbian population, blended with the Bulgarian element, reached the Iskar banks and the line which linked it to Ihtiman.
At present, no Serbian or international linguist supports these claims, and the border between Serbian and Bulgarian is unanimously defined as the state border between the two countries, except for the districts of Bosilegrad and Dimitrovgrad, which were ceded to Serbia after World War I, where the border follows the old Serbo-Bulgarian border before 1919. For more information, see also Dialects of Serbo-Croatian.
Dialects
Shopi speak a group of related dialects that belong to the "et" (western) group of Bulgarian dialects. The dialects spoken by the Shopi are sometimes collectively referred to as Shopski (Шопски), although this is not the accepted term in Bulgarian dialectology. Instead, the Western Bulgarian dialects are divided into Southwestern, spoken in Central Western and Southwestern Bulgaria, except for the region around Sofia; Northwestern, spoken in Northwestern Bulgaria and around Sofia and Outer Northwestern, spoken along the border with Serbia and by the Bulgarian minority in the Western Outlands in Serbia.
The Torlak dialects spoken by Serbs are also classified by Bulgarian linguists as part of the Transitional Bulgarian dialect, although Serbian linguists deny this. The speech that tends to be closely associated with that term and to match the stereotypical idea of "Shopski" speech are the South-Western Bulgarian dialects which are spoken from Rila mountain and the villages around Sofia to Danube towns such as Vidin.
People from Eastern Bulgaria also refer to those who live in Sofia as Shopi, but as a result of migration from the whole of Bulgaria, Shopski is no longer a majority dialect in Sofia. Instead, most Sofia residents speak the standard literary Bulgarian language with some elements of Shopski, which remains a majority dialect in Sofia's villages and throughout western Bulgaria, for example the big towns and cities of: (Sofia and Pleven- transitional speech with literary Bulgarian language), Pernik, Kyustendil, Vratsa, Vidin, Montana, Dupnitsa, Samokov, Lom, Botevgrad.
The exposition below is based on Stoyko Stoykov's Bulgarian dialectology (2002, first ed. 1962), although other examples are used. It describes linguistic features which differ from standard Bulgarian. The Standard Bulgarian words and sentences are given in romanization, with no attempt at scientific transcription apart from stress marking.
Features of Shopski shared by all or most western Bulgarian dialects
Phonology
Proto-Slavic *tʲ~*dʲ (the main marker of differentiation between the different Slavic languages) has resulted in щ~жд (ʃt~ʒd) (as in Standard Bulgarian) - леща, между (lentils, between), except for the extreme western parts of the region located in Serbia and North Macedonia, where it shades into ч~дж (t͡ʃ~d͡ʒ) and шч~жџ (ʃtʃ~dʒ), which are transitional to the reflexes in standard Serbian/Macedonian.
The variable known as (променливо я), which corresponds to the Old Bulgarian yat vowel and is realised, in the standard language, as or ( with palatalisation of the preceding consonant) in some positions and in others, is always pronounced in Shopski. Example: fresh milk in Shopski presno mleko (пресно млеко) compared with standard Bulgarian - prjasno mljako (прясно мляко) [as in Ekavian Serbian and Macedonian]. However, the existence of numerous cases of "a" after hardened "ц" (t͡s) indicates that the yat line in the past has run west of Vratsa, Sofia, Kyustendil and even Štip in North Macedonia.
The verbal endings for first person singular and third person plural have no palatalisation. Example: to sit in Shopski - seda, sedǎ (седа/седъ) but in standard Bulgarian, sedjǎ (седя)
Most dialects have little or no reduction of unstressed vowels (as in Serbian), with the exception of the Torlak dialects in Serbian, which, on the other hand, do have reduction (as in Bulgarian)
All dialects, irrespective of which country they are located in, have dynamic stress and lack either phonetic pitch or length (as in standard Bulgarian and unlike Serbian and Macedonian)
Historical /l/ in coda position has been preserved in all dialects, as in standard Bulgarian and unlike Serbian, where it is pronounced as o ("бил" vs. "био" [was])
With the exception of the extreme western parts of the region located in Serbia, pronouns conform to standard Bulgarian ones (e.g. "nie" (ние) [we], "vie" (вие) [you, 2n personal plural], etc. etc. with the exception of first person singular, which is ja (я), as in Serbian, instead of az (аз), as in Bulgarian, and the third person, on (он), fem. ona (она); neut. ono (оно), pl. oni (они), as in Serbian.
Palatalized occurs in some cases where it is absent in the standard language. Examples: mother in Shopski is majkja (майкя) and in standard Bulgarian, majka (майка); Bankja (Банкя), the name of a town near Sofia, derived from Ban'-ka (Бань-ка), with a transfer of the palatal sound from to .
Morphology
There are no cases, as in most Bulgarian dialects as well as standard Bulgarian (and unlike Serbian)
There are definite articles, as in all Bulgarian dialects as well as standard Bulgarian (and unlike Serbian)
The old Slavic tenses have been kept in full and have been supplemented with additional (inferential) forms, as in all Bulgarian dialects as well as standard Bulgarian (and unlike Serbian)
The comparative and superlative form of adjectives are expressed analytically, by adding "по /po/ and "най" /nay/, as in all Bulgarian dialects as well as standard Bulgarian (and unlike Serbian)
There is only one plural form for adjectives, as in all Bulgarian dialects as well as standard Bulgarian (and unlike Serbian)
The ending for first person plural is always -ме (-me), while in standard Bulgarian some verbs have the ending -м (-m). This feature however also appears in some Southern dialects.
The definite article for masculine nouns varies. In northwestern Bulgaria, it is ǎ (-ъ). In the Extreme Northwestern Dialects and the Torlak dialects in Serbia, it is -ǎt (-ът), as in Standard Bulgarian. In the Pirdop, Botevgrad and Ihtiman dialect, it is -a (-а). In the rest of the mesoregion, it is -o (-о) as in the Moesian dialects in northeastern Bulgaria.
The preposition (and prefix) u (у) is used instead of v (в). Example: "in town" is Shopski u grado (у градо) vs. standard Bulgarian v grada (в града), cf. Serbian u gradu.
Features characteristic for the South-West Bulgarian dialect group
Phonology
In most (though not all) forms of Shopski, the stressed "ъ" () sound of standard Bulgarian (which corresponds to Old Bulgarian big yus) or yer) is substituted with or . Example: Shopski моя/мойо маж ме лаже (moja/mojo maž me laže), че одим навонка (če odim navonka) vs standard Bulgarian моят мъж ме лъже, ще ходя навън/ка) (mojǎt mǎž me lǎže, šte hodja navǎn/ka), (my husband is lying to me, I'll be going out). However, this is not typical either for the Northwestern Bulgarian dialects which have () for both the big yus or yer, nor for the Bulgarian Extreme Northwestern dialects and the Torlak dialects in Serbia, which have () for yer.
Morphology
The definite article for masculine nouns varies. In the Pirdop, Botevgrad and Ihtiman dialect, it is -a (-а). In the rest of the mesoregion, it is -o (-о) as in northeastern Bulgaria (the Moesian dialects and unlike standard Macedonian, where it is -ot (-oт). Example: Shopski otivam u grado (отивам у градо) vs standard Bulgarian otivam v grada (отивам в града), "I am going in town"
The past passive participle ending varies, depending on participle, for example, for "married" the Northwestern Bulgarian dialects, the Bulgarian Kyustendil dialect and Maleshevo-Pirin dialect and the Timok-Luznica dialect in Serbia use -en/-jen (-ен/-йен), i.e. "женен", as in standard Bulgarian, whereas the Sofia, Tran, Dupnitsa and Elin Pelin dialects use -t (-т), i.e. "женет". In other cases, -en/-jen (-ен/-йен) is the preferred ending in most of the central and southern parts of the region, as in most southern Bulgarian, i.e. Rup dialects as well as Standard Serbian and Macedonian
In the past aorist tense and in the past active participle the stress falls always on the ending and not on the stem. Example: Shopski gle'dah (гле'дах), gle'dal (гле'дал) vs standard Bulgarian 'gledah ('гледах), 'gledal ('гледал), "[I] was watching; [he, she, it] watched"
Features characteristic of the Sofia and Elin Pelin dialects
Morphology
In the present tense for the first and second conjugation, the ending for the first person singular is always -м (-m) as in Serbian while in standard Bulgarian some verbs have the ending -а/я (-a/ja). Example: Shopski я седим (ja sedim) vs standard Bulgarian аз седя (az sedja) (I am sitting, we are sitting)
In the third person singular, present tense, the ending is ат (-at), as in standard Bulgarian.
All conjugation forms for the aorist and imperfect follow entirely the standard Bulgarian conjugation pattern, including with ending ха (-ha) for 3rd person plural for both aorist and imperfect (hu and še in Serbian, respectively)
Most often the particle for the forming of the future tense is че (če) (Sofia dialect), ке (k'e) (Samokov dialect) or ше (še) (Elin Pelin dialect), instead of standard ще (šte). The form še is used in the more urbanized areas and is rather common in the colloquial speech of Sofia in general. Example: Shopski че одим, ше ода, ке ода/одим (ше) ода (če odim, še oda, k'е oda/odim) vs standard Bulgarian ще ходя (šte hodja) (I will be going)
Lack of past imperfect active participle, used to form the renarrative mood. In other words, in these dialects there are forms like дал (dal), писал (pisal), мислил (mislil), пил (pil) (past aorist active participles), but no дадял (dadyal), пишел (pishel), мислел (mislel), пиел (piel).
Other features
The /x/-sound is often omitted. Despite being particularly associated with Shopski, this is actually characteristic of most rural Bulgarian dialects. Example: Shopski леб (leb), одиа (odia) vs standard Bulgarian хляб (hljab), ходиха (hodiha) (bread, they went)
Vocabulary
There are plenty of typical words for the Shop dialect in particular, as well as for other western dialects in general.
Some examples are:
Culture
The Shopi have a very original and characteristic folklore. The traditional male costume of the Shopi is white, while the female costumes are diverse. White male costumes are spread at the western Shopluk. The hats they wear are also white and tall (called gugla). Traditionally Shopi costume from the Kyustendil region are in black and they are called Chernodreshkovci — Blackcoats. Some Shope women wear a special kind of sukman called a litak, which is black, generally is worn without an apron, and is heavily decorated around the neck and bottom of the skirt in gold, often with great quantities of gold-colored sequins. Embroidery is well developed as an art and is very conservative. Agriculture is the traditional main occupation, with cattle breeding coming second.
The traditional Shop house that has a fireplace in the centre has only survived in some more remote villages, being displaced by the Middle Bulgarian type. The villages in the plains are larger, while those in the higher areas are somewhat straggling and have traditionally been inhabited by single families (zadruga). The unusually large share of placenames ending in -ovci, -enci and -jane evidence for the preservation of the zadruga until even after the 19th century.
Artistic culture
In terms of music, the Shopi have a complex folklore with the heroic epic and humor playing an important part. The Shopi are also known for playing particularly fast and intense versions of Bulgarian dances. The gadulka; the kaval and the gaida are popular instruments; and two-part singing is common. Minor second intervals are common in Shop music and are not considered dissonant.
Two very popular and well-known fоlklore groups are Poduenski Babi and Bistrishki Babi — the Grandmothers of Poduene and Bistritsa villages.
Cuisine
A famous Bulgarian dish, popular throughout the Balkans and Central Europe is the Shopska salad, named after the ethnographic group.
Social
In the 19th century, around Vidin, it was not unusual for a woman in her mid 20s and 30s to have a man of 15–16 years.
The Shopi in literature and anecdotes
The Shopi — especially those from near Sofia — have the widespread (and arguably unjustified) reputation of stubborn and selfish people. They were considered conservative and resistant to change. There are many proverbs and anecdotes about them, more than about all other regional groups in Bulgaria.
A distinguished writer from the region is Elin Pelin who actually wrote some comic short stories and poems in the dialect, and also portrayed life in the Shopluk in much of his literary work.
Anecdotes and proverbs
"There is nothing deeper than the Iskar River, and nothing higher than the Vitosha Mountain." (От Искаро по-длибоко нема, от Витоша по-високо нема!).
This saying pokes fun at a perceived facet of the Shop's character, namely that he's never traveled far from his home.
Once a Shop went to the zoo and saw a giraffe. He watched it in amazement and finally said: "There is no such animal!" (Е, те такова животно нема!)
So even seeing the truth with his own eyes, he refuses to acknowledge it.
Once a Shop went to the city, saw aromatic soaps on a stand and, thinking that they were something to eat, bought a piece. He began to eat it but soon his mouth was filled with foam. He said: "Foam or not, it cost money, I shall eat it." (Пеняви се, не пеняви, пари съм давал, че го ядем.)
When money is spent, even unpleasant things should be endured.
How was the gorge of the Iskǎr River formed? As the story goes, in ancient times the Sofia Valley was a lake, surrounded with mountains. The ancient Shopi were fishermen. One day, while fishing with his boat one of them bent over in order to take his net out of the water. But the boat was floating towards the nearby rocks on the slope of the Balkan Mountains. Consequently, the Shop hit his head on the rocks and the entire mountain split into two. The lake flew out and the gorge was formed.
There is a saying throughout Bulgaria that the Shopi's heads are wooden (дървена шопска глава, dǎrvena šopska glava), meaning they are too stubborn. In Romania there is such saying about Bulgarians in general.
Once upon a time three Shopi climbed on top of the Vitosha Mountain. There was a thick fog in the valley so they thought it was cotton. They jumped down and perished.
This is to show three points: the Shopi are not very smart after all; Vitosha is very high; and, as a serious point, it is common to see Vitosha standing over low clouds shrouding the high plains and valleys of Western Bulgaria; this is a temperature inversion.
Another example of the Shopi's stubbornness: Once, in the middle of summer, a Shop wore a very thick coat. When asked if it wasn't too hot, he answered: It's not because of the coat but because of the weather.
The Shopi had a reputation of being good soldiers nevertheless there was a proverb: "A Shop will only fight if he can see the roof of his house from the battlefield", meaning he will only fight if he can see his personal interests in the fight. A proverb that wants to demonstrate the Shopi's selfishness, but may rather point to their conservatism, lack of interest to the outside world.
Some Shop shepherds are said to have observed over 40 or 50 years from their meadows on the Vitosha mountain how the capital city - Sofia situated few kilometers downhill grew from 80 000 to 300 000 in the 1930s, how new buildings and parks sprang... but never took interest to go and see the city themselves.
In other parts of Bulgaria all locals from Sofia are called, somewhat scornfully, "Shopi", although the majority of the city's population are not descendants of the real vernacular minority but of migrants from other regions.
In addition, in other parts of Bulgaria there exists the use of the derisive form "Shopar" for Shop and "Shoparism" for untidy, outdated or primitive circumstances (which show some similarity to the employ of the term "Hillbilly" in the USA). Actually the word "shopar" in Bulgarian means "young boar" and has nothing to do with the Shopi. It is a term for untidiness, since the boar is a close relative to the pig.
The sayings about the Shopi does not seize in modern day. There are popular sayings from communist period of Bulgaria such as:
Even if the gasoline price grows to $100 I'll still drive my car. Even if the price drops to a penny, I am not buying it still.
I will set my house on fire so the fire spread over my neighbor's barn.
They pretend to pay me decent salary; I pretend that I am working (also very common in the former USSR).
I take a look behind me – nothing; I take a look around me – nothing; and I am thinking – there is something. (It shows the paranoia of the Shop that the world is out to get him/her)
A traveler came upon two Shopi sitting in the village square. Since he was traveling to Istanbul he asked one of them for directions in English. The Shopi made a clicking sound with his mouth and shook head, I don't understand. The traveler attempted the same question in French, German, Russian, Spanish and other languages, but had the same result. Aggravated, the traveler started going in one direction that happened to be wrong. The second Shopi, observing this scene, lamented to his buddy “Ah, this guy knows so many languages and you knew none of them.” The first Shopi said “And what good did it do him?”.
Honours
Shopski Cove in Antarctica is named after the Shop region.
See also
Torlakian dialect, a transitional dialect of Serbian, Bulgarian and Macedonian.
References
Sources
Ethnologia Balkanica (2005), Vol. 9; Places to exchange cultural patterns by Petko Hristov, pp. 81-90, Journal for Southeast European Anthropology, Sofia
Stanko Žuljić, Srpski etnos i velikosrpstvo (1997), Google Books link
External links
Traditional Shopi costumes from Sofia and the region — old photographs
Culture in Sofia
Sofia Province
Ethnic groups in North Macedonia
South Slavs
Bulgarian people by ethnographic region
Ethnic groups in Serbia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/23rd%20%28Northumbrian%29%20Division
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23rd (Northumbrian) Division
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The 23rd (Northumbrian) Division was an infantry division of the British Army, which fought briefly in the Battle of France during the Second World War. In March 1939, after the re-emergence of Germany as a European power and its occupation of Czechoslovakia, the British Army increased the number of divisions within the Territorial Army by duplicating existing units. The 23rd (Northumbrian) Division was formed in October 1939, as a second-line duplicate of the 50th (Northumbrian) Motor Division. It was made up of two brigades, unlike regular infantry divisions that were composed of three, with battalions hailing from the north of England.
It was intended that the division would remain in the United Kingdom to complete training and preparation, before being deployed to France within twelve months of the war breaking out. The division spent little time training and its soldiers were dispersed and used to guard strategically important and vulnerable locations across North East England. Guard duty and little preparation for war were seen as a hindrance to good morale. In France, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was suffering from a manpower shortage among rear-line units. To boost morale, provide additional labour and guards for the rear echelon of the BEF, and score political points with the French Government and military, the division was sent to France in April 1940, leaving behind most of its administration and logistical units as well as heavy weapons and artillery. The men were assigned to aid in the construction and guarding of airfields. The Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Edmund Ironside, secured a promise from the BEF that the division would not be used in action owing to it being untrained and incomplete.
When Germany invaded Belgium and the Netherlands, the BEF and French armies moved to meet the attack, leaving behind the 23rd Division to continue guarding airfields. The main German attack came through the Ardennes and moved to cut off the British and French forces in northern France. With no other reserves available, the 23rd Division was ordered to the front line to defend the Canal du Nord—the only watercourse obstacle between the main German assault and the English Channel—and the only defensible position at which to stop the German attempt to encircle the BEF. By the time the division arrived at the canal, the Germans had already crossed south of their sector where French forces had yet to take up positions. Having destroyed the bridges in their area, the division was ordered to fall back to new positions to defend the town of Arras. Before the 70th Infantry Brigade could take up this new position, it was caught by advancing German armoured forces and overrun. The military situation further deteriorated, resulting in the decision to begin the Dunkirk evacuation. Elements of the division conducted delaying and rearguard actions around the perimeter before being evacuated on 31 May 1940, having suffered heavy losses. In Britain, the division was disbanded and its units were transferred to other formations to bring them up to strength.
Background
Throughout the 1930s, tensions built between Germany and the United Kingdom and its allies. During late 1937 and 1938, German demands for the annexation of Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia led to an international crisis. To avoid war, the British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, met with the German Chancellor Adolf Hitler in September and came to the Munich Agreement, which accepted that the Germans would annex the Sudetenland. Chamberlain had intended the agreement to lead to further peaceful resolution of differences, but relations between both countries soon deteriorated. On 15 March 1939, Germany breached the terms of the agreement by invading and occupying the remnants of the Czech state.
On 29 March, the British Secretary of State for War Leslie Hore-Belisha announced plans to increase the part-time Territorial Army (TA) from 130,000 men to 340,000, doubling the number of divisions. The plan was for existing TA divisions, referred to as the first-line, to recruit over their establishments, aided by an increase in pay for Territorials, the removal of restrictions on promotion which had hindered recruiting, the construction of better-quality barracks, and an increase in supper rations. The units would then form a new division, referred to as the second-line, from cadres. This process was dubbed "duplicating". The 23rd (Northumbrian) Division was to be created as a second-line formation, a duplicate of the first-line 50th (Northumbrian) Motor Division. Despite the intention for the army to grow, the programme was complicated by a lack of central guidance on the expansion and duplication process and issues regarding the lack of facilities, equipment and instructors. It had been envisioned by the War Office that the duplicating process and recruiting the required numbers of men would take no more than six months. The 50th (Northumbrian) Motor Division started this process in March. For example, the Durham Light Infantry (DLI) created three new battalions, each based around an initial cadre of just 25 officers and men. In April, limited conscription was introduced. At that time 34,500 men, all aged 20, were conscripted into the regular army, initially to be trained for six months before being deployed to the forming second-line units. The process varied widely between the TA divisions. Some were ready in weeks while others had made little progress by the time the Second World War began.
History
Formation
The 50th Division created the 69th Infantry Brigade as a second-line duplicate of the 150th Infantry Brigade, and the 70th Infantry Brigade as a second-line duplicate of the 151st Infantry Brigade. These brigades had been created by the outbreak of the war and were administered by the 50th Division until the 23rd (Northumbrian) divisional headquarters was formed on 2 October 1939. At this point, they were transferred to the new division, which in turn was assigned to Northern Command. Command of the division was given to Major-General William Norman Herbert, who was called out of retirement and had previously commanded the 50th Division. The 69th Brigade comprised the 5th Battalion, East Yorkshire Regiment, the 6th and 7th Battalions, Green Howards; and the 70th Infantry Brigade comprised the 10th, 11th and 12th Battalions, DLI.
The 23rd (Northumbrian) Division lacked any official descriptive, being labelled neither a "Motor" division like its first-line parent formation, nor an "Infantry" division akin to the majority of other British divisions. The shoulder patch is debated in the sources. It has been described as the white rose of Yorkshire but also as a Tudor rose (an amalgamation of the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster). Sources differ on whether the background was blue or green. Michael Chappell stated the white rose motif represented the Yorkshire regiments within the division, and that a green background represented the light infantry lineage of these regiments. "Examples of this sign made up for wear on uniform (with the rose stencilled on a felt patch) are in collections and indicate that the 23rd were probably one of [the few] formations wearing 'illegal' battle insignia in 1940".
Initial service and transfer to France
Following the outbreak of hostilities, the National Service (Armed Forces) Act 1939 was passed. This established nineteen as the minimum age for front line service, and soldiers under that age were transferred from combat units. Due to this policy, 40,000 TA men were moved between units. For the 23rd (Northumbrian) Division, this resulted in the loss of upwards of 10 per cent of its strength. It was envisioned that the TA divisions each be deployed intact to reinforce the regular army formations in France as equipment became available, all 26 TA divisions being deployed by the end of the first year of the war. Instead, the division was assigned to guarding vulnerable points and other locations across North East England; a common assignment for second-line formations, to free up first-line formations for training. This left little time for actual training other than parade-ground drill, a situation that adversely impacted morale. On 1 February, the 12th DLI became the Tyneside Scottish and a part of the Black Watch.
As 1939 turned into 1940, the division became caught up in an effort to address manpower shortages among the British Expeditionary Force's (BEF) rear-echelon units. More men were needed to work along the line of communication, and the army had estimated that by mid-1940 it would need at least 60,000 pioneers. The lack of such men had taxed the Royal Engineers (RE) and Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps (AMPC) as well as impacting frontline units, which had to be diverted from training to help construct defensive positions along the Franco-Belgian border. To address this issue, it was decided to deploy untrained territorial units as an unskilled workforce; thereby alleviating the strain on the existing pioneer units and freeing up regular units to complete training. As a result, the decision was made to deploy the 12th (Eastern), 23rd (Northumbrian), and the 46th Infantry Divisions to France. Each division would leave their heavy equipment and most of their logistical, administrative, and support units behind. In total, the elements of the three divisions that were transported to France amounted to 18,347 men. The divisions were to aid in the construction of airfields and pill-boxes. The intent was that by August their job would be completed and they could return to the United Kingdom to resume training before being redeployed to France as front-line soldiers. The Army believed that this diversion from guard duty would also raise morale. Lionel Ellis, the author of the British official history of the BEF in France, wrote that while the divisions "were neither fully trained nor equipped for fighting ... a balanced programme of training was carried out so far as time permitted". Historian Tim Lynch commented that the deployment also had a political dimension, allowing "British politicians to tell their French counterparts that Britain had supplied three more infantry divisions towards the promised nineteen by the end of the year".
General Edmund Ironside, Chief of the Imperial General Staff, was opposed to such a use of these divisions. He reluctantly caved to the political pressure to release the divisions, having been assured by General Sir John Gort (commander of the BEF) that the troops would not be used as frontline combat formations. The 23rd left the United Kingdom on 21 April 1940, arrived in France the following day, and was placed under the direct command of the BEF. As a labour force, the division was deployed to the region around St Pol to build airstrips. It transferred without heavy equipment or Universal Carriers and impressed a limited amount of civilian transport for mobility. The men took their rifles, although some had still not been trained in their use. Each battalion brought 14 Bren light machine guns (although few had been trained in how to use them), at most 10 Boys anti-tank rifles, and a few mortars.
German invasion of France
On 10 May 1940, the Phoney War—the period of inactivity on the Western Front since the start of the conflict—came to an end as the German military invaded Belgium and the Netherlands. As a result, the majority of the BEF along with the best French armies and their strategic reserve moved forward to assist the Belgian and Dutch armies. While these forces attempted to stem the tide of the German advance, the main German assault pushed through the Ardennes Forest and crossed the River Meuse. This initiated the Battle of Sedan and threatened to split the Allied armies in two, separating those in Belgium from the rest of the French military along the Franco-German border.
The 23rd (Northumbrian) Division, which had not advanced with the rest of the BEF, was still employed in rear-echelon duties. It was spread across the French departments of Pas-de-Calais and Somme, and had now been assigned to guard airfields. Demonstrating the division's lack of mobility, when the 10th Battalion, DLI was assigned to guard airfields near Abbeville (south of the River Somme) it required all of the divisional transport and immobilised all other units to accomplish this move.
Once the Allied commanders had realised that the German crossing of the Meuse had turned into a major breakthrough, the BEF and French armies began a fighting withdrawal from Belgium back to France. On 17 May, the lack of French reserves prompted Général Alphonse Joseph Georges, commander of all Allied forces in North-East France, to order the 23rd Division to be deployed to the new frontline along the Canal du Nord to face the German breakthrough. The following day, the division was placed under the command of Petreforce, the grouping of the 12th (Eastern), the 23rd Division, and other nearby units under the 12th Division's commander Major-General Roderic Petre. Petre informed his subordinates of the over-optimistic report that had been given to him, that the French were resilient on either side of the German breakthrough and that only small German units had penetrated deep into French territory; forces Petreforce could handle.
Fighting near Arras
The 23rd was ordered to occupy a front along the Canal du Nord, around west of Cambrai and east of Arras. The canal represented the last major water obstacle between the advancing German force and the English Channel. The 23rd Division was the only British formation standing in the way of the main German assault and the BEF's supply lines. The British official history acknowledges that the division "could do little to stop" the advancing Germans. The troops, having to make their way through refugee-packed roads, arrived along the canal but were unable to dig-in due to a lack of tools. Brigadier Richard Dawnay's 69th Brigade held the northern portion of the division's sector, taking up positions at Arleux and was in contact with the French First Army on their northern flank. Brigadier Philip Kirkup's 70th Brigade held the southern flank, to a distance of about north of Péronne. Additional French troops were supposed to be covering the division's southern flank, but due to the swift nature of the German advance they never arrived along the canal.
The author Hugh Sebag-Montefiore described the state of the unfinished canal: "there was no water in it, and the deep ditch that was supposed to hold up the German armour would not have challenged a car in some places, let alone a tank". At this point, a composite battery of eleven field guns and two howitzers were assigned to the division, coming from a Royal Artillery (RA) training camp near Arras. Most of the guns lacked the required equipment for indirect fire and could only be fired over open sights; some had no sights at all. The division soon encountered the vanguard of the German force, who did not attempt to force the canal in the division's area. With Germans nearby, the order was given to blow the bridges across the canal that included one bridge being destroyed while refugees were still crossing. During the day, an alleged spy was brought to the headquarters of the 1st Battalion, Tyneside Scottish. The individual was briefly interrogated by Lieutenant-Colonel Hugh Swinburne and the battalion's French liaison officer before a summary execution was carried out by Sergeant Dick Chambers. The division soon suffered its first casualties from air attacks. Unbeknown to the troops, the German advance troops had already formed a bridgehead over the canal to the south of the division.
Having been in position for less than 24 hours, the division was ordered to withdraw towards Arras as a result of the German crossings of the canal. The 69th Brigade moved and took up position along the River Scarpe, northeast of Arras while the 8th Royal Northumberland Fusiliers (the division's motorcycle reconnaissance battalion) entered the town itself to reinforce the garrison. The 70th Brigade was to take up position southwest of the town along the Arras–Doullens road as far as Saulty. By daybreak on 20 May, only the 70th Brigade headquarters and parts of the 10th and 11th DLI were in position. The rest of the brigade was spread out to the south east. Some were waiting on the few trucks in use to ferry them to their intended positions. Others were marching west along the roads in open formation with wide intervals under a constant threat from the Luftwaffe. During this, the brigade was joined by men of the Ordnance Corps and AMPC, who were largely unarmed.
What followed was a series of confused company actions fought by the 70th Brigade in and around the villages of Wancourt, Neuville-Vitasse, Mercatel and Ficheux. At 08:30 on 20 May, elements of the German 8th Panzer Division entered Wancourt and overran parts of the 11th DLI who were awaiting transport. Ill-equipped to engage tanks, these men were either killed or captured following the engagement that saw hand-to-hand fighting with the German panzergrenadiers. Between Neuville-Vitasse and Ficheux, the Tyneside Scottish were ambushed by the Germans. The battalion deployed on either side of the road. Company Sergeant-Major Baggs described "the boys fighting like hell with tanks all around them simply going over the men". Sustaining casualties from heavy flanking machine-gun fire, the battalion was unable to stop two German tanks, which moved up within of their positions and engaged the British troops with gun fire. Surrounded, the battalion surrendered. Baggs further described the scene: " ... our dead comrades [lay] all over the field on each side of the road. What a sacrifice!" Around 80 of the original 450 men managed to escape. On the western outskirts of Ficheux, B and C Companies of the 10th DLI were caught in the open along the road by German tanks and infantry. Both companies went to ground near the road and were engaged by three waves of German attacks, which included 22 tanks. While two tanks were put out of action, the two companies were eventually overwhelmed. The men of C Company were killed or captured in its entirety, while B Company was reduced to a platoon in strength. Later in the day, one company of the 11th DLI engaged German tanks and infantry at their old camp at Nuncq, before extracting themselves from the fight and retreating towards Abbeville. Unknown to these troops, the Germans had already captured the town and the retreating British troops were soon taken prisoner. What remained of the brigade retreated west to Houdain. That night it was only able to muster 233 officers and men including engineers picked up earlier in the day. Stragglers were rounded up by the 70th Brigade, which organised roughly 800 men of the 23rd Division into four rifle companies and turned them over to the 46th Division.
Ellis wrote that the "12th and 23rd Divisions ... had practically ceased to exist" as a result of the fighting that saw the "whole tract of country between the Scarpe and the Somme" fall into German hands, and "the British lines of communication ... finally cut; and the way to the Channel ports ... open". He continued: "It is a modest estimate of what these two Territorial divisions did to damage and delay the enemy's forces. But it may be perhaps accepted, with this important rider – at this time every single hour's delay was of incalculable service to the rest of the British Forces in France". David Fraser likewise wrote " ... these battalions, ill prepared, under-equipped and unsupported nevertheless on occasion held up the enemy for several hours".
Under mortar fire and with German troops on the opposite bank of the Scarpe, the 69th Brigade withdrew towards Farbus and Vimy Ridge, north of Arras. There, the brigade was issued with more machine guns, anti-tank rifles, and mortars although the level of training in their use was still inadequate. During the withdrawal, the brigade was attacked from the air and witnessed the Luftwaffe strafing refugee columns. Their stay at Vimy Ridge was short-lived due to the ongoing artillery fire, and the brigade moved closer to Arras taking up position at Roclincourt. The brigade could move no closer due to the heavy fighting ongoing around the town. Arras was now reinforced by the fully equipped 5th and 50th (Northumbrian) Divisions which subsequently launched a minor counter-attack. The remains of the 70th Brigade retreated to Lattre. Colonel David Marley, of the 10th DLI, began to collect and direct the remnants of the brigade. In the coming days this force became known as "Marley Force" and essentially replaced the destroyed 70th Brigade, Marley being treated as a brigadier by the division. This force withdrew to Hermaville, then onto Cambligneul by the 21st. Marley, out of contact with the division, drove to Arras to report to Petreforce HQ and was informed the 23rd Division was concentrating on the outskirts of Lille at Seclin. Transport was provided, and Marley Force made their move.
Retreat to Dunkirk
During the 22nd and 23rd, appreciating the danger that the BEF was now in, Gort issued orders for several units to deploy to form a cordon around the BEF's line of retreat and to cover its rear from a potential strong German attack. The La Bassée Canal and the river Aa were the only defensible positions covering the BEF's southern and western flanks. Two fully equipped divisions were to take up position along this line, with whatever reinforcements Gort could muster. As part of the latter, Marley Force and the 69th Brigade were to take up positions along the canal with the intent to defend Watten, near St. Omer, and Gravelines on the coast. Marley Force departed their camp, escorted by armoured cars and light tanks, but were soon turned around on the orders of Herbert, with no reason provided. The 69th Brigade embarked on three-ton trucks and began a trek towards their position. Due to ongoing aerial bombardments that blocked the roads and inflicted casualties, only the 6th Green Howards managed to arrive at the brigade's destination. They were cut off from the rest of the brigade for the remainder of the campaign. At Gravelines, around east of besieged Calais, the battalion was supported by French troops. In this position, the Green Howards fended off several German attacks and knocked out two tanks. At Calais, the garrison was ordered to deliver rations to Dunkirk. To do so, four tanks were sent out to reconnoitre the road to Gravelines to see if it was open and could allow the rest of the garrison to follow. These tanks were fired on by the Green Howards, before they were recognised as British tanks, without inflicting damage or casualties. They represented the final elements of the British force in Calais to escape, before the German cordon was complete and the garrison surrendered. The tanks joined the defence, and the battalion continued to hold the area despite mounting casualties from German artillery and air attacks.
Over the following days, the Germans established bridgeheads over the river and canal and continued to press the BEF from all sides. On 26 May, with the BEF completely surrounded, and the military situation in Flanders further deteriorating, the decision was made to evacuate the BEF from Dunkirk, the only remaining port in British hands. With the evacuation order given, the remnants of the 23rd Division began withdrawing towards Dunkirk with the men always under the threat of or actual attack from the air. During this stage of the campaign, the division was assigned to III Corps for a 48-hour period, before being placed under II Corps for the remainder of the campaign. A detachment of 100 men formed a rearguard to defend bridges over the La Bassée Canal, resulting in their eventual death or capture. On the 28th, the division reached Killem Lynde, Marley Force having conducted further rearguard duties before being relieved by other British forces. Here, all remaining transport and unnecessary baggage was destroyed. On 30 May, the division entered the final Dunkirk perimeter and moved into a defensive position behind the 50th (Northumberland) Motor Division. Marley Force surrendered all their Bren guns to the 50th Division, and around 100 men from the 11th DLI went into the frontline to reinforce their sister battalion, the 8th DLI.
Meanwhile, the 6th Green Howards had continued to fend off German attacks at Gravelines until ordered to withdraw to Bergues. From Bergues, the battalion was sent to Haeghe-Muelen, south east of Dunkirk, to bolster the garrison composed of Irish and Welsh Guards protecting the right flank of the main withdrawal corridor to the port. Scavenging abandoned small arms, anti-tank rifles, and ammunition, the battalion held their position for a further 48 hours, suffering casualties and fending off German attacks. On 29 May, the battalion was ordered to hand over their Bren guns and ammunition to the Welsh Guards and retire to Dunkirk.
What was left of the division assembled on the beaches during the morning of 31 May. While some troops were picked up on the beaches of Dunkirk, the majority of the men were evacuated via the harbour's mole during the day. During the course of the campaign, the division suffered around 1,900 casualties.
Disbandment
As soon as the troops returned from France, the British Army began implementing lessons learnt from the campaign. This involved the decision for the basic division to be based around three brigades. This process involved the break up of four second-line territorial divisions to reinforce depleted formations and aid in transforming the Army's five motor divisions (made up of two brigades) into infantry divisions (made up of three brigades). This included the disbanding of the 23rd Division, which occurred on 30 June, its units being dispersed.
Specifically, the 69th Infantry Brigade (along with the 233rd Field Company, RE, and the 124th Field Regiment, RA) was transferred to the division's first-line counterpart, the 50th (Northumberland) Motor Division to finalise its re-organisation into an infantry division. These units, as part of the 50th (Northumberland) Infantry Division, would go on to fight in the North African Campaign, the Allied invasion of Sicily, and the North West Europe Campaign including Operation Overlord. The 70th Brigade was used to reinforce "Alabaster Force", the British force sent to occupy Iceland. This force was based around the 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division, which had been reduced to two brigades prior to its deployment. On 18 May 1942, the 70th Brigade officially became part of that division and subsequently fought in Normandy. The 8th Royal Northumberland Fusiliers became the 3rd Reconnaissance Regiment, Reconnaissance Corps and served in the 3rd Infantry Division until the end of the war, fighting in North West Europe. The 507th Field Company, RE were assigned to the 148th Independent Brigade Group.
Order of battle
See also
List of British divisions in World War II
British Army Order of Battle (September 1939)
Footnotes
Citations
References
External links
North East War Memorials Project: 70th Infantry Brigade 1939–1944
Infantry divisions of the British Army in World War II
Military units and formations established in 1939
Military units and formations disestablished in 1940
Military units and formations in Northumberland
Military units and formations in County Durham
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutio%20Oratoria
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Institutio Oratoria
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Institutio Oratoria (English: Institutes of Oratory) is a twelve-volume textbook on the theory and practice of rhetoric by Roman rhetorician Quintilian. It was published around year 95 AD. The work deals also with the foundational education and development of the orator himself.
Introduction
Quintilian wrote his book during the last years of the reign of Emperor Domitian. In the tradition of several Roman emperors, such as Nero and Caligula, Domitian's regime grew harsher as time went on. “[An] active secret police preyed on the Roman population, and even senators were encouraged in various ways to inform on each other ... under Domitian, even the slightest suspicion of disrespect for the emperor became a capital crime” (xx). Social and political corruption were rife. In a move of utmost irony, the debauched Domitian appointed himself “censor perpetuus, making himself responsible for public morals” (xx).
Against this backdrop, it was very difficult to find orators in the tradition of Cicero, part of whose "fame as an orator stems from his public denunciations of enemies of the state" (XIX). Such positions were simply too dangerous to take during the reign of the emperors since Augustus. Therefore, the role of the orator had changed since Cicero's day. Now, they were more concerned with pleading cases than anything else. Into this time, Quintilian attempted to interject some of the idealism of an earlier time. “Political oratory was dead, and everyone in Rome knew it was dead; but Quintilian deliberately chooses the oratory of a past generation as his educational ideal” (Gwynn, 188).
For hundreds of years during the Middle Ages, European scholars only knew about the Institutio from quotations in other works and little fragments that they recovered. However, a complete copy was found in 1416 in the Monastery of St. Gall (St. Gallen), Switzerland:
Contents overview
Overview of Books I–II
In the first two books, Quintilian focuses on the early education of the would-be orator, including various subjects he should be skilled in, such as reading and composition. “He offers us indeed not so much a theory as a curriculum. For instance in ch. iv of Book I he discusses certain letters, the derivation of words, and parts of speech; in ch. v, the necessity of correctness in speaking and writing, choice of words, barbarisms, aspiration, accent, solecisms, figures of speech, foreign words, and compound words; in ch. vi, analogy, and in ch. viii, orthography” (Laing). Regarding the age at which the orator's training should begin, Quintilian refers to the views of Hesiod and Eratosthenes, but accepts Chrysippus’ view that a child’s life should never be without education (Quintilian 1.1.15-19).
Quintilian sees these formative years as the most critical to the education of an orator: “The infancy of the mind is as important as the infancy of the body and needs as much attention” (Quintilian 1.1.1-24). The role of the orator's nurse is greatly emphasized as “it is she that the boy will hear first, [and] it is her words that he will imitate” (Laing, 519). Parents play an equally important role, their education being a determining factor in the orator's progress. Thirdly, the paedagogus, (the slave who attends the young orator) “must be well educated and ready at all times to correct errors in grammar” (Laing, 520). Finally, Quintilian stresses that the orator should be educated by “the most accomplished teacher” (1.1.22). This ideal teacher is described in detail in (2.2.5).
In Book II, Quintilian defines rhetoric as an art, while classifying the three types of arts: theoretical, practical, and productive (2.17-18). He concludes that rhetoric partakes of all three categories, but associates it most strongly with the practical (2.18.1-5). Rhetoric is also divided into three categories: (1) art, (2) artist, and (3) work (2.14.5). Quintilian then moves into an exploration of rhetoric's nature and virtue, following it with a comparison of oratory and philosophy (2.19-21). It should also be noted that Quintilian uses these two terms, rhetoric and oratory, interchangeably (see Book II).
Overview of Books III–V
Books III-IX explore and develop the various types of oratory, focusing on the structure and methods of persuasion. Thus, these books are “concerned primarily with the art of rhetoric” (Walzer, 40).
In Book III, Quintilian begins with an apology to his readers for the dry, technical nature of his writing (3.1). The following chapters discuss the origins of rhetoric (3.2), as well as its nature and various divisions (3.3). Quintilian then asks whether there are more than three types of oratory (3.4) before discussing cause (3.5) and the status of a cause (3.6). Three overarching forms of oratory are discussed: panegyric (3.7), deliberative (3.8), and forensic (3.9).
A significant portion of the text is structured around Cicero's 5 canons of rhetoric: Books III to VI concern the process of invention, arrangement in Book VII, and style in Books VIII and IX. In Book IV, Quintilian discusses Cicero's parts of an oration (4.1-5). Book V is largely a discussion of proofs, designated as artificial or unartificial (5.1).
Overview of Book VI
The central theme of Book VI is laughter, and it is discussed extensively in chapter three. Aristotle's three artistic appeals, ethos, pathos, and logos, are also discussed in Book VI (6.2).
Overview of Books VII–IX
Book VII covers arrangement, one of Cicero's 5 canons of rhetoric. Style is discussed in Books VIII and IX.
Overview of Book X
In Book X, Quintilian surveys the past contributions of Latin and Greek authors to rhetoric(10.1). Following this discussion, Quintilian argues that the orator should imitate the best authors if he wishes to be successful (10.1.5), "For there can be no doubt that in art no small portion of our task lies in imitation, since, although invention came first and is all-important, it is expedient to imitate whatever has been invented with success" (10.2.1). Writing is then discussed (10.3), followed by correction (10.4), varied forms of composition: translation, paraphrase, theses, commonplaces, and declamations (10.5), premeditation (10.6), and improvisation (10.7).
Overview of Book XI
In Book XI, Quintilian emphasizes the orator's choice of appropriate subject matter at varying times (11.1). He further stresses the role of the audience within oratory: "Their power and rank will make no small difference; we shall employ different methods according as we are speaking before the emperor, a magistrate, a senator, a private citizen, or merely a free man, while a different tone is demanded by trials in the public courts, and in cases submitted to arbitration" (11.1.43). Also discussed are the orator's memory (11.2) and delivery (11.3), the final canons of Aristotle's rhetoric.
Overview of Book XII
Book XII addresses the career of the educated orator after he has completed his training. In the preface, Quintilian expresses, for the first time, that he is theorizing beyond the work of others:
Now there is "Nothing before and nothing behind but the sky and the Ocean." One only can I discern in all of the boundless waste of waters, Marcus Tullius Cicero, and even he, though the ship in which he entered the seas is of such size and so well found, begins to lessen sail and to row a slower stroke, and is content to speak merely of the kind of speech to be employed by the perfect orator. But my temerity is such that I shall essay to form my orator's character and to teach him his duties. Thus I have no predecessor to guide my steps and must press far, far on, as my theme may demand (Quintilian 12.Pref.4).
Above all else, Quintilian advocates that a good orator must be a vir bonus, a good man (12.1.1). To aid the orator in becoming a good man, Quintilian discusses methods for influencing his character, coupled with the study of philosophy (12.2). Quintilian then emphasizes the study of civic law as essential to orator's ability to advise the state (12.3). Also discussed are the orator's ability to draw from past and present examples (12.4), as well as a certain "loftiness of the soul" that situates the orator above fear (12.5.1). Quintilian does not offer a specific age at which the orator should begin to plead; he reasons that this age "will of course depend on the development of his strength" (12.6.2). The orator's careful selection of cases is then discussed, alongside the question of payment (12.7). In (12.8), Quintilian stresses that the orator must devote time and effort to his study of cases. But above his other duties, Quintilian makes clear that the orator "should never, like so many, be led by a desire to win applause to neglect the interest of the actual case" (12.9.1). Lastly, Quintilian compares various styles of Greek and Roman oratory (especially Atticism and the Asiatic style), also commenting on artistic styles of painting and sculpture (12.10). As he concludes, Quintilian discusses when the orator should retire and examines the possible advantages of such a career. His final words urge the orator to devote himself fully to the task: "Wherefore let us seek with all our hearts that true majesty of oratory, the fairest gift of god to man, without which all things are stricken dumb and robbed alike of present glory and the immortal record of posterity; and let us press forward to whatsoever is best, since, if we do this, we shall either reach the summit or at least see many others far beneath us" (12.11.30).
On rhetoric
In Quintilian's time, rhetoric was primarily composed of three aspects: the theoretical, the educational, and the practical. Institutio Oratoria does not claim originality; Quintilian drew from a number of sources in compiling his work. This eclecticism also prevented him from adhering too rigidly to any particular school of thought on the matter, although Cicero stands out among the other sources. Quintilian also refused any short, simple lists of rules; he evidently felt that the study and art of rhetoric could not be so reduced. This might explain the length of Institutio Oratoria, which consists of twelve books.
From the middle of the first century BC to Quintilian's time, there had been a flowering of Roman rhetoric. But by Quintilian's time, the current of popular taste in oratory was rife with what has been called "silver Latin," a style that favored ornate embellishment over clarity and precision. Quintilian's Institutio Oratoria can in many ways be read as a reaction against this trend; it advocates a return to simpler and clearer language. It may also reflect the influence of the late Emperor Vespasian, who was “[a] man of plebeian stock, ... a down-to-earth realist with the common touch” (Murray, 431); Vespasian disliked excess and extravagance, and his patronage of Quintilian may have influenced the latter's views of language. Cicero is the model Quintilian adopts as the standard-bearer for this form; during the previous century, Cicero's far more concise style was the standard. This relates to his discussion of nature and art. Quintilian evidently preferred the natural, especially in language, and disliked the excessive ornamentation popular in the style of his contemporaries. Deviating from natural language and the natural order of thought in pursuit of an over-elaborate style created confusion in both the orator and his audience. “Even difficult questions can be dealt with by an orator of moderate ability if he is content to follow nature as his leader and does not give all his attention to a showy style” (Gwynn, 78).
Institutio Oratoria is effectively a comprehensive textbook of the technical aspects of rhetoric. From the eleventh chapter of Book II to the end of Book XI, Quintilian covers such topics as natural order, the relation of nature and art, invention, proof, emotion, and language. Perhaps most influential among the ideas discussed is his examination of tropes and figures, found in Books 8 and 9. “[A] trope involves the substitution of one word for another, a figure does not necessarily entail any change either to the order or the meaning of words” (Leitch, 156). An example of a trope would be metaphor, the altering of a word's meaning. A figure, on the other hand, gives the words a new aspect or greater emotional value. Figures are divided into figures of thought, which may make proof seem more forceful, intensify emotions, or add elegance or ornamentation; and figures of diction, which is further subdivided into “the grammatical, in which the form of the word creates the figure, and the rhetorical, in which the position of the word is the primary factor” (Gwynn, 88).
A good part of this work, of course, deals with the technical aspects of rhetoric and the Institutio Oratoria stands — along with Aristotle's 'Rhetoric' and Cicero's works — as one of the ancient world's greatest works on rhetoric. He organizes the practice of oratory into five canons: inventio (discovery of arguments), dispositio (arrangement of arguments), elocutio (expression or style), memoria (memorization), and pronuntiatio (delivery). For each canon, particularly the first three, he provides a thorough exposition of all the elements that must be mastered and considered in developing and presenting arguments. The thorough and sensible presentation reflect his long experience as orator and teacher, and in many ways the work can be seen as the culmination of Greek and Roman rhetorical theory.
Throughout these and other discussions, Quintilian remains concerned with the practical, applicable aspect, rather than the theoretical. Unlike many modern theorists, he “does not see figurative language as a threat to the stability of linguistic reference” (Leitch, 156). The referential use of a word was always the primary meaning, and the use of figurative language was merely an addition to it, not a replacement for it.
On education
“My aim, then, is the education of the perfect orator” (Quintilianus, 1.Preface.9). Book I of Institutio Oratoria discusses at length the proper method of training an orator, virtually from birth. This focus on early and comprehensive education was in many ways a reflection of Quintilian's career; Emperor Vespasian's influence on the official status of education marked the period as one of conscientious education. Quintilian's contribution to this line of thought, aside from his long career as a public educator, was the opening of his text, and it is regarded as a highlight of the discussion:
“Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria is a landmark in the history of Roman education: it is the culmination of a long development, and it had no successor … [No] teacher was found who could speak with Quintilian’s authority, no orator sufficiently interested in the theory of his art to produce a second de Oratore” (Gwynn, 242).
His theory of education is one area in which Quintilian differs from Cicero. Cicero called for a broad, general education; Quintilian was more focused. He lays out the educational process step by step, from “hav[ing] a father conceive the highest hopes of his son from the moment of his birth” (Quintilianus, 1.1.1). Other concerns are that the child's nurse should speak well (“The ideal according to Chrysippus, would be that she should be a philosopher” (1.1.4)), and that both the parents and the teachers of the child should be well-educated. With respect to the parents, Quintilian “do[es] not restrict this remark to fathers alone” (1.1.6); a well-educated mother is regarded as an asset to the growing orator. Quintilian also presents a wide review of suitable literary examples, and this work is also an important work of literary criticism. While he clearly favours certain writers, his fairness is notable, as even writers, such as Sallust, an influential practitioner of the sort of style that Quintilian opposed, are afforded some consideration. Above all, Quintilian holds up Cicero as an example of a great writer and orator.
Quintilian discusses many issues of education that are still relevant today. He believed that education should be begun early, as mentioned above, but also that it should be pleasurable for the child. “Above all things we must take care that the child, who is not yet old enough to love his studies, does not come to hate them and dread the bitterness which he had once tasted, even when the years of infancy are left behind. His studies must be made an amusement” (1.1.20). The proliferation of educational toys available for pre-school aged children shows that this view still has power. He also examines the various pros and cons of public schooling versus homeschooling, eventually coming out in favour of public school, so long as it is a good school. His view is that in public schools students can learn from what is taught to and praised and censured in their peers in the group instead of only those things directed entirely at themselves. (1.2.21) One must note, however, that Quintilian makes a point of declaring that “a good teacher will not burden himself with a larger number of pupils than he can manage, and it is further of the very first importance that he should be on only friendly and intimate terms with us and make his teaching not a duty but a labor of love” (1.2.15).
Quintilian's most arresting point about the growing orator, however, is that he should be educated in morality above all else. To Quintilian, only a good man could be an orator. This is another aspect where he differs from Cicero, or rather pushes further Cicero's injunction that an orator should be a good man. Quintilian quite literally believed that an evil man could not be an orator, “[f]or the orator’s aim is to carry conviction, and we trust those only whom we know to be worthy of our trust” (Gwynn, 231). This was quite possibly a reaction to the corrupt and dissolute times in which Quintilian lived; he may have attributed the decline in the role of the orator to the decline in public morality. Only a man free from vice could concentrate on the exacting study of oratory. But “the good man does not always speak the truth or even defend the better cause…what matters is not so much the act as the motive” (Clarke, 117). Therefore, Quintilian's good orator is personally good, but not necessarily publicly good.
References
Bibliography
External links
Editions of Institutio Oratoria
Institutio Oratoria — English translation, with indices, search engine, bibliography, and history of the text at EServer.org.
Institutio Oratoria — Latin text and Butler's English translation at LacusCurtius.
Institutio Oratoria and the disputed Declamationes Majores Latin texts at the Latin Library.
Institutio Oratoria — Latin text at the Bibliotheca Augustana.
Other material
Detailed Outline of Institutio Oratoria: Outline.
A timeline history of Institutio Oratoria and its influence: MSU.
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Books about persuasion
Books about tropes
1st-century Latin books
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model%20Town%2C%20Lahore
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Model Town, Lahore
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Model Town Society (Punjabi, ) is a gated neighbourhood in Gulberg township of Lahore in Punjab, Pakistan.
History
Model Town, established in 1921, is a fruition of [Dewan Khem Chand]'s lifelong dream to see the establishment of what he called “Garden Town”. Advocate Khem Chand's unshakeable belief in the values of self-help, self-responsibility, democracy, equality, equity, and solidarity are the values of cooperation upon which the principles of cooperative societies are founded and the reason Model Town was established as and still is a cooperative society. On Sunday, 27 February 1922, about 200 persons assembled in Lahore's Town Hall under the chairmanship of Rai Bahadur Ganga Ram and decided to establish a cooperative housing society to be named as a garden town. The meeting approved Diwan Khem Chand's proposed housing scheme based on cooperative principles in the suburbs of Lahore to solve housing problems and to provide improved sanitary and better living facilities for the residents, and thus the government was requested to provide a 2000-acre (4 km²) plot of land.
The residents of Model Town, who owned their spacious houses, were retired judges, rich businessmen, traders, and upmarket store-owners. Many high court judges, doctors, and engineers had also moved to Model Town from the city. Included among the residents of this best laid-out residential estate of Lahore were college professors and officers of the civil service. The communist leader BPL Bedi, who had studied at British and German universities, lived here. His son Kabir Bedi became a famous actor in post-independence India. As of March 2015, Saifur Rehman was elected president of the Model Town Society, marking his second term in office.
Model Town Society
A preliminary committee of 21 members was formed under the chairmanship of Khan Bahadur Sir Sh. Abdul Qadir to frame the by-laws and to carry out other necessary work associated with the formation of the society. As a result, The Cooperative Model Town Society Limited was formed and subsequently registered under the Cooperative Societies Act II of 1912 in 1924. The principle aims of the Society were:
To conceive, design, develop and maintain a garden town.
To buy or otherwise acquire land, buildings, and other moveable and immovable property.
To provide services and construct, manage and maintain works, and other infrastructure of various kinds for the convenience and benefit of the resident members.
To sell, mortgage, and lease land, houses, homesites, buildings, and all moveable or immovable property as necessary for carrying out the objects of the society.
To build residential houses and other buildings for private and public use and for the convenience of members etc.
On 1 April 1941, the Government of the Punjab transferred 1,963 acres (7.9 km²) situated in Rakh, Kot Lakhpat Tehsil, District, Lahore and the transfer deed was registered with the Sub-Registrar, Lahore, on 25 April 1941.
Competition to select layout design (map) of Model Town
Dewan Khem Chand had proposed his ideas about the layout plan of the Society in his first pamphlet; this was to become the basic guide on which the layout was later planned. A 'Design Selection Committee' was formed to select a suitable layout plan. A competition was held and the Society received thirty-two plans which were displayed for exhibition to the members of the Society on 17 and 18 December 1922. This was also visited on 17 December 1922 by the Governor, Sir Edward Maclagan.
The Designs Committee of The Society was not able to select any single plan. Consequently, The Committee shortlisted the following four plans (maps) which give interesting suggestions:
1. 'Dilnagar80' by Mr. G. K. Trilokekar, Architect, Bombay;
2. 'Commonsense' by Mr. S. C. Paul, Architect, Calcutta;
3. 'Jupiter' by Mr. N. L. Verma, Architect Allahabad; and
4. 'Dilemma' by Dr. J. B. Sahni Lahore.
The prize money was distributed evenly among these four competitors. The Design Committee then assigned Mr. N. L. Verma; one of the prize-winners to combine the ideas from these four shortlisted plans into one master plan (map). For this additional work he was awarded a further Rs. 500.
The final design was approved by the Government of Punjab.
Evacuee property
The Society was declared Evacuee property after the Indo-Pak partition in 1947, as about 1100 out of 1300 members emigrated to India.
The case went to Chairman Rehabilitation Committee and they gave the historic decision in 1960 that the Society should pay Rs 100 and all assets and liabilities were shifted back to the Society. It was then placed under the management of Riaz-ud-Din Ahmad, agent to the custodian for Model Town. On 19 March 1962, 25 representatives of the Model Town Society held a meeting under the chairmanship of Khawaja Hafiz-ullah and discussed the legal status of the Society and further steps to be taken in connection with the reconstitution. As a result, the institution was registered as The Cooperative Model Town Society (1962) Limited, Lahore on 9 January 1963 by the Registrar, Cooperative Societies, Lahore Region. New bylaws of the society were registered under the Cooperative Societies Act 1925. The basic tenets of the society, however, continued to be the same as were originally planned, namely "to promote the economic and social interests of its members, particularly to plan, establish and maintain a garden town".
Administrator takeover
The Society, unfortunately, could not maintain its standards and the management staggered until April 1982 when the administrator was forced to take over the Society. The management of the Society was superseded under MLO No. 856, dated 30 March 1982. The general body and the managing committee were dissolved. All the powers and functions of the managing committee and general body were vested in the administrator. The legal status of the society continues to be a Cooperative Society registered under the Cooperative Societies Act 1925, supervised and controlled by the Registrar, Cooperatives Punjab, Lahore. please provide the copy of MLO No.856 dated 30-3-1982
Return of the elected managing committee and general body
After a lapse of twenty years, the Supreme Court of Pakistan restored the society in July 2002. Accordingly, elections were held in September 2002 under the supervision of the cooperative department. Members voted to elect a new management committee on 29 September 2002, which consisted of President Khalid Ikram Malik, Vice President Tahir A Khan, and 20 members of the Managing Committee (2 from each block) and five nominated / ex-officio members. This MC was dissolved by the Registrar within 18 months for incompetence. For two years again, the Administrator ruled the Society.
The first managing committee after restoration took over the office on 23 October 2002. This MC worked for 17 months only after which it was sacked by the Registrar for incompetence. In November 2005, on the orders of former Chief Minister Punjab, Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi, new elections were ordered. Elections were held in Dec 2005, and retired Colonel Tahir H. Kardar was elected as President and took over the charge with Tahir A. Khan as Vice President. The new managing committee completed many projects and approved its first welfare-oriented budget for the fiscal year 2005–2006. Special attention was given to the development projects in the budget. An amount of Rs. 20 million was allocated for the construction of a Community Center which had remained on paper for many years. Similarly, 15 million were allocated for widening, re-paving and repairing the roads. In order to improve the water supply system, five new tube-wells were installed and rusted water pipelines were replaced. An amount of Rs. 10 million was allocated for this project. A new truck and 25 new transformers were purchased to upgrade the electricity system. Computerization of the office records was undertaken and more technical staff and professionals were recruited to improve efficiency.
The society's administration took up a number of steps for the welfare of the residents:
Property cess was decreased from 3.5% to 2.5% of the registered value.
Legal heirs were exempted from transfer fees and other liabilities.
The electricity rates were subsidized and a relief of over 2.40 Rs. per kWh was given to the members as well as the work members.
Area and population
Model Town Society is spread over an area of 1463 acres (5.9 km²). This area is further divided into ten blocks (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J, K). Blocks L, M, N, P, Q, R and S are on the outskirts of Model Town and are administered by Lahore Development Authority (LDA). These blocks were named "Model Town Extension" when Model Town Society sold this land to LDA in return for developmental works.
The breakdown of the total area is as follows:
Residential: = 56%
Commercial: = 2%
Roads: = 19%
Nurseries and playgrounds: = 4%
Green area (parks): = 19%
The total population of Model Town is about 100,000. Model Town Society is a unique housing area in its design and is considered a posh locality of the town. Each block has its own market, playground, mosque, triangular parks, etc., which is a rare phenomenon as compared to other housing schemes.
Model Town then and now
Following the economic liberalization of Pakistan in the post-9/11 era, Model Town has benefited from the remarkable increment of social elites in Lahore. Not too long ago, Model Town was regarded as the establishment's residential dead zone.
Taxis and rickshaws were reluctant to come to Model Town due to its distance from the main city, and many social elites dubbed the development "out of Lahore", given its distance from the heart of the city. However, since the 1980s, Model Town has become a cultural center for Lahore's growing socioeconomic elite, many of whom view a Model Town address as a vehicle for upward mobility in socially rigid Pakistan.
During the regime of President General Zia-ul-Haq, General Jilani (then Martial Governor of the Punjab) took extensive interest in rehabilitating Model Town, which had fallen into obscurity following the exodus of Lahore's non-Muslim elites after partition. An initiative to refurbish the image of Model Town to its former glory in colonial days was launched in the early 1980s.
Electric supply lines were relaid, street lights & sewage system installed, roads improved, and central Model Town park was developed per the original plan from the 1920s. Further modernization, renovation of gardens and the influx of large numbers of upper and upper-middle class Lahoris helped redefine the rundown development's image and status.
Many architects, developers, and town planners regard Model Town as the best place to live in the entire city of Lahore. The ex-Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif maintains a home and holds an office in the society, while former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto is said to have maintained a home here. Hamza Shahbaz Sharif, MNA and son of Chief Minister Punjab Shahbaz Sharif, Mian Mohammad Shafi (meem-sheen) a senior journalist and many other MNAs, MPAs and bureaucrats also reside in the area. Several national sports personalities like Wasim Akram, Rameez Raja, Ijaz Ahmed and Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi live or used to live in Model Town. Other notable personalities who have lived in Model Town include the writer, intellectual and spiritualist Ashfaq Ahmed; left-wing intellectual and revolutionary poet Faiz Ahmad Faiz; Intellectualist and Dramatist Naeem Tahir and his wife, Broadcaster Yasmeen Tahir; Legendary writer and first woman pilot Hijab Imtiaz Ali; Pakistani poet who wrote the lyrics for the National Anthem of Pakistan, Abu Al-Asar Hafeez Jullundhri; secular veteran journalist, syndicated columnist and political analyst Hassan Nisar; Pakistani educationist, entrepreneur and former Mayor (Nazim) of Lahore Mian Amer Mahmood; singer par excellence Malika Pukhraj; Pakistani musician and Qawwali singer, considered one of the greatest singers ever recorded, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan; Urdu satirical and humor writer Mushtaq Ahmad Yusufi; and playwright, actor and professor Shoaib Hashmi, along with his wife, the artist, cultural writer, painter and eldest daughter of Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Salima Hashmi. Another very famous name in this town is of Bhatti Photographers, who are renowned for their wedding photography and portraits all over Pakistan.
Model Town is serviced by every major bank in Pakistan, several major retail chains, and is home to a growing Lahore intellectual elite. Major department stores include Metro (previously MAKRO), Pace, Raja Sahib and Victoria Store. The associated Link Road is very famous in Lahore, for its variety of shopping centers and now a newly built Amanah Mall beside McDonalds.
Model Town Park
Model Town Park is one of the largest public parks of Lahore consisting of of land. It was part of the original plan but was developed in 1990 by Governor Punjab General Jilani. This circular park is surrounded by the inner circular road of Model Town. People from all surrounding towns visit Model Town Park, as it offers a 2.5 km long circular jogging track, lush green lawns and serves as a social meeting spot. Human Development Forum [www.hdfpakistan.org], a forum of intellectuals of Model Town, including Dr. Ahmad Saeed, Dr. Akhtar Jafri, Qazi Javed, Prof. Imtiaz Ahmad, Prof. Tanvir Sadiq and others, arranges lectures every Sunday morning in this park near the canteen on any topic related to public life. A large number of morning walkers attend these lectures, which is a tradition that has continued for many years without fail, regardless of the weather. There is a proper 'Walkers Group' who hold tea parties and dinners among themselves. They have even printed a directory of all these walkers with their residential addresses and telephone numbers.
It was declared the best park of 2007 in Lahore by the Forest Minister. About 5000 people daily visit this park. Recently a lot of development has taken place in this park, including a new rose garden, a Chambeli garden, and a families corner near the lake with new flower beds and swings for the children. An annual flower show started in 2008; prizes are given to the best houses (flower-wise), Malis, etc. Mayor Lahore, Mian Amir Mehmood gave away the prizes to the residents and staff in 2008 and 2009.
Markets
In the heart of Model Town is the Bank Square Market and Central Commercial Market. The C-Block Market most commonly known also as Bank Square Market is the busiest commercial area in Model Town, this market holds almost all the banks, famous eateries like GOSHI, Arabian Shawarma and Subway. Moreover, in this market you shall find pet shops and construction companies as well, Jadeed Engineering has lately opened its office in this market place which has diversified it even more. The beauty of Model Town is that every block has its own small market for grocers and bakers. The Model Town Link Road connects Model Town with Faisal Town and Township areas. On both sides of the road, there are shops for almost everything. In 2006, the Managing Committee under the Presidency of Tahir Kardar leased a vacant plot to an international cash & carry store, Makro.
Sports
Sports facilities in the area include Model Town Greens, Model Town Whites, Nawab Mansoor Academy, Model Town Club (home of renowned tennis player Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi), Amir Mehmood's Club, and International Cricket Academy (LDA). Model Town also has its own Football Academy and Football Club, known popularly as Model Town Football Academy (or MTFA/MTFC). The Academy caters to all age-groups with a strict training regime. It is based at the D-block football ground. Another upcoming football club is the Fame Football Club, situated in B-block football ground.
Library
It is located in F Block (). It contains 40,000 books. Since it is a public library, membership is available at 511 Rupees. Separate reading halls for newspapers also exist. Loadshedding affects the daily routine. A Computer Lab also exists. The library remains closed annually for a month most often in September. As a library it is very important to the residents of Model Town Lahore. A proportion of the books are only used as a reference and cannot be issued. With the lending library only two books can be issued at a time.
The condition of the library has deteriorated and needs urgent attention.
Security
Model Town society ensured security for its residents by building barriers at each exit except the four main entrances. These barriers (gates) are closed after 9 pm and only four entrances (Ferozepur Road entrance, Link Road entrance, Mariyan entrance, and Arfa Karim Park entrance) are open 24 hours a day.
The crime rate has been minimized by this action. Now Model Town society also issues stickers for its residents' vehicles.
Schools and colleges
Govt. Shuhda-a-APS Model High School Model Town Lahore
Quaid-e-Azam Law College
Divisional Public School
Model Town Library
The City School
Grand Charter School
Beaconhouse School System
Lahore Grammar School
Govt. College For Women
References
External links
Model Town Society
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Asheville%20%28PG-21%29
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USS Asheville (PG-21)
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USS Asheville (Gunboat No. 21/PG-21), the lead ship in her class of two United States Navy gunboats, was the first ship of the United States Navy named for the city of Asheville, North Carolina. The ship was built at the Charleston Naval Shipyard of North Charleston, South Carolina, from her keel laying in June 1918, her launching in July 1918, and her commissioning in July 1920.
Asheville began her career in the early 1920s on power-projection missions ("showing the flag") in Central America. After her 1922 conversion to oil power from coal, Asheville sailed through the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean to join the Asiatic Fleet in the Philippines. She spent the rest of the 1920s protecting American interests and showing the flag in China. Between 1929 and 1931, Asheville protected American lives and property in Nicaragua. She returned to the Asiatic Fleet and protected American interests as the Second Sino-Japanese War began.
With increasing tensions with Japan, Asheville was withdrawn to the Philippines in the summer of 1941, where she performed local patrol duty. After the American entry into World War II and the Japanese attacks on the Philippines, Asheville, and most of the surface ships in the Philippines, moved to Java to defend the Malay Barrier against the Japanese advance. When the Allied defense crumbled in early March, the remaining American ships were ordered to retreat to Australia. Sailing alone, Asheville was spotted, attacked, and sunk south of Java by a Japanese surface force of a heavy cruiser and two destroyers on 3 March 1942.
Construction and commissioning
The keel for Asheville was laid down on 9 June 1918, at the Charleston Naval Shipyard, North Charleston, South Carolina. She was launched on 4 July 1918; sponsored by Miss Alyne J. Reynolds, daughter of Dr. Carl V. Reynolds, MD, a prominent citizen of Asheville; and commissioned on 6 July 1920, with Lieutenant Commander (LCDR) Elliott Buckmaster, who would later command the carrier during World War II, in temporary command. One week later, on 13 July, Commander Jesse B. Gay relieved Buckmaster. On 17 July, the ship was given the alphanumerical designation PG-21.
Design
Asheville was long overall, with a beam of wide and a draft of . She displaced as designed and up to at full combat load. Powered by a one-shaft Parsons steam turbine rated at and three Thornycroft Bureau Modified Steam boilers, generating a top speed of . Asheville was armed with three /50 caliber guns, two 3-pounder guns, two 1-pounder ( guns and four .30 Lewis MGs.
Modifications
Asheville was originally built to hold a crew of 159, but in 1942, she was modified to hold a crew of 166. In 1922, Asheville was converted to use oil instead of coal for her boilers.
Service history
Gulf of Mexico
Assigned to Cruiser Division 1, Cruiser Squadron 1, US Atlantic Fleet, for temporary duty at the beginning of her career, Asheville departed her builder's yard for Galveston, Texas, on 7 October 1920. Developing an engine casualty en route, however, the new gunboat put into Key West for repairs before proceeding on to her destination. She was based at Galveston for the next six months, operating in the Gulf of Mexico and making port visits at Tampa and Key West, several times during the course of that period. She also visited Havana, Cuba, from 4 to 7 January 1921.
At one point during her stay at Galveston, an oil tanker nearby caught fire and exploded. Asheville rendered prompt assistance in evacuating injured men, providing medical aid, and in preventing the blaze from spreading to nearby ships and docks.
Following overhaul, Asheville departed Galveston on 12 May 1921, for Charleston, where she arrived on 19 May, and stayed for over a month. She was then dry docked during her stay at Norfolk Naval Yard from 25 June to 2 July, and conducted various trials off Provincetown, Massachusetts, before she visited that port on Independence Day, 1921. She then visited New York City, 10 to 25 July, before she proceeded back down the eastern seaboard to pay return calls at Norfolk and Charleston, undergoing repairs and alterations at the latter.
Nicaragua – 1921
Asheville, now assigned to the Special Service Squadron, then departed Charleston on 17 August 1921, for Havana, arriving there on 20 August. Although slated to relieve on the east coast of Mexico, Asheville was ordered to proceed "without delay" to Nicaragua, as the Commander, Special Service Squadron had received word on 26 August, of a revolution in that country. The gunboat sailed thence for Bluefields, Nicaragua, where she arrived on 29 August 1921. Asheville "showed the flag" briefly at Bluefields; and, since the government had suppressed the revolution, the gunboat sailed for Port Limón, Costa Rica, where she visited briefly before steaming to her new base at Cristobal, Canal Zone, which she reached on 8 September.
She departed the following day, and paid a return visit to Bluefields, 11 to 13 September 1921, and to Port Limón, 14 to 22 September, before she returned to Cristobal on 23 September and commenced her first transit of the Panama Canal, reaching Balboa later the same day.
Panama Canal Zone and refit
Asheville spent the next few months operating off the Pacific coast of Central America, her ports of call including Puntarenas, Costa Rica; Puná and Guayaquil, Ecuador; Talara, Peru; Corinto, Nicaragua; and La Unión, El Salvador. In early January 1922, Asheville carried the governor, Jay Johnson Morrow, and physicians to the port of La Palma, Panama, to alleviate the suffering in the wake of floods that had devastated the region of Darién. Arriving on the morning of 7 January 1922, Asheville carried out relief work at La Palma until departing the following day to return to Balboa.
Transiting the Panama Canal again on 10 January 1922, Asheville paused briefly at Guantánamo Bay, 17 to 18 January, before she pressed on the Charleston, reaching that port on 25 January 1922. On 11 February 1922, the gunboat was detached from the Special Service Squadron. During April and May 1922, Asheville underwent conversion from a coal-burning vessel to an oil-burning one, the first of her type to be so altered, and within a month of her leaving the navy yard had won the engineering trophy for ships of her class.
Asiatic Fleet – 1922
On 5 June 1922, Asheville, now commanded by Commander, later Admiral, James O. Richardson departed Charleston, and sailed to join the Asiatic Fleet via the Mediterranean. After calling at Bermuda and the Azores en route, Asheville reached Gibraltar on 2 July, and celebrated Independence Day there, clearing that port on 5 July for Valletta, Malta, which she reached on 10 July 1922. Steaming thence to Alexandria, Egypt, where she visited from 17 to 23 July, Asheville then transited the Suez Canal on the 24th and then visited a succession of ports, Aden, Arabia, from 31 July to 3 August 1922; Bombay, India, 10 to 15 August; Colombo, Ceylon, 19 to 24 August; and Singapore, Straits Settlements, 1 to 5 September, before she ultimately reached Cavite, near Manila, on 11 September 1922.
Chinese unrest
Asheville was based at Cavite into mid-October 1922; during this period, she conducted short range battle practice off Corregidor. However, unrest in China due to a revolution in Fujian, soon prompted her dispatch to Chinese waters with a detachment of Marines embarked. Departing the Philippines on 16 October, she sailed for Fuzhou, a major port city on the coast of China, and arrived soon thereafter, anchoring at the mouth of the Min River. She landed her Marines on the day of her arrival, the Leathernecks transported up the river in motor sailers to Fuzhou. For the next six weeks, Asheville remained at Pagoda Anchorage, at the mouth of the Min, while the Marines were quartered at the American consulate.
Asheville remained at Fuzhou until 5 December 1922, when she sailed for Qingdao, to be present during the transfer of the former German-leased territory of Jiaozhou Bay from Japanese authority to Chinese under the 1922 Japanese-Chinese Shantung Agreement. She "showed the flag" at that North China port, ready to protect American lives and property if the need arose, for the balance of the month of December before she sailed for Shanghai on the last day of 1922, and arrived at her destination to take on stores, fuel, and for recreation for her crew, on 2 January 1923.
With concern over the movement south from Shanghai to Canton, a traditional hotbed of unrest in China, of the Chinese revolutionary, Dr. Sun Yat-Sen, Asheville was sent south to Shantou. Sailing on 27 January 1923 for South China, Asheville reached Shantou on the 30th. Asheville remained at that port until 24 February before she shifted to Hong Kong for fuel, supplies, a dry docking and minor repairs; she stayed there for a month before she returned to Shantou on 27 March. While she had been at Hong Kong, Sun Yat-Sen had assumed the title of Generalissimo on 2 March and established his party firmly at Canton.
On 10 April 1923, Asheville departed Shantou for Cavite, and arrived there three days later. The ship conducted day spotting, long-range battle, and night battle practice in Philippine waters until 1 May, when she sailed for Hong Kong to transfer new enlisted men. Asheville reached Hong Kong on 4 May, and soon resumed her operation on the coast of South China. Over the next few months, she used Hong Kong as her recreation port and stood by, watchfully waiting, at the ports of Shantou, Canton, Fuzhou, Amoy, and Yangjiang. Asheville witnessed three changes of government during her visits to Shantou and, as the occasion demanded, sent Marines ashore to protect American lives and property. At Yangjiang, her bluejacket landing party carried bacon, rice, and flour to beleaguered foreigners. She lay at Canton during the repeated attempts by the Chinese warlord General Ch'en Chiung-Ming to wrest it from the hands of Sun's troops.
After a visit to Hong Kong from 20 October to 6 November 1923, Asheville returned to Canton as a diplomatic crisis arose because of the avowed threat by Sun Yat-Sen to seize customs revenue at Canton, hitherto under international control. Sun's threat jeopardized the "Treaty Powers," whose loans to China had been financed by the revenues of the Chinese maritime customs. This "acute diplomatic tangle" found American interests represented by Ashevilles captain, Commander Richardson, who was concurrently Commander, South China Patrol.
Richardson reported daily to the Commander in Chief, US Asiatic Fleet, Admiral Thomas Washington, and the American Minister in China, on events as they unfolded and, even though the junior force commander on the scene, eventually commanded the largest force, Asheville and six destroyers that had been sent to Canton, involved in the united effort to stand firm in the face of Sun's threats. Ordered by CinCAF to concentrate the necessary force at Canton and to prevent Sun's seizure of the customs "by all measures short of war," Richardson interpreted the order as allowing him to stop Sun's attempt to seize the customs by force, but not to pursue his men if they fled. Eventually, the "firm stand and cooperation shown" by the Treaty Powers "compelled Sun Yat-Sen to recede from his threat ..." As Richardson later reflected in his memoirs, he had been entrusted with "more responsibility, more independence, and power of decision than usually come to an officer of the rank of Commander . . . ."
Showing the flag
Over the next few years, Asheville continued to operate with the Asiatic Fleet, ready to "show the flag" or put a landing force ashore to protect lives and property. During the unrest in the Yangtze valley in 1926 and 1927, Asheville again provided bluejacket and Marine landing parties as required, between 3 November 1926 and 2 April 1927, between 13 and 18 May 1927, and between 2 and 23 August 1927. In November 1927, a bluejacket landing party from Asheville proceeded up the Makyoung River to Yangjiang to protect American missions there, but, since the civil authorities had the situation well in hand by the time of their arrival, Ashevilles men returned to the ship. In the spring of 1928, Asheville replaced as flagship of the South China Patrol, and served in that capacity until relieved by her sister ship on 6 April 1929.
Return to Panama – 1929
In the summer of 1929, Asheville rejoined the Special Service Squadron, and operated out of Coco Solo, on the Atlantic side of the Panama Canal. Between 5 August 1929 and 17 June 1931, Sailors and Marines from Asheville served ashore in Nicaragua on six separate occasions, as the United States maintained forces in that country to cooperate with the Nicaraguan government in the protection of American lives and property.
Nicaragua – 1931
Typical of the conditions that resulted in the deployment of a landing party was bandit activity on the east coast of Nicaragua. On 11, 12, and 13 April 1931, a group of about 150 bandits killed 18 foreigners, of whom several were Americans, and were closing in on the town of Puerto Cabezas. Upon the first warning of this activity, Asheville, which had been at Cristobal, proceeded immediately to Puerto Cabezas, arriving there about midnight on 13 April; the bandits were only about five miles from the town. Commander Ward W. Waddell, Ashevilles captain, showed excellent judgement and initiative by anchoring his ship close to the town's wharf and turning on his searchlights and training out his guns. "By common report," the Commander, Special Service Squadron, wrote later, "any further attempts of the bandits against Puerto Cabezas immediately ceased and the fear and alarm of the citizens were greatly allayed . . . "
Return to the Asiatic Fleet – 1932
Detached from the Special Service Squadron on 27 January 1932, Asheville returned to the Asiatic Fleet soon thereafter, and, as in 1926 and 1927, provided landing forces to protect American lives and property between 18 and 23 March 1932, and between 27 June and 9 October of the same year. Over the next few years, Asheville continued to operate principally in Chinese waters in the traditional role of "showing the flag" and standing by to protect American lives and property as the occasion demanded. The Second Sino-Japanese War, which commenced on 7 July 1937, presented the Asiatic Fleet with ample opportunity on the coast of China to fulfill the latter role.
Second Sino-Japanese War – Showing the flag again
For Asheville, an example of such duty came in the spring of 1938. During much of April and the first few days of May, Asheville had lain off the port of Amoy, observing conditions there, until sailing for Shantou on 9 May. When she arrived at the latter port, she received word that Japanese forces were bombing and shelling Amoy, and would soon attempt a landing. The gunboat immediately sailed to return to Shantou, arrived there on the afternoon of 11 May just as sailors of the Japanese Special Naval Landing Force were entering the city, and dropped anchor in the outer harbor, near the British destroyer . The following day, Asheville led Diana into the inner harbor, and moored to a buoy between the American consulate and the Hope Memorial Hospital, giving a "sense of security" to the neutral residents in the Kulangsu International Settlement.
Commander Allen G. Quynn, Ashevilles captain, sent Marines from the ship's detachment ashore to guard the American hospital; the Chinese nurses there particularly appreciated the Marines' presence, fearing a repetition of outrages by the Japanese that had occurred when they had taken Nanjing in December 1937. Anchored within 300 yards of the Bund, Asheville kept a careful watch on the activities of the Japanese. One occasion the ship's medical people provided first aid to two badly wounded Chinese women-who had been shot by a Japanese sentry-taken on board from a sampan. Transferred to the American hospital as soon as possible, one of the unfortunate women died several days later. Soon thereafter, , with Captain John T. G. Stapler, Commander, South China Patrol, embarked, arrived at Amoy, releasing Asheville to proceed back to Shantou. A little over a year later, Asheville again proceeded to the port of Shantou, and witnessed its occupation by the Japanese.
Withdrawal to the Philippines – 1941
With the increasing tensions in the Far East, Admiral Thomas C. Hart, Commander in Chief, US Asiatic Fleet, withdrew Asheville and her sister ship Tulsa to the Philippines. Asheville left Chinese waters for the last time on 5 July 1941, when she sailed from Amoy for Manila. Unfortunately, the ship's single shaft broke while the ship rode out a typhoon off Shantou. Admiral Hart dispatched Marblehead to bring in the crippled gunboat. The cruiser brought Asheville home on 11 July. Since Admiral Hart had regarded Asheville and Tulsa as having neither the speed with which to run nor the guns with which to fight, he assigned them to the Inshore Patrol based at Manila, where they remained on local patrol duty into December 1941.
World War II
The outbreak of war in the Far East on 8 December 1941, 7 December east of the Date Line, found Asheville at anchor in Manila Bay. Soon after receiving a priority radio dispatch at 0340 on that day telling of hostilities with Japan, Asheville got underway for Mariveles Bay and, over the next two days, conducted patrols off Corregidor. At 1300 on 10 December, while operating on patrol station "Cast", her men noted bomb explosions in the direction of Cavite Navy Yard. Observing 27 Japanese bombers, land attack planes from the Takao and 1st Kōkūtai, headed to seaward from Cavite soon thereafter, Asheville manned her air-defense stations as guns on Corregidor opened fire on the enemy.
Following the Japanese attacks on the Philippines, Admiral Hart sent Asheville, and other surface ships, south from Manila Bay to the "Malay Barrier". By and large, only tenders and submarines remained in Philippine waters. Asheville stood out of Manila Bay a half-hour into the mid watch on 11 December 1941, and, steaming via the Celebes Sea and Balikpapan, Borneo, ultimately reached Surabaya, Java, three days after Christmas of 1941.
Retreat to Java
She was eventually based at Tjilatjap, on Java's south coast. When Japanese planes bombed and heavily damaged south of Java on 27 February 1942, Asheville was one of the ships sent to her assistance; she returned to port soon thereafter, the seaplane tender's survivors being picked up by other ships.
As the Allied defense crumbled under the relentless Japanese onslaught, however, the Allied naval command was dissolved. On the morning of 1 March 1942, Vice Admiral William A. Glassford, Commander, Southwest Pacific Force, formerly the US Asiatic Fleet, ordered the remaining American naval vessels to retire to Australian waters.
Retreat to Australia – sinking
Asheville, Lieutenant Jacob W. Britt in command, cleared Tjilatjap a little before 1500 on 1 March 1942, bound for Fremantle. In the late afternoon on 2 March, she was seen by the Australian corvette Bendigo, heading for Australia. At 0615, Tulsa sighted a ship, and identified her as Asheville, probably the last time the latter was in sight of friendly forces. During the forenoon watch on 3 March, Asheville radioed "being attacked," some south of Java. The minesweeper heard the initial distress call and turned toward the reported position some away. When a second report specified that the ship was being attacked by a surface vessel, however, Whippoorwills captain, Lieutenant Commander Charles R. Ferriter, reasoning correctly that "any surface vessel that could successfully attack the Asheville would be too much" for his own command, ordered the minesweeper to resume her voyage to Australia.
Asheville, presumed lost, was stricken from the Navy list on 8 May 1942. Not until after World War II, however, did the story of her last battle emerge, when a survivor of the heavy cruiser , told of meeting, in prison camp, Fireman 1st Class Fred L. Brown. Hampered by engine troubles and sailing alone, Asheville was discovered on 3 March 1942 by a shipborne scout plane south of Java and overtaken by a Japanese surface force, led by Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō, consisting of the destroyers and , and the heavy cruiser . As the cruiser stood by, the two Japanese destroyers closed and engaged Asheville at close range with their guns. After an intense 30-minute gun battle, the smoldering hulk of Asheville, her forecastle and bridge almost completely shot away, finally sank. Brown, an 18-year-old from Ft. Wayne, Indiana, had been in the gunboat's fire room when the surface force had overtaken the ship. Many men topside were dead by the time Brown arrived topside to abandon ship. After calling to ask if there was an officer among the swimmers, a sailor on board one of the enemy destroyers threw out a line, which Brown grasped and was hauled on board. Ashevilles only known survivor perished in the Japanese Makassar prisoner-of-war camp on 18 March 1945, in the Celebes Islands of the Netherlands East Indies.
Awards
Second Nicaraguan Campaign Medal
Yangtze Service Medal
China Service Medal
American Defense Service Medal with "FLEET" clasp
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with one battle star
World War II Victory Medal
Philippine Defense Medal
Notes
Citations
References
Online sources
Books
External links
Gunboats of the United States Navy
Ships built in Charleston, South Carolina
1918 ships
Riverine warfare
Maritime incidents in March 1942
Asheville-class gunboats (1917)
World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean
Warships lost with all hands
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivalries%20in%20the%20Australian%20Football%20League
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Rivalries in the Australian Football League
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Rivalries in the Australian Football League exist between many teams, most of which typically draw large crowds and interest regardless of both teams' positions on the ladder. The AFL encourages the building of such rivalries, as a method of increasing publicity for the league, to the point of designating one round each year as "Rivalry Round" when many of these match-ups are held on the one weekend. Whilst some rivalries, such as between teams from adjacent areas, are still strong, the designation of an entire round of fixtures as a Rivalry Round is often criticised due to some arbitrary match-ups, or ignoring stronger and more recent rivalries.
With a 23-game season and 18 teams (16 teams from 1995 until 2010 with the introduction of the Gold Coast Football Club and the Greater Western Sydney Giants in 2011 and 2012 respectively), the AFL fixtures are not equal with each team playing seven other teams twice and eight teams once. Choosing to play certain games twice, such as the local derbies and blockbusters (games between the "Big 4" Victorian clubs of Collingwood, Carlton, Essendon and Richmond, are known as "blockbuster" games), results in a skewed fixture which is rarely evened out over time.
Victorian rivalries
Carlton v Collingwood
Argued by some to be the greatest and longest-standing rivalry in the competition. Two clubs in close proximity, fuelled by the rivalry between white (Carlton) and blue collar (Collingwood) suburbs; the rivalry is intensified because the teams have met in six memorable grand finals (Carlton winning five, Collingwood one), including Carlton's 44-point comeback in 1970, and the famous Harmes-Sheldon goal in 1979. Games between these two clubs regularly attract large crowds regardless of whether they are in finals contention or not.
Essendon v Carlton
As is the case with two successful sides in any competition, fans of each club love to defeat the other. The two clubs share the record for the most premierships with 16, with the clubs meeting in 6 grand finals ( with each team having won 3 flags against the other) including a 1-point victory by Carlton against Essendon in 1947 and a drought-breaking flag in 1968 in which Carlton became the first team to have kicked fewer goals than the loser.
In the 1980s and 1990s, the rivalry went to new levels with the two teams competing in several memorable contests. In 1981 the clubs would meet in the Escort cup grand final which Essendon would win. Later on in the season in Round 20 in 1981, with Carlton leading by 26 points with 10 minutes left to play, with goals from Neale Danniher helping get the Bombers across the line by 1 point. The game is most famous for Carlton skipper Mike Fitzpatrick having the ball taken off him for wasting time. In 1993 Carlton and Essendon met in quite a few memorable affairs, including the 1993 Grand Final in which the Baby Bombers got up to win the game by 44 points against a favoured Carlton side most remembered for Michael Longs dashing goal in the first quarter, a few weeks earlier the Blues had beaten the Bombers in the first night qualifying final by 2 points and in round 2 the two teams both drew the game, after Stephen Kernahan had a chance to win the game for Carlton only to kick it out on the full in what was the highest draw game in AFL/VFL history. Carlton famously upset the heavily favoured Essendon side by 1 point in the 1999 Preliminary Final.
In 2007 Essendon led Carlton by 48 points deep into the second quarter of their Round 3 2007 match at the MCG, only to be overrun by Carlton in what would go down as their greatest ever come from behind victory; however, Essendon went on to defeat Carlton over the next 6 encounters, with Carlton finally breaking Essendon's winning streak with an emphatic 76 point win in Round 19, 2010.
Following the 2000 Preliminary final the two teams would not meet in a final until the 2011 Elimination Final and would be Carlton's first finals win in 10 years. In 2018 after Carlton's worst start to the season in the club's 121 years in the competition, the Blues would secure their first win for the season in Round 8 against Essendon. In 2022 Essendon celebrated their 150th anniversary against Carlton at the MCG, unfortunately for Essendon the blues spoilt the party winning by 26 points.
Melbourne v Collingwood
A traditional white collar (Melbourne) v blue collar (Collingwood) rivalry, additionally fuelled by a loss to Collingwood which stopped Melbourne from winning a fourth flag in a row in 1958 and Melbourne restricting Collingwood to 14 points in the 1960 grand final. Six of Melbourne's thirteen premierships came against Collingwood and the teams have met in seven grand finals, the most of any pairing. Since 2001, Melbourne has hosted Collingwood in an annual match at the MCG on the Queen's Birthday public holiday Monday in June.
Richmond v Collingwood
Arising from the fact that the two areas neighbour each other, Richmond and Collingwood were both highly successful in the late 1920s to the early 1930s; the clubs played against each other in five grand finals between 1919 and 1929 (Collingwood won in 1919, 1927, 1928 and 1929, while Richmond won in 1920). In the 1980 Grand Final, Richmond handed Collingwood an 81-point defeat, a record at the time, causing Collingwood to lose an 8th Grand Finals in a row.
Both clubs continue to draw large crowds to their meetings in each season, and the two were the subject of a 'recruiting war' throughout the 1970s and 1980s, with David Cloke, Geoff Raines, Brian Taylor, Wally Lovett, Phillip Walsh, Steven Roach, Gerald Betts, Neil Peart, Peter McCormack, Kevin Morris, Craig Stewart, Ross Brewer, Michael Lockman, Rod Oborne, Allan Edwards, John Annear, Noel Lovell and Bob Heard all exchanging clubs, as well as coach Tom Hafey (moving to Collingwood in 1977 following four flags at Punt Road).
Melees have been fought between the teams in two recent matches—Round 20, 2009, and Round 2, 2012—with almost all players from both teams involved in the altercations.
Both teams played each other 3 times during 2018, with all three games attracting massive crowds. Crowds of 72,157 and 88,180 were recorded between both home-and-away games, with Richmond winning both times, until Collingwood unexpectedly pulled off a massive upset in their finals game, smashing Richmond in the preliminary final in front of a crowd of 94,959, which caused the rivalry to reach its highest point since 1980. Games between these two clubs regularly attract large crowds regardless of whether they are in finals contention or not.
Hawthorn v Essendon
The clubs contested the grand final in three consecutive seasons between 1983 and 1985, and the rough nature of these games and other matches between the clubs made them strong rivals during the 1980s. In 1992, Hawthorn inflicted a record MCG score of 32.24 (216) against Essendon. In the 2000s, the clubs played two matches which saw bench-clearing brawls: the infamous "Line in the Sand Match" in 2004, which resulted in four players being suspended and a record $70,700 in fines; and the final round of 2009, a match which would decide eighth place between the two teams, in which four players were suspended for a total of seven matches and $27,000 in fines were handed out. The latter brawl was famously sparked by Matthew Lloyd, who applied a very hard bump that knocked out Brad Sewell in what would be Lloyd's last game.
Richmond v Carlton
A rivalry based on geographical proximity and large supporter bases, the rivalry intensified as both clubs contested several grand finals between 1969 and 1982, including the 1972 Grand Final where Richmond equalled the highest score ever in a grand final, only to be bettered by Carlton in the same match. The following year Richmond won the 1973 Grand Final in an even more physically bitter contest than in recent encounters between the two sides; Carlton got their revenge in 1982 by defeating Richmond in their last grand final appearance until their win over Adelaide in 2017. In 2013, Carlton beat Richmond by 20 points in an elimination final, which was Richmond's first final since 2001, and third final since 1982.
Since 2008, the two clubs have met annually on a Thursday night in Round 1 of each season at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, which is usually but not always the opening game of the premiership season, and draws an average crowd of 80,000. A record crowd of 94,690 attended the 2013 Elimination Final between these two traditional rivals. It was the largest crowd for the 2013 season excluding the grand final, and the largest week one finals crowd since 1972.
Carlton has also received more finals losses (16) to Richmond than any other team. Richmond has also inflicted a total of four grand final losses on Carlton (1921, 1932, 1969 and 1973). Carlton has only beaten Richmond in two grand finals (1972 and 1982). Games between these two clubs regularly attract large crowds regardless of whether they are in finals contention or not.
Essendon v Collingwood
Since 1995, the rivalry has been defined by the Anzac Day clash; a match generally draws a crowd in excess of 90,000. The inaugural Anzac Day Clash in 1995 was famously drawn in front of 94,825 fans, the 2009 match was won by Essendon in the final minute with a goal from youngster David Zaharakis, and the 2012 match was won by Collingwood by one point after Jarryd Blair's game-winning goal was reviewed by video replay before being awarded.
Essendon v Richmond
A rivalry born out of the fact that the two clubs are both part of the "Big 4" clubs in Melbourne as the highly supported teams. Since 2005, Essendon and Richmond have contested the annual Dreamtime at the 'G match, a celebration of Aboriginal players and their contribution to the league, typically held near the midway point of the season. These games usually tend to get a crowd of 80,000 or above. In 2023 Sam Durham kicked the winning goal when their was only 7 seconds left and the bombers won by 1 point 70-71.
North Melbourne v Hawthorn
Both teams entered the VFL in the 1925 expansion, and were generally unsuccessful through the first few decades, but the two teams were both very strong through the 1970s, sparking a rivalry between the clubs. The clubs played three Grand Finals against each other in four years, with North Melbourne winning their first-ever premiership in 1975 by 55 points, Hawthorn winning in 1976 by five goals, and Hawthorn winning in 1978 by three goals.
Melees have been fought between the two teams in recent matches—Round 16, 2014, and Round 5, 2015—with almost all players in both teams involved in the altercations.
Hawthorn v Geelong
The rivalry between these two clubs is noted as creating a propensity for close matches, with a number of well-known, controversial incidents arising from this rivalry. The rivalry between the two clubs has been called the “greatest modern-day rivalry”. The AFL has a lock on fixturing a match between these two teams on Easter Monday at the MCG.
History
Bruns incident
While Hawthorn and Geelong had previously played against each other in several high-profile matches, including the 1963 Grand Final, the rivalry between the two teams is widely held to have begun in their round 12 match during the 1985 season. During the match, Hawthorn star Leigh Matthews struck Geelong player Neville Bruns in the jaw, breaking it and causing Bruns to miss five games. Matthews was deregistered by the AFL for a month for the incident, and became the only player in the history of the VFL/AFL to be charged with criminal offences for an act committed on-field. He was given a $1000 fine, which was overturned on appeal. The incident caused both players to be booed by fans of the opposing teams for the rest of their careers.
1989 grand final
The 1989 grand final, contested between the two clubs, was what solidified their rivalry. The game, noted for its extreme brutality, is widely considered one of the best Grand Finals in VFL/AFL history. Earlier in the season, Hawthorn's Dermott Brereton had damaged one of Mark Yeates's testicles during a tackle. Within seconds of the game starting, Brereton was flattened by a bump from Yates. He proceeded to get up, vomit, and continued to play. This was one of many examples of Geelong 'playing the man', resulting in major injuries for several Hawks players during the game. Hawthorn controlled the game, leading by approximately 40 points for most of the match; in the last quarter, Geelong almost managed to come from behind to win, but fell short by six points.
2008 grand final
In the 2008 AFL Grand Final, Geelong was the heavily backed favourite and had lost only one match for the season, but Hawthorn upset Geelong by 26 points; Geelong won its next eleven matches against Hawthorn over the following five years, under a curse, which was dubbed the "Kennett curse" which was attributed to disrespectful comments made by Hawthorn president Jeff Kennett following the 2008 Grand Final. It was later revealed that after the 2008 grand final, Paul Chapman initiated a pact between other Geelong players to never lose to Hawthorn again. The curse was broken in a preliminary final in 2013, after Paul Chapman played his final match for Geelong the previous week.
Essendon v North Melbourne
A long-standing rivalry between North Melbourne and Essendon in the AFL can be traced back to 1896, when several clubs, including Essendon, broke away from the Victorian Football Association (VFA) to form the Victorian Football League (VFL). North Melbourne sought to join the breakaway competition, but some argue this desire was not realised due to Essendon feeling threatened by North Melbourne's proximity and the fact their inclusion could drain Essendon of vital talent. Until as late as the 1920s, Essendon largely represented the North Melbourne area in the VFL, with the majority of its members coming from North Melbourne, West Melbourne and Kensington. The two clubs almost amalgamated in 1921 when Essendon, evicted from its home ground at East Melbourne, sought to move to North Melbourne's home at Arden Street, a move which was blocked by the VFA.
North Melbourne was finally admitted into the VFL in 1925. In 1950, the two sides met in their first and only grand final meeting to date, which Essendon won by 38 points. The rivalry flared in the 1980s. In 1982, the Krakouer brothers, Jim and Phil, led the Roos to an elimination final win. Essendon had their revenge a year later, winning a preliminary final by 86 points.
The rivalry was reignited in the late 1990s and early 2000s due to the onfield success of the two sides. In preparation for the 1998 finals series, and despite losing six of their last eight to the Roos, Essendon coach Kevin Sheedy publicly labelled North executives Greg Miller and Mark Dawson as "soft" in response to comments from commentators that his Essendon team was soft. The Kangaroos beat Essendon in the much-hyped encounter that followed (a qualifying final), and North fans pelted Sheedy with marshmallows as he left the ground, although Sheedy was seemingly unfazed by the incident, encouraging a "Marshmallow Game" the next year and relishing in the fact that Sheedy's ulterior motive was to build up the game and draw a large crowd, which proved to be correct, drawing in 71,154 people to attend the game. In 2000, the Bombers thrashed North Melbourne by 125 points in a qualifying final. The biggest VFL/AFL comeback of all time occurred between the two teams when Essendon managed to come back from a 69-point deficit to win by 12 points in 2001. A meeting of the two rivals at the MCG in the 2014 AFL finals series in the 2nd Elimination Final resulted in North winning by 12 points.
Collingwood v Geelong
Geelong won their first flag in 1925 over Collingwood, in 1930 Collingwood defeated Geelong in the grand final making it four flags in-a-row for the Pies. Geelong would later deny Collingwood three successive premierships in 1937, winning a famous grand final by 32 points.
The two sides played against each other in 6 finals between 1951 and 1955, including the 1952 Grand Final when Geelong easily beat Collingwood by 46 points. In 1953, Collingwood ended Geelong's record 23-game winning streak in the home and away season, and later defeated them by 12 points in the grand final, denying the Cats a third successive premiership.
Since 2007, the clubs have again both been at the top of the ladder and have met regularly in finals. Geelong won a memorable preliminary final by five points on their way to their first flag in 44 years. In 2008, Collingwood inflicted Geelong's only home-and-away loss, by a massive 86 points, but the teams did not meet in the finals. They would meet in preliminary finals in 2009 and 2010, each winning one en route to a premiership. They finally met in a Grand Final in 2011, which Geelong won by 38 points; Geelong inflicted Collingwood's only three losses for the 2011 season.
Interstate rivalries
Essendon v West Coast
A three-decade rivalry between the Essendon Bombers and the West Coast Eagles started when Essendon coach Kevin Sheedy tied the windsock down on the School End outer terrace so the opposition would not know which way the wind was blowing. Sheedy later said of the incident three decades later, in jest, that it was because the brand sponsor had neglected to pay their account. When West Coast won the toss and kicked against the breeze, it looked as if Sheedy's plan had worked. Nevertheless, West Coast would go on to win by 7 points.
In his excitement at winning a close match in Round 16, 1993, with ruckman and forward Paul Salmon kicking a goal 30 seconds before the final siren against the West Coast Eagles (the reigning premiers), Sheedy waved his jacket in the air as he came rushing from the coaches' box. To this day, the supporters of the winning club wave their jackets in the air after the game when the two teams play. The moment is captured in Jamie Cooper's painting the Game That Made Australia, commissioned by the AFL in 2008 to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the sport, with Sheedy shown waving a red, black and yellow jacket rather than a red and black jacket, to reflect Sheedy's support of indigenous footballers. The Bombers would go on to defeat West Coast again later that year in their semi-final clash and take home the 1993 premiership cup a couple of weeks later.
Despite Sheedy's typically measured disposition, Sheedy did lose his cool on one occasion in 2000. In yet another game against the Eagles, Sheedy was fined $7,500 by the tribunal after making a cut-throat gesture to then-Eagle Mitchell White during the half-time break of the Essendon–West Coast clash in Round 15, 2000, also apparently mouthing the words "You... are... fucked!" to White.
In a famous game in 2004, with 35 seconds remaining and the scores deadlocked at 131 points apiece, Essendon legend James Hird swooped on a loose ball in the right forward pocket and snapped a match-winning goal with his 15th possession for the quarter, famously hugging an Essendon supporter in the crowd in a moment of jubilation after being fined $20,000 earlier in the week for criticising umpire Scott McLaren. Full-forward Matthew Lloyd also kicked eight goals during the game to net three Brownlow votes. Despite Hird's incredible individual effort, and to the consternation of fans and the audience of the 2004 Brownlow medal count, he did not receive any Brownlow Medal votes from the umpires for his 34 disposals and clutch goals, which some have speculated was in retribution for his tirade against umpire McLaren.
Brisbane v Port Adelaide
The rivalry between the Brisbane Lions and Port Adelaide can be traced back to July 1996 when the Fitzroy Football Club and the Brisbane Bears merged to form the Brisbane Lions as Port Adelaide were due to enter the AFL with the Brisbane Lions in 1997. Fans of both Fitzroy and the Brisbane Bears were disappointed at losing their clubs as standalone entities, and a rivalry quickly developed between the newly merged club and Port.
In their first season in 1997, both clubs played in close encounters. Firstly, Port beat the Lions by 2 points in Round 5 at Football Park before the two sides played out a draw in Round 20 at The Gabba, but Brisbane would have the last laugh as they advanced into the finals at the expense of Port Adelaide on percentage.
The rivalry escalated in the early 2000s as both sides were constantly in premiership contention and played in many close games against each other, with the rivalry reaching its peak in the 2004 AFL Grand Final when Port denied Brisbane the opportunity to win four premierships in a row to equal Collingwood's four premierships in a row from 1927 to 1930. Afterwards, the rivalry died down before re-igniting in 2020 as both sides again were premiership contenders that year. In 2023, the two sides met in a final for the first time since the 2004 Grand Final with Brisbane beating Port by 48 points.
Western Bulldogs v Greater Western Sydney
A rivalry between the Western Bulldogs and Greater Western Sydney has emerged in recent years.
The rivalry first started when Bulldogs captain Ryan Griffen controversially requested a trade to the Giants after the 2014 AFL season. The Bulldogs responded by luring the Giants' no. 1 draft pick, first-year key forward Tom Boyd, on a 7-year deal worth $7 million. Griffen and Boyd were ultimately exchanged in the same trade deal.
The two teams then met in the 2016 AFL First Preliminary Final, in which the Bulldogs were attempting to make their first AFL grand final appearance in 55 years while the Giants were attempting to reach the grand final for the first time in their fifth season in the AFL. The Bulldogs won the match by six points and would later go on to win the premiership the following week, with Boyd named among the Bulldogs' best.
The rivalry was further exacerbated by an incident in Round 21, 2017, in which Giants small forward Toby Greene collected Bulldog Luke Dahlhaus in the face with his foot while flying for a handball receive. Greene avoided suspension for the incident.
Since then, the Giants have had a slight edge in matches against the Bulldogs, winning four of their last seven matches up to the end of the 2021 season. It wasn't until Round 22 of the 2019 season that the Bulldogs would defeat the Giants again, winning by 61 points after they had trailed by 15 points at one stage in the match. It was also the first time the two teams played each other at the GIANTS stadium since the 2016 preliminary final. Twenty days later, the Giants would get their revenge, defeating the Bulldogs in a fierce and at times violent contest by 58 points in the second elimination final to progress to a semi-final against the Brisbane Lions at the Gabba and end the Bulldogs' season.
Local derbies
There are four "local derbies" in the AFL, with each of the clubs competing against their cross-town rivals at least twice every year.
Western Derby: Fremantle v West Coast
The two Western Australian-based teams contest the Western Derby. The West Coast Eagles won the first nine derbies, stretching from the inaugural derby in May 1995 until July 1999, but the Fremantle Dockers managed a seven-match consecutive winning streak in derby matches, commencing in August 2007 and ending in May 2011. Of the 56 derbies played, West Coast holds a 33–23 advantage. The best-performing player in each Western Derby is awarded the Glendinning–Allan Medal.
Showdown: Adelaide v Port Adelaide
The two teams based in South Australia, the Adelaide Crows and the Port Adelaide, contest the Showdown. The first Showdown occurred in April 1997, following the introduction of Port Adelaide into the league that year. Of the 54 Showdowns that have been contested, both Port Adelaide and Crows sit on 27 wins. The best-performing player in each Showdown is awarded the Showdown Medal. Following the death of the Adelaide's coach and assistant coach of Port Adelaide for 11 years, Phil Walsh, the Showdown Medal was renamed after Walsh for this year to commemorate his life. It was the highest-attended game between the two teams, and the lowest-ever margin. Adelaide won 116–113.
QClash: Brisbane v Gold Coast
The QClash is a derby between the only two Queensland clubs. The Gold Coast Suns won the first QClash, held in 2011, by eight points, but the Brisbane Lions have dominated the rivalry, leading the head-to-head tally 18–7 as of the end of the 2023 season. The best-performing player in each QClash is awarded the Marcus Ashcroft Medal.
Battle of the Bridge: Greater Western Sydney v Sydney
The Sydney Derby, also known as the "Battle of the Bridge", is the most recent local derby in the AFL, following the introduction of in the 2012 AFL season. The best-performing player in each derby is awarded the Brett Kirk Medal. The Sydney Swans have dominated most of the rivalry, holding a 16–10 advantage over the Giants and winning eight of the twenty-five games by at least 30 points; however, the tide started to turn in 2014, with the last 22 meetings being near-evenly split since the start of 2014, with the Giants winning a historic qualifying final in 2016 as well as elimination finals in 2018 and 2021. As of round seven of the 2023 season, GWS's last four victories over Sydney have been by a combined total of six points (2, 2, 1 and 1).
Recent rivalries
Sydney v West Coast
A rivalry between the Sydney Swans and the West Coast Eagles developed during the first decade of the 2000s due to an unusually high number of close games, many in finals. The teams met each other six times between September 2005 and March 2007, including both Grand Finals and two Qualifying Finals; the final margins of these games were: 4, 4, 2, 1, 1 and 1, with Sydney winning the 2005 Grand Final after a 72-year drought—which was the longest gap between premierships in VFL/AFL history—and West Coast winning the 2006 Grand Final. The sum of margins of 13 points across six consecutive meetings is by far the narrowest in VFL/AFL history, with 28 points (South Melbourne vs Melbourne, 28 points, 1898–1900) the nearest challenger for six consecutive games. In Round 4, 2008, the era of consistently close games came to an end when the Swans smashed the Eagles by 62 points.
West Coast v Collingwood
The rivalry between the West Coast Eagles and Collingwood Magpies stems from a series of finals matches after the VFL became the AFL, with its roots in the 1990 Qualifying Final in which West Coast and Collingwood drew the match, requiring a replay the following week. The two sides drew a final on another occasion in 2007, which went into extra time (as the replay system for finals other than the grand final having been abolished by this point), with Collingwood winning. They have met 8 times in finals since 1990, including a 2-point victory by the Eagles in the 1994 Qualifying Final. The clubs met for the first time in a Grand Final in 2018, with the Eagles winning by 5 points to claim their fourth premiership after a heroic Dom Sheed goal. The two clubs also share a common coach in Mick Malthouse, who led West Coast to their first two flags in 1992 and 1994 and took Collingwood to their 15th premiership in 2010. After the 2018 Grand Final, the pair met at Optus Stadium, where Collingwood upset the Eagles to claim a 1-point victory. The most recent finals meeting between the two was the 2020 Elimination Final, in which Collingwood (labelled the 'Dirty Pies' by Western Australian media) pulled off a huge upset to once again claim a 1-point victory in Perth and progress to the semi-final.
Brisbane v Collingwood
Angst between supporters of Collingwood and Brisbane had been caused by plenty of history between the two clubs, despite the Brisbane Lions having a relatively short existence as a merged club. Pre-merger Fitzroy was a neighbouring suburb to Collingwood, with the boundary being based on Smith Street, along with the fact that Fitzroy and Collingwood topped the VFL/AFL premiership tally during the early existence of what was then the VFL competition. There was also animosity between the Brisbane Bears and the Magpies after the Bears' number-one draft pick Nathan Buckley famously defected to Collingwood after one season on the Bears' list, citing that he wanted to win premierships and play finals footy, and that Brisbane had no future. The Bears also lost their final regular-season match in their final season (1996) to the Magpies, costing the Bears the minor premiership that season. However, the rivalry between the Lions and the Magpies was properly ignited post-merger; it began in late 1999 when Collingwood played their last-ever VFL/AFL game at their spiritual home ground, Victoria Park, with the Lions emerging 42-point victors that day and consigning the Magpies to their second wooden spoon in their VFL/AFL history that day. The rivalry between the two clubs went to the next level as the clubs played off in two consecutive Grand Finals in 2002 and 2003, with the Lions emerging victors on both occasions. These grand final results further fuelled the hatred that Collingwood supporters have towards the Brisbane Lions to this day despite the Lions having a poor decade on the field after their golden era.20 years after Brisbane completed its 3-peat the Lions and Magpies once again will be meeting in a grand final.
20 years on from their previous grand final meeting (and Brisbane's last premiership), Collingwood and Brisbane met again in the 2023 AFL Grand Final in a thrilling 4-point Collingwood victory.
Hawthorn v Sydney
Starting in 2011, these two clubs share a heated rivalry and have met four times in do-or-die games in the finals: in the 2011 semi-final, which Hawthorn won; the 2012 Grand Final, which was won by Sydney; the 2013 qualifying final, won by Hawthorn; and the 2014 Grand Final, which was won by Hawthorn. The rivalry is amplified by players who have moved between the two teams, most notably Lance Franklin to Sydney in 2013 and Tom Mitchell to Hawthorn in 2016. Regular-season games are often close matches, with single-digit margins common. In round 23, 2018 (the final round of the home and away season) Sydney lost to Hawthorn at the SCG by 9 points. This was an important game as the winner would get the double chance and play in the top 4.
St Kilda v Geelong
While the St Kilda Football Club has tasted little success in the history of Australian Rules football, only acquiring one premiership in 1966 against the Collingwood Football Club, St Kilda has been a strong team in the modern era of the AFL. This is demonstrated no better than the clashes with Geelong during the 2000s and 2010s. In the seasons between 2005 and 2011, both clubs were powerhouses, with St Kilda and Geelong both at the top of the AFL ladder during the 2009 home-and-away season. Both teams, still undefeated after 13 matches so far in the season, would finally meet in Round 14 at Docklands Stadium. This match, which broke the stadium's record of attendance for a home-and-away match, would be known as one of the most famous regular-season matches in AFL history. The game also broke the record set in Round 8, 1991, between West Coast and Essendon, as being the latest game into a season that two undefeated teams had played against each other. St Kilda narrowly defeated Geelong and asserted themselves at the top of the ladder. These two teams would eventually meet again in the 2009 AFL Grand Final, but Geelong would defeat St Kilda this time in a gripping match that went down to the wire.
Overall head-to-head results
All clubs head-to-head win percentages. Includes all matches in the VFL/AFL. Correct to the end of Round 3 of the 2021 AFL season. *Does not include Brisbane Bears.
See also
List of individual match awards in the Australian Football League
Rivalries in the National Rugby League
References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No.%2046%20Squadron%20RAF
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No. 46 Squadron RAF
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No. 46 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Air Force, formed in 1916, was disbanded and re-formed three times before its last disbandment in 1975. It served in both World War I and World War II.
World War I
No. 46 Squadron was formed at Wyton aerodrome on 19 April 1916, from a nucleus trained in No. 2 Reserve Squadron; it moved to France in October of that year equipped with Nieuport two-seater aircraft.
The squadron undertook artillery co-operation, photography, and reconnaissance operations until May 1917, when it took on a more offensive role after rearming with the Sopwith Pup. It was based at the aerodrome at La Gorgue from 12 May to 6 July 1917.
The change from a corps to a fighter squadron came at a moment when Allied air superiority was being seriously challenged by Germany, in particular through the introduction of the "circuses" formed and led by Manfred von Richthofen. Operating under the 11th Army Wing, the squadron was intensively engaged and had many combats with the enemy. In July 1917, No. 46 Squadron returned to Sutton's Farm (later Hornchurch) in Essex, for the defence of London, which had been heavily raided by Gotha bombers a short time before; no enemy aircraft penetrated its patrol area. The squadron returned to France at the end of August.
In addition to offensive patrol work, the unit undertook extensive ground strafing and did close support work in the attack on Messines Ridges.
In November 1917, the squadron was equipped with Sopwith Camels, and gave valuable assistance to the infantry in the Battle of Cambrai attack.
During the last year of the war, the squadron bombed lines of communication and ammunition dumps in the enemy's rear areas.
Intensive low-level ground attack work was carried out after the German spring offensive, in March 1918; 46 Squadron suffered high casualties as a result.
In June 1918, the squadron became part of No. 80 Wing RAF, at Serny, Pas-de-Calais. From 26 June, it was commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Louis Strange. The wing specialised in large scale attacks on enemy airfields. In October and November, the squadron was heavily involved in attacks during the German Great Retreat, during the weeks before the signing of the Armistice.
Towards the end of January 1919, the squadron was reduced to a cadre, and in February it was returned to England early; it was disbanded on 31 December.
During the war, 46 Squadron claimed 184 air victories, creating 16 aces.
Donald MacLaren joined the squadron in November 1917. MacLaren was credited with shooting down 48 aeroplanes and six balloons, making him one of the top aces of World War I;
Cecil (Chaps) Marchant;
George Thomson;
Harry Robinson;
Clive Brewster-Joske;
Roy McConnell, DFC;
Maurice D. G. Scott;
Maurice Freehill;
Philip Tudhope.
Arthur Gould Lee, who authored No Parachute and later achieved the rank of later Air Vice Marshal
Victor Yeates, the author of Winged Victory,</ref> and;
.
Between wars
The squadron was re-formed at Kenley under the RAF expansion scheme in 1936 by equipping B flight of No. 17 Squadron RAF as a full squadron. Gloster Gauntlets were the first airplanes to be allocated, and with these craft normal peacetime training activities were carried out. Wing Commander Bunny Currant, a future ace, joined the squadron as a sergeant pilot. Wing Commander Ian Gleed DSO DFC, another future ace, was posted the squadron as his first assignment after earning his wings on Christmas Day 1936.
World War II
Norway
The outbreak of war found 46 Squadron at RAF Digby, equipped with Hawker Hurricanes. Action with the enemy came quickly when, at the end of October 1939, Squadron Leader Barwell, Pilot Officer Plummer and F/Sgt Edward Shackley attacked a formation of 12 Heinkel 115s, destroying one each, and scattering the remainder. The next six months were uneventful, consisting in the main of providing air cover for the shipping convoys steaming along the East Coast; a few enemy aircraft were sighted but no contacts were made.
In May 1940, the squadron was selected to form part of the Expeditionary Force in Norway, which had been invaded by the Germans on 9 April. The Hurricanes were embarked on and, despite doubts that a Hurricane could take off from a carrier flight deck in a flat calm, they all took to the air without difficulty, thanks to the efforts of the ship's engineers, who managed to get the Glorious up to a speed of 30 knots. No. 46 Squadron assembled at Bardufoss and began operation on 26 May; patrols were maintained over the land and naval forces at Narvik without respite, some of the pilots going without sleep for more than 48 hours. Conditions on the ground were very basic with poor runways and primitive servicing and repair facilities.
Many air combats took place, and in its brief campaign in Norway the squadron accounted for at least 14 enemy aircraft, besides probably destroying many others. On 7 June the squadron was ordered to evacuate Norway immediately and, on the night of 7 through 8 June, the Hurricanes were successfully flown back to Glorious — a dangerous procedure as none of the aircraft were fitted with deck arrester hooks.
The ground parties embarked on and SS Monarch of Bermuda and reached the UK safely, but the squadron's aircraft and eight of its pilots were lost when Glorious was sunk by German warships on 9 June 1940. The two pilots who survived were the Squadron Commander, Squadron Leader (later Air Chief Marshal) "Bing" Cross, and the Flight Commander, Flight Lieutenant (later Air Commodore) "Jamie" Jameson.
Battle of Britain
The squadron re-formed at RAF Digby, becoming operational once again at the end of June, and for the next two months it was occupied in uneventful convoy and defensive patrols before moving south to Stapleford Tawney, the satellite of RAF North Weald, for the defence of London during the Battle of Britain. The Luftwaffe's main effort at the time was against coastal objectives and shipping off the coast of Essex and Kent.
The squadron, now consisting of novice pilots and without any experienced command after its decimation in Norway, suffered heavy casualties during continuous action against far superior numbers of enemy bombers and escorting fighters. But the enemy sustained such shattering losses amongst their long-range bomber forces that they had to change their tactics. The attacking forces began to fly their fighter bombers at very high altitudes and to make use of every possible patch of cloud cover. Interception became difficult, and the squadron had to change its tactics too – principally maintaining patrols at heights between 20,000 and 30,000 feet.
Early in November 1940, No. 46 Squadron, whilst on patrol over the town of Foulness, encountered some 50 Italian bombers and fighters; at least eight of them were destroyed, with no casualties or damage to the squadron, and the remainder of the Italians scattered in disorder.
The squadron claimed 34 aircraft destroyed July to December 1940, but lost 26 aircraft itself, with 16 pilots killed and three badly wounded.
After the Battle of Britain ended. the squadron engaged in convoy patrols, interspersed with escort duty to medium bombers in their attack on objectives in occupied France.
North Africa
In May 1941, the squadron was withdrawn from the line in preparation for going overseas; they embarked on the SS Almanzora at the end of the month. The ground crews reached Egypt early in July and with the squadron headquarters at Kilo 17 Fayoum Road, various detachments cooperated in the formation of maintenance, repair, and salvage units.
Pilots were operating in the defence of Malta, first as 46 Squadron and later absorbed into 126 Squadron. They were in action continuously, claiming the destruction of nearly 10 German and 10 Italian aircraft,
In May 1942, the airmen moved to Idku and reformed as a night fighter squadron with Beaufighters for action in the eastern Mediterranean. They became operational at the end of the month, and their main tasks were the interception of enemy reconnaissance and bombing aircraft, principally over Alexandria, and the escort of shipping convoys laden with supplies for Malta. At the end of October, after the 8th Army's advance from El Alamein, 46 Squadron carried out attacks on the retreating enemy columns in the Mersa Matruh area.
In November 1942, the squadron was reorganised as part of the RAF Coastal Command and operated convoy cover in Malta and Benghazi. Targets in Africa and Sicily were strafed and barges, trawlers and other small ships were attacked along the Tripolitanian coast with cannon and machine-gun fire. The New Year found the squadron preparing to resume its original role as a night fighter unit and at the end of January, two detachments left Idku — one for Tobruk and the other for RAF Abu Sueir. By the end of April two more detachments were operating at St. Jean (Palestine) and Bu Amud. With the most distant bases nearly 1,000 miles apart, administration of the squadron became very difficult.
Some out-of-the-ordinary tasks came the squadron's way. On one occasion, the Bu Amud detachment searched and found a convoy of local troops who were lost in the desert and long overdue; on another a grounded destroyer was located and given air cover until it could be refloated.
In April 1943, for the first time in the war a night fighter was controlled from a warship – the squadron's signal officer, Flight Lieutenant Muir a Canadian, having devised a homing beacon for use on the controlling ship. In July, with confirmed "kills" for one year's operations in the Middle East standing at 31, the squadron helped shepherd the invasion fleet sailing for Sicily. The end of August found a large detachment stationed in Cyprus with the main task of doing night intruder operations over Rhodes. On 14 September, Squadron leader Cuddie in command of the detachment, landed on the recently seized Dodecanese Island of Kos — the first Allied aircraft to do so; less than three weeks later the Germans invaded and Wing Commander G.A. Reid was killed.
In early 1944, with detachments operating from Abu Sueir, St. Jean and Tocra, night intruder patrols over Rhodes, Kos and Crete formed the backbone of activities. In February and March, the squadron claimed the destruction of five Junkers Ju 52s and the probable destruction of three more. April and May were quiet, despite the dovetailing of patrols with No. 252 Squadron over the islands, giving complete coverage from dusk to dawn. In September, the aircraft were controlled by HMS Ulster Queen, a Ground-controlled interception ship and the score for the month amounted to 11 enemy aircraft destroyed.
From 26 September to 11 October (a full-moon period) a detachment was established at Gambut and 16 enemy aircraft were destroyed, with one probable and four damaged. Four airmen were decorated for their part:
Warrant Officer Roy Butler (pilot), distinguished flying cross (five planes destroyed)
Warrant Officer Ray Graham (navigator), distinguished flying cross
Warrant Officer Denis Hammond (pilot), distinguished flying cross (three destroyed or damaged)
Flight Sergeant Harrison (navigator) distinguished flying medal
A Ju 52 destroyed by the detachment on 3 October was the last German aircraft destroyed by the squadron and with the withdrawal of German forces from Greece almost completed, the airmen ended their mission.
End of the war
The airmen arrived at RAF Stoney Cross at the beginning of January 1945 and began operation under Transport Command. Equipped with the Short Stirling, they manned service to the Far East between Stoney Cross and RAF Arkonam via Poona and between Stoney Cross and Dum Dum via Palam.
With the end of the war in August 1945, flights were first confined to India and the Middle East and then, with Dakotas replacing the Stirlings at the beginning of 1946, passengers and freight were carried mostly to Rome, Berlin, Warsaw, and Vienna.
Berlin Airlift
The squadron moved to RAF Manston in October 1946 and to Abingdon in December. From July 1948, the squadron was almost exclusively engaged on the Berlin Airlift; it operated at first from Wunsdorf, carrying food, and later from Fassberg and Lübeck, carrying coal. It returned to RAF Oakington in August 1949 and resumed its normal transport role until it disbanded on 20 February 1950.
First postwar re-formation
Meteors
The squadron once again re-formed, this time at RAF Odiham on 15 August 1954 as a night fighter unit equipped with Meteor NF12s and 14s. Training began almost immediately, but it took until the end of October for the squadron to reach a strength of 12 NF12 or 14s and one Meteor 7 for training and categorisation.
When Wing Commander Birchfield took over as commanding officer from Squadron Leader Ross, the manpower situation was improving, but mechanical-transport shortages caused problems for the squadron, whose dispersal was on the opposite side of the airfield from the rest of the station. By June 1955, the squadron had received "some Meteor 8s for target towing" and its strength had reached 48 officers and 110 airmen. By August, when the squadron went to Acklington for its armament practice station, there were 16 aircraft.
Javelins
In January 1956, the unit began converting to Javelins, and the first arrived in February, together with eight Meteor NF 11s: the NF 12s were sent off to No. 72 Squadron RAF. By May, all squadron pilots had converted and 15 Javelins were held; eight were earmarked for intensive flying trials whose target was 1,000 hours in two months – a feat believed by some to be impossible, but achieved in fact by "a wartime spirit." On 15 June, the squadron lost its commanding officer, Wing Commander Birchfield, in a Javelin crash. He was replaced by Wing Commander Harold ("Harry") E. White DFC** AFC (subsequently appointed CBE on retiring as an Air Commodore in 1978).
Over the years, the squadron continued to train by participating in many exercises such as Halyard, Cold Wing, Kingpin Adex, Ciano and Bombex, and it took part in various trials, including those of new pressure suits and helmets. The problem of poor serviceability and lack of spares continued when the Mk 2 Javelins replaced the Mk 1s in 1957. Two Mk6 Javelins were briefly used during the 1958 display season due to shortage of serviceable Mk 2s.
In April 1959, the squadron sent six Javelins for an exchange visit to the French Air Force 1/30 Squadron at Tours, whilst the French sent Sud Aviation Vautour aircraft to Odiham. In June the squadron won the Ingpen Trophy after being third in 1957 and second in 1958. On 30 June 1961, the squadron was disbanded again.
Second postwar re-formation
Andovers
On 1 September 1966, the squadron again was re-formed, this time at RAF Abingdon as a transport unit. The first Hawker Siddeley Andover CMk1 aircraft arrived in December, and the squadron was tasked with transport support and tactical transport, for which the Andover's ability to "kneel" – to allow vehicle entry at a shallow angle via the rear ramp – was an asset. Over the years, the squadron acquired expertise in aero-medical evacuation, short take-off and landing, route flying and parachute and one-ton container drops. In addition to carrying equipment, vehicles, passengers or paratroops, the Andover could be fitted in a VIP role and carried Cabinet Ministers including (the late) John Davies, Julian Amery and Lord Carrington and was used for the parachute jump of HRH Prince Charles into Studland Bay during his RAF training in July 1971.
It also carried out various trials with voice broadcast and long-range ferry tanks. The latter became a regular item of equipment and enabled the short-range Andover to fly long distances, such as Gander to Abingdon direct in well under eight hours.
The detachment took part in exercises in Libya, Cyprus, the Middle East, and Norway, as well as in the UK and Germany. It won the Lord VC Trophy in 1968 and again in 1971, when it also won the No. 14 Air Dispatch Trophy. In July 1968, the squadron supported Exercise Icy Mountains in Greenland, re-supplying it, and finally recovering the team. In March 1969, three aircraft were deployed to Coolidge, Antigua, to help with the Anguillan crisis. The deployment continued, albeit later at a reduced scale, until early 1971 and led to the Caribbean Trainers. The squadron was the first in the RAF to have a German exchange officer, and exchange visits were made between 46 Squadron and LTG 63 at Ahlhorn and Hohn in Germany.
In August 1969, the unit became involved in Northern Ireland duties – in particular, personnel transport – and on 13 October the same year, it was presented with its standard by King Olav V of Norway in commemoration of the squadron's 1940 Norwegian operation.
In September 1970, the squadron moved to RAF Thorney Island and began a period of extended worldwide activity by taking part in a large Far East reinforcement exercise, Bersatu Padu. In 1971 it began a two-aircraft detachment at Masirah (and added SAR to its many roles). In November 1971 and February 1972, it took part in Exercise Cold Stream with the Italian Air Force at Pisa and in Exercise Sun Pirate in Puerto Rico.
While flying the RAF Falcons on 8 April 1972, the Royal Air Force Parachute Team, one of Sqn 46's Andover, XS-609, crashed on takeoff at Siena, Italy, killing four passengers.
Twice a year, the squadron took part in Exercise MACDROP at RAF Machrihanish, in which Andovers were employed in parachute dropping with the Parachute Regiment, and SAS. In January and December 1974, unit aircraft supported Royal Engineers in Exercise Mirza – four-month civil-aid programmes whose main task was the construction of bridges in Sudan.
Finally, in March 1975 the closure of RAF Thorney Island and the dissolution of the squadron was announced. An immediate reduction in the number of aircraft and a drastic reduction in flying hours followed.
On 31 August 1975 the squadron standard was laid up in Chichester Cathedral, and the unit was disbanded.
A number of Andovers were converted to flight calibration duties with No. 115 Squadron RAF at RAF Benson, two went to Boscombe Down and one (XS641) was shifted to photo reconnaissance role to provide the U.K.'s asset for the Open Skies Treaty. Later 10 Andovers were sold to the Royal New Zealand Air Force
Reunions
The squadron is unique in the Royal Air Force because it is the only one to have held reunions since 1917. The squadron's Association has held annual Reunion Dinners continuously since 1917. The 100th consecutive Reunion was held in the Officers' Mess, RAF Benson, on 3 June 2017.
Aircraft
Locations
Commanding officers
References
External links
First World War No. 46 Squadron Aircraft & Markings
John Fraser Drummond: 46 Squadron in Norway
046
046
Military units and formations established in 1916
1916 establishments in the United Kingdom
Military units and formations in Mandatory Palestine in World War II
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20Brazil
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Languages of Brazil
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Portuguese is the official and national language of Brazil being widely spoken by most of the population. Brazil is the most populous Portuguese-speaking country in the world, with its lands comprising the majority of Portugal’s former colonial holdings in the Americas.
Aside from Portuguese, the country has also numerous minority languages, including indigenous languages, such as Nheengatu (a descendant of Tupi), and languages of more recent European and Asian immigrants, such as Italian, German and Japanese. In some municipalities, those minor languages have official status: Nheengatu, for example, is an official language in São Gabriel da Cachoeira, while a number of German dialects are official in nine southern municipalities.
Hunsrik (also known as Riograndenser Hunsrückisch) is a Germanic language also spoken in Argentina, Paraguay and Venezuela, which derived from the Hunsrückisch dialect. Hunsrik has official status in Antônio Carlos and Santa Maria do Herval, and is recognized by the states of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina as part of their historical and cultural heritage.
As of 2023, the population of Brazil speaks or signs 238 languages, of which approximately 217 are indigenous and others are non-indigenous . In 2005, no indigenous language was spoken by more than 40,000 people.
With the implementation of the Orthographic Agreement of 1990, the orthographic norms of Brazil and Portugal have been largely unified, but still have some minor differences. Brazil enacted these changes in 2009 and Portugal enacted them in 2012.
In 2002, Brazilian Sign Language (Libras) was made the official language of the Brazilian deaf community. The Brazilian Sign Language also has official status at the federal level.
On December 9, 2010, the National Inventory of Linguistic Diversity was created, which will analyze proposals for revitalizing minority languages in the country. In 2019, the Technical Commission of the National Inventory of Linguistic Diversity was established.
Overview
Before the first Portuguese explorers arrived in 1500, what is now Brazil was inhabited by several Amerindian peoples that spoke many different languages. According to Aryon Dall'Igna Rodrigues there were six million Indians in Brazil speaking over 1,000 different languages. When the Portuguese settlers arrived, they encountered the Tupi people, who dominated most of the Brazilian coast and spoke a set of closely related languages.
The Tupi called the non-Tupi peoples "Tapuias", a designation that the Portuguese adopted; however, there was little unity among the diverse Tapuia tribes other than their not being Tupi. In the first two centuries of colonization, a language based on Tupian languages known as Língua Geral ("General Language") was widely spoken in the colony, not only by the Amerindians, but also by the Portuguese settlers, the Africans and their descendants.
This language was spoken in a vast area from São Paulo to Maranhão, as an informal language for domestic use, while Portuguese was the language used for public purposes. Língua Geral was spread by the Jesuit missionaries and Bandeirantes to other areas of Brazil where the Tupi language was not spoken. In 1775, Marquis of Pombal prohibited the use of Língua Geral or any other indigenous language in Brazil. However, as late as the 1940s, Língua Geral was widely spoken in some Northern Amazonian areas where the Tupi people were not present.
However, before that prohibition, the Portuguese language was dominant in Brazil. Most of the other Amerindian languages gradually disappeared as the populations that spoke them were integrated or decimated when the Portuguese-speaking population expanded to most of Brazil. The several African languages spoken in Brazil also disappeared. Since the 20th century there are no more records of speakers of African languages in the country. However, in some isolated communities settled by escaped slaves (Quilombo), the Portuguese language spoken by its inhabitants still preserves some lexicon of African origin, which is not understood by other Brazilians.
Due to the contact with several European, Amerindian and African languages, the Portuguese spoken in Brazil absorbed many influences from these languages, which led to a notable differentiation from the Portuguese spoken in Portugal. Examples of widely used words of Tupi origin in Brazilian Portuguese include abacaxi ("pineapple"), pipoca ("popcorn"), catapora ("chickenpox"), and siri ("crab"). The names of thirteen of Brazil's twenty six states also have Amerindian origin.
Starting in the early 19th century, Brazil started to receive substantial immigration of non-Portuguese-speaking people from Europe and Asia. Most immigrants, particularly Italians and Spaniards, adopted the Portuguese language after a few generations. Other immigrants, particularly Germans, Japanese, Poles and Ukrainians, preserved their languages for more generations. German-speaking immigrants started arriving in 1824. They came not only from Germany, but also from other countries that had a substantial German-speaking population (Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Romania and Russia (Volga Germans).
During over 100 years of continuous emigration, it is estimated that some 300,000 German-speaking immigrants settled in Brazil. Italian immigration started in 1875 and about 1.5 million Italians immigrated to Brazil until World War II. They spoke several dialects from Italy. Other sources of immigration to Brazil included Spaniards, Poles, Ukrainians, Japanese and Middle-easterns. With the notable exception of the Germans, who preserved their language for several generations, and in some degree the Japanese, Poles, Ukrainians, Arabs, Kurds and Italians, most of the immigrants in Brazil adopted Portuguese as their mother tongue after a few generations.
Portuguese
Portuguese is the official language of Brazil and the primary language used in most schools and media. It is also used for all business and administrative purposes. Brazilian Portuguese has had its own development, influenced by the other European languages such as Italian and German in the South and Southeast, and several indigenous languages all across the country.
For this reason, Brazilian Portuguese differs significantly from European Portuguese and other dialects of Portuguese-speaking countries, even though they are all mutually intelligible. Such differences occur in phonetics and lexicon and have been compared to the differences between British English and American English.
During the 18th century, other differences between the Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese developed, mainly through the introduction of lexicon from African and Tupi languages, such as words related to fauna and flora. At that time Brazilian Portuguese failed to adopt linguistic changes taking place in Portugal produced by French influence.
However, when John VI, the Portuguese king, and the royal entourage took refuge in Brazil in 1808 (when Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Portugal), he influenced the Portuguese spoken in the cities, making it more similar to European Portuguese.
After Brazilian independence in 1822, Brazilian Portuguese became influenced by Europeans who had migrated to the country. This is the reason that, in those areas (such as Rio de Janeiro and Recife), one finds variations in pronunciation (for instance, palatalization of post-vocalic /s/) and a few superficial lexical changes. These changes reflect the linguistics of the nationalities settling in each area.
In the 20th century, the divide between the Portuguese and Brazilian variants of Portuguese widened as the result of new words for technological innovations. This happened because Portuguese lacked a uniform procedure for adopting such words.
Certain words took different forms in different countries. For example: in Portugal one hears "comboio", and in Brazil one hears "trem", both meaning train. "Autocarro" in Portugal is the same thing as "ônibus" in Brazil, both meaning bus.
Brazilian Sign Language
The Brazilian Sign Language (Libras) is the sign language used by deaf people in Brazilian urban centers and legally recognized as a means of communication and expression. It is derived both from an autochthonous sign language, which is native to the region or territory in which it lives, and from French sign language; therefore, it is similar to other European and American sign languages. Libras is not the simple sign language of the Portuguese language, but a separate language, as evidenced by the fact that in Portugal a different sign language is used, Portuguese Sign Language (LGP).
Like the various existing natural and human languages, it is composed of linguistic levels such as: phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. Just as in oral-auditory languages there are words, in sign languages there are also lexical items, which are called signs. The difference is its modality of articulation, namely visual-spatial, or kinesic-visual, for others. Therefore, to communicate in Libras, it is not enough just to know signs. It is necessary to know your grammar to combine sentences, establishing communication correctly, avoiding the use of "signaled Portuguese".
Signals arise from the combination of hand configurations, movements, and points of articulation — places in space or on the body where signals are made — and also from facial and body expressions that convey the feelings that are conveyed to listeners by voice intonation, which together make up the basic units of this language. Thus, Libras presents itself as a linguistic system for the transmission of ideas and facts, coming from communities of deaf people in Brazil. As with any language, there are also regional differences in Libras. Therefore, attention should be paid to its variations in each federative unit of Brazil.
In addition to being recognized nationally since 2002, Libras has also been made official at the municipal level in Belo Horizonte, Curitiba, Ouro Preto and Salvador. In Rio de Janeiro, the teaching of Libras was made official in the curriculum of the municipal school system.
April 24 was made official as the National Day of Brazilian Sign Language.
Minority languages
Despite the fact that Portuguese is the official language of Brazil and the vast majority of Brazilians speak only Portuguese, there are several other languages spoken in the country. According to the president of IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) there are an estimated 210 languages spoken in Brazil. 154 are Amerindian languages, while the others are languages brought by immigrants.
The 1950 census was the last one to ask Brazilians which language they speak at home. Since then, the census does not ask about language. However, the census of 2010 asked respondents which languages they speak, allowing a better analysis of the languages spoken in Brazil.
The first municipality to co-officialize other languages alongside Portuguese was São Gabriel da Cachoeira, in the state of Amazonas, with the languages Nheengatu, Tukano and Baniwa. Since then, other Brazilian municipalities have co-officialized other languages.
Immigrant languages
European immigrant languages
According to the 1940 census, after Portuguese, German was the most widely spoken language in Brazil. Although the Italian immigration to Brazil was much more significant than the German one, the German language had many more speakers than the Italian one, according to the census. The census revealed that two-thirds of the children of German immigrants spoke German at home. In comparison, half of the children of Italians spoke Portuguese at home. The stronger preservation of the German language when compared to the Italian one has many factors: Italian is closer to Portuguese than German, leading to a faster assimilation of the Italian speakers. Also, the German immigrants used to educate their children in German schools. The Italians, on the other hand, had less organized ethnic schools and the cultural formation was centered in church, not in schools. Most of the children of Italians went to public schools, where Portuguese was spoken. Until World War II, some 1.5 million Italians had immigrated to Brazil, compared to only 250,000 Germans. However, the 1940 census revealed that German was spoken as a home language by 644,458 people, compared to only 458,054 speakers of Italian.
Spaniards, who formed the third largest immigrant group in Brazil (after the Portuguese and Italians) were also quickly assimilated into the Portuguese-speaking majority. Spanish is similar to Portuguese, which led to a fast assimilation. Moreover, many of the Spanish immigrants were from Galicia, where they also speak Galician, which is closer to Portuguese, sometimes even being considered two dialects of the same language. Despite the large influx of Spanish immigrants to Brazil from 1880 to 1930 (over 700,000 people) the census of 1940 revealed that only 74,000 people spoke Spanish in Brazil.
Other languages such as Polish and Ukrainian, along with German and Italian, are spoken in rural areas of Southern Brazil, by small communities of descendants of immigrants, who are for the most part bilingual. There are whole regions in southern Brazil where people speak both Portuguese and one or more of these languages. For example, it is reported that more than 90% of the residents of the small city of Presidente Lucena, located in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, speak Hunsrik, a language derived from the Hunsrückisch dialect of German. Hunsrik, or Riograndenser Hunsrückisch, has around 3,000,000 native speakers in Brazil, while also having some speakers in Argentina, Paraguay and Venezuela. The language is most used in the countryside of the South Region states of Brazil, with a considerable amount of native speakers using it as their main or even only language.
Some immigrant communities in southern Brazil, chiefly the German and the Italian ones, have lasted long enough to develop distinctive dialects from their original European sources. For example, Brazilian German, a broad category which includes the Hunsrik language, but also East Pomerian and Plautdietsch dialects. In the Serra Gaúcha region, we can find Italian dialects such as Talian or italiano riograndense, based on the Venetian language.
Other German dialects were transplanted to this part of Brazil. For example, the Austrian dialect spoken in Dreizehnlinden or Treze Tílias in the state of Santa Catarina; or the dialect Schwowisch (Standard German: "Schwäbisch"), from Donauschwaben immigrants, is spoken in Entre Rios, Guarapuava, in the state of Paraná; or the East Pomeranian dialect spoken in many different parts of southern Brazil (in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, Espírito Santo, São Paulo, etc.).
Plautdietsch is spoken by the descendants of Russian Mennonites. However, these languages have been rapidly replaced by Portuguese in the last few decades, partly due to a government decision to integrate immigrant populations. Today, states like Rio Grande do Sul are trying to reverse that trend and immigrant languages such as German and Italian are being reintroduced into the curriculum again, in communities where they originally thrived. Meanwhile, on the Argentinian and Uruguayan border regions, Brazilian students are being introduced to the Spanish language.
Asian languages
In the city of São Paulo, Korean, Chinese and Japanese can be heard in the immigrants districts, like Liberdade.
A Japanese-language newspaper, the São Paulo Shinbun, had been published in the city of São Paulo since 1946, still printing paper editions until January 2019. There is a significant community of Japanese speakers in São Paulo, Paraná, Mato Grosso do Sul, Pará and Amazonas. Much smaller groups exist in Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul and other parts of Brazil. Some Chinese, especially from Macau, speak a Portuguese-based creole language called Macanese (patuá or macaísta), aside from Hakka, Mandarin and Cantonese.
Japanese immigration to Brazil started on June 18, 1908, when the Japanese ship Kasato-Maru arrived in the Port of Santos, south of São Paulo, carrying the first 781 people to take advantage of a bilateral agreement promoting immigration. Half of them were from the southern part of the Okinawa Island, located about south of the rest of Japan, which had its own distinct language and culture dating back to before the island's annexation by Tokyo in 1879. The names on shop fronts are in Japanese and selling everything from Japanese food and kitchen utensils to traditional home decorations. Red painted archways, Japanese temples and a Japanese garden are present in this little Japanese corner of Brazil. Today, Brazil is home to the world's largest community of Japanese descendants outside of Japan, numbering about 1.5 million people.
Bilingualism
Spanish is understood to various degrees by many but not all Brazilians, due to the similarities of the languages. However, it is hardly spoken well by individuals who have not taken specific education in the language, due to the substantial differences in phonology between the two languages.
In recent years, Spanish has become more popular as a second or third language in Brazil due in large part to the economic advantages that Spanish fluency brings in doing business with other countries in the region, since seven of the 11 countries that border Brazil use Spanish as an official language. However, it falls behind English, due to global importance.
In São Paulo, the German-Brazilian newspaper Brasil-Post has been published for over fifty years. There are many other media organizations throughout the land specializing either in church issues, music, language etc.
The online newspaper La Rena is in Talian dialect and it offers Talian lessons. There are many other non-Portuguese publications, bilingual web sites, radio and television programs throughout the country.
On the Paraná state, there are several communities of Poles, Ukrainians and other Slavics that live in rural areas and in some municipalities such as Curitiba, Irati, Guarapuava, Ponta Grossa and Prudentópolis. Polish and Ukrainian are still spoken, mainly by oldest people. In the City of Foz do Iguaçu (on the border with Paraguay and Argentina), there are many Arabic speakers, these people are mainly immigrants from Palestine, Lebanon and Syria.
On the Rio Grande do Sul state, there are several German and Italian colonized cities, communities and groups. Most small cities have German or Italian as their second language. In the capital Porto Alegre, it is easy to find people who speak one of those or both.
There are also at least two ethnic neighborhoods in the country: Liberdade, bastion of Japanese immigrants, and Bixiga, stronghold of Italian immigrants, both in São Paulo; however, these neighborhoods do not count yet with specific legislation for the protection of Japanese and Italian languages in these sites.
Brazilian Roma speak Caló, a mixed language which uses both Portuguese and Romani words.
Language policy
The 21st century has seen the growth of a trend of co-official languages in cities populated by immigrants (such as Italian and German) or indigenous in the north, both with support from the Ministry of Tourism, as was recently established in Santa Maria de Jetibá, Pomerode and Vila Pavão, where East Pomeranian also has co-official status.
The first municipality to adopt a co-official language in Brazil was São Gabriel da Cachoeira, in 2002. Since then, other municipalities have attempted to adopt their own co-official languages.
Also in production is the documentary video Brasil Talian, with directed and written by André Costantin and executive producer of the historian Fernando Roveda. The pre-launch occurred on 18 November 2011, the date that marked the start of production of the documentary.
The states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul have Talian officially approved as a heritage language in these states, and Espírito Santo has the East Pomeranian, along with the German language, such as cultural heritage state.
In 2019, Bill No. 489 was drafted, authored by Chico d'Ângelo, which provides linguistic rights for Brazilians, especially communities that use minority languages as their mother tongue. The Project was attached to Bill 304 of 2015, which establishes knowledge about the language, uses, customs and culture of the traditional peoples and communities and ethical minorities that form the Brazilian peoples in elementary school curricula. The Culture Commission approved the project on September 21, 2021.
In 2015 Serafina Corrêa received the title of national capital of Talian. In 2019 Nova Erechim was recognized as the capital of Talian in Santa Catarina. In 2021, Governor Ratinho Júnior sanctioned state law 20,757, which makes the municipality of Colombo the capital of Talian in Paraná.
Classification of languages as linguistic or cultural heritage
Brazilian states with linguistic heritages officially approved statewide:
Espírito Santo (Pomeranian and German)
Rio de Janeiro (Yoruba, Bantu and Ewe)
Rio Grande do Sul (Talian and Riograndenser Hunsrückisch)
Santa Catarina (Talian and Riograndenser Hunsrückisch)
Brazilian municipalities that have a language as intangible cultural heritage:
Blumenau, Santa Catarina (German language)
Bom Despacho, Minas Gerais (Tabatinga language)
Caxias do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul (Talian)
Salvador, Bahia (Yoruba language)
Santa Cruz do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul (German language)
São Pedro de Alcântara, Santa Catarina (Hunsrik language)
Language co-officialization
States that have co-official indigenous languages:
Amazonas — Apurinã, Baniwa, Dessana, Kanamari, Marubo, Matis, Matses, Mawe, Mura, Nheengatu, Tariana, Tikuna, Tukano, Waiwai, Waimiri and Yanomami.
Municipalities that have co-official indigenous languages:
Santo Antônio do Içá, Amazonas (Ticuna)
São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Amazonas (Nheengatu, Tukano and Baniwa)
Porto Seguro, Bahia (Patxôhã)
Monsenhor Tabosa, Ceará (Nheengatu)
Barra do Corda, Maranhão (Guajajara)
Rondonópolis, Mato Grosso (Boe Bororo)
Tacuru, Mato Grosso do Sul (Guarani)
Miranda, Mato Grosso do Sul (Terena, Kinikinau, Terena Sign Language)
Paranhos, Mato Grosso do Sul (Guarani, under approval)
Bonfim, Roraima (macushi) and (wapishana)
Tocantínia, Tocantins (Akwê Xerente)
Municipalities that have co-official Talian language (or Venetian dialect):
Antônio Prado, Rio Grande do Sul
Barão, Rio Grande do Sul
Bento Gonçalves, Rio Grande do Sul
Camargo, Rio Grande do Sul
Capinzal, Santa Catarina
Casca, Rio Grande do Sul
Caxias do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul
Cotiporã, Rio Grande do Sul
Fagundes Varela, Rio Grande do Sul
Farroupilha, Rio Grande do Sul
Flores da Cunha, Rio Grande do Sul
Garibaldi, Rio Grande do Sul
Guabiju, Rio Grande do Sul
Ivorá, Rio Grande do Sul
Marau, Rio Grande do Sul
Nova Bassano, Rio Grande do Sul
Nova Pádua, Rio Grande do Sul
Nova Roma do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul
Paraí, Rio Grande do Sul
Pinto Bandeira, Rio Grande do Sul
Serafina Corrêa, Rio Grande do Sul
União da Serra, Rio Grande do Sul
Vila Flores, Rio Grande do Sul
Ipumirim, Santa Catarina
Nova Erechim, Santa Catarina
Ouro, Santa Catarina
Municipalities that have co-official East Pomeranian language:
Afonso Cláudio, Espírito Santo (in the district of Mata Fria)
Domingos Martins, Espírito Santo
Itarana, Espírito Santo
Laranja da Terra, Espírito Santo
Pancas, Espírito Santo
Santa Maria de Jetibá, Espírito Santo
Vila Pavão, Espírito Santo
Itueta, Minas Gerais (only in the district of Vila Nietzel)
Pomerode, Santa Catarina
Canguçu, Rio Grande do Sul (under approval)
Espigão d'Oeste, Rondônia (under approval)
Municipalities that have co-official Trentinian language (or Trentinian dialect):
Laurentino, Santa Catarina
Rodeio, Santa Catarina
Municipalities that have co-official language Riograndenser Hunsrückisch language:
Antônio Carlos, Santa Catarina
Ipumirim, Santa Catarina
Ouro, Santa Catarina
Treze Tílias, Santa Catarina (language teaching is compulsory in schools, standing on stage in public official of the municipality)
Santa Maria do Herval, Rio Grande do Sul
Barão, Rio Grande do Sul
Municipalities that have co-official Plattdüütsch language (or Plattdüütsch dialect):
Palmeira, Paraná
Westfália, Rio Grande do Sul
Municipalities that have co-official German language:
Pomerode, Santa Catarina
São João do Oeste, Santa Catarina
Municipalities that have co-official Polish language:
Mallet, Paraná
São Mateus do Sul, Paraná
Áurea, Rio Grande do Sul
Carlos Gomes, Rio Grande do Sul
Casca, Rio Grande do Sul
Municipalities that have co-official Ukrainian language:
Mallet, Paraná
Prudentópolis, Paraná
Officialization in education
Municipalities in which the teaching of the Italian language is mandatory:
Venda Nova do Imigrante, Espírito Santo
Francisco Beltrão, Paraná
Antônio Prado, Rio Grande do Sul
Brusque, Santa Catarina
Criciúma, Santa Catarina
Municipalities in which the teaching of the German language is mandatory:
Nova Petrópolis, Rio Grande do Sul
Blumenau, Santa Catarina
Treze Tílias, Santa Catarina
Indigenous languages
Many Amerindian minority languages are spoken throughout Brazil, mostly in Northern Brazil. Indigenous languages with about 10,000 speakers or more are Ticuna (language isolate), Kaingang (Gean family), Kaiwá Guarani, Nheengatu (Tupian), Guajajára (Tupian), Macushi (Cariban), Terena (Arawakan), Xavante (Gean) and Mawé (Tupian). Tucano (Tucanoan) has half that number, but is widely used as a second language in the Amazon.
One of the two Brazilian línguas gerais (general languages), Nheengatu, was until the late 19th century the common language used by a large number of indigenous, European, African, and African-descendant peoples throughout the coast of Brazil—it was spoken by the majority of the population in the land. It was proscribed by the Marquis of Pombal for its association with the Jesuit missions. A recent resurgence in popularity of this language occurred, and it is now an official language in the city of São Gabriel da Cachoeira. Today, in the Amazon Basin, political campaigning is still printed in this Tupian language.
There is also an indigenous sign language, the Ka'apor Sign Language.
There are also three other sign languages: Terena Sign Language, Marajo Sign Language, and Maxakali Sign Language.
In July 2023, the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 was translated for the first time into an indigenous language, the Nheengatu language.
Below is a full list of indigenous language families and isolates of Brazil based on Campbell (2012). The Macro-Jê classification follows that of Nikulin (2020). Additional extinct languages of Northeast Brazil have also been included from Meader (1978) and other sources.
Tupían
Arawakan
Cariban
Macro-Jê
Karajá
Ofayé
Rikbáktsa
Jabutí
Jaikó
Krenák
Maxakalí
Kamakã
Jê
Boróro
Purí
Guató
Karirí
Otí
Chapacuran
Pano–Takanan
Nadahup (Makuan)
Tucanoan
Arawan
Guaicuruan
Katukinan
Muran
Nambikwaran
Tikuna–Yuri
Yanomaman
Aikanã
Awaké
Irantxe
Kanoê
Kwaza
Máku
Matanawí
Taruma
Trumai
Boran
Xukuruan
Natú
Pankararú
Tuxá
Wamoé (Atikum)
Kambiwá
Xocó
Yaté (Fulniô)
Baenan
Kaimbé
Katembri
Tarairiú
Gamela
See also
Indigenous languages of South America
List of Brazil state name etymologies
Reintegracionism (About Portuguese and Galician)
References
External links
Co-officialized languages in Brazilian municipalities, Instituto de Investigação e Desenvolvimento em Política Linguística (IPOL)
Swadesh Listas of Brazilian Native Languages
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro%20Tudor
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Avro Tudor
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The Avro Type 688 Tudor was a British piston-engined airliner based on Avro's four-engine Lincoln bomber, itself a descendant of the famous Lancaster heavy bomber, and was Britain's first pressurised airliner. Customers saw the aircraft as little more than a pressurised DC-4, and few orders were forthcoming, important customers preferring to buy US aircraft. The tailwheel undercarriage layout was also dated and a disadvantage.
Development
Avro began work on the Type 688 Tudor in 1943, following Specification 29/43 for a commercial adaptation of the Lancaster IV bomber, which was later renamed Lincoln. The specification was based on recommendations of the Brabazon Committee, which issued specifications for nine types of commercial aircraft for postwar use.
Avro first proposed to build the Avro 687 (Avro XX), which was a Lincoln bomber with a new circular section pressurized fuselage and a large single fin and rudder in place of the predecessor's double ones. During the design stage, the idea of a simple conversion was abandoned and the Avro 688 was designed, which retained the four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines. It was designed by Roy Chadwick who, due to wartime restrictions, could not design a completely new aircraft, but had to use existing parts, tools and jigs. Using the Lincoln's wing, Chadwick, who had worked on the Lancaster, designed the Tudor to incorporate a new pressurized fuselage of circular cross-section, with a useful load of 3,765 lb (1,705 kg) and a range of 3,975 mi (6,400 km).
Two prototypes were ordered in September 1944 and the first, G-AGPF, was assembled by Avro's experimental flight department at Manchester's Ringway Airport and first flew on 14 June 1945. It was the first British pressurised civilian aircraft, although the prototype initially flew unpressurised. The prototype Tudor I had 1,750 hp (1,305 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin 102 engines, but the standard engines were 1,770 hp (1,320 kW) Merlin 621s.
Design
The Tudor was a low-wing cantilever monoplane with four engines, a single fin and rudder and a retractable tailwheel undercarriage (in its original configurations).
The wing was of NACA 23018 section at the root, and was a five-piece, all-metal, twin-spar structure. The untapered centre section carried the inboard engines and main undercarriage, while the inner and outer sections were tapered on their leading and trailing edges, with the inner sections carrying the outboard engines. The ailerons were fitted with trim and balance tabs, and there were hydraulically operated split flaps in three sections on each side of the trailing edges of the centre section and inner wings. A fuel capacity was given by eight bag tanks, one on either side of the fuselage in the centre section and three in both inner wings.
The all-metal tail unit had a dorsal fin integrated with the fuselage, and a twin-spar tailplane with inset divided elevators. The control surfaces were mass-balanced, and each had controllable trim and servo tabs.
The circular cross-section fuselage was an all-metal semi-monocoque structure, of diameter, fitted with kapok noise insulation above floor level.
The hydraulically operated main-wheel units were similar to those of the Lancaster, had single Dunlop wheels and retracted rearward into the inboard engine nacelles. The twin tailwheels retracted rearward into the fuselage and were enclosed by twin longitudinal doors.
Operational history
Tudor I
The Tudor I was intended for use on the North Atlantic route. At the time, the United States had the Douglas DC-4 and Lockheed Constellation, which could both carry more passengers than the Tudor which only carried 12, and also weighed less than the Tudor weight of . The Tudor tailwheel layout was also obsolete. Despite this, the Ministry of Supply ordered 14 Tudor I aircraft for BOAC, and increased the production order to 20 in April 1945.
The Tudor I suffered from a number of stability problems, which included longitudinal and directional instability. The problem was handed over to the Royal Aircraft Establishment at RAE Farnborough, where an extensive programme of testing was carried out, the test pilot being Eric Brown. Following the RAE's recommendations, a larger tailplane was fitted, and the original fin and rudder were replaced by larger vertical surfaces. BOAC added to the delays by requesting more than 340 modifications, and finally rejected the Tudor I on 11 April 1947, considering it unacceptable for North Atlantic operations. It had been intended that 12 Tudors would be built in Australia for military transport, but this plan was abandoned.
Twelve Tudor I aircraft were built, of which three were scrapped, while others were variously converted to the Tudor IVB and Tudor Freighter I configurations.
As a result of all the Tudor I delays, BOAC – with the support of the Ministry of Civil Aviation – sought permission to purchase aircraft with known performance and reliability, such as the Lockheed Constellation and the Boeing Stratocruiser, for its Atlantic routes instead of the Tudor. Despite BOAC's reluctance to purchase Tudors, the Ministry of Supply continued to subsidize the aircraft.
Tudor II
The passenger capacity of the Avro 688 was considered unsatisfactory, so a larger version was planned from the outset. Designated the Avro 689 (also Avro XXI), the Tudor II was designed as a 60-seat passenger aircraft for BOAC, with the fuselage lengthened to compared to the Tudor I's and the fuselage increased by to diameter, making it the largest UK airliner at the time.
At the end of 1944, while it was still in the design stage, BOAC, Qantas and South African Airways decided to standardise on the Tudor II for Commonwealth air routes, and BOAC increased its initial order for 30 examples to 79.
The prototype Tudor II G-AGSU first flew on 10 March 1946 at Woodford Aerodrome. The changes in design had however resulted in a loss of performance and the aircraft could not be used in hot and high conditions which resulted in Qantas ordering the Constellation and South African Airways, the Douglas DC-4 instead, with the total order reduced to 50.
During further testing, the prototype was destroyed on 23 August 1947 in a fatal crash on take off from Woodford which killed Roy Chadwick; air accident investigators later discovered that the crash was due to incorrect assembly of the aileron control circuit.
The engines on the second prototype were changed to Bristol Hercules radials and the aircraft became the prototype Tudor 7, which did not go into production. Unimpressed by the type's performance during further tropical trials, BOAC did not operate the Tudor II and only three production Tudor IIs were built. Six aircraft were built for British South American Airways (BSAA) as the Tudor V.
The third of the pre-production Tudor 2s, initially G-AGRZ, was used for pressurisation tests as VZ366 at RAE Farnborough.
The second Tudor II to be completed, G-AGRY, went to Nairobi for tropical trials as VX202, but these were unsatisfactory and Tudor II orders were reduced to 18. Eventually, only four Tudor IIs were completed including the prototype.
From 1946 on, the potential purchase of US aircraft by operators such as BOAC led to criticism of government policy, because of the damage that could potentially be caused to Britain's civil aircraft industry by a failure to buy the Tudor. L.G.S. Payne, The Daily Telegraphs aeronautical correspondent, said that British government policy had led to the development of aircraft which were uncompetitive in price, performance and economy. He blamed the Ministry of Supply's planners for this failure, since the industry had effectively been nationalised and argued that the government should pursue the development of jet aircraft instead of "interim types" such as the Tudor.
BOAC cancelled its order for Tudors in 1947, instead taking delivery of 22 Canadair North Stars which they renamed C-4 Argonauts, and used them extensively between 1949 and 1960.
Six aircraft ordered as Tudor IIs were intended to be modified with tricycle landing gear, for use by BSAA as freighters, and designated the 711 Trader'''. They were not built, but a parallel design using the same landing gear was produced as the jet-powered Avro Ashton.
Tudor III
Two Tudor Is, G-AIYA and G-AJKC, were sent to Armstrong Whitworth for completion as VIP transports for cabinet ministers. They could accommodate 10 passengers and had nine berths. They were re-registered as VP301 and VP312, and both were acquired by Aviation Traders in September 1953, VP301 being reconverted into a Tudor I.
In 1955, G-AIYA and the Tudor I G-AGRG were lengthened to Tudor IV standard. Together with the un-lengthened Tudor I G-AGRI, which had become a 42-seat passenger aircraft, they were used on the Air Charter Ltd Colonial Coach Services between the UK, Tripoli and Lagos.
Tudor IV
To meet a BSAA requirement, some Tudor Is were lengthened by , powered by 1,770 hp (1,320 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin 621s and 1,760 hp (1,310 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin 623s. With 32 seats and no flight engineer position, these were known as Tudor IVs, and when fitted with a flight engineer's position and 28 seats, as Tudor IVBs.
BSAA's new flagships received mixed reviews from pilots. Some greeted it with enthusiasm, such as Captain Geoffrey Womersley, who described it as "the best civil airliner flying." Others rejected it as an unsound design. BSAA's chief pilot and manager of operations, Gordon Store, was unimpressed:
"The Tudor was built like a battleship. It was noisy, I had no confidence in its engines and its systems were hopeless. The Americans were fifty years ahead of us in systems engineering. All the hydraulics, the air conditioning equipment and the recircling [sic] fans were crammed together underneath the floor without any thought. There were fuel-burning heaters that would never work; we had the floorboards up in flight again and again.
The Tudor IV's fuel-burning heaters were made by Janitrol and were also used on the US-built passenger aircraft – such as the Lockheed Constellation – as well as later on US-ordered variants of the Vickers Viscount.
The first example, G-AHNJ "Star Panther", first flew on 9 April 1947. The Tudor IV received its Certificate of Airworthiness on 18 July 1947, and on 29 September, BSAA took delivery of G-AHNK "Star Lion", the first of its six Tudor 4s to be delivered. It departed the next day from Heathrow on a flight to South America, and on 31 October began flights from London to Havana via Lisbon, the Azores, Bermuda and Nassau.
On the night of 29–30 January 1948, Tudor IV G-AHNP "Star Tiger", with 31 people on board, disappeared without trace between Santa Maria in the Azores and Bermuda. Tudors were temporarily grounded and while the cause of the accident was never determined, the type returned to service on 3 December 1948, when a weekly service was begun from London to Buenos Aires via Gander, Bermuda, and other stops, returning via the Azores.
Disaster struck again on 17 January 1949, when Tudor IV G-AGRE "Star Ariel" also disappeared, this time between Bermuda and Kingston, Jamaica, with the loss of 20 people, and the Tudor IVs were once more grounded. The subsequent fleet shortage led to BSAA being taken over by BOAC. Pressurisation problems were suspected to be the cause of the two accidents, and the remaining aircraft were flown as unpressurised freighters under the designations Tudor Freighter IV and IVB.
A Tudor IV was tested at De Havilland's Hatfield Airfield on 1 April 1949 to check "no lift angle" and flown to Heathrow on 8 April.
After storage for some years at Manchester Airport, four ex-BSAAC Tudor IVs were bought by Air Charter Limited in late 1953. They were fitted with by cargo doors aft by Aviation Traders and designated Super Traders IV or IVB, receiving their Certificate of Airworthiness in March 1955. These were operated by Air Charter Ltd on long distance freight flights as far as Christmas Island. Some remained in service until 1959, until G-AGRH "Zephyr" crashed in Turkey on 23 April 1959.
Tudor V
The Tudor V was a modified version of the stretched Tudor II equipped with 44 seats. BSAA acquired five which never entered passenger service with the airline. They were instead stripped of their fittings and used as fuel tankers on the Berlin Airlift. They completed a total of 2,562 supply sorties in 6,973 hours, carrying 22,125 tons (20,071 tonnes) of fuel into Berlin.
On 12 March 1950, G-AKBY, which had been returned to passenger service with Airflight Ltd, on a charter flight from Ireland, crashed at RAF Llandow, South Wales, with the resulting death of 80 of its passengers and crew.
In 1953, Lome Airways leased an ex BSAA Tudor 5 from Surrey Flying Services as CF-FCY for freight operations in Canada. It was retired at Stansted and scrapped in 1959.
Tudor VI
The Tudor VI was to be built for the Argentinian airline FAMA for South Atlantic service, with 32–38 seats or 22 sleeper berths, but none were built.
Tudor VII
The Tudor VII was the first production Tudor II fitted with Bristol Hercules air-cooled radial engines in an attempt to give better performance. The sole example built, G-AGRX, made its first flight on 17 April 1946, and was later fitted in June 1948 with shorter landing gear with the engines repositioned (inclined) to give better ground clearance. G-AGRX was used for cabin temperature experiments, and was finally sold for spares in March 1954.
Tudor 8
The second prototype Tudor I was rebuilt to Tudor IV standards. It was later fitted with four Rolls-Royce Nene 4 turbojets in under-wing paired nacelles. Given the serial VX195, The Tudor 8 carried out its first flight at Woodford on 6 September 1948, and a few days later, it was demonstrated at the SBAC Show at Farnborough. Later, the Tudor 8 was used for high-altitude tests at Boscombe Down and RAE Farnborough before being broken up in 1951.
Tudor 9
Following tests of the Tudor 8, the Ministry of Supply ordered six Tudor 9s, based on the Tudor II but powered by four Rolls-Royce Nenes and utilizing a tricycle undercarriage. The original design was then modified and the type was produced as the Avro 706 Ashton with the first Ashton flying on 1 September 1950.
Variants
All except the prototype built by Avro at their Chadderton factory and assembled and test flown from Woodford Aerodrome.
688 Tudor 1
Production variant, 12 built, later conversion to other variants.
689 Tudor 2
Stretched version, five built.
688 Tudor 3
Tudor 1 modified by Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft as executive transport aircraft. It could seat up to nine passengers, two built.
688 Tudor 4
Stretched version of the Tudor 1 (but not the same as the Tudor 2 with the fuselage lengthened by only 6 ft/1.83 m). It could seat up to 32 passengers, 11 built.
688 Tudor 4B
As Tudor 4 but retained the Tudor 1's flight engineers station. Small number of Tudor 1s were converted into Tudor 4Bs.
689 Tudor 5
Tudor 2 for BSAA, powered by four 1,770 hp (1,320 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin 621 piston engines, six built. One aircraft crashed in 1950 killing 80 in the Llandow Air Disaster.
689 Tudor 6
Ordered by the Argentinian airline FAMA, but the order was cancelled. None of the airframes were completed.
689 Tudor 7
Tudor 2 fitted with four 1,750 hp (1,305 kW) Bristol Hercules 120 radial piston engines, one prototype only.
688 Tudor 8
Jet-engined version of the Tudor 1. Tudor 1 VX195 was fitted with four Rolls-Royce Nene 4 turbojet engines.
Tudor 9
Jet-engined version of the Tudor 2, became the 706 Ashton
Super Trader 4B
Re-engined version, fitted with four 1,760 hp (1,312 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin 23 piston engines.
Tudor Freighter 1
Freight and cargo version, three aircraft were used by BOAC during the 1949 Berlin Airlift.
711 Trader
Proposed freighter development of the Tudor 2 fitted with a tricycle landing gear; not built.
Operators
Lome Airways
Air Charter
Airflight
British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) (freight only)
British South American Airways
Surrey Flying Services
William Dempster (airline)
Accidents and incidents
23 August 1947 – Tudor 2 prototype G-AGSU crashed on takeoff from Woodford, killing Avro designer Roy Chadwick.
30 January 1948 – Tudor 1 G-AHNP "Star Tiger" of British South American Airways disappeared in the western Atlantic.
17 January 1949 – Tudor 4B G-AGRE "Star Ariel" of British South American Airways disappeared in the western Atlantic.
12 March 1950 – Tudor 5 G-AKBY "Star Girl" of Airflight Limited crashed on approach, Llandow, Glamorgan, United Kingdom."60 years since Welsh rugby air disaster at Llandow." BBC News Online, 12 March 2010.
26 October 1951 – Tudor 5 G-AKCC President Kruger of William Dempster Limited was damaged beyond repair landing at Bovingdon, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom.
27 January 1959 – Super Trader G-AGRG El Alamein of Air Charter destroyed by fire on takeoff from Brindisi, Italy.
23 April 1959 – Super Trader G-AGRH "Zephyr" of Air Charter flew into Mount Suphan, Turkey.
Specifications (Avro 688 Tudor 1)
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Angelucci, Enzo and Paolo Matricardi. World Aircraft – Commercial Aircraft 1935–1960. London: Sampson Low Guides, 1979. .
Brookes, Andrew. Disaster in the Air. London: Ian Allan Publishing, 1992. .
Eastwood, Tony and John Roach. Piston Engine Airliner Production List. West Drayton, UK: Aviation Hobby Shop, 1991. .
Geiger, Till. Britain and the Economic Problem of the Cold War. Farnham, Surrey, UK: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2004. .
Holmes, Harry. Avro – The History of an Aircraft Company. Wiltshire, UK: Crowood Press, 2004. .
Jackson, A.J. Avro Aircraft since 1908, 2nd edition. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1990. .
Jane, Fred T. "The Avro 688 Tudor I." Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II. London: Studio, 1946. .
Ottaway, Susan and Ian. Fly With the Stars: A History of British South American Airways. Andover, Hampshire, UK: Speedman Press, 2007. .
Scholefield, R.A. Manchester Airport. Stroud, UK: Sutton Publishing Limited, 1997. .
Yenne, William. Classic American Airliners. St Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2005. .
External links
Avro Tudor – British Aircraft Database
Tudor – British Aircraft of World War II
A picture of the jet-powered Tudor 8 via the Internet Archive
The Avro Tudor II A 1946 Flight advertisement for the Tudor
"The Avro Tudor I" – a 1945 Flight article on the Tudor
"Tudor in the Air" a 1948 Flight article
"More About Tudors" a 1948 Flight'' article
Tudor
1940s British airliners
Four-engined tractor aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1945
Four-engined piston aircraft
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5274089
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison%20of%20Portuguese%20and%20Spanish
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Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish
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Portuguese and Spanish, although closely related Romance languages, differ in many aspects of their phonology, grammar and lexicon. Both belong to a subset of the Romance languages known as West Iberian Romance, which also includes several other languages or dialects with fewer speakers, all of which are mutually intelligible to some degree.
A 1949 study by Italian-American linguist Mario Pei, analyzing the degree of difference from a language's parent (Latin, in the case of Romance languages) by comparing phonology, inflection, syntax, vocabulary, and intonation, indicated the following percentages (the higher the percentage, the greater the distance from Latin): In the case of Spanish it was 20%, the third closest Romance language to Latin, only behind Sardinian (8% distance) and Italian (12% distance). Portuguese was 31%, making it the second furthest language from Latin after French (44% distance).
The most obvious differences are in pronunciation. Mutual intelligibility is greater between the written languages than between the spoken forms. Compare, for example, the following sentences—roughly equivalent to the English proverb "A word to the wise is sufficient," or, a more literal translation, "To a good listener, a few words are enough.":
()
().
Some Brazilian dialects, however, including some found in the Brazilian Amazon, sustain more similarities with the European pronunciation than with that of the southern Brazilian region.
There are also some significant differences between European and Brazilian Portuguese as there are between British and American English or Peninsular and Latin American Spanish. This article notes these differences below only where:
both Brazilian and European Portuguese differ not only from each other, but from Spanish as well;
both Peninsular (i.e. European) and Latin American Spanish differ not only from each other, but also from Portuguese; or
either Brazilian or European Portuguese differs from Spanish with syntax not possible in Spanish (while the other dialect does not).
Sample texts
Portuguese and Spanish share a great number of words that are spelled identically or almost identically (although the pronunciation almost always differs), or which differ in predictable ways. Consider, for example, the following paragraph, taken from the , by Manuel Seco (Espasa Calpe, 1989), and compare it to the literal Portuguese translation below, noting the lexical similarities and occasional differences of word order:
(Spanish)
(Portuguese)
(English)Now, observe the following sample, which was taken from the newspaper El País. It uses a more day-to-day language and has few cognates, and, consequently, the intelligibility ends up being very low for speakers who have no knowledge of the other language.
<blockquote></blockquote>
Vocabulary
Cognates
While the majority of lexical differences between Spanish and Portuguese come from the influence of the Arabic language on Spanish vocabulary, most of the similarities and cognate words in the two languages have their origin in Latin, but several of these cognates differ, to a greater or lesser extent, in meaning.
Two forms vs. one form
Some words have two forms in one language, but just one in the other:
Portuguese corresponds to both Spanish 'to create' and 'to raise'.
Spanish (a noun that can mean either 'dream' or 'sleep') corresponds to both Portuguese 'dream' and 'sleep' (the former from Latin and the latter from , which produced the same outcome in Spanish).
False friends
Some pairs of cognates differ in that they have a broader or narrower meaning in one language than in the other, or their meanings are entirely different. On this basis they are termed "false friends":
Semantic change
Many pairs of cognates have come to have different meanings due to semantic change. These false friends include the following:
Spanish diseñar means 'to design' in Spanish, while its Portuguese cognate desenhar means 'to draw'.
Similarly, Spanish dibujo for 'drawing', with an archaic Portuguese equivalent debuxo meaning 'sketch' and was displaced by rascunho; in turn the cf. Spanish rasguño means 'scratch' (compare "scratchpad", i.e. notebook, in English).
Spanish largo (rare/archaic luengo) means 'long', while ancho means 'wide'. In Portuguese largo (rare/archaic ancho) means 'wide' and longo like in English 'long'.
Spanish extrañar can mean 'to find strange' or 'to miss'. Portuguese estranhar means 'to find strange', or to lock horns.
Spanish raro can mean 'rare' or 'strange'. In Portuguese, it just means 'rare'.
Spanish aún can mean 'yet/still' and todavía can mean both 'yet/still' or 'however/nevertheless'. Portuguese todavia means 'however/nevertheless'. In Portuguese, 'yet/still' is ainda.
Spanish (estar) embarazada means '(to be) pregnant'. Portuguese (estar) embaraçada means '(to be) embarrassed' or '(to be) entangled'. However, Spanish does have the term embarazoso/a meaning 'embarrassing'. 'Pregnant' in Portuguese is grávida. The Portuguese prenhe and Spanish preñada are used mainly for pregnant animals but rarely for women, in both languages
Spanish exquisito means 'exquisite/sophisticated'. Portuguese esquisito means 'strange/weird'.
Experto means 'expert' in both Spanish and Portuguese, but in Portuguese it should not be confused with its homophone esperto (a homophone only in Brazil), which means 'smart/intelligent'. 'Expert' in Portuguese may also be perito, especialista, or exímio, which are the same in Spanish (Sp. eximio is spelled without the accent mark).
Spanish escoba is 'broom'. Portuguese escova is 'brush' (Portuguese uses 'vassoura' for 'broom'). However, in some varieties of Spanish, escobilla or escobeta means 'toilet brush'.
Spanish apellido 'surname' is apelido in European Portuguese, and sobrenome in both Brazilian and European Portuguese (but Portuguese usually say apelido). Spanish sobrenombre/apodo 'nickname' is apelido/alcunha/codinome in Brazilian Portuguese, and alcunha in European Portuguese.
Spanish rojo is 'red'. Portuguese roxo is 'purple'. 'Red' in Portuguese is vermelho (cognate with Spanish bermejo and bermellón, which mean 'vermilion' or 'cinnabar'). In European Portuguese the word encarnado (literally in the flesh) is also used as synonym of 'red' even though vermelho is more frequent.
Spanish rubio means 'blond hair'. Portuguese ruivo or ruço means 'red hair'.
Spanish apenas means 'hardly'. Portuguese apenas is 'only'. Thus the Spanish phrase él apenas pudo dormir means 'he could not even/hardly sleep', or 'he was just barely able to sleep', whereas the Portuguese phrase ele pôde apenas dormir means 'all he could do was sleep'.
Spanish vaso means 'drinking glass (tumbler)', while Portuguese vaso means flower pot or toilet (from vaso sanitário). A 'drinking glass' in Portuguese is copo, while Spanish copa is a wine glass. A wine glass in Portuguese is copo, taça is a champagne glass or dessert cup (i.e. chocolate mousse or ice cream) while Spanish taza is a 'coffee cup or teacup'; Spanish taza also refers to the bathroom bowl. 'Coffee cup' in Portuguese is xícara de café/chávena, while Spanish jícara is 'bowl' or 'gourd.'
Spanish (and European Portuguese) cachorro means puppy, while in Brazilian Portuguese, it can refer to a dog of any age.
Frequent function words
A number of the frequent "function words" (pronouns, conjunctions, etc.) are cognates in the two languages but are used in slightly different ways, including the following:
Spanish todo, Portuguese tudo
The Spanish pronoun todo can mean 'all/every', or 'everything'. Portuguese distinguishes between todo 'all/every' (masculine) and tudo 'everything' (neuter, used for an indefinite object or abstraction).Todos los insectos tienen seis patas. (Spanish)Todos os insectos têm seis patas. (Portuguese)
'All insects have six legs.'El ladrón lo robó todo. (Spanish)O ladrão roubou tudo. (Portuguese)
'The thief stole everything' or 'The thief stole it all.'
Relative and interrogative pronouns
Spanish uses an acute accent on interrogative pronouns, while the corresponding relative pronouns (etymologically the same words) are spelled without the accent to mark the difference in prosodic stress. (As explained below, the acute accent often changes the vowel sound in Portuguese, but not Spanish.) For example, ¿quién? (who?) and quien (who) in Spanish, but quem for both in Portuguese. Apart from that, while "quem" is invariable, Spanish has both the singular "quién" and the plural "quiénes". As shown by the examples below, the difference between singular and plural is highlighted by the use of "é" for singular and "são" for plural:
Example 1:
¿Quién es ese hombre? (Spanish)
Quem é esse homem? (Portuguese)
'Who's that man?' (English - "who" is invariable)
¿Quiénes son esas personas? (Spanish)
Quem são essas pessoas? (Portuguese)
'Who are those people?' (English - again, "who" is invariable)
(In the Portuguese examples, the "m" at the end of "quem" is a marker for nasalization (as is the nasal diphthong "ão" in "são". Thus, it is not pronounced.)
Spanish muy and mucho, Portuguese muito
Spanish distinguishes the adjective mucho 'much/many' from the adverb muy 'very/quite'. Portuguese uses muito for both (there's also mui, but it is considered old-fashioned). "Mucho" is also an adverb; whereas "muy" modifies adjectives and adverbs, "mucho" modifies verbs, and specific adverbs such as "más"- which can also be a noun sometimes.
Saqué muchas fotos durante el viaje. (Spanish)
Tirei muitas fotos durante a viagem. (Portuguese)
'I took many photos during the trip.'
Las cerezas están muy maduras. (Spanish)
As cerejas estão muito maduras. (Portuguese)
'The cherries are quite ripe.'
El auto anda muy lento. (Spanish)
O carro é muito lento. (Portuguese)
'The car goes very slow.'
Intentaba mucho no hacer mucho ruido. (Spanish)
Tentava muito não fazer muito barulho (Portuguese)
'I was trying so hard to be quiet.'
Tienes que pensar mucho más. (Spanish)
Tem de pensar muito mais. (Portuguese)
'You have to think a lot more.'
As an adjective, muito is inflected according to the gender and number of the noun it qualifies, like mucho. As an adverb, it is invariable like muy. Thus, it would be incorrect to say *muitas maduras in the second example.
Cardinal numbers
The cardinal numbers are very similar in Spanish and Portuguese, but there are differences of usage in numbers one and two. Spanish has different words for the masculine singular indefinite article ('a, an') and the numeral 'one', thus un capítulo 'a chapter', but capítulo uno 'chapter one'. In Portuguese, both words are the same: um capítulo and capítulo um. Spanish uno can also be used as a pronoun, like the English generic "one", to represent an indeterminate subject, but this is not possible with Portuguese um; the reflexive pronoun se must be used instead. Se may be used in Spanish to form passive and impersonal constructions, as well.Uno (or Se) debe pensar antes de actuar. (Spanish)Deve-se pensar antes de agir. (Portuguese)
'One should think before acting.'
This still applies in cases where a relatively indeterminate subject is genderized, such as the Spanish todos a una [voz] ('all at once', literally 'all at one [voice]'). It should be rewritten in Portuguese without any cardinal number. For example, todos juntos 'all together'.
On the other hand, in Portuguese, cardinal number 'two' inflects with gender (dois if masculine, duas if feminine), while in Spanish dos is used for both.Uno más uno es igual a dos. (Spanish)Um mais um é igual a dois. (Portuguese)
'One plus one equals two.'Dos cabezas piensan mejor que una. (Spanish)Duas cabeças pensam melhor que uma. (Portuguese)
'Two heads think better than one.'Tengo dos hermanos y dos hermanas. (Spanish)Tenho dois irmãos e duas irmãs. (Portuguese)
'I have two brothers and two sisters.'
Conjunctions
The conjunction "and" in Spanish is y (pronounced before a consonant, before a vowel) before all words except those beginning with an sound (spelled i- or hi-). Before a syllabic sound (and not the diphthong as in hierro), the Spanish conjunction is e . Portuguese uses e before all words.Sal y pimienta. (Spanish)Sal e pimenta. (Portuguese)
'Salt and pepper.'Judío e hindú. (Spanish)Judeu e hindu. (Portuguese)
'Jewish and Hindu.'Leones y hienas. (Spanish)Leões e hienas. (Portuguese)
'Lions and hyenas.'
Similarly, for the conjunction "or" Spanish uses o before all words except those beginning with o- or ho-, in which case it uses u . Portuguese always uses ou ~.Vino o agua. (Spanish)Vinho ou água. (Portuguese)
'Wine or water.'Uno u otro. (Spanish)Um ou outro. (Portuguese)
'One or the other.'
Se, si, sí, and sim
In Portuguese, the word se can be a reflexive pronoun or a conjunction meaning 'if'. This may give the false impression that a Portuguese verb is pronominal when it is not. For example, Se ficou em Paris... means 'If he/she stayed in Paris...' When the conjunction se precedes a pronominal verb, it is common to have a double se in the sentence, such as Se se esqueceu da sua senha... 'If you forgot your password...'
Indirect object pronouns
Spanish le and les are changed to se when followed by lo, la, los, or las. For example, "Mi abuelo les compró los regalos" becomes "Mi abuelo se los compró". See also "Combining pronouns in Spanish" below. In addition, Spanish uses sé as an irregular verb in the first person singular indicative of saber (to know), and the second person singular imperative of ser (to be). In Portuguese, these are sei and sê respectively.
Dissimilar words
Despite the mostly cognate vocabulary between Spanish and Portuguese, a significant number of common words are entirely different in the two languages (although in some cases cognates exist, but are rare or archaic in one of the two languages). Examples include the following:
Vocabulary differences between the two languages arose from various factors. Portuguese and Spanish evolved separately from the Middle-Ages onwards and Portuguese being more Atlantic, didn't absorb much Mediterranean influence:
French influence
Both Portuguese and, to a lesser degree, Spanish have borrowed loanwords either directly from French or by way of French as an intermediary from other (mostly Greco-Latin) sources. Here are some examples where Portuguese uses French-derived words in everyday situations:
Arabic influence
Spanish has significant Mozarabichttps://eprints.ucm.es/id/eprint/49361/1/T40256.pdf vocabulary of Arabic origin, whereas Portuguese has markedly less of such influence. In most cases, there will also be a Latin, Gothic or Greek synonym in the Spanish lexicon, although not actively used. Here are a few examples:
Conversely, there are a few examples where a word of Arabic origin is used in Portuguese but not in Spanish, such as: Sp. romero, Port. alecrim (Port. rosmaninho or rosmarinho means 'lavender'), 'rosemary'; Sp. lechuga, Port. alface (in Port. leituga means 'catsear'), 'lettuce'; or more commonly used in Portuguese than in Spanish although the word exists in both languages, such as: chafariz 'fountain' (Port.fonte, Sp. fuente) or garrafa 'bottle' (Port. botelha, Sp. botella) Port. alfaiate (in Port. both costureiro and sartório are also commonly used), Sp. sastre 'tailor'.
In a few cases Spanish and Portuguese have both borrowed different Arabic-derived words for the same meaning, such as: Sp. alfombra, Port. alcatifa, 'carpet'; Sp. aduana, Port. alfândega, 'customs' (in Port. aduaneiro is an adjective which means 'of or relating to customs'); the latter is derived from the name of a town in Portugal that once stood on the boundary between Christendom and Islam.
Arabic is the source of a few personal given names and numerous derivative surnames and place names in Spain, including the following:
Almudena, Azucena, Carmen, Guadalupe, Mohamed, Soraya, Zulema, Abenamir, Abengoa, Avengoa, Abenójar, Alcalá, Almuzara, Acebrón, Aceituno, Aceitón, Aguera, Aguiló, Alamar, Alamino, Alanzor, Albarral, Albarrán, Albo, Albaicín, Alcantud, Alcazar, Alcudia, Alguacil, Allobar, Almaguer, Almandós, Almandoz, Almería, Almodóvar, Almoravit, Ambasil, Amor, Andujar, Aranda, Ayas, Aias, Benayas, Bardaxí, Benajara, Benameji, Benasar, Bennásar, Benavides, Bendala, Bujalance, Calatayud, Cervatos, Ceuta, Cid, Córdoba, Dris, Faulí, Gálvez, Godesteiz, Granada, Guadalupe, Gudiel, Hispán, Yllán, Illán, Illanes, Iznajar, Jaén, Madrid, Manzaneque, Mezquita, Mezquitas, Mudarra, Palacios, Palomoque, Pascual, Quirino, Toledo, Trujillo, Valls, Zanata, Zaratan, Zarate, Zaratin, Zegrí, Cegrí, Zorita.
Influences from other languages
Spanish and Portuguese have acquired different words from various Amerindian, African and Asian languages, as in the following examples:
'pineapple': Sp. piña (from the Spanish word for 'pine cone') / Port. abacaxi (from Tupi) or ananás (from Tupi–Guarani; also in Spanish, by way of Portuguese, ananás or ananá).
'smoking pipe': Sp. pipa (from supposed Late Latin ) / Port. cachimbo (from Kimbundu).
'tea': Sp. té (from Min Nan Chinese) / Port. chá (from Cantonese).
Like with most European languages, both Spanish and Portuguese acquired numerous Greek words mainly related to sciences, arts and humanities:
'ophthalmologist': Sp. oftalmólogo / Port. oftalmologista (from Gr.'ὀφθαλμός ophthalmós 'eye'+ λογία logia') /
'surgeon': Sp. cirujano / Port. cirurgião (from Gr.'χειρουργία cheirourgia') /
'psychoanalysis': Sp. psicoanálisis, sicoanálisis / Port. psicanálise from Fra. psychanalyse < (from Gr.'ψυχο psycho + ἀνάλυσις analysis') /
'chiropodist': Sp. podólogo (Gr. 'ποδης') / Port. quiropodista (from Gr. 'kheiropódes') /
'bibliography': Sp. bibliografía / Port. bibliografia (from Gr.'βιβλία biblia + γραφή graphḗ') /
'photosynthesis': Sp. fotosíntesis / Port. fotossíntese (from Gr.'φῶς + σύνθεσις' ) /
'acrolith': Sp. acrolito / Port. acrólito (from Gr.'ἀκρόλιθος') /
'apocalypse': Sp. apocalipsis / Port. apocalipse (from Gr.'ἀποκάλυψις')/
'cemetery': Sp. cementerio / Port. cemitério (from Gr. ' κοιμητήριον koimētḗrion')
'hermitage': Sp. lugar aislado (from Lat. locālis + insŭla) / Port. ermida, ermo (from < Gr. 'ἔρημος')
Days of the week
Unlike the other Romance languages, modern Portuguese does not use the Roman planetary system for the days Monday through Friday. Instead, the weekdays are numerical, and derived from Ecclesiastical Latin. The word feira (from Latin ) refers to daily (Roman Catholic) religious celebrations; it is cognate with feira 'fair' or 'market', as well as with férias 'vacation' and feriado 'holiday'. In Spanish, the days of the week are all masculine; in Portuguese, the feira days are feminine, while sábado and domingo are masculine.
Grammar
Broadly speaking, the grammars of Portuguese and Spanish share many common features. Nevertheless, some differences between them can present hurdles to people acquainted with one and learning the other.
Gender
Spanish has three forms for the singular definite article, el, masculine, la, feminine, and lo, neuter. The last is used with adjectives to form abstract nouns employed in a generic sense, and also to intensify the meaning of adjectives. In Portuguese, there is only o, masculine, and a, feminine. Literary Spanish has also three corresponding third person pronouns, él 'he', ella 'she', and ello 'it' (referring to a broad concept, not a named object), while Portuguese has only ele, masculine, and ela, feminine. The Spanish neuters lo and ello have no plural forms.
Some words are masculine in Spanish, but feminine in Portuguese, or vice versa. A common example are nouns ended in -aje in Spanish, which are masculine, and their Portuguese cognates ending in -agem, which are feminine. For example, Spanish el viaje 'the journey' (masculine, like French le voyage and Italian il viaggio) corresponds to the Portuguese feminine a viagem. Similarly, el puente 'bridge', el dolor 'pain', or el árbol 'tree' are masculine nouns in Modern Spanish, whereas a ponte, a dor, and a árvore are feminine in Portuguese. On the other hand, the Spanish feminine la leche 'the milk' corresponds to Portuguese o leite (masculine, like French le lait, Italian il latte). Likewise, nariz 'nose' is feminine in Spanish and masculine in Portuguese.
Some Spanish words can be both masculine and feminine, with different meanings. Both meanings usually exist also in Portuguese, but with one and the same gender, so that they can't be differentiated unless further information is provided. For instance, the word orden 'order' can mean both 'harmonious arrangement' and 'directive', like its counterparts in English and Portuguese. But the Spanish word is masculine when used with the first meaning, and feminine with the second:Me sorprendió el orden. ('I was surprised by the order [i.e., by how orderly it all was].')Me sorprendió la orden. ('I was surprised by the order [i.e., by the directive that was given].')
In Portuguese, the equivalent word ordem is always feminine:Me surpreendeu/Surpreendeu-me a ordem. ('I was surprised by the order.')
Without additional context, it is impossible to tell which meaning was intended in Portuguese and English (though other words could be substituted; in English, one would likely use orderliness in the first case above rather than order, which would, by itself, suggest the second case).
Use of the definite article
In many varieties of Portuguese, personal names are normally preceded by a definite article, a trait also found in Catalan. In Portuguese, this is a relatively recent development, which some Brazilian dialects have not adopted yet, most notably in some states of the Brazilian Northeast. In those dialects of Portuguese that do regularly use definite articles before proper nouns, the article may be omitted for extra formality, or to show distance in a literary narrative. Compare, for example, English "Mary left", Spanish María salió, and Portuguese A Maria saiu. Note, however, that in many Spanish dialects the definite article is used before personal names; thus, la María salió is commonly heard.
Portuguese uses the definite article before the names of some cities and almost all countries except relatively new ones, such as Cingapura/Singapura ('Singapore'), and those related to Portugal (or with which Portugal has historical relationships, even though this is a rough rule) and the Portuguese-speaking countries, e.g., a Holanda but Portugal; o México but Angola, a Suécia, but Moçambique. The major exception to the country rule is o Brasil.
In Spanish, use of the definite article is optional with some countries: (la) China, (el) Japón, (la) India, (la) Argentina, (el) Ecuador, (el) Perú, (el) Uruguay, (el) Paraguay, (el) Brasil, (los) Estados Unidos, etc. The same is true with two continents: (la) Antártida and (el) África; with archipelagos and islands: (las) Filipinas, (las) Canarias, (las) Azores, with some provinces, regions or territories: (el) Tíbet, (la) Toscana, (el) Piamonte, (el) Lacio and with some cities: (el) Cairo, (la) Valeta. Spanish uses the definite article with all geographical names when they appear with an adjective or modifying phrase, as in the following examples: la España medieval 'medieval Spain', el Puerto Rico prehispánico 'pre-Hispanic Puerto Rico', el Portugal de Salazar 'Portugal during Salazar's dictatorship', etc.Santiago es la capital de Chile. (Spanish)Santiago é a capital do Chile. (Portuguese)
'Santiago is the capital of Chile.'Él es de Costa Rica, que está en América Central. (Spanish)Ele é da Costa Rica, que fica na América Central. (Portuguese)
'He is from Costa Rica, which is in Central America.'Tengo un boleto para (los) Estados Unidos de América. (Spanish)Tenho um bilhete para os Estados Unidos da América. (Portuguese)
'I have a ticket to the United States of America.'Nueva Delhi no es la ciudad más poblada de (la) India. (Spanish)Nova Déli não é a cidade mais populosa da Índia. (Portuguese)
'New Delhi is not the most populous city in India.'La Europa medieval pertenecía a monarcas absolutos. (Spanish)A Europa medieval pertencia a monarcas absolutos. (Portuguese)
'Medieval Europe belonged to absolute monarchs.'
Portuguese omits the definite article in stating the time of day unless para as is used.Son las nueve y cuarto, but also Son nueve y quince or Son nueve quince. (Spanish)São (as) nove (horas) e quinze (minutos). (Portuguese) (parenthesical parts often omitted)
'It's nine fifteen.' Or:'It's a quarter past/after nine.'
In addition, in most dialects of Portuguese the definite article is used before possessive adjectives (as it is used in Italian), which is not possible in Spanish. For instance, the sentence 'This is my brother' is Este es mi hermano in Spanish, but may be Este é o meu irmão in Portuguese. Nevertheless, in many Brazilian dialects (mostly in the Northeast) and in casual Brazilian Portuguese the article is not used in sentences such as: Este é meu irmão (although it usually reappears in sentences such as "O meu irmão está lá").
Possessives
In Portuguese, possessive adjectives have the same form as possessive pronouns, and they all agree with the gender of the possessed item. In Spanish, the same is true of nuestro/nuestra ("our") and vuestro/vuestra ("your" [plural]), but for all other possessives, the pronoun has a longer form that agrees with the gender of the possessed item, while the adjective has a shorter form that does not change for gender. The possessive adjectives are normally preceded by a definite article in Continental Portuguese, less so in Brazilian Portuguese, and never in Spanish. The possessive pronouns are preceded by a definite article in all dialects of both languages. See examples in the table below.
Pronouns
Object pronouns
In Portuguese, third-person clitic pronouns have special variants used after certain types of verb endings, which does not happen in Spanish. The default object pronouns o/a/os/as change to lo/la/los/las when they follow a verb that ends in ⟨r⟩, ⟨s⟩ or ⟨z⟩, and to no/na/nos/nas when they follow a verb that ends in a nasal sound.
In Brazilian Portuguese, these forms are uncommon, since the pronoun normally precedes the verb (i.e., você o mantenha in the above example), and third-person subject pronouns are used informally as object pronouns (mantenha ele). However, as it has been considered ungrammatical to begin a sentence with an object pronoun, the above examples are, on rare occasion, used in Brazil as well.
Clitic personal pronouns
European Portuguese differs from Brazilian Portuguese with regard to the placement of clitic personal pronouns, and Spanish is in turn different from both of them.
In Spanish, clitic pronouns normally come before the verb, except with the imperative, the infinitive, and the gerund. In verbal periphrases, they precede the auxiliary verb.
In spoken Brazilian Portuguese, clitic pronouns normally come before the main verb. In verbal periphrases, they come between the auxiliary verb and the main verb. This occurs even with the imperative, the infinitive, the gerund, and the past participle.
In European Portuguese, clitic pronouns may come before or after the verb, depending on the type of clause. In verbal periphrases, they may precede or follow the auxiliary verb, or follow the main verb (when this is in the infinitive or the gerund).
Mesoclisis
In Portuguese, verbs in the future indicative or conditional tense may be split into morphemes, and the clitic pronoun can be inserted between them, a feature known as mesoclisis. This also occurred in Old Spanish, but no comparable phenomenon takes place in modern Spanish:Lo traerá. (Spanish)Trá-lo-á. (European Portuguese and formal written Brazilian Portuguese)
'He/She will bring it.'
However, these tenses are often replaced with others in the spoken language. Future indicative is sometimes replaced by present indicative; conditional is very often replaced by imperfect indicative. In colloquial language, most Portuguese would state trá-lo-á as vai trazê-lo ('going to bring it') or irá trazê-lo ('will bring it'). In Brazilian Portuguese, "vai trazer ele" would be the vernacular use.
Combining pronouns in Spanish
The Spanish construction, se lo dio, means either '[He/She] gave it to [him/her]' or '[He/She] gave it to himself/herself'. The expected pattern for the former would be *le lo dio, but such a construction does not exist. This is unique to Spanish.
Latin: → (early Vulgar Latin) → (Late Vulgar Latin)
Spanish: dio (i)lli (el)lo → dio ge lo → diógelo (arch.) → dióselo → se lo dioPortuguese: deu (i)lli (l)o → deu lhe (l)o → deu-lhoThus, modern Spanish makes no distinction between the reflexive pronoun se and the dative personal pronoun se, whereas in Portuguese it would be "deu-so" for the reflexive pronoun and "deu-lho" for the dative case. Note that this did not happen in old Spanish: diógelo, 'he gave it to him', dióselo, 'he gave it to himself'. The medieval g sound (similar to that of French) was replaced with s in the 14th-15th centuries (cf. Spanish coger, 'to catch', but cosecha, 'harvest', Port. colher and colheita, both from Lat. ).
Use of stressed pronouns for inanimate subjects
In standard Spanish, stressed pronouns in the subject position are never used for inanimate subjects (i.e., things, as opposed to people or animals), not even for clarity or disambiguation purposes, except when modified by an attribute (él solito may mean 'he by himself' or 'it by itself'). Portuguese knows no such restriction, so that stressed pronouns referring to inanimate subjects can either be used or dropped:¿Dónde están las llaves? (Están) En la mesa. (Spanish – pronoun should be dropped, not *Ellas están...; verb is often dropped)
O que é das chaves?/ Cadê as chaves? (Elas estão) Na mesa. (Portuguese – pronoun and verb are optional, the verb can be used without the pronoun: Estão...)
'Where are the keys? (They are) On the table.' (English – pronoun and verb are not necessarily required, but the verb requires the pronoun, not *Are...)
Second-person pronouns
The use of second-person pronouns differs dramatically between Spanish and Portuguese, and even more so between European and Brazilian Portuguese. Spanish tú and usted correspond etymologically to Portuguese tu and você, but Portuguese has gained a third, even more formal form o(s) senhor(es), a(s) senhora(s), demoting você to an "equalizing" rather than respectful register. The old familiar forms have been largely lost in the Portuguese-speaking world, as the Portuguese equalizing forms você or vocês have displaced tu to a large extent and vós almost entirely; and even where tu is still used, the second-person verb forms that historically corresponded to it are often replaced by the same (third-person) forms that are used with "você".
In the plural, Portuguese familiar vós is archaic nearly everywhere (as with the old English second singular "thou"), and both the subject pronoun and its corresponding second-person plural verb forms are generally limited to the Bible, traditional prayers, and spoken varieties of certain regions of rural Portugal; normally, the familiar (and equalizing) form is now vocês, although in Portugal the second person plural forms are retained for both object and possessive pronouns (e.g., vocês e a vossa família). In the case of northern and central Peninsular Spanish, tú, usted, vosotros, and ustedes have more or less kept their original functions; if anything, tú is displacing usted out of common use and usted is coming to be used only for formal situations (like o senhor in Portuguese). Latin American Spanish is more complicated: vosotros has fallen out of use in favor of ustedes, but certain regions of Spanish America also use vos as a singular informal pronoun, displacing tú out of its original role to a greater or lesser extent (see voseo).
Spoken Brazilian Portuguese has dramatically simplified the pronoun system, with você(s) tending to displace all other forms. Although a few parts of Brazil still use tu and the corresponding second-person singular verb forms, most areas either use tu with third-person verb forms or (increasingly) drop tu entirely in favor of você. This has in turn caused the original third-person possessive seu, sua to shift to primarily second-person use, alongside the appearance of a new third-person possessive dele, dela (plural deles, delas, "their") that follows the noun (thus paraphrases such as o carro dele "his car", o carro dela "her car"). The formal o senhor is also increasingly restricted to certain situations, such as that of a storekeeper addressing a customer, or a child or teenager addressing an adult stranger.
More conservative in this regard is the fluminense dialect of Brazilian Portuguese (spoken in Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo and in the Zona da Mata of the state of Minas Gerais) – especially its carioca sociolect. This dialect generally preserves intimate or familiar tu, the standard equalizing form você, and the respectful or formal o senhor/a senhora, together with their related possessives, to such an extent that almost all speakers use these forms, according to context. Nevertheless, a minority of educated speakers correctly conjugates all of the tu pronouns formally; otherwise, it is mostly conjugated as você.
Standard Portuguese usage has vocês and os senhores/as senhoras as plurals of você and o senhor/a senhora, but the vernacular has also produced new forms with the second-person familiar plural function, such as gente (compare a gente as a possible colloquial variation of nós, "we"/"us", that should be conjugated—but commonly is not—as third-person singular), pessoas, pessoal, [meu] povo, cês (eye dialect for vocês in colloquial pronunciation), and galera (the latter mainly associated with youth slang).
It is often said that the gaúcho, nordestino and amazofonia dialects, as well as some sociolects elsewhere, such as that in and around the city of Santos, have preserved tu; but unlike in fluminense, the use of você is very limited, and entirely absent among some speakers, and tu takes its place. In these areas, the verb with tu is conjugated in the third-person form (as with você) – except among educated speakers in some urban centers such as Porto Alegre and, especially, Belém. See Brazilian Portuguese.
Verbs
"To be"
Spanish and Portuguese have two main copulas, ser and estar. For the most part, the use of these verbs is the same in both languages, but there are a few cases where it differs. The main difference between Spanish and Portuguese is in the interpretation of the concept of state versus essence and in the generalizations one way or another that are made in certain constructions. For instance,Está prohibido fumar. (Spanish) [estar]É proibido fumar. (Portuguese) [ser]
'Smoking is forbidden.'La silla está hecha de madera. (Spanish) [estar]A cadeira é feita de madeira. (Portuguese) [ser]
'The chair is made of wood.'Sólo uno es correcto. (Spanish) [ser]Só um está correcto. (Portuguese) [estar]
'Only one is correct.'
Also, the use of ser regarding a permanent location is much more accepted in Portuguese. Conversely, estar is often permanent in Spanish regarding a location, while in Portuguese, it implies being temporary or something within the immediate vicinity (same house, building, etc.)Nuestra oficina queda (or está) muy lejos. (Spanish) [quedar/estar]O nosso escritório é (or fica) muito longe. (Portuguese) [ser/ficar]
'Our office is very far away.'¿Dónde está (or queda) el aeropuerto? (Spanish) [estar/quedar]Onde fica (or é) o aeroporto? (Portuguese) [ficar/ser]
'Where is the airport?'
Because the airport is obviously not anywhere nearby, ficar is used in Portuguese (most common), though ser can also be used.
Secondary copulas are quedar(se) in Spanish and ficar in Portuguese. Each can also mean 'to stay' or 'to remain.'
Me quedé dentro de la casa todo el día. (Spanish)
Fiquei dentro de casa todo o dia. (Portuguese)
'I stayed inside the house all day.'
The Spanish sentence using the reflexive form of the verb (quedarse) implies that staying inside the house was voluntary, while Portuguese and English are quite ambiguous on this matter without any additional context. (See also the next section.)
Both Spanish quedar(se) and Portuguese ficar can mean 'become':Mi abuela se está quedando sorda. (Spanish)(A) Minha avó está ficando surda. (Brazilian Portuguese and some dialects of European Portuguese)(A) minha avó está a ficar surda. (European Portuguese)
'My grandmother is becoming deaf.'
Reflexive verbs
Reflexive verbs are somewhat more frequent in Spanish than in Portuguese, especially with actions relating to parts of the body:Guillermo se quebró la pierna jugando al fútbol. (Spanish)(O) Guilherme quebrou(-se) a perna jogando futebol. (Brazilian Portuguese)(O) Guilherme partiu a perna a jogar futebol. (European Portuguese)
'Guilherme broke his leg playing soccer.'
"To like"
The Portuguese and Spanish verbs for expressing "liking" are similar in form (gostar and gustar respectively) but different in their arrangement of arguments. Arguments in linguistics are expressions that enable a verb to complete its meaning. Expressions of liking typically require two arguments: (1) a person who likes something (sometimes called the "experiencer"), and (2) something that the person likes (sometimes called the "theme"). Portuguese and Spanish (as well as English) assign different grammatical cases to these arguments, as shown in the following table:
The Portuguese sentence can be translated literally as "[I] [take satisfaction] [from] [the music]", while the Spanish corresponds to "[To me] [(it) is pleasing] [the music]."
It is also possible in Spanish to express it as: "(Yo) gusto de la música", although this use has become antiquated.
Auxiliary verbs with the perfect
In Spanish, the compound perfect is constructed with the auxiliary verb haber (< Latin ). Although Portuguese used to use its cognate verb (haver) in this way, now it is more common to form these tenses with ter ('to have') (< Latin ). While ter is occasionally used as an auxiliary by other Iberian languages, it is much more pervasive in Portuguese - to the extent that most Portuguese verb tables only list ter with regard to the perfect. Yo ya hube comido cuando mi madre volvió. (Spanish) [perfect form of haber] Yo ya había comido cuando mi madre volvió. (Spanish) [imperfect form of haber] Eu já comera quando a minha mãe voltou. (Portuguese) [pluperfect inherited from Latin] Eu já tinha comido quando a minha mãe voltou. (Portuguese) [imperfect form of ter] Eu já havia comido quando a minha mãe voltou. (Portuguese) [imperfect form of haver]
'I had already eaten when my mother returned.'
Imperfect subjunctive versus pluperfect indicative
A class of false friends between the two languages is composed of the verb forms with endings containing -ra-, such as cantara, cantaras, cantáramos, and so on. Spanish has two forms for the imperfect subjunctive, one with endings in -se- and another with endings in -ra- (e.g., cantase/cantara 'were I to sing'), which are usually interchangeable. In Portuguese, only cantasse has this value; cantara is employed as a pluperfect indicative, i.e., the equivalent to Spanish había cantado ('I had sung'). Although there is a strong tendency to use a verb phrase instead in the spoken language, like in Spanish and English (havia cantado), the simple tense is still frequent in literature.
Present perfect
In European Spanish, as well as some Andean dialects, as in English, the present perfect is normally used to talk about an action initiated and completed in the past, which is still considered relevant or influential in the present moment. In Portuguese and Latin American Spanish, the same meaning is conveyed by the simple preterite, as in the examples below:No, gracias. Ya he cenado. (Spanish, Spain) [present perfect]No, gracias. Ya cené. (Spanish, Latin America) [preterite]Não, obrigado. Já jantei. (Portuguese) [preterite]
'No, thank you. I have already dined.' [present perfect]He ido a España dos veces. (Spanish, Spain) [present perfect]Fui a España dos veces. (Spanish, Latin America) [preterite]Fui à Espanha duas vezes. (Portuguese) [preterite]
'I have been to Spain twice.' [present perfect]¿Ha oído usted las últimas noticias, señor? (Spanish, Spain) [present perfect]¿Oyó usted las últimas noticias, señor? (Spanish, Latin America) [preterite]O senhor ouviu as últimas notícias? (Portuguese) [preterite]
'Have you heard the latest news, sir?' [present perfect]
Portuguese normally uses the present perfect (pretérito perfeito composto) for speaking of an event that began in the past, was repeated regularly up to the present, and could keep happening in the future. See the contrast with Spanish in the following example:He pensado en pedirle matrimonio. (Spanish) [present perfect]
'I have thought of asking her/him [indirect object] to marry me [the thought has occurred to me at least once].' [present perfect]Tenho pensado em pedi-la em casamento. (Portuguese) [present perfect]
'I have been thinking of asking her [direct object] to marry me.' [present perfect continuous]
As this example suggests, the Portuguese present perfect is often closer in meaning to the English present perfect continuous. See also Spanish verbs: Contrasting the preterite and the perfect.
Personal infinitive
Portuguese, uniquely among the major Romance languages, has acquired a "personal infinitive", which can be used as an alternative to a subordinate clause with a finite verb in the subjunctive. A recepcionista pediu para esperarmos. (Portuguese) [personal infinitive]A recepcionista pediu que esperássemos. (Portuguese) [imperfect subjunctive]La recepcionista nos pidió que esperáramos/esperásemos. (Spanish) [imperfect subjunctive]
'The receptionist asked for us to wait.' (literal personal infinitive translation)
'The receptionist asked that we wait.' (literal Portuguese imperfect subjunctive translation)
The Portuguese perfect form of the personal infinitive corresponds to one of several possible Spanish finite verbs.Alguém nos acusou de termos roubado uma caneta. (Portuguese)Alguien nos acusó de haber robado un bolígrafo. (Spanish)
'Somebody accused us of having stolen a pen.'
On some occasions, the personal infinitive can hardly be replaced by a finite clause and corresponds to a different structure in Spanish (and English):O hábito de fumares à janela é desagradável. (Portuguese, using personal infinitive. Literally, 'The habit of [you] smoking at the window is unpleasant.')(O) teu hábito de fumar à janela é desagradável. (Portuguese, using impersonal infinitive. Literally, '(The) Your habit of smoking at the window is unpleasant.')Tu hábito de fumar junto a una ventana es desagradable. (Spanish: 'Your habit of smoking close to a window is unpleasant.')
The personal infinitive is not used in counterfactual situations, as these require either the future subjunctive or the imperfect subjunctive. 'If we were/had been rich...' is Se fôssemos ricos..., not *Se sermos ricos... Also, it is conjugated the same as the future subjunctive (see next section), provided the latter is not irregular (ser, estar, ter, etc.) The personal infinitive is never irregular, though the circumflex accent may be dropped in writing on expanded forms (such as pôr).
In the first and third person singular, the personal infinitive appears no different from the unconjugated infinitive.É bom eu/ele esperar um bocadinho. (Portuguese)
'It is good that I/he wait(s) a bit.'
The above rules also apply whenever the subjects of the two clauses are the same, but independent of each other.Para chegarmos cedo, temos/teremos que nos apressar. (Portuguese) [personal infinitive]Para que lleguemos temprano, necesitamos apresurarnos. (Spanish) [present subjunctive]
'For us to arrive early, we will need to hurry.'Para chegarmos cedo, tínhamos/teríamos que nos apressar. (Portuguese) [personal infinitive]Para que llegáramos/llegásemos temprano, necesitaríamos apresurarnos. (Spanish) [imperfect subjunctive]
'For us to arrive early, we would need to hurry.'
As shown, the personal infinitive can be used at times to replace both the impersonal infinitive and the subjunctive. Spanish has no such alternative.
Future subjunctive
The future subjunctive, now virtually obsolete in Spanish, or circumscribed to legal documents, continues in use in both written and spoken Portuguese. It is used in subordinate clauses referring to a hypothetical future event or state – either adverbial clauses (usually introduced by se 'if ' or quando 'when') or adjective clauses that modify nouns referring to a hypothetical future entity. Spanish, in the analogous if-clauses, uses the present indicative, and in the cuando- and adjective clauses uses the present subjunctive.Se eu for eleito presidente, mudarei a lei. (Portuguese)Si yo soy (also fuere) elegido presidente, cambiaré la ley. (Spanish)
'If I am elected president, I will change the law.'Quando fores mais velho, compreenderás. (Portuguese)Cuando seas (also fueres) mayor, comprenderás. (Spanish)
'When you are older, you'll understand.'Dar-se-á/Se dará o prêmio à primeira pessoa que disser a resposta correcta. (Portuguese)Se dará el premio a la primera persona que diga (also dijere) la respuesta correcta. (Spanish)
'The prize will be given to the first person who says the right answer.'
Irregular verbs
In the preterite tense, a number of irregular verbs in Portuguese change the stem vowel to indicate differences between first and third person singular: fiz 'I did' vs. fez 'he did', pude 'I could' vs. pôde 'he could', fui 'I was' vs. foi 'he was', tive 'I had' vs. teve 'he had', etc. Historically, these vowel differences are due to vowel raising (metaphony) triggered by the final of the first-person singular in Latin. Spanish maintains such a difference only in fui 'I was' vs. fue 'he was'. In all other cases in Spanish, the stem vowel has been regularized throughout the conjugation and a new third-person ending -o adopted: hice 'I did' vs. hizo 'he did', pude 'I could' vs. pudo 'he could', etc. Portuguese verbs ending in -duzir are regular in the preterite, while their Spanish counterparts in -ducir undergo a consonant change and are stressed on the stem; thus Portuguese reduzi vs. Spanish reduje ('I reduced'). Similarly, the preterite of andar is regular in Portuguese (andaste), but irregular in Spanish (anduviste, 'you went').
Meanwhile, Spanish maintains many more irregular forms in the future and conditional: saldré 'I will leave', pondré 'I will put', vendré 'I will come', diré 'I will say', etc. Portuguese has only three: farei 'I will do', direi 'I will say', trarei 'I will carry'.
In the imperfect tense, Spanish has three irregular verbs while Portuguese has four; ser (to be) is the only such verb that is irregular in the imperfect across both languages. While the counterparts of the Spanish verbs tener (to have), poner (to put), and venir (to come) are irregular in Portuguese, the counterparts of the Portuguese verbs ir (to go) and ver (to see) are irregular in Spanish.
Portuguese drops -e in "irregular" third-person singular present indicative forms after ⟨z⟩ and ⟨r⟩, according to phonological rules: faz 'he does', diz 'he says', quer 'he wants', etc. Spanish has restored -e by analogy with other verbs: hace 'he does', dice 'he says', quiere 'he wants', etc. (The same type of analogy accounts for fiz vs hice 'I did' in the past tense. In nouns such as paz 'peace', luz 'light', amor 'love', etc. -e was dropped in both languages and never restored).
Prepositions
Contractions
In Spanish the prepositions a ('to') and de ('of, from') form contractions with a following masculine singular definite article (el 'the'): a + el > al, and de + el > del. This kind of contraction is much more extensive in Portuguese, involving the prepositions a ('to'), de ('of, from'), em ('in'), and por ('for') with articles and demonstratives regardless of number or gender. All four of these prepositions join with the definite article, as shown in the following table:
1These Portuguese contractions include some potential "false friends" for the reader of Spanish, such as no (Port. 'in the', Sp. 'no, not') and dos (Port. 'of the', Sp. 'two').
2In European Portuguese, a is pronounced , while à is pronounced . Both are generally in most of Brazil, although in some accents such as carioca and florianopolitano there may be distinction.
Additionally, the prepositions de and em combine with the demonstrative adjectives and pronouns as shown below:
The neuter demonstrative pronouns (isto 'this' isso, aquilo 'that') likewise combine with de and em – thus, disto, nisto, etc. And the preposition a combines with the "distal" demonstratives (those that begin with a-) to form àquele, àquilo, etc.
The Portuguese contractions mentioned thus far are obligatory. Contractions can also be optionally formed from em and de with the indefinite article (um, uma, uns, umas), resulting in num, numa, dum, duma, etc. and from the third person pronouns (ele, ela, eles, elas), resulting in nele, nela, dele, dela, etc. Other optional contractions include de with aqui > daqui ('from here').
The Spanish con ('with', com in Portuguese) combines with the prepositional pronouns mí, ti, and sí to form conmigo, contigo, consigo ('with me', 'with you', 'with him-/herself '). In Portuguese this process not only applies to the pronouns mim, ti, and si (giving comigo, contigo, and consigo), but also is extended to nós and, in those varieties which use it, vós, producing connosco (conosco in Brazilian Portuguese) and convosco.
Personal "a"
Spanish employs a preposition, the so-called "personal a", before the direct object of a transitive verb (except tener) when it denotes a specific person(s), or domestic pet; thus Veo a Juan 'I see John'; Hemos invitado a los estudiantes 'We've invited the students.'
In Portuguese, personal a is virtually non-existent, except before Deus 'God': louvar a Deus 'to praise God', amar a Deus 'to love God'.
Ir a versus ir para
Quite common in both languages are the prepositions a (which often translates as "to") and para (which often translates as "for"). However, European Portuguese and Spanish distinguish between going somewhere for a short while versus a longer stay, especially if it is an intended destination, in the latter case using para instead of a. While there is no specified duration of stay before a European Portuguese speaker must switch prepositions, a implies one will return sooner, rather than later, relative to the context. This distinction is not made in English and Brazilian Portuguese. In Spanish the distinction is not made if the duration is given in the context (maybe implicitly), and in this case a is generally preferred.
Fui al mercado cerca de mi casa. (Spanish)Fui ao mercado perto de/da minha casa./Fui para o mercado perto de/da minha casa. (European and Brazilian Portuguese)
'I went to the market near my house.' [temporary displacement]El presidente anterior fue exiliado a Portugal. (Spanish)O presidente anterior foi exilado para Portugal. (European and Brazilian Portuguese)
'The former president was exiled to Portugal.' [permanent, or more lasting displacement]
Note, though, in the first example, para could be used in Portuguese if in contrast to a very brief period of time.Não fico muito tempo, só um minuto. Tenho que/de ir para o mercado. (Portuguese)
'I can't stay long, only a minute. I have to go to the market.' [pending task or appointment]
In informal, non-standard Brazilian Portuguese, em (in its original form or combined with a given article in a contraction, yielding no, na, numa, etc.), often replaces the preposition a from standard Portuguese.Vou na padaria. (non-standard Brazilian Portuguese)Vou à padaria. (standard Portuguese)
'I'm going to the bakery.'Fui numa festa ontem. (non-standard Brazilian Portuguese)Fui a uma festa ontem. (standard Portuguese)
'I went to a party yesterday.'
Such a construction is not used in Spanish or in European Portuguese.
In Portuguese the preposition até can also be used when the duration of the stay is expected to be short or when there is a specific reason for going somewhere. In Spanish hasta has the same meaning and function.Vou até a praia.Voy hasta la playa.'I'm going to the beach.'
Hacia and para
Spanish has two prepositions of direction: para ('for', including 'headed for [a destination]') and hacia ('toward [not necessarily implying arrival]'). Of them, only para exists in Portuguese, covering both meanings.Este regalo es para ti. (Spanish)Este presente é para ti. (Portuguese)
'This gift is for you.'Aquel/Ese avión va hacia Brasilia. (Spanish)Aquele avião voa para Brasília. (Portuguese)
'That airplane is flying toward Brasília.'
Colloquially, para is often reduced in both languages: to pa in Spanish, and to pra (sometimes written p'ra and this form may be used in literature) or pa (only in slang in Portugal and Rio de Janeiro, and not permitted in writing) in Portuguese. Portuguese pra, in turn, may join with the definite article: pra + o > pro (BP) or prò (EP), pra + a > pra (BP) or prà (EP), etc. In reference to the slang option pa, these become: pa + o > pò, pa + a > pà, etc.
"Going to" future
Both languages have a construction similar to the English "going-to" future. Spanish includes the preposition a between the conjugated form of ir "to go" and the infinitive: Vamos a cantar "We're going to sing" or "Let's sing" (present tense of ir + a + infinitive). Usually, in Portuguese, there is no preposition between the helping verb and the main verb: Vamos cantar (present tense of ir + infinitive). This also applies when the verb is in other tenses:
Ayer yo iba a leer el libro, pero no tuve la oportunidad. (Spanish)
Ontem eu ia ler o livro, mas não tive a oportunidade. (Portuguese)
Yesterday I was going to read the book, but never had the chance.
Other differences in preposition usage
While as a rule the same prepositions are used in the same contexts in both languages, there are many exceptions.Nuestros gastos de energía. (Spanish)(Os) nossos gastos com/de energia. (Portuguese)
Our energy expenses.Voy a votar por/a Juan. (Spanish)Vou votar em/no João. (Portuguese)
I'm going to vote for John.
Orthography
Alphabet
The traditional Spanish alphabet had 28 letters, while the Portuguese had 23. Modern versions of recent years added k and w (found only in foreign words) to both languages. Portuguese also added y for loanwords.
With the reform in 1994 by the 10th congress of the Association of Spanish Language Academies, Spanish alphabetization now follows the same pattern as that of other major West European languages. Prior to this date, however, the digraphs ch and ll were independently alphabetized. For example, the following surnames would be put in this order: Cervantes, Contreras, Cruz, Chávez, Dávila. Many Spanish dictionaries and other reference material still exist using the pre-reform rule of alphabetization.
Current Spanish alphabet (Spanish alphabet reform of 1994)
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n ñ o p q r s t u v w x y z
Digraphs
ch ll rr gu qu
Current Portuguese alphabet (Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990) introducing k, w and ya b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Digraphs
ch lh nh rr gu qu ss (sc sç xc xs)
⟨Sc⟩ in Latin American Spanish is not called a digraph, however it is a single sound as in Brazilian Portuguese. Also Spanish has taken ⟨sh⟩ from English as a loan sound; e.g., sherpa, show, flash (however, the Royal Spanish Academy prescribes these words to be written in italics, as unadapted foreign words). Brazilian Portuguese uses the trigraph ⟨tch⟩ for loanwords; e.g., tchau, 'ciao', tcheco 'Czech', República Tcheca 'Czech Republic', tchê 'che' (this latter is regional), etc. European Portuguese normally replace the trigraph ⟨tch⟩ with ⟨ch⟩ : chau, checo, República Checa, etc. (This is pronounced in northern European Portuguese dialects.)
Both Spanish and Portuguese use ⟨zz⟩ (never as – this sequence appears only in loanwords from Japanese, e.g., adzuki) for some Italian loanwords, but in Portuguese may sometimes not be pronounced as affricate, but having an epenthetic or ; e.g., Sp. and Port. pizza 'pizza', Sp. and Port. paparazzo 'paparazzo', etc. (however, the Royal Spanish Academy prescribes these words to be written in italics). Spanish also utilizes ⟨tz⟩ for Basque, Catalan and Nahuatl loanwords, and ⟨tl⟩ (or ) for Nahuatl loanwords; e.g., Ertzaintza, quetzal, xoloitzcuintle, Tlaxcala, etc. Portuguese utilizes ⟨ts⟩ for German, originarily ⟨z⟩, and Japanese loanwords.
Although the letters k, w, and y are now included in the Portuguese alphabet, according to the current orthographic rules they should only be used in proper names (foreign or invented) and their derivatives with suffixes (kantiano, darwinismo, byroniano, etc.), and also in international symbols. Derivatives without suffixes are generally adapted to the Portuguese spelling (Karakul but caracul, Zika but zica), except measurement units (watt, henry; note also kwanza, the monetary unit of Angola). On the other hand, the current Spanish orthography allows k and w to be used in any kind of loanwords, although in some cases alternative spellings are allowed (kimono or quimono). This leads to differences in Spanish and Portuguese spellings of loanwords:
Spanish: búnker, chikunguña, karaoke, kárate/karate, karma, kilogramo, kilómetro, kiwi, koala, sándwich, wiski/güisqui, zika.
Portuguese: búnquer, chicungunha, caraoquê, caraté/caratê, carma, quilograma, quilómetro/quilômetro, quivi/quiuí, coala, sanduíche, uísque, zica.
In practice, foreign words are often left unchanged in both languages, e. g. whisky, chikungunya. The Royal Spanish Academy accepts such spellings, but only with typographical emphasis: italics in printed text, quotation marks in manuscript or when italics are not available.
On the other hand, names of measurement units named after people are written unchanged in Portuguese, but Spanish often uses adapted spellings ending in -io:
Portuguese: watt, henry, hertz.
Spanish: vatio, henrio, hercio.
Question and exclamation marks
Only in Spanish do interrogatives and exclamations use the question mark or exclamation point respectively at the beginning of a sentence. The same punctuation marks are used, but these are inverted. This prepares the reader in advance for either a question or exclamation type of sentence.
Interrogative: ¿Cuántos años tienes? (Spanish)
Exclamation: ¡Cuidado con el perro! (Spanish)
On the other hand, in Portuguese, a person reading aloud lengthy sentences from an unfamiliar text may have to scan ahead to check if what at first appears to be a statement, is actually a question. Otherwise, it would be too late to enable proper voice inflection. Neither language has the equivalent of the auxiliary verb to do, which is often used to begin a question in English. Both Spanish and English can place the verb before the subject noun to indicate a question, though this is uncommon in Portuguese, and almost unheard of in Brazil. In fact, most yes/no questions in Portuguese are written the same as a statement except for the final question mark.
Spanish: ¿Tiene usted una medida de cuál es su exposición a estos riesgos, y está usted confiado de que su organización está minimizando el impacto de los mismos sobre sus accionistas, equipo de trabajo y otros grupos interesados?Portuguese: Você tem ideia de qual é a sua exposição a esses riscos, e tem confiança que a sua organização está minimizando os impactos resultantes, nos seus acionistas, funcionários e outros interessados?English: 'Do you have a measure of what your exposure is to these risks, and are you confident that your organization is minimizing their impact on your shareholders, staff, and other interested parties?'
Aside from changes of punctuation in written language, in speech, converting any of the above examples from a question to a statement would involve changes of both intonation and syntax in English and Spanish, but intonation only in Portuguese.
Different spellings for similar sounds
The palatal consonants are spelled differently in the two languages.
The symbols ⟨ll⟩ and ⟨ñ⟩ are etymological in Spanish, as the sounds they represent are often derived from Latin and (for those positions, Portuguese has simple ⟨l⟩ and ⟨n⟩; cf. rodilla/rodela, peña/pena). The Portuguese digraphs ⟨lh⟩ and ⟨nh⟩ were adopted from Occitan, as poetry of the troubadours was the most important influence on Portuguese literature up until the 14th century. King Denis of Portugal, who established Portuguese instead of Latin as the official language, was an admirer of the poetry of the troubadours and a poet himself. Examples include names such as Port. Minho (Sp. Miño) and Magalhães (Sp. Magallanes).
The letter ⟨y⟩ was used in Portuguese from the 16th to the early 20th century in Greek loans, much as in English (e.g., Psychologia, modern Psicologia 'Psychology'). The orthographic reform in 1911 officially replaced it with ⟨i⟩. The corresponding sound can be regarded as an allophone of the vowel in both languages. Compare Sp. rey ('king'), mayor ('larger, greater, elder') with Port. rei ('king'), maior ('larger, greater').
The exact pronunciation of these three consonants varies somewhat with dialect. The table indicates only the most common sound values in each language. In most Spanish dialects, the consonants written ⟨ll⟩ and ⟨y⟩ have come to be pronounced the same way, a sound merger known as yeísmo. A similar phenomenon can be found in some dialects of Brazilian Portuguese (e.g., "muié" for mulher, 'woman'), but it is much less widespread than in Spanish.
The Portuguese letter ⟨ç⟩ (c-cedilha), based on a Visigothic form of the letter ⟨z⟩: "ꝣ". In Portuguese it is used before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, and ⟨u⟩ (including nasals), and never at the beginning or end of any word. It always represents the "soft c" sound, namely . In modern Spanish, it has been replaced by ⟨z⟩. Example: calzado (Sp.), calçado (Port.) 'footwear'.
Correspondences between word endings
Various word endings are consistently different in the two languages.
Spanish -n corresponds to Portuguese -m when in word-final position (e.g., Spanish: jardín, algún; Portuguese: jardim, algum). In Portuguese, word- or syllable-final ⟨m⟩ and ⟨n⟩ indicate nasalization of the previous vowel; e.g., som 'sound' (see phonology below). In the plural, ⟨m⟩ is replaced with an ⟨n⟩ (Spanish: jardines, algunos; Portuguese: jardins, alguns), that is because in these cases the ⟨m⟩ is not in word-final position anymore. Notice, some rare learned words in Portuguese and Spanish may also have a word final -n (e.g., Portuguese abdómen/abdômen 'abdomen'), and -m (e.g., Spanish tándem 'tandem'), respectively. (Word-final -n in Portuguese is pronounced [n], while word-final -m in Spanish is also pronounced [n] because there is no word-final [m] sound originally in Spanish.)
Common exceptions to the above rule concern the Spanish noun endings:
-án and -ano, which normally correspond to -ão or -ã in Portuguese (Irán vs Irão (EP)/Irã (BP) 'Iran', hermano vs irmão 'brother', and huérfano vs órfão, 'orphan m.');
-ana, which corresponds to -ã (hermana vs irmã 'sister', mañana vs manhã 'morning', huérfana vs órfã 'orphan f.');
-ón / -ción or -cción / -sión, which usually correspond to -ão / -ção or -(c)ção / -são or -ssão (melón vs melão 'melon', opción vs opção 'option', corrección vs corre(c)ção 'correction', pensión vs pensão 'pension', or admisión vs admissão 'admission');
-on or -an, which corresponds to -ão in most monosyllables (son vs são 'they are', tan vs tão 'as, so');
The singular noun or adjective endings -án and -ón in Spanish both usually correspond to Portuguese -ão, and likewise the Spanish ending -ano often corresponds to Portuguese -ão (although there are also many Portuguese words ending in -ano, including gentilics such as cubano, boliviano, etc.). The plurals of the Portuguese words in -ão, however, generally preserve the historical distinctions: Portuguese -ãos, -ães, and -ões generally correspond to Spanish -anos, -anes, and -ones, respectively:
-ãos, as in mão/mãos (Spanish mano/manos, English 'hand(s)');
-ães, as in capitão/capitães (Spanish capitán/capitanes, English 'captain(s)');
-ões, as in melão/melões (Spanish melón/melones, English 'melon(s)').
Notable exceptions to the above rule:
verão/verões (Spanish verano(s), English 'summer(s)');
vulcão/vulcões (Spanish volcán/volcanes, English 'volcano');
ancião, which allows the three plural forms: anciãos, anciães and anciões (Spanish anciano(s), English 'elder(s)').
guardião, which allows the three plural forms: guardiãos, guardiães and guardiões (Spanish guardián/guardianes, English 'guardian');
vilão, which allows the three plural forms: vilãos, vilães and vilões (Spanish villano/villanos, English 'villain');
João/Joões (Spanish Juan/Juanes, English 'John'). This plural can be seen in words such as joão-de-barro/joões-de-barro (Red Ovenbird).
The 3rd person plural endings of the preterite indicative tense are spelled with -on in Spanish (pensaron, vivieron 'they thought, they lived'), but with -am in Portuguese (pensaram, viveram).
In Portuguese words ending in -l form their plurals by dropping ⟨l⟩ and adding -is (-eis when final unstressed -il): caracol/caracóis (Spanish caracol(es), English 'snail(s)'), fácil/fáceis (Spanish fácil(es), English 'easy').
In Spanish, adjectives and nouns ending in -z form their plurals by replacing ⟨z⟩ with ⟨c⟩ (-ces); e.g., feroz/feroces (Portuguese feroz(es), English 'ferocious'), vez/veces (Portuguese vez(es) English 'time(s)').
Another conspicuous difference is the use of -z in Spanish versus -s in Portuguese at the end of unstressed syllables, especially when the consonant is the last letter in a word. A few examples:Álvarez, Fernández, Suárez, izquierda, mezquino, lápiz (Spanish)Álvares, Fernandes, Soares, esquerda, mesquinho, lápis (Portuguese)
Other correspondences between word endings are:
-dad(es) or -tad(es) (Spanish) and -dade(s) (Portuguese), as in bondad(es) vs bondade(s) 'goodness(es)' and libertad(es) vs liberdade(s) 'liberty/ies'. The word ending -zade(s) is also found in Portuguese, e.g., amizade(s) (Spanish amistad(es), English 'friendship(s)');
-ud(es) (Spanish) and -ude(s) (Portuguese), as in virtud(es) vs virtude(s) 'virtue';
-ble(s) (Spanish) and -vel/eis (Portuguese), as in amable(s) vs amável/amáveis 'amiable';
-je(s) (Spanish) and -gem/ns (Portuguese), as in lenguaje(s) vs linguagem/linguagens 'language(s)';
-aso (Spanish) and -asso (Portuguese), as in escaso vs escasso 'scarce';
-eso (Spanish) and -esso (Portuguese), as in espeso vs espesso 'thick';
-esa (Spanish) and -essa or -esa (Portuguese), as in condesa vs condessa 'countess' and inglesa vs inglesa 'Englishwoman';
-eza (Spanish) and -iça or -eza (Portuguese), as in pereza vs preguiça 'laziness' and naturaleza vs natureza 'nature';
-ez (Spanish) and -ice and -ez (Portuguese), as in idiotez vs idiotice 'idiocy' (there are unpredictable exceptions in Portuguese, e.g., estupidez 'stupidity') and timidez vs timidez 'shyness';
-izar (Spanish) and -izar or -isar (Portuguese), as in realizar vs realizar 'to realize/realise' and analizar vs analisar 'to analize/analise' (notice there are also some Spanish verbs that in -isar; e.g., avisar 'warn', pesquisar 'research', etc.) Brazilian Portuguese uses an alternative word ending in -issar in some exceptional cases; e.g., aterrissar, alunissar (European Portuguese aterrar, alunar; Spanish aterrizar, alunizar, English 'landing', 'moon landing');
-azar (Spanish) and -açar (Portuguese), amenazar vs ameaçar 'threaten';
-anza (Spanish) and -ança (Portuguese), esperanza vs esperança 'hope';
-encia (Spanish) and -ença or -ência (Portuguese), as in diferencia vs diferença 'difference' and ocurrencia vs ocorrência 'occurrence' (in Spanish there are few exceptional words ending in -enza; e.g., vergüenza 'shame');
-icia (Spanish) and -iça or -ícia (Portuguese), as in justicia vs justiça 'justice' and malicia vs malícia 'malice';
-izo (Spanish) and -iço (Portuguese), as in movedizo vs movediço 'moveable';
-miento or -mento (Spanish) and -mento (Portuguese), as in sentimiento vs sentimento 'feeling, sentiment' and reglamento vs regulamento 'rules, regulations';
-ísimo (Spanish) and -íssimo (Portuguese), as in fidelísimo vs fidelíssimo or even fidelissíssimo 'most loyal'.
Accentuation and nasalization
Both languages use diacritics to mark the stressed syllable of a word whenever it is not otherwise predictable from spelling. Since Spanish does not differentiate between mid-open and mid-close vowels and nasal vowels, it uses only one accent, the acute. Portuguese usually uses the acute accent , but also uses the circumflex accent ( ˆ ) on the mid-close vowels ⟨ê⟩ and ⟨ô⟩ and the stressed (always nasal in Brasil) ⟨â⟩.
Although the Spanish ⟨y⟩ can be either a consonant or a vowel, as a vowel it never takes an accent. At the end of a word, the Portuguese diphthong -ai is the equivalent of the Spanish -ay, however, -ai can have an accent on the ⟨í⟩ to break the diphthong into two separate vowels, e.g., açaí (three syllables). Without the accent, as in Spanish, the last syllable would be a diphthong: Paraguai (Portuguese) and Paraguay (Spanish) 'Paraguay'.
Portuguese nasal vowels occur before ⟨n⟩ and ⟨m⟩ (see phonology below) without an accent mark, as these consonants are not fully pronounced in such cases. The tilde (~), is only used on nasal diphthongs such as ⟨ão⟩ and ⟨õe⟩ , plus the final ⟨ã⟩ , which replaces the -am ending, as the latter is reserved for verbs, e.g., amanhã 'tomorrow'.
Initial and middle: vowel + ⟨n⟩ + consonant (except ⟨h⟩, ⟨p⟩ or ⟨b⟩): antecedente, geringonça, mundo, ênfase
Initial and middle: vowel + ⟨m⟩ + bilabial consonant (⟨p⟩ or ⟨b⟩): caçamba, emprego, supimpa, pomba, penumbra
Final: vowel + ⟨m⟩: fizeram, em, ruim, bom, algum (except for learned words, e.g., abdómen/abdômen, hífen, etc.)
These do not alter the rules for stress, though note endings -im, -ins and -um, -uns are stressed, as are their non-nasal counterparts (see below). A couple of two-letter words consist of only the nasal vowel: em and um.
Phonetic vowel nasalization occurs in Spanish—vowels may get slightly nasalized in contact with nasal consonants—but it is not phonemically distinctive. In Portuguese, on the other hand, vowel nasalization is distinctive, and therefore phonemic: pois or 'because' vs pões or '(you) put'.
Portuguese changes vowel sounds with (and without) accents marks. Unaccented ⟨o⟩ () and ⟨e⟩ (), acute accented ⟨ó⟩ () and ⟨é⟩ (), or circumflex accented ⟨ô⟩ () and ⟨ê⟩ (). Thus, nós or 'we' vs nos or 'us', avô 'grandfather' vs avó 'grandmother', se or 'itself, himself, herself' reflexive pronoun vs sé 'seat, headquarters' vs sê 'to be' 2nd person imperative. Spanish pronunciation makes no such distinction.
The grave accent is also used in Portuguese to indicate the contraction of the preposition a (to) with a few words beginning with the vowel a, but not to indicate stress. In other cases, it is the combination of the preposition and the feminine definite article; in other words, the equivalent of a la ('to the') in Spanish. Às is used for the plural (a las in Spanish).
a (prep.) + a(s) (def. article 'the') = à(s) ('to the').
a (prep.) + aquele(s), aquela(s) (pron. 'that') = àquele(s), àquela(s)—underlined stressed syllable—('to that').
a (prep.) + aquilo (pron. n. 'that') = àquilo ('to that').
The diaeresis or trema ( ¨ ) is used in Spanish to indicate ⟨u⟩ is pronounced in the sequence ⟨gu⟩; e.g., desagüe . As the Portuguese grave accent, the trema does not indicate stress. In Brazilian Portuguese it was also used for the digraphs ⟨gu⟩ and ⟨qu⟩ for the same purpose as Spanish (e.g., former BP spelling *qüinqüênio , EP quinquénio 'five-year period'), however since the implementation of the Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement in Brazil, the trema was abolished (current BP spelling quinquênio ), and its usage was restricted to some loanwords (e.g., mülleriano 'Müllerian').
The accentuation rules (including those of predictable stress) of Portuguese and Spanish are similar, but not identical. Discrepancies are especially pervasive in words that contain i or u in their last syllable. Note the Portuguese diphthongs ei and ou are the approximate Spanish equivalent of e and o respectively, but any word ending with these diphthongs is, by default, stressed on its final syllable.
Compare the following pairs of cognates, where the stress falls on the same syllable in both languages:
{| cellspacing="3"
|-
| taxi, || viví, || bambú, || ansia, || seria, || sería, || jardín, || pensáis, || pensó| (Spanish)
|-
| táxi, || vivi, || bambu, || ânsia, || séria, || seria, || jardim, || pensais,|| pensou| (Portuguese)
|}
Semivowel–vowel sequences are treated differently in both languages when it comes to accentuation rules. A sequence of a semivowel adjacent to a vowel is by default assumed to be read as a diphthong (part of the same syllable) in Spanish, whereas it is by default assumed to be read as a hiatus (belonging to different syllables) in Portuguese. For both languages, accentuation rules consistently indicate something other than the default.
A consequence of this is that words that are pronounced alike in both languages are written according to different accentuation rules. Some examples:
emergencia (Spanish), emergência (Portuguese) 'emergency'
tolerancia (Spanish), tolerância (Portuguese) 'tolerance'
audacia (Spanish), audácia (Portuguese) 'audace'
ocio (Spanish), ócio (Portuguese) 'leisure'
continuo (Spanish), contínuo (Portuguese) 'continuous'
continúo (Spanish), continuo (Portuguese) 'I continue'
Another consequence (though less common) is that some words are written exactly (or almost exactly) the same in both languages, but the stress falls on different syllables:
democracia (Spanish, rising diphthong at the end), democracia (Portuguese, the stress on -ci- breaks the diphthong) 'democracy'
policía (Spanish, the stress on -cí- breaks the diphthong), polícia (Portuguese) 'police'
Phonology
Although the vocabularies of Spanish and Portuguese are similar, the two languages differ phonologically from each other, very likely because of the stronger Celtic substratum in Portuguese. Phonetically Portuguese bears similarities to French and to Catalan while the phonetics of Spanish are more comparable to those of Sardinian and Sicilian. Portuguese has a significantly larger phonemic inventory than Spanish. This may partially explain why Portuguese is generally not very intelligible to Spanish speakers despite the lexical similarity between the two languages.
One of the main differences between the Spanish and Portuguese pronunciation are the vowel sounds. Standard Spanish has a basic vowel phonological system, with five phonemic vowels (, , , , ). Phonetic nasalization occurs in Spanish for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal consonant ( and ), but it is not distinctive as in Portuguese. Dialectally, there are Spanish dialects with a greater number of vowels, with some (as Murcian and Eastern Andalusian) reaching up to 8 to 10 vowel sounds. On the other hand, Portuguese has seven to nine oral vowels (, *, , , *, , , , ) ( is closer to in Portugal, while the near-close near-back unrounded vowel —also rendered as or —is only found in European Portuguese) plus five phonemic nasal vowels (, , , , ) when preceding an omitted syllable-final nasal ( and ) or when is marked with a tilde (~): ⟨ã⟩ and ⟨õ⟩. This appears to be, similarly to French, a Celtic phonological adaptation to Latin. Portuguese, as Catalan, uses vowel height, contrasting stressed and unstressed (reduced) vowels. Moreover, Spanish has two semivowels as allophones, ; while Portuguese has four, two oral and two nasalized glides (non-syllabic near-close vowels, as those of most English speech, are allophones of the glides in the Brazilian dialects where near-closeds are used).
The following considerations are based on a comparison of standard versions of Spanish and Portuguese. Apparent divergence of the information below from anyone's personal pronunciation may indicate one's idiolect (or dialect) diverges from the mentioned standards. Information on Portuguese phonology is adapted from Celso Pedro Luft (, 1971), and information on Spanish phonology adapted from Manuel Seco (, 1994).
Comparing the phonemic inventory of the two languages, a noticeable divergence stands out. First, standard Portuguese has more phonemes than Spanish. Also, each language has phonemes that are not shared by the other.
Early phonetic divergence
Vowels
Spanish and Portuguese have been diverging for over a thousand years. One of the most noticeable early differences between them concerned the result of the stressed vowels of Latin:
1The vowels and occur largely in complementary distribution.
2This diphthong has been reduced to the monophthong in many dialects of modern Portuguese.
As vowel length ceased to be distinctive in the transition from Latin to Romance, the stressed vowels and became ie and ue in Spanish whenever they were short (Latin → Spanish piedra 'stone'; Latin → Spanish muere "he dies"). Similar diphthongizations can be found in other Romance languages (French pierre, Italian pietra, Romanian piatră; French meurt, Italian muore, Romanian moare), but in Galician-Portuguese these vowels underwent a qualitative change instead (Portuguese/Galician pedra, morre), becoming lower, as also happened with short and short in stressed syllables. The Classical Latin vowels - and - were correspondingly lowered in Spanish and turned into diphthongs and . In Spanish, short and and long and merged into mid vowels, and , while in Portuguese these vowels stayed as close-mid, and and open-mid, and , as in Vulgar Latin.
Portuguese has five phonemic nasal vowels (), which, according to historical linguistics, arose from the assimilation of the nasal consonants and , often at the end of syllables. Syllable-final m and n are still written down to indicate nasalization, even though they are no longer fully pronounced, that is, either (before obstruents) or elided completely. In other cases, nasal vowels are marked with a tilde (ã, õ). Not all words containing vowel + n have the nasal sound, as the subsequent letter must be a consonant for this to occur: e.g., anel ('ring') –oral/non-nasal– vs anca ('hip') –nasal–.
However, in some Brazilian dialects, most vowels (including the allophones present only in unstressed environment) have nasal allophones before one of the nasal consonants , followed by another vowel. In other Brazilian dialects, only stressed vowels can be nasalized this way. In European Portuguese, nasalization is absent in this environment.
The Portuguese digraph ou (pronounced usually as the diphthong , but sometimes as a monophthong ) corresponds to the final -ó of Spanish -ar verbs in the preterite tense; e.g., Spanish descansó and Portuguese descansou ("he/she rested"). The Spanish irregular verb forms in -oy (e.g., doy "I give", estoy "I am", soy "I am", voy "I go") correspond to Portuguese forms in -ou (e.g., dou, estou, sou, vou). But in some other words, conversely, Spanish o corresponds to Portuguese oi, e.g., Spanish cosa, Portuguese coisa "thing"; Spanish oro "gold", Portuguese usually ouro, but sometimes oiro.
Stressed vowel alternations may occur in Portuguese, but not in Spanish:
Unstressed vowels
The history of the unstressed vowels in Spanish and Portuguese is not as well known as that of the stressed vowels, but some points are generally agreed upon. Spanish has the five short vowels of classical Latin, . It has also two semivowels, and , that appear in diphthongs, but these can be considered allophones of and , respectively. The pronunciation of the unstressed vowels does not differ much from that of stressed vowels. Unstressed, non-syllabic , and can be reduced to , and complete elision in some dialects; e.g., poetisa ('poet' f.), línea ('line'), ahorita ('now').
The system of seven oral vowels of Vulgar Latin has been fairly well preserved in Portuguese, as in the closely related Galician language. In Portuguese, unstressed vowels have been more unstable, both diachronically (across time) and synchronically (between dialects), producing new vowel sounds. The vowels written ⟨a⟩, ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ are pronounced in different ways according to several factors, most notably whether they are stressed, and whether they occur in the last syllable of a word. The basic paradigm is shown in the following table (it has some exceptions).
1 Always nasalized in this environment in most dialects, that is,
2 Mostly in Northeastern Brazil. In some other dialects (including those of northern Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais and the Brazilian Federal District), this also occurs if the stressed vowel is open rather than closed ( or , rather than or ) due to vowel harmony.
3 Only in some dialects, the first mainly in the area including and surrounding Lisbon (not present in much of northern and insular Portugal, as in Brazil), and the latter mainly in some hinterland northern Portuguese accents (not present in southern and insular Portugal, as in Brazil)
Brazilian unstressed vowel allophones vary according to the geographical region of the country. Near-close , and unstressed close-mid , are found in southern and western accents, where postvocalic has a "soft" allophone (a flap, a coronal approximant, or a rhotic vowel), and postvocalic sibilants (written ⟨s⟩, ⟨x⟩, and ⟨z⟩) in native words are always alveolar . Meanwhile, these close allophones do not occur in the northern and eastern accents, where postvocalic has a "hard" allophone (velar, uvular, or glottal) and postvocalic sibilants may be, consistently or not, post-alveolar . In the accents where postvocalic sibilants are always post-alveolar, such as those of Florianópolis and Rio de Janeiro, or in the accents influenced by them, any unstressed , and may be raised (like in Portugal), to , and , respectively. While this is true of all colloquial BP, it is especially characteristic of the latter dialects). This increased vowel reduction is also present in accents of the Brazilian Northeast, particularly from Alagoas to Piauí.
Similar alternation patterns to these exist in other Romance languages such as Catalan and Occitan. Although it is mostly an allophonic variation, some dialects have developed minimal pairs that distinguish the stressed variants from the unstressed ones. The vowel is often elided in connected speech (it is not present in Brazilian Portuguese).
Some Brazilian dialects diphthongize stressed vowels to , etc. (except ), before a sibilant at the end of a syllable (written ⟨s⟩, ⟨x⟩, ⟨z⟩, or rarely, ⟨sh⟩). For instance, Jesus 'Jesus', faz 'he does', dez 'ten'. This has led to the use of meia (meaning meia dúzia, 'half a dozen') for seis 'six' when making enumerations, to avoid any confusion with três 'three' on the telephone. In Lisbon and surrounding areas, stressed is pronounced or when it comes before an alveolo-palatal or palato-alveolar consonants followed by another vowel.
The orthography of Portuguese, which is partly etymological and analogical, does not indicate these sound changes. This makes the written language look deceptively similar to Spanish. For example, although breve ('brief') is spelled the same in both languages, it is pronounced in Spanish, but in Portuguese. In Brazilian Portuguese, in the vast majority of cases, the only difference between final -e and -i is the stress, as both are pronounced as . The former is unstressed, and the latter is stressed without any diacritical mark. In European Portuguese, final -e is not pronounced or is pronounced as , unlike i, which is consistently .
Consonants
Some of the most characteristic sound changes undergone by the consonants from Latin to Spanish and Portuguese are shown in the table below.
*reconstructed
Peculiar to early Spanish (as in the Gascon dialect of Occitan, possibly due to a Basque substratum) was the loss of Latin initial - whenever it was followed by a vowel that did not diphthongize. Thus, Spanish hijo and hablar correspond to Portuguese filho and falar (from Latin and , 'son' and 'to speak' respectively). Nevertheless, in a few cases Spanish has retained the Latin f-, so that Portuguese fogo corresponds to Spanish fuego (from Latin 'fire'); while in other cases the Latin word has yielded two different terms in Spanish, one beginning with f- and the other with h-, with slightly different nuances or altogether different meanings: Latin > Spanish hastío - fastidio, Portuguese fastio 'boredom'; Latin > Spanish fibra 'fiber' - hebra 'thread', Portuguese fibra (both meanings); Latin > Spanish haz 'beam' - fajo 'bundle', Portuguese feixe (both meanings).
Another typical difference concerned the result of Latin -- and -- in intervocalic position:
When single, they were retained in Spanish but elided in Portuguese. Often, the loss of the consonant was followed by the merger of the two surrounding vowels (as in the examples in the table above), or by the insertion of an epenthetic vowel between them (Latin → Spanish arena, Portuguese arẽa, today areia 'sand').
When double, they developed into the Spanish palatals ⟨ll⟩ (merged with in most contemporary Spanish dialects) and ⟨ñ⟩ . Indeed, the Spanish letter ⟨ñ⟩ was originally a shorthand for . In Portuguese, -- and -- just became single, ⟨l⟩ and ⟨n⟩ , respectively.
When followed by the semivowel , coalesced with it into a ⟨j⟩ in Spanish. In Portuguese, and followed by semivowel were palatalized into ⟨lh⟩ and ⟨nh⟩ , respectively.
Other consonant clusters of Latin also took markedly different routes in the two languages in their archaic period:
Learned words such as pleno, ocular, no(c)turno, tremular, and so on, were not included in the examples above, since they were adapted directly from Classical Latin in later times.
The tables above represent only general trends with many exceptions, due to:
Other phonological processes at work in old Spanish and old Portuguese, which interfered with these.
Later regularization by analogy with related words.
Later borrowing of learned words directly from Latin, especially since the Renaissance, which did not respect the original sound laws.
Mutual borrowing, from Spanish to Portuguese or vice versa.
Synaeresis
Portuguese has tended to eliminate hiatuses that were preserved in Spanish, merging similar consecutive vowels into one (often after the above-mentioned loss of intervocalic -- and --). This results in many Portuguese words being one syllable shorter than their Spanish cognates:creído, leer, mala, manzana, mañana, poner, reír, venir (Spanish)crido, ler, má, maçã, manhã, pôr, rir, vir (Portuguese)
In other cases, Portuguese reduces consecutive vowels to a diphthong, again resulting in one syllable fewer:a-te-o, eu-ro-pe-o, pa-lo, ve-lo (Spanish)a-teu, eu-ro-peu, pau, véu (Portuguese)
There are nevertheless a few words where the opposite happened, such as Spanish comprender versus Portuguese compreender, from Latin .
Different sounds with the same spelling
Since the late Middle Ages, both languages have gone through sound shifts and mergers that set them further apart.
Sibilants
The most marked phonetic divergence between Spanish and Portuguese in their modern period concerned the evolution of the sibilants. In the Middle Ages, both had a rich system of seven sibilants – paired according to affrication and voicing: , , , , , , and (the latter probably in free variation with , as still happens today in Ladino) – and spelled virtually the same in Spanish and Portuguese.
1Before vowels; in the coda position, there are dialectal variations within each language, not discussed here.
2Modern Portuguese has for the most part kept the medieval spelling.
After the Renaissance, the two languages reduced their inventory of sibilants, but in different ways:
Devoicing in Spanish: the voiced sibilants written ⟨-s-⟩, ⟨z⟩ and ⟨j/g⟩ became voiceless, merging with ⟨s-/-ss-⟩, ⟨c/ç⟩ and ⟨x⟩, respectively. In many modern Spanish dialects, ⟨c/z⟩ () is also indistinguishable from ⟨s⟩ () (see seseo). Later, the palato-alveolar fricative ⟨x⟩ changed into the velar fricative , while ⟨ch⟩ stayed unchanged (). Spanish spelling has been updated according to these sound changes.
Deaffrication in Portuguese: the affricates written ⟨c/ç⟩, ⟨z⟩ and ⟨ch⟩ became plain fricatives, merging with the sibilants ⟨s-/-ss-⟩, ⟨-s-⟩ and ⟨x⟩ in most dialects, respectively. In spite of this, modern Portuguese has for the most part kept the medieval spelling.
Deaffrication in Portuguese: some rural hinterland northern Portuguese dialects as well the Mirandese language preserved the medieval distinction, still indicated by the spelling, with the former affricates being voiceless laminal, voiced laminal and still voiceless post-alveolar affricate , respectively, and the sibilants being voiceless apical, voiced apical and voiceless palato-alveolar. As much of Brazilian Portuguese, these dialects have alveolar coda sibilants, though a voiceless apico-alveolar fricative has a hushing-like sound, more similar to .
Other pronunciation differences
Since no distinction is made anymore between the pronunciation of ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩, Spanish spelling has been reformed according to Classical Latin. In Portuguese, the spelling of these letters is based on pronunciation, which is closer to Latin and modern Italian. This leads to some orthographic disparities:
Compare for example Spanish gobierno, haber, libro with Portuguese governo, haver, livro.
The endings of the imperfect indicative tense of 1st. conjugation verbs (with infinitives ending in -ar) are spelled with ⟨b⟩ in Spanish (cantaba, cantabas, cantábamos, and so on), but with ⟨v⟩ in Portuguese (cantava, cantavas, cantávamos, etc.)
The Spanish adjectival suffix -ble, as in posible (also used in English, "possible"), corresponds to -vel in Portuguese: possível.
In Spanish, the plosives b, d, g are lenited, usually realized as "soft" approximants (here represented without the undertracks) after continuants. While similar pronunciations can be heard in European Portuguese, most speakers of Brazilian Portuguese pronounce these phonemes consistently as "hard" plosives . This can make a Portuguese phrase such as uma bala ("a bullet") sound like una pala ("a shovel") to a Spanish-speaker.
Word-final consonants
In Spanish, the following word-final consonants are possible: -l, -r, -n, -d, -z, -j, -s, -x, but other final consonants are also allowed in loanwords.
In Portuguese, the following word-final consonants are possible: l, -r, -s, -x; -z (only after a stressed vowel); -n (only after an unstressed vowel). The final -m is an orthographic sign of a nasal sound. Other consonants typically receive a paragogic -e in loanwords.
Contact forms
Galician language shares its origin with Portuguese in Galician-Portuguese but has been subject to later Spanish influence.
Castrapo is a pejorative for Spanish-influenced Galician.
Fala language a Galician-Portuguese language spoken in the Spanish autonomous community of Extremadura.
Barranquenho a transitional Spanish–Portuguese dialect with Southern Spanish traits spoken in the Portuguese municipality of Barrancos.
Portuñol/Portunhol is the name for the mixed languages spoken in the borders of Brazil with Spanish-speaking countries.
Papiamento is a creole language with Spanish and Portuguese influences.
Judaeo-Spanish language is derived from medieval Castilian language, but has been influenced by Judaeo-Portuguese.
Fala d'Ambo is a creole language derived from Portuguese but influenced by the rulers of Spanish Guinea.
See also
Portuguese language
History of Portuguese
Portuguese dialects
Portuguese grammar
Portuguese personal pronouns
Portuguese verb conjugation
Portuguese orthography
Portuguese phonology
Spanish language
History of the Spanish language
Spanish dialects and varieties
Spanish grammar
Spanish determiners
Spanish verbs
Spanish orthography
Spanish phonology
Preterite
Romance languages
Romance copula
Subjunctive mood
Vulgar Latin
West Iberian languages
Comparison of Italian and Spanish
References
Notes
Bibliography
Butt, John, and Carmen Benjamin. A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish (5th ed., Oxford, UK: Routledge, 2011).
Carrasco González, Juan M. Manual de iniciación a la lengua portuguesa, 1994, Editorial Ariel, S.A., Barcelona
Corominas, Joan, Breve diccionario etimológico de la lengua castellana, 3rd ed., 1973, Gredos, Madrid
DRAE = Diccionario de la Real Academia Española
Estrela, Edite (1993) Editorial Notícias
Lindley Cintra, Luís F. Nova Proposta de Classificação dos Dialectos Galego-Portugueses Boletim de Filologia, Lisboa, Centro de Estudos Filológicos, 1971.
Luft, Celso Pedro. Novo Manual de Português. São Paulo, Editora Globo, 1990 (13th edition) pp 43–53
Martínez, Mercedes. Manual de ortografía. 2nd ed., Madrid, Ediciones Akal, 2010, .
Mateus, Maria Helena & d'Andrade, Ernesto (2000) The Phonology of Portuguese
Seco, Manuel. . Madrid, Espasa, 1996 (4th edition) pp 81–94
Squartini, Mario (1998) Verbal Periphrases in Romance – Aspect, Actionality, and Grammaticalization
Vázquez Cuesta, Mendes da Luz, (1987) Gramática portuguesa'', 3rd. ed.
Veciana, Roberto. La acentuación española: Nuevo manual de las normas acentuales. Santander: Univ. de Cantabria, 2004, .
Contrastive Romance Phonetics at Orbis Latinus
História da Língua Portuguesa em Linha, Homepage of the Instituto Camões
External links
Aspectos Comparativos entre o Espanhol e o Português (in Portuguese)
List of Spanish-Portuguese false friends
Contrastive Romance Lexicology at Orbis Latinus
A recording of the sibilants, as they would have been pronounced in medieval Spanish and Portuguese.
Tá Falado! – Brazilian Portuguese Pronunciation for Speakers of Spanish
Jack L. Ulsh, From Spanish to Portuguese, Foreign Service Institute, 1971
Common words between Portuguese and Spanish
Teaching Portuguese to Spanish-Speaking Learners (L1, L2 and Heritage) through Readings
Portuguese and Spanish
Portuguese language
Spanish language
History of the Spanish language
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Fountainhead%20%28film%29
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The Fountainhead (film)
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The Fountainhead is a 1949 American black-and-white drama film produced by Henry Blanke, directed by King Vidor, and starring Gary Cooper, Patricia Neal, Raymond Massey, Robert Douglas and Kent Smith. The film is based on the bestselling 1943 novel of the same name by Ayn Rand, who also wrote the adaptation. Although Rand's screenplay was used with minimal alterations, she later criticized the editing, production design and acting.
The story follows the life of Howard Roark, an individualistic architect who chooses to struggle in obscurity rather than compromise his artistic and personal vision. Roark fights to design modern architecture despite resistance from the traditionally minded architectural establishment. Roark's complex relationships with the individuals who assist or hinder his progress allow the film to be both a romantic drama and a philosophical work. Roark represents Rand's embodiment of the human spirit, and his struggle represents the struggle between individualism and collectivism.
The film opened to negative reviews and was panned by critics; though it has since been reappraised and received positive reception from critics in the 2010s.
Plot
Howard Roark is an individualistic architect who follows his own artistic path in the face of public conformity. Ellsworth Toohey, the architecture critic for The Banner newspaper, opposes Roark's individualism and volunteers to lead a print crusade against him. Wealthy and influential publishing magnate Gail Wynand pays little attention, approving the idea and giving Toohey a free hand. Dominique Francon, a glamorous socialite who writes a Banner column, admires Roark's designs, and opposes the paper's campaign against him. She is engaged to an architect, the unimaginative Peter Keating (Kent Smith). She never has met or seen Roark, but she believes that he is doomed in a world that abhors individualism. Wynand falls in love with Francon and exposes Keating as an opportunist.
Roark is unable to find a client willing to build according to his vision. He walks away from opportunities that involve any compromise of his standards. Broke, he takes a job as a day laborer in a quarry that belongs to Francon's father and is near the Francon summer home. The vacationing Francon visits the quarry on a whim and spots Roark, and they share a mutual attraction. Francon contrives to have Roark repair some white marble in her bedroom. Roark mocks her pretense, and after the first visit, he sends another worker to complete the repair. Francon is enraged and returns to the quarry on horseback. She finds Roark walking from the site. He again mocks her, and she strikes him across the face with her horsewhip. He later appears in her open bedroom, forcefully embracing and kissing her passionately. In his room, Roark finds a letter offering him a new building project. He immediately packs up and leaves. Francon later goes to the quarry and learns that Roark has quit. She does not know that he is Howard Roark, the brilliant architect whom she had once championed in print.
Wynand offers to marry Francon, though she is not in love with him. Francon demurs and soon learns Roark's true identity when she is introduced to him at a party opening the Enright House, a new building that Roark has designed. Francon goes to Roark's apartment and offers to marry him if he gives up architecture, saving himself from public rejection. Roark rejects her fears and says that they will face many years apart until she alters her thinking. Francon finds Wynand and accepts his marriage proposal. Wynand agrees and commissions Roark to build him a lavish but secluded country home. Wynand and Roark become friends, which drives Francon to jealousy.
Keating, employed to create an enormous housing project, requests Roark's help. Roark agrees, demanding that Keating must build it exactly as designed in exchange for permitting Keating to take all of the credit. With prodding from the envious Toohey, the firm backing the project alters the Roark design presented by Keating into a gingerbread monstrosity. Roark, with Francon's help, rigs explosives to destroy the buildings and is arrested at the site. Toohey pressures Keating into privately confessing that Roark had designed the project. Roark goes on trial and is painted as a public enemy by every newspaper apart from The Banner, in which Wynand now publicly campaigns on Roark's behalf. However, Toohey has permeated The Banner with men loyal to him. He has them quit and uses his clout to keep others out. He leads a campaign against The Banners new policy that all but kills the newspaper. Faced with losing, Wynand saves The Banner by bringing back Toohey's gang, joining the rest in publicly condemning Roark.
Calling no witnesses, Roark addresses the court on his own behalf. He makes a long and eloquent speech defending his right to offer his own work on his own terms. He is found innocent of the charges against him. A guilt-stricken Wynand summons the architect and coldly presents him with a contract to design the Wynand Building, destined to become the greatest structure of all time, with complete freedom to build it however Roark sees fit. As soon as Roark leaves, Wynand pulls out a pistol and kills himself.
Months later, Francon enters the construction site of the Wynand Building and identifies herself as Mrs. Roark. She rises in the open construction elevator, looking upward toward the figure of her husband. Roark stands triumphant, his arms akimbo, near the edge of the tall skyscraper as the crosswinds buffet him atop his magnificent, one-of-a-kind creation.
Cast
Production
Ayn Rand's novel The Fountainhead was published in May 1943. Barbara Stanwyck read it and wanted to play the novel's heroine, Dominique Francon, in a movie adaptation. She asked Jack L. Warner to buy the rights to the book for her. Warner Bros. purchased the film rights in October 1943 and asked Rand to write the screenplay. Rand agreed, on the condition that not a single word of her dialogue be changed. The Fountainhead went into production with Mervyn LeRoy hired to direct, but the production was delayed. LeRoy said that the delay was the result of the influence of the War Production Board, spurred by Rand's anti-Communist politics.
Three years later, production commenced under the direction of King Vidor, although there were disputes among Rand, Vidor, and Warner Bros. throughout the production. Vidor wanted Humphrey Bogart to play Howard Roark, and Rand wanted Gary Cooper to play the part. Stanwyck continued to push for the role of Dominique, appealing personally to Rand and to producer Henry Blanke, but Vidor thought she was too old. Press reports in early 1948 suggested Lauren Bacall would be cast as Dominique, but in June, Vidor hired Patricia Neal for the role. Cooper criticized Neal's audition as badly acted, but she was cast against his judgment; during the production, Cooper and Neal began an affair. Rand called Stanwyck to tell her about the decision. Stanwyck was upset, both about losing the role and that no one from the studio spoke to her about it. This led to her leaving Warner Bros.
Writing
Rand completed her screenplay in June 1944. The setting of The Fountainhead is a collective society in which individuals and new ideas of architecture are not accepted, and all buildings must be constructed "... like Greek temples, Gothic cathedrals and mongrels of every ancient style they could borrow", in the deathbed words of Roark's patron Henry Cameron. Rand's screenplay criticized the Hollywood film industry and its self-imposed mandate to "give the public what it wants". Roark, in his architecture, refuses to give in to this demand "by the public". He refuses to work in any way that compromises his integrity and in which he would succumb to "popular taste". In a similar vein, Rand wrote a new scene for the film in which Roark is rejected as architect for the Civic Opera Company of New York, an allusion to Edgar Kaufmann, Jr., Frank Lloyd Wright, and the Civic Light Opera Company of Pittsburgh.
While communism is not explicitly named, the film is interpreted as a criticism of the communist ideology and the lack of individual identity in a collective life under a communist society. However, the novel's criticisms were aimed at Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal, which is reflected in Rand's endorsement of modernism in architecture in both the book and the film. In adapting her novel, Rand used the melodrama genre to dramatize the novel's sexuality and the aesthetics of modernistic architecture.
Patricia Neal remembered that Rand often visited the set to "protect her screenplay". During filming, Vidor decided that Roark's speech at the end of the film was too long, and decided to omit segments that he did not feel relevant to the plot. After learning of Vidor's decision, Rand appealed to Jack L. Warner to honor her contract, and Warner persuaded Vidor to shoot the scene as she had written it.
Rand later wrote a note thanking Warner and the studio for allowing the preservation of the novel's "... theme and spirit, without being asked to make bad taste concessions, such as a lesser studio would have demanded".
However, Rand altered the film's plot slightly to be approved by the Production Code Administration. In the novel, Wynand divorces Dominique, but because the Motion Picture Production Code prohibited divorces, Rand opted to have Wynand commit suicide instead.
Production design
Rand's screenplay instructed, "It is the style of Frank Lloyd Wright -- and only of Frank Lloyd Wright -- that must be taken as a model for Roark's buildings. This is extremely important to us, since we must make the audience admire Roark's buildings." According to Warner Bros., once it was known that the film had gone into production, the studio received letters from architects suggesting designs; Wright turned down an offer to work on the film.
The architectural style that Roark advocates, realized in the production designs of Edward Carrere, is closer to the corporate International Style of the East Coast in the late 1940s than it is to Wright's architecture of the Midwest from the 1920s era when Rand's book was written. Therefore, the style is rooted in German, rather than American, modernism. During filming, Rand told Gerald Loeb that she disliked the style, which she felt had resulted from Carrere's lack of experience as a practicing architect. She described his designs as copied from pictures of "horrible modernistic buildings" and judged them as "embarrassingly bad". The film's closing image, depicting Roark standing atop his "tallest structure in the world", arguably evokes futurism.
Music score
The film's score was composed by Max Steiner. Chris Matthew Sciabarra described Steiner as a "veritable film score architect...perhaps, the 'fountainhead' of film music" and says that Steiner's cues "immediately call to mind the story of Howard Roark".
Philosophy professor Glenn Alexander Magee has offered that the score suggested "a strong affinity for The Fountainhead...[it] perfectly conveys the feel of a Rand novel," and that Steiner's music accents the story's themes of redemption and renewal, providing insight into Roark's opposition, Francon's sense of life, and Wynand's flaw.
Excerpts from Steiner's score were included in RCA Victor's tribute to the composer, an album featuring the National Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Charles Gerhardt that was released on LP in 1973 and reissued on CD.
Release
Neal appeared on the television series Hollywood Calling with Milton Berle to discuss their upcoming films, which included The Fountainhead and Berle's Always Leave Them Laughing.
For the film's Warner Hollywood Theatre premiere, Warner Bros. erected two banks of bleachers on Hollywood Boulevard to accommodate the expected mob of fans. Neal attended the premiere with Kirk Douglas as her date, and the two signed autographs for fans. The Los Angeles Times wrote that the audience "strongly responded to the unusual elements in the production". After the film, Neal noticed that many people were avoiding her and turning their faces away, except for Virginia Mayo, who approached Neal and exclaimed "My, weren't you bad!" Cooper felt that he had not delivered the final speech as he should have. Around this time, Cooper and Neal let it be publicly known that they were having an affair, and the public knowledge of their relationship may have somewhat negatively affected the film's box office.
Rand's response
Sales of Rand's novel increased following release. She wrote, "The picture is more faithful to the novel than any other adaptation of a novel that Hollywood has ever produced" and "It was a real triumph." Rand conceded to friend DeWitt Emery that "I can see your point in feeling that Gary Cooper's performance should have been stronger", but concluded, "I would rather see the part underplayed than overdone by some phony-looking ham." In later years, she would state that she "... disliked the movie from beginning to end" and complained about the film's editing, acting and other elements. As a result of the film, Rand said that she would not sell any more of her novels without the right to pick the director and screenwriter and to edit the film.
Box οffice
According to records, the film earned $2,179,000 domestically and $807,000 in foreign markets (thus $2,986,000 worldwide), against a cost of $2,375,000.
Reception
The Fountainhead was panned by critics upon its initial release. The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "Its characters are downright weird and there is no feeling of self-identification." The Los Angeles Times wrote that the film would not "catch the interest of what is known as the average movie audience -- whoever they may be nowadays". The communist newspaper Daily Worker deemed The Fountainhead to be "an openly fascist movie". Variety called the film "cold, unemotional, loquacious [and] completely devoted to hammering home the theme that man's personal integrity stands above all law". John McCarten of The New Yorker deemed the film to be "the most asinine and inept movie that has come out of Hollywood in years". Cue described it as "shoddy, bombastic nonsense". Bosley Crowther, in his review for The New York Times, called the film "wordy, involved and pretentious" and characterized Vidor's work as a "vast succession of turgid scenes".
2010s reception
While The Fountainhead opened to negative reviews upon initial release, the film has since been reappraised and received significantly more positive reception in the early years of the 21st century.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 83% based on 12 reviews, with an average rating of 7/10. Film critic Emanuel Levy described it as a "highly enjoyable, juicy Freudian melodrama", praising Vidor's technical virtuosity and imagery. Dave Kehr wrote "King Vidor turned Ayn Rand's preposterous 'philosophical' novel into one of his finest and most personal films, mainly by pushing the phallic imagery so hard that it surpasses Rand's rightist diatribes."
Home media
In the United States, the film was released on DVD by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment on November 7, 2006. The title was released as both a standalone DVD, as well as part of a 5-film Gary Cooper DVD box-set.
Legacy
Architect David Rockwell, who saw the film when he visited New York City in 1964, has said that the film influenced his interest in architecture and design and that at his university, many architecture students named their dogs Roark as a tribute to the protagonist of the novel and film.
Various filmmakers have expressed interest in new adaptations of The Fountainhead, although none of these potential films has begun production. In the 1970s, writer-director Michael Cimino wanted to film his own script for United Artists. In 1992, producer James Hill optioned the rights and selected Phil Joanou to direct. In the 2000s, Oliver Stone was interested in directing a new adaptation; Brad Pitt was reportedly under consideration to play Roark. In a March 2016 interview, director Zack Snyder also expressed interest in a new film adaptation, but revealed in 2021 that he had put the project on hold, for the time being.
In February 2020, the film was shown at the 70th Berlin International Film Festival as part of a retrospective dedicated to King Vidor's career.
References
Further reading
Merrill Schleier: "Ayn Rand and King Vidor’s Film The Fountainhead: Architectural Modernism, the Gendered Body, and Political Ideology". In: Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 61, No 3 (2002), pp. 310–313.
Merrill Schleier: Skyscraper Cinema: Architecture and Gender in American Film (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009).
External links
1949 films
1949 romantic drama films
American black-and-white films
American romantic drama films
1940s English-language films
Films about architecture
Films based on American novels
Films based on works by Ayn Rand
Films directed by King Vidor
Films produced by Henry Blanke
Films scored by Max Steiner
Melodrama films
Films with screenplays by Ayn Rand
Warner Bros. films
1940s American films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airsoft%20pellets
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Airsoft pellets
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Airsoft pellets (known as BBs) are spherical projectiles used by airsoft guns. Typically made of plastic, they usually measure around in diameter (though selective models use 8 mm), and weigh , with the most common weights being 0.20 g and 0.25 g, while 0.28 g, 0.30 g, 0.32g and 0.40g BBs are also commonplace. Though frequently referred to as "BBs" among airsoft users, these BBs are not the same as either of the 4.5 mm metal projectiles that BB guns fire, or the -sized birdshot from which the term "BB" originated.
Variants
Although the majority of pellets bought and used are simple spherical projectiles made of plastic, some of the following special varieties can be used to give a player an advantage, such as higher quality pellets.
Biodegradable
Biodegradable pellets are available, and are often required by outdoor fields where sweeping is not an option. Conventional pellets pollute the environment, as most non-biodegradable pellets have a mineral or petroleum-based center, coated in non-biodegradable plastics, thus ensuring they will stay in the environment for several hundred years if not collected. Biodegradable pellets are made of various types of resin, often developed for the agricultural industry, and better makes are certified as compostable. Commonly used plastic resins include polylactic acid or polylactide (PLA) which is based on renewable materials like corn products and a molecular formula of (C3H4O2)n. There is a mixture of degradable processes being used, such as soil microbes and photosensitive degradation. Biodegradable pellets are currently being produced with all the characteristics of the best of the conventional, with homogeneous resin construction.
Most high-quality pellets are available in a non-biodegradable version, as well as a biodegradable version that costs slightly more. Both bio- and non-biodegradable pellets are popular and widely available.
Translucent
translucent red
clear green
clear peach
clear reds that were bleached by sunlight. Only 28 were found in Santee, California.
Tracers
Glow-in-the-dark pellets, known as tracer pellets, can be used in conjunction with a device that "charges" the pellets by flashing them with a burst of light before leaving the barrel so that they remain luminescent in flight for use during nocturnal games/operations. This tracer unit is usually hidden from view, often disguised as a suppressor, or is included inside the magazine or hop-up unit. There are also biodegradable tracer pellets available.
Non-traceable pellets
This type of pellet is dark-colored so that the opponent has a tougher time spotting the pellets' origin, as the most common pellet color is white, which makes it easy for the opposition to spot the shooter by following the trail of pellets. Two major problems of this variant of pellet are that there are few high-quality pellets in this color and the shooter has a difficult time seeing their own trail of shots.
Paint-spherical projectiles
Paint-filled pellets are also available, called "paintballs", which are very similar to those used in paintball. Airsoft models equipped with the hop-up projectile stabilizing system are not able to use these, as the thin shells are liable to break in the barrel, soiling it with paint. These special pellets are also incompatible with airsoft models using mechanized feeding systems, such as high capacity magazines, for the same reason. With some companies, the use of paintballs voids the airsoft gun's warranty; paint may get into the mechanical workings of the airsoft gun and damage parts beyond simple maintenance. These issues may be fixed by removing the hop-up unit, which can void the warranty, and also switching to a low or mid-capacity magazine with no mechanized feed.
Markers
A specialized pellet coated in a powder that leaves a small colored mark when it strikes a surface. The powder deposits from these pellets are left in any part of the airsoft gun or storage unit that the pellet comes in contact with; build-up over time, without cleaning, can cause malfunctions or damage to moving parts.
Made from 100% silica, the material in these pellets is very evenly distributed, improving flight characteristics. Some accounts indicate that these pellets are capable of breaking glass and industry-standard protective eyewears. Due to safety concerns and reports of injuries caused by this type of pellets, it is commonly prohibited in professional airsoft facilities.
Metallic
Metal pellets are also marketed for use in airsoft guns. These pellets are heavier and harder than conventional polymer pellets, and the impact from a metal pellet can injure players. Safety concerns make metallic pellets suitable only for target shooting. The added weight reduces the effect of crosswind on the pellet, imparting more accuracy when fired at longer ranges in outdoor environments where wind would significantly alter the trajectory of traditional pellets. Many airsoft locations where players can pay to play against others prohibit the use of metallic pellets due to the fact they are more likely to penetrate skin. Metallic pellets are mostly used in a standard pump-action or carbon dioxide-powered BB guns.
Ceramic
Created from laboratory-grown crystal lattice structures, these pellets are individually machined to precise specifications that ensure uniform weight, dimensions and surface shape. This precision and uniformity provides ideal ballistic performance and consistent flight patterns. The manufacturing process and materials are much more costly than molded polymer pellets – as a result, ceramic pellets are considerably more expensive than standard airsoft pellets. The material is able to defeat standard eye protection due to the weight and higher energy required to propel it, thus unsuitable for use against other human targets
Pellet mass
Pellet mass is an important factor when choosing pellets. The pellet's mass influences several aspects of pellet performance:
Velocity: Lighter pellets achieve higher velocities, but are more prone to influence from external factors like wind. Lighter pellets also decelerate (lose velocity) faster than heavier pellets. Due to the increased momentum of a heavier pellet, it will hit harder than a lighter one. In addition, while apparently counterintuitive, lighter pellets can actually decrease range due to the mechanics of hop-up.
Energy: Lighter pellets have higher kinetic energy in lower-velocity guns, but heavier pellets show trends to have higher kinetic energy in guns that shoot 620+ feet per second.
Trajectory: The curvature of a projectile (trajectory) determines its range and lighter pellets typically result in much more curved or unpredictable trajectories, although using a hop-up can flatten, regulate and extend trajectory.
Hardware: Heavier pellets may require a more powerful airsoft gun and often necessitates upgraded springs and other gun parts.
A player's choice of pellet mass is governed by their gaming style (assaulting vs. sniping), the airsoft gun used (internal parts), game venue condition (in/outdoor) and size, and muzzle velocity regulations.
Also, the quality of the individual pellets may influence choice of price-range or manufacturer. Low-cost pellets are often considered to have such negative characteristics as residual plastic from the moulding process (flash); lower impact resistance and some deviation from perfect spherical shape. Cheaper pellets are known to shatter when fired, which can cause irreparable damage to the internals of the gun. Higher cost BBs generally have a smoother finish, are more impact resistant and are perfectly spherical.
6 mm airsoft pellets
6 mm is the industrial standard size used in almost all spring, electric and gas airsoft guns. A wide variety of pellet masses are also available for different usages.
0.11 g – Manufactured by HFC, same use as .12 gram. Extremely Uncommon.
0.12 g – Extremely common, standard weight for all low-grade AEG's and spring guns. Not to be used in any small arms beyond low-cost, low quality replicas firing under 250 fps. These pellets are notorious for breaking inside high-powered guns because they are not hollow inside. The low weight of this pellet also causes it to be extremely inaccurate because they are easily affected by the slightest of breezes.
0.135 g – Same uses as 0.12 g. Extremely Uncommon. MFI standard. Not to be used in most guns.
0.15 g – Same uses as 0.12 g. Uncommon. Made only by Air Venturi, Red Jacket, Elite Force, and Black Ops USA.
0.16 g – Essentially the same as the 0.15 g pellets. Made only by Air Venturi.
0.20 g – Second-most common weight. Standard for all chronograph tests in regions, where gun power output is measured in feet per second (FPS). AEGs are able to use these, however, most players will use heavier masses due to the increased accuracy and range. Biodegradable versions made by Green Devil or G&G being one of the most popular makes in the Scandinavian countries and many other parts of Europe & UK.
0.21 g – Homemade by covering .20 g with pencil lead. Great for "paintball" but leaves residue in barrel.
0.22 g – Available from Pyramyd Air.
0.23 g – Heavier pellets for AEGs. Blends speed of 0.20 g with range and accuracy of 0.25 g. Made popular by Tsunami Airsoft. Used less now in favor of .20 g & .25 g
0.24 g – Only known manufacturers are Airstrike (a subsidiary of Daisy) and Crosman
0.25 g – Third-most common weight, especially popular for the higher-powered AEGs used in America. This is the heaviest mass for lower-powered AEGs, blowback and spring guns. Tokyo Marui standard AEGs, gas and spring guns are set at the factory for 0.25 gram pellets, and they usually include a package of 200 of these with the gun. These are available in bio- and non-biodegradable versions from many sellers including Valken, EliteForce, 6mmProShop and Matrix. Biodegradable versions made by Green Devil or G&G being one of the most popular makes in the Scandinavian countries and many other parts of Europe & UK.
0.26 g – Made by TSD in biodegradable form.
0.27 g – Made by Bioval BBBMAX. They are (ostensibly) considered to be of the same grade, if not higher than the Maruzen SGM, while being significantly less expensive.
0.28 g – Most used weight in Northern Europe. Suitable for modern standard AEGs. Typically cheaper than 0.30 g but yields similar performance. Biodegradable versions are made by most manufacturers.
0.29 g – Maruzen Super Grandmaster pellets, designed for their Air Precision Shooting series of airsoft guns. O
0.30 g – Standard mass for most sniper rifles. Also recommended weight for tuned AEGs. Have become more common in recent times with some of the top brands like Bioval and Bioshot, Biodegradable versions made by various manufacturers including G&G and Tokyo Marui.
0.32 g – Also standard for sniper rifles. Offers excellent balance of velocity and stability for most spring and gas sniper rifles. These are available from Evike, Elite Force, and other BB manufacturers. A well-known brand is Goldenball.
0.36 g – Heavier pellets for sniper rifles. Slower, but have high stability. Produced by Madbull Airsoft, among others. BB Bastard manufactures a ceramic pellet in this mass class.
0.40 g – Heavy pellets for airsoft sniper rifles. Mad Bull is a known producer. Even slower than 0.36 g but even more stable and maintains its velocity better.
0.43 g – For the highest level of upgrades in spring and gas sniper rifles. Usually graphite-coated.
0.66 g – For extreme long-range shooting, not used against human targets. This is a CNC-machined ceramic pellet made by BB Bastard.
0.90 g – Nickel-plated steel BBs sold by UK's Abacus Claysports. Air gun grade, not used against human targets.
8 mm airsoft pellets
8 mm pellets are most commonly used in gas-powered airsoft shotguns with high velocities.
0.27 g – Low mass
0.34 g (Normal) — Standard mass
0.35 g (Biodegradable) — Standard mass
0.40 g
0.45 g
0.48 g
0.50 g
0.90 g – Heaviest mass
Flight physics
Pellet muzzle velocity and energy
The pellet speed of spring-powered and automatic electric guns is determined in large part by the tension of the gun's main spring. Muzzle velocity limits are between for AEGs and for single-shot spring sniper rifles.
For comparison purposes, is the typical mass of a paintball pellet, and is the standard for an airsoft pellet. At 3 g mass, a pellet flying at has 15 J of kinetic energy, while a 0.20 g has 1 J. It is important to distinguish that, in airsoft, the terminal impact energy is very close to the kinetic energy of the pellet because the collision is almost completely elastic. On the other hand, in paintball, the pellet fractures upon impact, leading to an inelastic collision with energy loss, and thus the impact energy is smaller than the kinetic energy of the pellet. Nevertheless, the typical impact energies of the airsoft pellet tend to be much smaller than of the paintball.
Pellet ballistics
While a pellet's muzzle velocity is important for safety proposes, it will lose velocity during flight due to drag. The typical deceleration of a pellet of mass "m" and diameter "D" is given by the quadratic drag:
where v is the instantaneous velocity of the pellet. For typical values of the pellet (m = 0.2 g, v = 120 m/s, D = 6 mm), the drag can be very high (), which means that the velocity decreases quite fast.
The above equation has a simple solution for velocity vs. distance:
where is the initial velocity, is the distance travelled, and is the distance over which the velocity is reduced to of :
In particular, for typical values and neglecting wind effects or hop-up usage, a straight shot from a height of has a range of . On ground hit, the impact energy of the pellet is 0.1 J. However, the same shot at close quarters (e.g. 5 m distance) has an impact energy of 1 J (see figure).
Dangers to humans
Airsoft pellets travelling with sufficient velocity can leave small superficial wounds when hitting exposed skin. While this can be painful, these wounds are typically closed contusions and heal quickly without needing any medical attention. However, pellets can cause more serious damage to the more vulnerable parts of the body, such as the eyes and ears. Lower protective face masks are recommended during airsoft matches to shield players' nose, mouth, teeth and ears, and goggles or other protective eyewear are mandatory for eye protection.
The critical velocity required for skin penetration can be calculated using the formula:
where m is the mass of a spherical bullet, in grams. Penetration is defined here as entering the skin to a depth of more than half of the spherical pellet's diameter.
Accordingly, a typical 0.20 g airsoft pellet will penetrate the skin at . Because many high-end AEGs, spring- and gas-powered airsoft guns can achieve such velocity at close ranges, many airsoft venues set strict limits on the maximum muzzle velocities allowed on the field, requiring each player to undergo a chronograph test prior to participating in a game. Some venues even have restrictions on minimal engagement distances, where shooting at opponents nearer than a set distance is prohibited, and a "bang bang" rule (players imitate firing by shouting "bang bang" instead of really firing the weapon) is often implemented.
The following excerpts from the United Kingdom Parliament's "Principles of Firearms Control" expound on the level of danger involved with low-energy projectiles:
"25. The Firearms Act 1968 defines a firearm "a lethal barreled weapon of any description from which any shot, bullet or other :missile can be discharged".[51] In this context, a "lethal weapon" means a weapon capable of firing a projectile with sufficient :force to inflict more than a trivial injury, i.e. with a force sufficient to puncture the skin.[52] The force with which a firearm :is able to deliver a projectile is normally expressed in terms of the kinetic energy it generates at its muzzle—the "muzzle energy". :This energy is normally expressed in units of foot-pounds (ft·lbs) or joules (J).[53]
"26. The Home Office and the Forensic Science Service considers that the lowest level of muzzle energy capable of inflicting a penetrating wound is one foot pound force (1.35 J): below these power levels, weapons are "incapable of penetrating even vulnerable parts of the body, such as the eye".[54] However, more recent analysis by the Forensic Science Agency for Northern Ireland has indicated that a more reasonable assessment of the minimum muzzle energy required to inflict a penetrating wound lies between 2.2 and 3.0 ft·lbf (3 to 4 J).[55] We will deal more fully with this discrepancy at paragraphs 123 to 130 below."
"123. The power level at and above which an air weapon is considered a firearm in law is presently set at 1 ft·lbf. However, the Forensic Science Agency of Northern Ireland has more recently assessed the power level at which a barreled weapon is capable of inflicting a lethal wound as between 2.2 and 3 ft·lbf, and the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland has proposed that the law relating to firearms in Northern Ireland be amended to take this into account.[201]"
On another document also regarding firearms, "The Eleventh Annual Report of the Firearms Consultative Committee", the penetration levels lies between 2 and 3 J based on a research for US Army and DiMaio's work in "Minimal Velocities Necessary for Perforation of Skin by Air Pellets and Bullets, Journal of Forensic Sciences".
See also
BB gun
Pellet (air gun)
References
Airsoft
Pneumatic weapons
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5275459
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Singapore
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History of Singapore
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The history of the modern state of Singapore dates back to its founding in the early 19th century; however, evidence suggests that a significant trading settlement existed on the island in the 14th century. The last ruler of the Kingdom of Singapura, Parameswara, was expelled by the Majapahit or the Siamese before he founded Malacca. Singapore then came under the Malacca Sultanate and subsequently the Johor Sultanate. In 1819, British statesman Stamford Raffles negotiated a treaty whereby Johor would allow the British to locate a trading port on the island, ultimately leading to the establishment of the Crown colony of Singapore in 1867. Important reasons for the rise of Singapore were its nodal position at the tip of the Malay Peninsula flanked by the Pacific and Indian Oceans, the presence of a natural sheltered harbour, as well as its status as a free port.
During World War II, Singapore was invaded and occupied by the Japanese Empire from 1942 to 1945. When the Japanese surrendered, Singapore reverted to British control, with increasing levels of self-government being granted, resulting in Singapore's merger with the Federation of Malaya to form Malaysia in 1963. However, social unrest, racial tensions, and political differences between Singapore's governing People's Action Party (PAP) and Malaysia's Alliance Party resulted in Singapore's expulsion from Malaysia. Singapore became an independent republic on 9 August 1965.
By the 1990s, the country had become one of the world's most prosperous nations, with a highly developed free market economy and strong international trading links. It now has the highest per capita gross domestic product in Asia, which is 7th in the world, and it is ranked 9th on the UN Human Development Index.
Ancient Singapore
The Greco-Roman astronomer Ptolemy (90168) identified a place called Sabana at the tip of Golden Chersonese (believed to be the Malay Peninsula) in the second and third century. The earliest written record of Singapore may be in a Chinese book 《吳時外國傳》 from the third century, describing the island of Pu Luo Chung (蒲 羅 中). This has been proposed to be related to the Malay name "Pulau Ujong", or "island at the end" (of the Malay Peninsula).
In 1025 CE, Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire led forces across the Indian Ocean and invaded the Srivijayan empire, attacking several places in Malaysia and Indonesia. The Chola forces were said to have controlled Temasek (now Singapore) for a couple of decades. The name Temasek however did not appear in Chola records, but a tale involving a Raja Chulan (assumed to be Rajendra Chola) and Temasek was mentioned in the semi-historical Malay Annals.
The Nagarakretagama, a Javanese eulogy written in 1365, referred to a settlement on the island called Tumasik (possibly meaning "Sea Town" or "Sea Port"). The name Temasek is also given in Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals), which contains a tale of the founding of Temasek by a prince of Palembang, Sri Tri Buana (also known as Sang Nila Utama) in the 13th century. Sri Tri Buana landed on Temasek on a hunting trip, and saw a strange beast said to be a lion. The prince took this as an auspicious sign and founded a settlement called Singapura, which means "Lion City" in Sanskrit. The actual origin of the name Singapura however is unclear according to scholars.
In 1320, the Mongol Empire sent a trade mission to a place called Long Ya Men (or Dragon's Teeth Gate), which is believed to be Keppel Harbour at the southern part of the island. The Chinese traveller Wang Dayuan, visiting the island around 1330, described Long Ya Men as one of the two distinct settlements in Dan Ma Xi (from Malay Temasek), the other being Ban Zu (from Malay pancur). Ban Zu is thought to be present day Fort Canning Hill, and recent excavations in Fort Canning found evidence indicating that Singapore was an important settlement in the 14th century. Wang mentioned that the natives of Long Ya Men (thought to be the Orang Laut) and Chinese residents lived together in Long Ya Men. Singapore is one of the oldest locations where a Chinese community is known to exist outside China, and the oldest confirmed by archaeological and historical research.
By the 14th century, the empire of Srivijaya had already declined, and Singapore was caught in the struggle between Siam (now Thailand) and the Java-based Majapahit Empire for control over the Malay Peninsula. According to the Malay Annals, Singapore was defeated in one Majapahit attack. The last king, Sultan Iskandar Shah ruled the island for several years, before being forced to Melaka where he founded the Sultanate of Malacca. Portuguese sources, however, indicated that Temasek was a Siamese vassal whose ruler was killed by Parameswara (thought to be the same person as Sultan Iskandar Shah) from Palembang, and Parameswara was then driven to Malacca, either by the Siamese or the Majapahit, where he founded the Malacca Sultanate. Modern archaeological evidence suggests that the settlement on Fort Canning was abandoned around this time, although a small trading settlement continued in Singapore for some time afterward.
The Malacca Sultanate extended its authority over the island and Singapore became a part of the Malacca Sultanate. However, by the time the Portuguese arrived in the early 16th century, Singapura had already become "great ruins" according to Alfonso de Albuquerque. In 1511, the Portuguese seized Malacca; the sultan of Malacca escaped south and established the Johor Sultanate, and Singapore then became part of the sultanate. In 1613, the Portuguese destroyed the settlement in Singapore, and the island sank into obscurity for the next two centuries.
1819: British colony of Singapore
Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the Malay Archipelago was gradually taken over by the European colonial powers, beginning with the arrival of the Portuguese at Malacca in 1509. The early dominance of the Portuguese was challenged during the 17th century by the Dutch, who came to control most of the ports in the region. The Dutch established a monopoly over trade within the archipelago, particularly in spices, then the region's most important product. Other colonial powers, including the British, were limited to a relatively minor presence.
In 1818, Sir Stamford Raffles was appointed as the Lieutenant Governor of the British colony at Bencoolen. He was determined that Great Britain should replace the Netherlands as the dominant power in the archipelago, since the trade route between China and British India, which had become vitally important, passed through the archipelago. The Dutch had been stifling British trade in the region by prohibiting the British from operating in Dutch-controlled ports or by subjecting them to a high tariff. Raffles hoped to challenge the Dutch by establishing a new port along the Straits of Malacca, the main ship passageway for the India-China trade. He needed a third port since the British only had the ports of Penang and Bencoolen which were not suitable, as Penang was too far off to protect British traders from pirates and Bencoolen was not along the main trading road. The port had to be strategically located along the main trade route between India and China and in the middle of the Malay Archipelago. He convinced Lord Hastings, the Governor-General of India and his superior at the British East India Company, to fund an expedition to seek a new British base in the region.
Raffles arrived in Singapore on 28 January 1819, and soon recognised the island as a natural choice for the new port. It lay at the southern tip of the Malay peninsula, near the Straits of Malacca, and possessed a natural deep harbour, freshwater supplies, and timber for repairing ships. It was also located along the main trade route between India and China. Raffles found a small Malay settlement at the mouth of the Singapore River, with an estimated population of about 150 that consisted of around 120 Malays and 30 Chinese. headed by the Temenggong and Tengku Abdul Rahman. Around 100 of these Malays had originally moved to Singapore from Johor in 1811 led by the Temenggong. The entire island may have a population of 1,000 including the various tribes and Orang Laut (sea gypsies). The island was nominally ruled by the Sultan of Johor, who was controlled by the Dutch and the Bugis. However, the Sultanate was weakened by factional division and Tengku Abdul Rahman and his officials were loyal to Tengku Rahman's elder brother Tengku Long who was living in exile in Riau. With the Temenggong's help, Raffles managed to smuggle Tengku Long back into Singapore. He offered to recognise Tengku Long as the rightful Sultan of Johor, given the title of Sultan Hussein and provide him with a yearly payment of $5,000 and $3,000 to the Temenggong; in return, Sultan Hussein would grant the British the right to establish a trading post on Singapore. The Treaty of Singapore was signed on 6 February 1819 and modern Singapore was born.
When Raffles arrived, it was estimated that there were around 1,000 people living in the whole of the island of Singapore, mostly local groups that would become assimilated into Malays and a few dozen Chinese. The population increased rapidly soon after Raffles' arrival; the first census of 1824 shows that 6,505 out of the 10,683 total were Malays and Bugis. Large number of Chinese migrants also started to enter Singapore just months after it became a British settlement, by the census of 1826, there were already more Chinese than Malays excluding Bugis and Javanese. Due to continual migration from Malaya, China, India and other parts of Asia, Singapore's population had reached nearly 100,000 by 1871, with over half of them Chinese. Many early Chinese and Indian immigrants came to Singapore to work in various plantations and tin mines and they were predominantly male, and large number of them would return to their home countries after they had earned enough money. However, an increasingly significant number chose to stay permanently by the early to mid twentieth century, and their descendants would form the bulk of Singapore's population.
1819–1942: Colonial Singapore
1819–1826: Early growth
Raffles returned to Bencoolen soon after the signing of the treaty and left Major William Farquhar in charge of the new settlement, with some artillery and a small regiment of Indian soldiers. Establishing a trading port from scratch was a daunting endeavor. Farquhar's administration was fairly funded and was prohibited from collecting port duties to raise revenue as Raffles had decided that Singapore would be a free port. Farquhar invited settlers to Singapore and stationed a British official on St. John's Island to invite passing ships to stop in Singapore. As news of the free port spread across the archipelago, Bugis, Peranakan Chinese, and Arab traders flocked to the island, seeking to circumvent the Dutch trade restrictions. During the starting year of operation in 1819, $400,000 (Spanish dollars) worth of trade passed through Singapore. By 1821, the island's population had gone up to around 5,000, and the trade volume was $8 million. The population reached the 10,000 mark in 1824, and with a trade volume of $22 million, Singapore surpassed the long-established port of Penang.
Raffles returned to Singapore in October 1822 and became critical of many of Farquhar's decisions, despite Farquhar's success in leading the settlement through its difficult early years. For instance, in order to generate much-needed revenue, Farquhar had resorted to selling licenses for gambling and the sale of opium, which Raffles saw as social evils. Shocked at the disarray of the colony as well as the tolerance of slave trade by Farquhar, Raffles set about drafting a set of new policies for the settlement, such as banning of slavery, closing of gambling dens, the prohibition of carrying of weapons, and heavy taxation to discourage what he considered to be social vices such as drunkenness and opium-smoking. He also organised Singapore into functional and ethnic subdivisions under the Raffles Plan of Singapore. Today, remnants of this organization can still be found in the ethnic neighbourhoods. William Farquhar was also stripped off his post to be replaced by John Crawfurd, an efficient and frugal administrator, as the new governor. Farquhar later died in Perth, Scotland.
On 7 June 1823, John Crawfurd signed a second treaty with the Sultan and Temenggong, which extends British possession to most of the island. The Sultan and Temenggong traded most of their administrative rights of the island, including the collection of port taxes for lifelong monthly payments of $1500 and $800 respectively. This agreement brought the island under the British Law, with the provision that it would take into account Malay customs, traditions and religion. In October 1823, Raffles departed for Britain and would never return to Singapore as he died in 1826, at the age of 44. In 1824, Singapore was ceded in perpetuity to the East India Company by the Sultan.
1826–1867: The Straits Settlements
The status of a British outpost in Singapore seemed initially in doubt as the Dutch government soon protested to Britain for violating the Netherlands' sphere of influence. But as Singapore rapidly emerged as an important trading post, Britain consolidated its claim on the island. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 cemented the status of Singapore as a British possession, carving up the Malay archipelago between the two colonial powers with the area north of the Straits of Malacca, including Singapore, falling under Britain's sphere of influence. In 1826, Singapore was grouped by the British East India Company together with Penang and Malacca to form the Straits Settlements, administered by the British East India Company. In 1830, the Straits Settlements became a residency, or subdivision, of the Bengal Presidency in British India.
During the subsequent decades, Singapore grew to become an important port in the region. Its success was due to several reasons including the opening of the Chinese market, the advent of ocean-going steamships, the dramatic reduction in the time and cost of shipping goods to Europe after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and the production of rubber and tin in Malaya. The Malay Peninsula had not featured significantly in Singapore's trade until the 1840s, when the Chinese developed tin-mining in the West coast Malay States and gambier-pepper cultivation in Johor.
Its status as a free port provided a crucial advantage over other colonial port cities in Batavia (now Jakarta) and Manila where tariffs were levied, and it drew many Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Arab traders operating in South-East Asia to Singapore. Steamships had to frequently bunker and therefore take the route along the South Asian coast line which also preferred Singapore over Batavia. The later opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 would further boost trade in Singapore. By 1880, over 1.5 million tons of goods were passing through Singapore each year, with around 80% of the cargo transported by steamships. The main commercial activity was entrepôt trade which flourished under no taxation and little restriction. Many merchant houses were set up in Singapore mainly by European trading firms, but also by Jewish, Chinese, Arab, Armenian, American and Indian merchants. There were also many Chinese middlemen who handled most of the trade between the European and Asian merchants.
By 1827, the Chinese had become the largest ethnic group in Singapore and by 1845 formed more than half of its population. They consisted of Peranakans, who were descendants of early Chinese settlers, and Chinese coolies who flocked to Singapore to escape economic hardship in southern China. Their numbers were swelled by those fleeing the turmoil caused by the First Opium War (18391842) and Second Opium War (18561860). Many arrived in Singapore as impoverished indentured laborers. The Malays were the second largest ethnic group until the 1860s and they worked as fishermen, craftsmen, or as wage earners while continued to live mostly in kampungs. By 1860, the Indians had become the second-largest ethnic group. They consisted of unskilled labourers, traders, and convicts who were sent to carry out public works projects such as clearing jungles and laying out roads. There were also Indian Sepoy troops garrisoned at Singapore by the British.
Despite Singapore's growing importance, the administration governing the island was understaffed, ineffectual, and unconcerned with the welfare of the populace. Administrators were usually posted from India and were unfamiliar with local culture and languages. While the population had quadrupled from 1830 to 1867, the size of the civil service in Singapore had remained unchanged. Most people had no access to public health services and diseases such as cholera and smallpox caused severe health problems, especially in overcrowded working-class areas. As a result of the administration's ineffectiveness and the predominantly male, transient, and uneducated nature of the population, the society was lawless and chaotic. In 1850 there were only twelve police officers in the city of nearly 60,000 people. Prostitution, gambling, and drug abuse (particularly of opium) were widespread. Chinese criminal secret societies (analogous to modern-day triads) were extremely powerful, and some had tens of thousands of members. Turf wars between rival societies occasionally led to hundreds of deaths and attempts to suppress them had limited success.
The situation created a deep concern in the European population of the island. In 1854 the Singapore Free Press complained that Singapore was a "small island" full of the "very dregs of the population of southeastern Asia".
1867–1942: Straits Settlements Crown Colony
As Singapore continued to grow, the deficiencies in the Straits Settlements administration became serious and Singapore's merchant community began agitating against British Indian rule. The British government agreed to establish the Straits Settlements as a separate Crown Colony on 1 April 1867. This new colony was ruled by a governor under the supervision of the Colonial Office in London. An executive council and a legislative council assisted the governor. Although members of the councils were not elected, more representatives for the local population were gradually included over the years.
The colonial government embarked on several measures to address the serious social problems facing Singapore. A Chinese Protectorate under Pickering was established in 1877 to address the needs of the Chinese community, especially in controlling the worst abuses of the coolie trade and protecting Chinese women from forced prostitution. In 1889 Governor Sir Cecil Clementi Smith banned secret societies, driving them underground. Nevertheless, many social problems persisted up through the post-war era, including an acute housing shortage and poor health and living standards. In 1906, the Tongmenghui, a revolutionary Chinese organisation dedicated to the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and led by Sun Yat-sen, founded its Nanyang branch in Singapore, which served as the organisation's headquarters in Southeast Asia. The members of the branch included Wong Hong-Kui (黃康衢), Tan Chor Lam and Teo Eng Hock. Chan Cho-Nam (陳楚楠, 1884–1971, originally a rubber manufacturer), Cheung Wing-Fook (張永福, originally a rubber shoe manufacturer) and Chan Po-Yin (陳步賢, 1883–1965) started Chong Shing Yit Pao, a Chinese-language newspaper, in response to the growing influence of The Union Times, which was controlled by reformists. The inaugural edition of the newspaper was published on 20 August 1907. The paper folded in 1910 due to financial difficulties. Working with other Cantonese people, Chan, Cheung and Chan opened the revolution-related Kai Ming Bookstore (開明書報社, 開明 meaning open-mindedness and wisdom) in Singapore. For the revolution, Chan Po-Yin raised over 30,000 yuan for the purchase and shipment (from Singapore to China) of military equipment and for the support of the expenses of people travelling from Singapore to China for revolutionary work. The immigrant Chinese population in Singapore donated generously to Tongmenghui, which organised the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that led to the establishment of the Republic of China.
World War I (1914–1918) did not deeply affect Singapore: the conflict did not spread to Southeast Asia. The only significant local military event during the war was a 1915 mutiny by the British Muslim Indian sepoys garrisoned in Singapore. After hearing rumors of plans to send them to fight the Ottoman Empire, the soldiers revolted, killing their officers and several British civilians before troops arriving from Johor and Burma suppressed the unrest.
After the war, British trade and influence gradually diminished and the importance of the United States and Japan grew, both located on the Pacific. The British government devoted significant resources into building a naval base in Singapore, as a deterrent to the increasingly ambitious Japanese Empire. Completed in 1939 at a staggering cost of $500 million, the naval base boasted what was then the largest dry dock in the world, the third-largest floating dock, and enough fuel tanks to support the entire British navy for six months. It was defended by heavy 15-inch naval guns and by Royal Air Force squadrons stationed at Tengah Air Base. Winston Churchill touted it as the "Gibraltar of the East." Unfortunately, it was a base without a fleet. The British Home Fleet was stationed in Europe and the plan was for it to sail quickly to Singapore when needed. However, after World War II broke out in 1939, the Fleet was fully occupied with defending Britain.
Lieutenant General Sir William George Shedden Dobbie was appointed governor of Singapore and General Officer Commanding Malaya Command on 8 November 1935, holding the post based in The Istana until shortly before the outbreak of World War II in 1939. He was responsible for forming The Dobbie Hypothesis on the fall of Singapore which, had it been heeded, may have prevented the fall of Singapore during the Second World War. People in Singapore who held German identify papers, including Jews fleeing the Nazis such as Karl Duldig, Slawa Duldig, and Eva Duldig, were arrested and deported from Singapore. The British colonial government classified them as "citizens of an enemy country".
1942–1945: The Battle for Singapore and Japanese occupation
In December 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and the east coast of Malaya, causing the Pacific War to begin in earnest. Both attacks occurred at the same time, but due to the international dateline, the Honolulu attack is dated 7 December while the Kota Bharu attack is dated 8 December. One of Japan's objectives was to capture Southeast Asia and secure the rich supply of natural resources to feed its military and industry needs. Singapore, the main Allied base in the region, was an obvious military target because of its flourishing trade and wealth.
The British military commanders in Singapore had believed that the Japanese attack would come by sea from the south since the dense Malayan jungle in the north would serve as a natural barrier against invasion. Although they had drawn up a plan for dealing with an attack on northern Malaya, preparations were never completed. The military was confident that "Fortress Singapore" would withstand any Japanese attack and this confidence was further reinforced by the arrival of Force Z, a squadron of British warships dispatched to the defense of Singapore, including the battleship , and cruiser . The squadron was to have been accompanied by a third capital ship, the aircraft carrier , but it ran aground en route, leaving the squadron without air cover.
On 8 December 1941, Japanese forces landed at Kota Bharu in northern Malaya. Just two days after the start of the invasion of Malaya, Prince of Wales and Repulse were sunk 50 miles off the coast of Kuantan in Pahang, by a force of Japanese bombers and torpedo bomber aircraft, in the worst British naval defeat of World War II. Allied air support did not arrive in time to protect the two capital ships. After this incident, Singapore and Malaya suffered daily air raids, including those targeting civilian structures such as hospitals or shop houses with casualties ranging from the tens to the hundreds each time.
The Japanese army advanced swiftly southward through the Malay Peninsula, crushing or bypassing Allied resistance. The Allied forces did not have tanks, which they considered unsuitable in the tropical rainforest, and their infantry proved powerless against the Japanese light tanks. As their resistance failed against the Japanese advance, the Allied forces were forced to retreat southwards towards Singapore. By 31 January 1942, a mere 55 days after the start of the invasion, the Japanese had conquered the entire Malay Peninsula and were poised to attack Singapore.
The causeway linking Johor and Singapore was blown up by the Allied forces in an effort to stop the Japanese army. However, the Japanese managed to cross the Straits of Johor in inflatable boats days after. Several fights by the Allied forces and volunteers of Singapore's population against the advancing Japanese, such as the Battle of Pasir Panjang, took place during this period. However, with most of the defenses shattered and supplies exhausted, Lieutenant-General Arthur Percival surrendered the Allied forces in Singapore to General Tomoyuki Yamashita of the Imperial Japanese Army on Chinese New Year, 15 February 1942. About 130,000 Indian, Australian, and British troops became prisoners of war, many of whom would later be transported to Burma, Japan, Korea, or Manchuria for use as slave labour via prisoner transports known as "hell ships." The fall of Singapore was the largest surrender of British-led forces in history. Japanese newspapers triumphantly declared the victory as deciding the general situation of the war.
Singapore, renamed Syonan-to (昭南島 Shōnan-tō, "Bright Southern Island" in Japanese), was occupied by the Japanese from 1942 to 1945. The Japanese army imposed harsh measures against the local population, with troops, especially the Kempeitai or Japanese military police, who were particularly ruthless in dealing with the Chinese population. The most notable atrocity was the Sook Ching massacre of Chinese and Peranakan civilians, undertaken in retaliation against the support of the war effort in China. The Japanese screened citizens (including children) to check if they were "anti-Japanese". If so, the "guilty" citizens would be sent away in a truck to be executed. These mass executions claimed between 25,000 and 50,000 lives in Malaya and Singapore. The Japanese also launched massive purges against the Indian community, they secretly killed about 150,000 Tamil Indians and tens of thousands of Malayalam from Malaya, Burma, and Singapore in various places located near the Siam Railway. The rest of the population suffered severe hardship throughout the three and a half years of Japanese occupation. The Malay and Indians were forced to build the "Death Railway", a railway between Thailand and Burma (Myanmar). Most of them died while building the railway. First generation Eurasians in Singapore were interned at the Sime Road Camp while second generation Eurasians were allowed free in Singapore. Due to their abilities to speak in local dialects and English, the Japanese were interested in getting Eurasians to become informers, spies and be part of their intelligence services. Mamoru Shinozaki, a Japanese official in Singapore, offered some Eurasians to relocate to Bahau, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. Towards the end of the war, most Eurasians were arrested and interned at the Sime Road Camp.
1945–1955: Post-war period
After the Japanese surrender to the Allies on 15 August 1945, Singapore fell into a brief state of violence and disorder; looting and revenge-killing were widespread. British troops led by Lord Louis Mountbatten, Supreme Allied Commander for Southeast Asia Command, returned to Singapore to receive the formal surrender of the Japanese forces in the region from General Itagaki Seishiro on behalf of General Hisaichi Terauchi on 12 September 1945, and a British Military Administration was formed to govern the island until March 1946. Much of the infrastructure had been destroyed during the war, including electricity and water supply systems, telephone services, as well as the harbor facilities at the Port of Singapore. There was also a shortage of food, leading to malnutrition, disease, and rampant crime and violence. High food prices, unemployment and workers' discontent culminated in a series of strikes in 1947 causing massive stoppages in public transport and other services. By late 1947, the economy began to recover, facilitated by a growing demand for tin and rubber around the world, but it would take several more years before the economy returned to pre-war levels.
The failure of Britain to defend Singapore had destroyed its credibility as an infallible ruler in the eyes of Singaporeans. The decades after the war saw a political awakening amongst the local populace and the rise of anti-colonial and nationalist sentiments, epitomised by the slogan Merdeka, or "independence" in the Malay language. The British, on their part, were prepared to gradually increase self-governance for Singapore and Malaya. On 1 April 1946, the Straits Settlements was dissolved and Singapore became a separate Crown Colony with a civil administration headed by a Governor. In July 1947, separate Executive and Legislative Councils were established and the election of six members of the Legislative Council was scheduled for the following year.
1948–1951: First Legislative Council
The first Singaporean elections, held in March 1948, were limited as only six of the twenty-five seats on the Legislative Council were to be elected. Only British subjects had the right to vote, and only 23,000 or about 10% of those eligible registered to vote. Other members of the council were chosen either by the Governor or by the chambers of commerce. Three of the elected seats were won by a newly formed Singapore Progressive Party (SPP), a conservative party whose leaders were businessmen and professionals and were disinclined to press for immediate self-rule. The other three seats were won by independents.
Three months after the elections, an armed insurgency by communist groups in Malaya – the Malayan Emergency – broke out. The British imposed tough measures to control left-wing groups in both Singapore and Malaya and introduced the controversial Internal Security Act, which allowed indefinite detention without trial for persons suspected of being "threats to security". Since the left-wing groups were the strongest critics of the colonial system, progress on self-government was stalled for several years.
1951–1955: Second Legislative Council
A second Legislative Council election was held in 1951 with the number of elected seats increased to nine. This election was again dominated by the SPP which won six seats. While this contributed to the formation of a distinct local government of Singapore, the colonial administration was still dominant. In 1953, with the communists in Malaya suppressed and the worst of the Emergency over, a British Commission, headed by Sir George Rendel, proposed a limited form of self-government for Singapore. A new Legislative Assembly with twenty-five out of thirty-two seats chosen by popular election would replace the Legislative Council, from which a Chief Minister as head of government and Council of Ministers as a cabinet would be picked under a parliamentary system. The British would retain control over areas such as internal security and foreign affairs, as well as veto power over legislation.
The election for the Legislative Assembly held on 2 April 1955 was a closely fought affair, with several new political parties joining the fray. Unlike previous elections, voters were automatically registered, expanding the electorate to around 300,000. The SPP was soundly defeated in the election, winning only four seats. The newly formed, left-leaning Labour Front was the biggest winner with ten seats and it formed a coalition government with the UMNO-MCA Alliance, which won three seats. Another new party, the People's Action Party (PAP), won three seats.
1953–1954: The Fajar trial
The Fajar trial was the first sedition trial in post-war Malaysia and Singapore. The Fajar was the publication of the University Socialist Club which mainly at that time circulated in the university campus. In May 1954, the members of the Fajar editorial board were arrested for publishing an allegedly seditious article named "Aggression in Asia". However, after three days of the trial, Fajar members were immediately released. The famous English Queen's Counsel D.N. Pritt acted as the lead counsel in the case and Lee Kuan Yew who was at that time a young lawyer-assisted him as the junior counsel. The club's final victory stands out as one of the notable landmarks in the progress of decolonisation of this part of the world.
1955–1963: Self-government
1955–1959: Partial internal self-government
David Marshall, leader of the Labour Front, became the first Chief Minister of Singapore. He presided over a shaky government, receiving little cooperation from both the colonial government and the other local parties. Social unrest was on the rise, and in May 1955, the Hock Lee bus riots broke out, killing four people and seriously discrediting Marshall's government. In 1956, the Chinese middle school riots broke out among students in The Chinese High School and other schools, further increasing the tension between the local government and the Chinese students and unionists who were regarded of having communist sympathies.
In April 1956, Marshall led a delegation to London to negotiate for complete self-rule in the Merdeka Talks, but the talks failed when the British were reluctant to give up control over Singapore's internal security. The British were concerned about communist influence and labour strikes which were undermining Singapore's economic stability, and felt that the local government was ineffective in handling earlier riots. Marshall resigned following the failure of the talk.
The new Chief Minister, Lim Yew Hock, launched a crackdown on communist and leftist groups, imprisoning many trade union leaders and several pro-communist members of the PAP under the Internal Security Act. The British government approved of Lim's tough stance against communist agitators, and when a new round of talks was held beginning in March 1957, they agreed to grant complete internal self-government. The State of Singapore would be created, with its own citizenship. The Legislative Assembly would be expanded to fifty-one members, entirely chosen by popular election, and the Prime Minister and cabinet would control all aspects of government except defense and foreign affairs. The governorship was replaced by a Yang di-Pertuan Negara or head of state. In August 1958, the State of Singapore Act was passed in the United Kingdom Parliament providing for the establishment of the State of Singapore.
1959–1963: Full internal self-government
Elections for the new Legislative Assembly were held in May 1959. The People's Action Party (PAP) won the polls in a landslide victory, winning forty-three of the fifty-one seats. They accomplished this by courting the Chinese-speaking majority, particularly those in the labour unions and radical student organizations. Its leader Lee Kuan Yew, a young Cambridge-educated lawyer, became the first Prime Minister of Singapore.
The PAP's victory was at first viewed with dismay by foreign and local business leaders because some party members were pro-communists. Many businesses promptly shifted their headquarters from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur. Despite these ill omens, the PAP government embarked on a vigorous program to address Singapore's various economic and social problems. Economic development was overseen by the new Minister of Finance Goh Keng Swee, whose strategy was to encourage foreign and local investment with measures ranging from tax incentives to the establishment of a large industrial estate in Jurong. The education system was revamped to train a skilled workforce and the English language was promoted over the Chinese language as the language of instruction. To eliminate labour unrest, existing labour unions were consolidated, sometimes forcibly, into a single umbrella organisation, called the National Trades Union Congress (NTUC) with strong oversight from the government. On the social front, an aggressive and well-funded public housing program was launched to solve the long-standing housing problem. More than 25,000 high-rises, low-cost apartments were constructed during the first two years of the program.
Campaign for merger
Despite their successes in governing Singapore, the PAP leaders, including Lee and Goh, believed that Singapore's future lay with Malaya. They felt that the historic and economic ties between Singapore and Malaya were too strong for them to continue as separate nations. Furthermore, Singapore lacked natural resources and faced both a declining entrepôt trade and a growing population that required jobs. It was thought that the merger would benefit the economy by creating a common market, eliminating trade tariffs, and thus supporting new industries which would solve the ongoing unemployment woes.
Although the PAP leadership campaigned vigorously for a merger, the sizable pro-communist wing of the PAP was strongly opposed to the merger, fearing a loss of influence as the ruling party of Malaya, United Malays National Organisation, was staunchly anti-communist and would support the non-communist faction of PAP against them. The UMNO leaders were also skeptical of the idea of a merger due to their distrust of the PAP government and concerns that the large Chinese population in Singapore would alter the racial balance on which their political power base depended. The issue came to a head in 1961 when PAP minister Ong Eng Guan defected from the party and beat a PAP candidate in a subsequent by-election, a move that threatened to bring down Lee's government.
Faced with the prospect of a takeover by the pro-communists, UMNO changed their minds about the merger. On 27 May, Malaya's Prime Minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman, mooted the idea of a Federation of Malaysia, comprising existing Federation of Malaya, Singapore, Brunei and the British Borneo territories of North Borneo and Sarawak. The UMNO leaders believed that the additional Malay population in the Borneo territories would offset Singapore's Chinese population. The British government, for its part, believed that the merger would prevent Singapore from becoming a haven for communism. Lee called for a referendum on the merger, to be held in September 1962, and initiated a vigorous campaign in advocation of their proposal of merger, possibly aided by the fact that the government had a large influence over the media.
The referendum did not have an option of objecting to the idea of merger because no one had raised the issue in the Legislative Assembly before then. However, the method of merger had been debated, by the PAP, Singapore People's Alliance and the Barisian Sosialis, each with their own proposals. The referendum was called therefore, was to resolve this issue.
The referendum called had three options. Singapore could join Malaysia, but would be granted full autonomy and only with fulfilment of conditions to guarantee that, which was option A. The second option, option B, called for full integration into Malaysia without such autonomy, with the status of any other state in Malaysia. The third option, option C, was to enter Malaysia "on terms no less favourable than the Borneo territories", noting the motive of why Malaysia proposed the Borneo territories to join as well. After the referendum was held, the option A received 70% of the votes in the referendum, with 26% of the ballots left blank as advocated by the Barisan Sosialis to protest against option A. The other two plans received less than two percent each.
On 9 July 1963, the leaders of Singapore, Malaya, Sabah and Sarawak signed the Malaysia Agreement to establish Malaysia which was planned to come into being on 31 August. Nonetheless, on 31 August (the original Malaysia Day), Lee Kuan Yew stood in front of a crowd at the Padang in Singapore and unilaterally declared Singapore's independence. On 31 August, Singapore declared its independence from the United Kingdom, with Yusof bin Ishak as the head of state (Yang di-Pertuan Negara) and Lee Kuan Yew as prime minister. However it was postponed by Tunku Abdul Rahman to 16 September 1963, to accommodate a United Nations mission to North Borneo and Sarawak to ensure that they really wanted a merger, which was prompted by Indonesian objections to the formation of Malaysia. On 16 September 1963, coincidentally Lee's fortieth birthday, he once again stood in front of a crowd at the Padang and this time proclaimed Singapore as part of Malaysia. Pledging his loyalty to the Central Government, the Tunku and his colleagues, Lee asked for 'an honourable relationship between the states and the Central Government, a relationship between brothers, and not a relationship between masters and servants
1963–1965: Singapore in Malaysia
Merger
On 16 September 1963, Malaya, Singapore, North Borneo and Sarawak were merged and Malaysia was formed. The union was rocky from the start. During the 1963 Singapore state elections, a local branch of United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) took part in the election despite an earlier UMNO's agreement with the PAP not to participate in the state's politics during Malaysia's formative years. Although UMNO lost all its bids, relations between PAP and UMNO worsened. The PAP, in a tit-for-tat, challenged UMNO candidates in the 1964 federal election as part of the Malaysian Solidarity Convention, winning one seat in the Malaysian Parliament.
Racial tension
Racial tensions increased as ethnic Chinese and other non-Malay ethnic groups in Singapore rejected the discriminatory policies imposed by the Malays such as quotas for the Malays as special privileges were granted to the Malays guaranteed under Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia. There were also other financial and economic benefits that were preferentially given to Malays. Lee Kuan Yew and other political leaders began advocating for the fair and equal treatment of all races in Malaysia, with a rallying cry of "Malaysian Malaysia!".
Meanwhile, the Malays in Singapore were being increasingly incited by the federal government's accusations that the PAP was mistreating the Malays. The external political situation was also tense; Indonesian President Sukarno declared a state of Konfrontasi (Confrontation) against Malaysia and initiated military and other actions against the new nation, including the bombing of MacDonald House in Singapore 10 March 1965 by Indonesian commandos, killing three people. Indonesia also conducted sedition activities to provoke the Malays against the Chinese. The most notorious riots were the 1964 Race Riots that first took place on Prophet Muhammad's birthday on 21 July with twenty-three people killed and hundreds injured, and also, many people by then still hated the rest. During the unrest, the price of food skyrocketed when the transport system was disrupted, causing further hardship for the people.
The state and federal governments also had conflicts on the economic front. UMNO leaders feared that the economic dominance of Singapore would inevitably shift political power away from Kuala Lumpur. Despite earlier agreement to establish a common market, Singapore continued to face restrictions when trading with the rest of Malaysia. In retaliation, Singapore refused to provide Sabah and Sarawak the full extent of the loans previously agreed to for the economic development of the two eastern states. The Bank of China branch of Singapore was closed by the Central Government in Kuala Lumpur as it was suspected of funding communists. The situation escalated to such an extent that talks between UMNO and the PAP broke down, and abusive speeches and writings became rife on both sides. UMNO extremists called for the arrest of Lee Kuan Yew.
Separation
Seeing no alternative to avoid further bloodshed, the Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman decided to expel Singapore from the federation. Goh Keng Swee, who had become skeptical of the merger's economic benefits for Singapore, convinced Lee Kuan Yew that the separation had to take place. UMNO and PAP representatives worked out the terms of separation in extreme secrecy in order to present the British government, in particular, with a fait accompli.
On 9 August 1965, the Parliament of Malaysia voted 126–0 in favor of a constitutional amendment expelling Singapore from the federation. A tearful Lee Kuan Yew announced in a televised press conference that Singapore had become a sovereign, independent nation. In a widely remembered quote, he stated: "For me, it is a moment of anguish because all my life.... you see, the whole of my adult life.... I have believed in merger and the unity of these two territories. You know, it's a people, connected by geography, economics, and ties of kinship...." The new state became the Republic of Singapore, with Yusof bin Ishak appointed as its first President.
1965–present: Republic of Singapore
1965–1979
After gaining independence abruptly, Singapore faced a future filled with uncertainties. The Konfrontasi was on-going and the conservative UMNO faction strongly opposed the separation; Singapore faced the dangers of attack by the Indonesian military and forcible re-integration into the Malaysia Federation on unfavorable terms. Much of the international media was skeptical of prospects for Singapore's survival. Besides the issue of sovereignty, the pressing problems were unemployment, housing, education, and the lack of natural resources and land. Unemployment was ranging between 10 and 12%, threatening to trigger civil unrest.
Singapore immediately sought international recognition of its sovereignty. The new state joined the United Nations on 21 September 1965, becoming the 117th member; and joined the Commonwealth in October that year. Foreign minister Sinnathamby Rajaratnam headed a new foreign service that helped assert Singapore's independence and establishing diplomatic relations with other countries. On 22 December 1965, the Constitution Amendment Act was passed under which the Head of State became the President and the State of Singapore became the Republic of Singapore. Singapore later co-founded the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) on 8 August 1967 and was admitted into the Non-Aligned Movement in 1970.
The Economic Development Board had been set up in 1961 to formulate and implement national economic strategies, focusing on promoting Singapore's manufacturing sector. Industrial estates were set up, especially in Jurong, and foreign investment was attracted to the country with tax incentives. The industrialization transformed the manufacturing sector to one that produced higher value-added goods and achieved greater revenue. The service industry also grew at this time, driven by demand for services by ships calling at the port and increasing commerce. This progress helped to alleviate the unemployment crisis. Singapore also attracted big oil companies like Shell and Esso to establish oil refineries in Singapore which, by the mid-1970s, became the third-largest oil-refining centre in the world. The government invested heavily in an education system that adopted English as the language of instruction and emphasised practical training to develop a competent workforce well suited for the industry.
The lack of good public housing, poor sanitation, and high unemployment led to social problems from crime to health issues. The proliferation of squatter settlements resulted in safety hazards and caused the Bukit Ho Swee Fire in 1961 that killed four people and left 16,000 others homeless. The Housing Development Board set up before independence continued to be largely successful and huge building projects sprung up to provide affordable public housing to resettle the squatters. Within a decade, the majority of the population had been housed in these apartments. The Central Provident Fund (CPF) Housing Scheme, introduced in 1968, allows residents to use their compulsory savings account to purchase HDB flats and gradually increases home-ownership in Singapore.
British troops had remained in Singapore following its independence, but in 1968, London announced its decision to withdraw the forces by 1971. With the secret aid of military advisers from Israel, Singapore rapidly established the Singapore Armed Forces, with the help of a national service program introduced in 1967. Since independence, Singaporean defense spending has been approximately five percent of GDP.
The 1980s and 1990s
Further economic success continued through the 1980s, with the unemployment rate falling to 3% and real GDP growth averaging at about 8% up until 1999. During the 1980s, Singapore began to upgrade to higher-technological industries, such as the wafer fabrication sector, in order to compete with its neighbours which now had cheaper labour. Singapore Changi Airport was opened in 1981 and Singapore Airlines was developed to become a major airline. The Port of Singapore became one of the world's busiest ports and the service and tourism industries also grew immensely during this period. Singapore emerged as an important transportation hub and a major tourist destination.
The Housing Development Board (HDB) continued to promote public housing with new towns, such as Ang Mo Kio, being designed and built. These new residential estates have larger and higher-standard apartments and are served with better amenities. Today, 80–90% of the population lives in HDB apartments. In 1987, the first Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) line began operation, connecting most of these housing estates and the city centre.
The political situation in Singapore continues to be dominated by the People's Action Party. The PAP won all the parliamentary seats in every election between 1966 and 1981. The PAP rule is termed authoritarian by some activists and opposition politicians who see the strict regulation of political and media activities by the government as an infringement on political rights. The conviction of opposition politician Chee Soon Juan for illegal protests and the defamation lawsuits against J.B. Jeyaretnam have been cited by the opposition parties as examples of such authoritarianism. The lack of separation of powers between the court system and the government led to further accusations by the opposition parties of miscarriage of justice.
The government of Singapore underwent several significant changes. Non-Constituency Members of Parliament were introduced in 1984 to allow up to three losing candidates from opposition parties to be appointed as MPs. Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) was introduced in 1988 to create multi-seat electoral divisions, intended to ensure minority representation in parliament. Nominated Members of Parliament were introduced in 1990 to allow non-elected non-partisan MPs. The Constitution was amended in 1991 to provide for an Elected President who has veto power in the use of national reserves and appointments to public office. The opposition parties have complained that the GRC system has made it difficult for them to gain a foothold in parliamentary elections in Singapore, and the plurality voting system tends to exclude minority parties.
In 1990, Lee Kuan Yew passed the reins of leadership to Goh Chok Tong, who became the second prime minister of Singapore. Goh presented a more open and consultative style of leadership as the country continued to modernise. In 1997, Singapore experienced the effect of the Asian financial crisis and tough measures, such as cuts in the CPF contribution, were implemented.
Lee's programs in Singapore had a profound effect on the Communist leadership in China, who made a major effort, especially under Deng Xiaoping, to emulate his policies of economic growth, entrepreneurship, and subtle suppression of dissent. Over 22,000 Chinese officials were sent to Singapore to study its methods.
2001–present
Singapore went through some of its most post-war crises in the early 21st century, such as embassies attack plot in 2001, SARS outbreak in 2003, H1N1 pandemic in 2009, and with COVID-19 pandemic in between January 2020 and April 2022.
More emphasis was placed on promoting social integration and trust between the different communities. There are also increasing reforms in the Education system. Primary education was made compulsory in 2003.
In 2004, then Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Hsien Loong, the eldest son of Lee Kuan Yew, took over from incumbent Goh Chok Tong and became the third prime minister of Singapore. He introduced several policy changes, including the reduction of national service duration from two and a half years to two years, and the legalisation of casino gambling. Other efforts to raise the city's global profile included the reestablishment of the Singapore Grand Prix in 2008, and the hosting of the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics.
The general election of 2006 was a landmark election because of the prominent use of the internet and blogging to cover and comment on the election, circumventing the official media. The PAP retained power, winning 82 of the 84 parliamentary seats and 66% of the votes.
On 3 June 2009, Singapore commemorated 50 years of self-governance.
Singapore's move to increase attractiveness as a tourist destination was further boosted in March 2010 with the opening of Universal Studios Singapore at Resorts World Sentosa. In the same year, Marina Bay Sands Integrated Resorts was also opened. Marina Bay Sands was billed as the world's most expensive standalone casino property at S$8 billion. On 31 December 2010, it was announced that Singapore's economy grew by 14.7% for the whole year, the best growth on record ever for the country.
The general election of 2011 was yet another watershed election as it was the first time a Group Representation Constituency (GRC) was lost by the ruling party PAP, to the opposition Workers' Party. The final results saw a 6.46% swing against the PAP from the 2006 elections to 60.14%, its lowest since independence. Nevertheless, PAP won 81 out of 87 seats and maintained its parliamentary majority.
Lee Kuan Yew, founding father and the first Prime Minister of Singapore, died on 23 March 2015. Singapore declared a period of national mourning from 23 to 29 March. Lee Kuan Yew was accorded a state funeral.
The year 2015 also saw Singapore celebrate its Golden Jubilee of 50 years of independence. An extra day of the holiday, 7 August 2015, was declared to celebrate Singapore's Golden Jubilee. Fun packs, which are usually given to people who attend the National Day Parade were given to every Singaporean and PR household. In commemoration of the significant milestone, the 2015 National Day Parade was the first-ever parade to be held both at the Padang and the Float at Marina Bay. NDP 2015 was the first National Day Parade without the founding leader Lee Kuan Yew, who never missed a single National Day Parade since 1966.
The 2015 general elections was held on 11 September shortly after the 2015 National Day Parade. The election was the first since Singapore's independence which saw all seats contested. The election was also the first after the death of Lee Kuan Yew (the nation's first Prime Minister and an MP until his passing). The ruling party PAP received its best results since 2001 with 69.86% of the popular vote, an increase of 9.72% from the previous election in 2011.
Following amendments to the Constitution of Singapore, Singapore held its first reserved presidential elections in 2017. The election was the first to be reserved for a particular racial group under a hiatus-triggered model. The 2017 election was reserved for candidates from the minority Malay community. Then Speaker of Parliament Halimah Yacob won the elections though a walkover and was inaugurated as the eighth President of Singapore on 14 September 2017, becoming the first female President of Singapore.
In July 2020, the ruling party, The People's Action Party (PAP), won 83 out of 93 seats and 61.2% of the popular vote in the general election, meaning PAP won its 13th consecutive general election since Singapore's independence. However, the result was a significant decline from the 2015 election.
See also
History of Southeast Asia
History of East Asia
List of years in Singapore
List of prime ministers of Singapore
Military history of Singapore
Timeline of Singaporean history
References
Bibliography
Abshire, Jean. The history of Singapore (ABC-CLIO, 2011).
Baker, Jim. Crossroads: a popular history of Malaysia and Singapore (Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd, 2020).
Corfield, Justin J. Historical dictionary of Singapore (2011) online
Guan, Kwa Chong, et al. Seven hundred years: a history of Singapore (Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd, 2019)
Heng, Derek, and Syed Muhd Khairudin Aljunied, eds. Singapore in global history (Amsterdam University Press, 2011) scholarly essays online
Huang, Jianli. "Stamford Raffles and the'founding'of Singapore: The politics of commemoration and dilemmas of history." Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 91.2 (2018): 103-122 online.
Kratoska. Paul H. The Japanese Occupation of Malaya and Singapore, 1941–45: A Social and Economic History (NUS Press, 2018). pp. 446.
Lee, Kuan Yew. From Third World To First: The Singapore Story: 1965–2000. (2000).
Leifer, Michael. Singapore's foreign policy: Coping with vulnerability (Psychology Press, 2000) online
Murfett, Malcolm H., et al. Between 2 Oceans: A Military History of Singapore from 1275 to 1971 (2nd ed. Marshall Cavendish International Asia, 2011).
Ong, Siang Song. One Hundred Years' History of the Chinese in Singapore (Oxford University Press--Singapore, 1984) online.
Perry, John Curtis. Singapore: Unlikely Power (Oxford University Press, 2017).
Turnbull, C.M. A History of Modern Singapore (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009), a major scholarly history.
Woo, Jun Jie. Singapore as an international financial centre: History, policy and politics (Springer, 2016).
Historiography
Abdullah, Walid Jumblatt. "Selective history and hegemony-making: The case of Singapore." International Political Science Review 39.4 (2018): 473–486.
Hong, Lysa, and Jianli Huang. The scripting of a national history: Singapore and its pasts (Hong Kong University Press, 2008). online
Kwa, Chong Guan, and Peter Borschberg. Studying Singapore before 1800 (NUS Press Pte Ltd, 2018).
Lawrence, Kelvin. "Greed, guns and gore: Historicising early British colonial Singapore through recent developments in the historiography of Munsyi Abdullah." Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 50.4 (2019): 507-520.
Seng Loh, Kah. "Writing social histories of Singapore and making do with the archives." South East Asia Research (2020): 1-14.
Seng, Loh Kah. "Black areas: urban kampongs and power relations in post-war Singapore historiography." Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia 22.1 (2007): 1-29.
External links
"Singapore Infopedia" from Singapore's National Library Board; numerous well-researched and well-documented essays on key events and important figures, as well as topics regarding culture, architecture, nature, etc.
Singapore History The biographical and geographical histories are of particular interest.
A dream shattered Full text of Tunku Abdul Rahman's speech to the Parliament of Malaysia announcing separation
iremember.sg Visual representation of memories of Singapore, in the form of pictures, stories that are geographically tagged and laid out on the Singapore map. These pictures are also tagged by when they took place, allowing you to see how Singapore has changed through time.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio%20Valencia
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Antonio Valencia
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Luis Antonio Valencia Mosquera, known as Antonio Valencia (; born 4 August 1985), is an Ecuadorian former professional footballer who played primarily as a right-sided player throughout his career, initially as a right winger, before developing into a right-back. He is regarded as one of the best Ecuadorian footballers of all time.
After progressing through the youth system at El Nacional, Valencia became a first team regular and made over 80 appearances for the club. He won the Ecuadorian Serie A with them before signing for La Liga side Villarreal in 2005. He only made two league appearances for the Spanish side in between loan spells at Recreativo for the 2005–06 season and later English Premier League club Wigan Athletic from 2006 to 2008. Wigan Athletic later signed Valencia on a three-year deal for an undisclosed fee in January 2008. His performances for Wigan Athletic soon attracted attention from several high-profile clubs, eventually signing for Manchester United in June 2009. His stint there established him as one of the greatest Ecuadorian players of all time, as Valencia was voted into the PFA Team of the Year in his debut season, spent time as club captain, and went on to win two Premier League titles, an FA Cup, two League Cups, three FA Community Shields and the UEFA Europa League. In July 2019 Valencia returned to Ecuador, signing with LDU Quito, with whom he won the inaugural Copa Ecuador in his first season. He announced his retirement in May 2021.
Valencia made his Ecuador debut in 2004 and has represented his country at the 2006 FIFA World Cup, the 2007 Copa América, the 2011 Copa América, the 2014 FIFA World Cup, the Copa América Centenario and the 2019 Copa América. Valencia won 99 caps and scored 11 goals for his country.
Early life
Valencia was born on 4 August 1985 in Lago Agrio, near the city of Nueva Loja, Ecuador, which is located in the Amazon rainforest. Valencia helped his mother sell drinks outside the stadium of his local club at Lago Agrio and would then search for empty bottles for his father to sell to a bottle-deposit in the capital, Quito. Valencia used to play barefoot on the pitch next to the bungalow he shared with his parents, five brothers and sister.
When Valencia was aged 11, scout Pedro Perlaza spotted him playing on a dusty field near his home, and signed him to the local FA-run sports academy in Sucumbíos. At the age of 16, Valencia did not tell his father he left home to take up an offer to play for El Nacional, the military-backed club in Quito. Nobody knew about Valencia's decision, except his mother and his elder brother, Carlos Alfredo, who paid the fare for his eight-hour bus journey. Valencia began in central midfield and on a salary of 50 dollars a month.
Club career
El Nacional
Valencia started his career at El Nacional and within a year he was fast-tracked into the under-20s, where he played alongside striker Christian "Chucho"’ Benítez. Valencia made his debut for El Nacional alongside his idol Édison Méndez. Valencia won his first club title as part of the El Nacional team that won the 2005 Clausura Tournament, earning him the attention of both the national team's manager and Spanish clubs.
Villarreal and Recreativo
Valencia moved to Spanish club Villarreal in 2005. After failing to break into the first-team, however, he was loaned to Recreativo to gain experience. Valencia helped Recreativo gain promotion to La Liga as they finished the season top of the table.
Wigan Athletic
On 3 August 2006, Valencia joined English Premier League club Wigan Athletic, initially on a year-long loan deal. He made his debut for Wigan on 19 August 2006, in a 2–1 loss away to Newcastle United. His first goal for Wigan came in a 4–0 home win over Manchester City on 21 October 2006. Valencia returned after a three-month absence as he played 78 minutes of a 2–0 home loss to Everton on 21 January 2007. Valencia was sent off for the first time for Wigan on 9 April 2007, receiving a straight red card for a two-footed challenge on Wilfred Bouma during a 1–1 away draw against Aston Villa.
The loan was extended into the following season, and on 18 January 2008, he transferred for an undisclosed fee, signing a three-and-a-half-year contract. The deal was said to be worth around £5 million. Valencia scored his first goal of the 2007–08 season in a 2–0 win over Derby County on 23 February 2008, before netting his first Wigan brace in a 2–0 away victory over Aston Villa on 3 May 2008.
Valencia's first goal of the following season came in Wigan's 5–0 away victory over Hull City on 30 August 2008. He then grabbed a goal in the 2–1 home win over Manchester City on 28 September 2008, but followed it up by receiving a red card in the 3–2 loss at Liverpool on 18 October 2008. Valencia scored his final goal for Wigan on 13 December 2008, as he inspired them to a 3–0 victory over Blackburn Rovers. Wigan boss Steve Bruce confirmed that Valencia turned down the chance to join Real Madrid in January 2009. On 9 February 2009, Valencia was ruled out of action for three weeks after suffering a recurrence of a hamstring injury. In early June 2009, Wigan chairman Dave Whelan announced that he would not force Valencia to stay at the club.
Manchester United
2009–2012: Premier League success and Player of the Year awards
On 30 June 2009, Valencia became Manchester United's first summer signing, having cut his holiday short to have a medical with the club. He signed a four-year contract for an undisclosed fee, rumoured to be in the region of £16 million.
On 29 July 2009, he made his debut for United and scored his first goal in the process, netting United's second in a 2–1 pre-season victory over Boca Juniors in the Audi Cup. He made his competitive debut for Manchester United in the 2009 FA Community Shield, when he came on for the injured Nani in the 62nd minute. On 17 October 2009, he scored his first competitive goal for the club, scoring United's second in a 2–1 league victory against Bolton Wanderers. His first UEFA Champions League goal followed four days later in a 1–0 away victory against CSKA Moscow.
Valencia provided the assist for Wayne Rooney's winning goal in the 2010 League Cup Final against Aston Villa on 28 February 2010 and was named player of the match as United won 2–1. On 25 April 2010, Valencia was included in the PFA Premier League Team of the Year in his debut season for the club alongside teammates Patrice Evra, Darren Fletcher, and Wayne Rooney.
On 8 August 2010, Valencia scored United's first goal in their 3–1 win over Chelsea in the 2010 Community Shield. During a Champions League game against Rangers on 14 September 2010, Valencia suffered a break to his left ankle. An operation the morning after the match showed that his left ankle was fractured and dislocated, and that his ankle ligaments were damaged. On 28 February 2011, Valencia returned to training with Manchester United's first team.
He played his first game back from injury against Arsenal in the FA Cup sixth round on 12 March 2011. On 9 April 2011, he scored his first league goal of the season as he netted the second of a 2–0 home win over Fulham. Days later, he scored the first goal in United's 4–1 victory against the German team Schalke 04 in the second leg of the semi-final of the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League, game in which he was selected as player of the match. He became the first Ecuadorian player to win a Premier League medal, in the 2010–11 season. Valencia was a starter in United's 3–1 defeat to Barcelona in the 2011 Champions League Final at Wembley Stadium.
On 1 August 2011, Valencia agreed a new four-year deal with Manchester United, keeping him at the club until the summer of 2015. Prior to the start of the 2011–12 season, Valencia picked up an ankle injury on international duty with Ecuador at the Copa América during the summer. He missed United's entire pre-season tour of the United States because of the injury. He also missed the first month of the season because of a lack of match fitness. Valencia made his first start of the season away at Benfica in the first group stage match of the UEFA Champions League. On 18 September 2011, he returned to Premier League action, replacing the injured Chris Smalling at right-back in the 3–1 win against Chelsea. He then continued to play right-back in the next three games against Leeds United in the League Cup, away at Stoke City, and home against Norwich City in the Premier League. Valencia scored his first goal of the season, in a fourth round League Cup tie against Aldershot Town, receiving the ball in the middle of the park and then turning and firing in from 25-yards to seal a 3–0 victory.
Valencia scored his second goal of the season, the opening goal in Manchester United's Champions League fixture against Oțelul Galați. The game finished 2–0. On 26 December 2011, Valencia scored the fourth goal for Manchester United in a 5–0 home win against Wigan Athletic. He received the ball on the right hand edge of the penalty area and rifled a shot across goal and into the far corner. On 22 January 2012, Valencia scored the first goal against Arsenal with a header, before later setting up Danny Welbeck to win the game 2–1. On 2 April 2012, in his 100th appearance for the club in all competitions, Valencia scored the first goal in a 2–0 win against Blackburn Rovers, powerfully curling the ball around Paul Robinson and inside the far corner. Five minutes later, Valencia set up the second goal for Ashley Young.
Valencia received the Sir Matt Busby Player of the Year and the Manchester United Players' Player of the Year awards for his contributions in the 2011–12 season. He also won the Manchester United Goal of the Season award for his goal against Blackburn Rovers on 2 April 2012.
On 3 July 2012, it was confirmed that Valencia would wear the number 7 shirt, worn by past players such as Johnny Berry, Steve Coppell, Bryan Robson, Eric Cantona, David Beckham and Cristiano Ronaldo, after Sir Alex Ferguson offered the number upon Michael Owen's departure from the club. The number 25 shirt was given to Valencia's new teammate Nick Powell.
2013–2016: Permanent switch to right-back
On 17 April 2013, Valencia scored his first league goal of the season, against West Ham United. On 22 April 2013, Valencia won his second Premier League title after Manchester United defeated Aston Villa in a 3–0 home win.
After an indifferent 2012–13 season wearing the number 7 shirt, Valencia returned to his former number 25 shirt. Valencia started the season with a goal against Sevilla in Rio Ferdinand's testimonial at Old Trafford in a 3–1 defeat on 9 August 2013. Valencia subsequently appeared in the Community Shield against Wigan coming on as a substitute for Wilfried Zaha in the 62nd minute. Valencia started the Champions League campaign with a goal against Bayer Leverkusen the fourth in a 4–2 home victory as well as giving Robin van Persie an assist for the first on that night on 18 September 2013. He got his first goal of the Premier League season against Fulham on 2 November 2013, the first in a 3–1 away win. Valencia scored the first goal in the 5–0 away victory to Manchester United against Bayer Leverkusen in the group stage of Champions League on 27 November 2013. On 11 January 2014, Valencia scored in the 47th minute against Swansea City in a 2–0 home win. On 21 June 2014, he signed a three-year contract extension, which included an option to extend the deal until June 2018.
The arrival of new manager Louis van Gaal led to Valencia being deployed in both the right-back and right-wing back positions, where he had occasionally played under both Sir Alex Ferguson and David Moyes. He made his first start of the season in this position, assisting Juan Mata in a 1–1 draw against Sunderland on 24 August 2014.
On 25 October 2015, Valencia suffered a foot injury in a 0–0 draw with Manchester City, which required surgery and ruled him out for at least four months. He made his return on 17 March 2016 in the Europa League Round of 16 second leg against Liverpool, ending in a 1–1 draw. Valencia played the full 120 minutes at right-back in the 2016 FA Cup Final against Crystal Palace on 21 May 2016, in which United won 2–1 after extra-time.
2017–2019: Final years with United
Manchester United triggered a one-year extension in Valencia's contract on 17 January 2017, keeping him at the club until 2018. On 19 March 2017, Valencia made his 200th league appearance for United and scored in injury time, after goalkeeper Víctor Valdés slipped, to complete a 3–1 victory over Middlesbrough. On 26 May 2017, two days after captaining United in the 2017 UEFA Europa League Final, his contract at the club was extended until June 2019, with an option to extend for a further year. On 17 September 2017, Valencia scored his first goal of the season in a 4–0 win against Everton with a 20-yard half-volley. Later on 14 October, Valencia captained the team in his 300th appearance as Manchester United drew 0–0 at Liverpool. After being ruled out for four weeks with a hamstring injury, Valencia returned to action as he scored the opening goal in a 3–0 home victory against Stoke City in January 2018.
At the beginning of the 2018–19 season, and after the retirement of Michael Carrick, Manchester United manager José Mourinho announced Valencia would be the club's first captain. In March 2019, Manchester United declined to take up the option to extend Valencia's contract by an extra year, bringing to an end his 10-year spell with the club when his contract expired in June. Valencia left Manchester United having registered 325 Premier League appearances, which remains a record for a South American player.
LDU Quito
After being released by Manchester United, LDU Quito signed Valencia on a free transfer. He made his debut for the club in a 1–0 victory over América de Quito in the Ecuadorian Serie A on 18 July 2019.
Querétaro
On 27 November 2020, Valencia signed with Mexican club Querétaro on a free transfer.
On 12 May 2021, Valencia announced his retirement from professional football.
International career
He made his senior international debut for Ecuador in 2004.
On 27 March 2005, he scored his first two international goals, coming in a 5–2 World Cup qualifying win against Paraguay. Three days later he scored again in a qualifying match, this time netting in 2–2 draw away to Peru. Valencia played in all of Ecuador's 2006 FIFA World Cup matches, and was chosen as a nominee for FIFA's ideal 11 team, which recognises the top stars for every position in the World Cup. He was also shortlisted as one of the six potential candidates for the Gillette Best Young Player award. An email broadly circulated in England encouraged votes for Valencia, in an attempt to prevent Cristiano Ronaldo from winning. Valencia ended up receiving the greatest number of votes in the online poll, but since the award's winner is determined by a combination of the fan vote and a judging panel, the award was eventually given to Lukas Podolski.
On 27 June 2007, Valencia netted Ecuador's first goal of their 2007 Copa América campaign, however they eventually lost the match 3–2 to Chile and finished the tournament bottom of their group. Valencia received hs first red card for Ecuador on 12 October 2008, during a 1–0 victory over Chile in a World Cup qualifier. On 9 September 2009, Valencia scored his first 2010 World Cup qualification goal, netting in a 3–1 away victory over Bolivia. On 10 October 2009, he netted for the second qualifier in a row, this time netting Ecuador's single goal in a 2–1 defeat to the hands of Uruguay.
On 3 July 2011, in a match against Paraguay at the 2011 Copa América, he suffered a sprained left ankle and was forced off at half-time.
In June 2014, Valencia was named in Ecuador's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. In a preparation match, he captained the team to a 2–2 draw with England at the Sun Life Stadium in Miami. During the match, he was fouled by Raheem Sterling and responded by shoving Sterling and grabbing him by the throat. Referee Jair Marrufo decided to send off both Valencia and Sterling. Valencia later apologized for his reaction. Valencia captained La Tri during all three of their matches at the World Cup and was sent off for a foul on Lucas Digne during their final game against France, a goalless draw at the Maracanã which saw his team eliminated.
Valencia missed the 2015 Copa América in Chile due to urgent ankle surgery. He was selected in the Ecuador squad for the 2016 Copa América Centenario and on 12 June 2016, he scored in Ecuador's 4–0 victory over Haiti at MetLife Stadium.
Personal life
Valencia and his wife, Zoila, have a daughter named Domenica, who was born during the 2006 World Cup. Along with former Wigan Athletic teammates Maynor Figueroa and Wilson Palacios, Valencia began taking English lessons. Whilst at Wigan his English lessons would be once a week, however since his move to Manchester United they were sometimes every day. Former Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson described Valencia as a quiet and shy boy. His older brother, Éder, was also a professional footballer who played for Independiente José Terán in Ecuador.
Valencia also has a tattoo on his upper arm paying tribute to former international teammate Christian "Chucho" Benítez, who passed away in 2013.
Career statistics
Club
International
Source:
International goals
Ecuador score listed first, score column indicates score after each Valencia goal.
Honours
El Nacional
Ecuadorian Serie A: 2005
Manchester United
Premier League: 2010–11, 2012–13
FA Cup: 2015–16 runner-up: 2017–18;
EFL Cup: 2009–10, 2016–17
FA Community Shield: 2010, 2013, 2016
UEFA Europa League: 2016–17
UEFA Super Cup runner-up: 2017
LDU Quito
Copa Ecuador: 2019
Supercopa Ecuador: 2020
Individual
Alan Hardaker Trophy: 2010
PFA Team of the Year: 2009–10 Premier League
Sir Matt Busby Player of the Year: 2011–12
UEFA Europa League Squad of the Season: 2016–17
Premier League Goal of the Month: September 2017
Manchester United Players' Player of the Year: 2011–12, 2016–17
Manchester United Goal of the Season: 2011–12 (vs. Blackburn Rovers, 2 April 2012)
Records
Guinness World Record for the most goals scored from a corner in 1 minute: 6 goals (shared with Matteo Darmian)
Notes
References
External links
Antonio Valencia at the Manchester United website
1985 births
Living people
People from Nueva Loja
Ecuadorian men's footballers
Men's association football fullbacks
Men's association football wingers
Men's association football utility players
C.D. El Nacional footballers
Villarreal CF players
Recreativo de Huelva players
Wigan Athletic F.C. players
Manchester United F.C. players
L.D.U. Quito footballers
Segunda División players
La Liga players
Premier League players
UEFA Europa League winning players
Ecuadorian Serie A players
Ecuador men's international footballers
2006 FIFA World Cup players
2007 Copa América players
2011 Copa América players
2014 FIFA World Cup players
Copa América Centenario players
2019 Copa América players
Ecuadorian expatriate men's footballers
Ecuadorian expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Ecuadorian expatriate sportspeople in England
Expatriate men's footballers in Spain
Expatriate men's footballers in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erin%20Phillips
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Erin Phillips
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Erin Victoria Phillips (born 19 May 1985) is an Australian rules footballer for the Port Adelaide Football Club in the AFL Women's (AFLW) competition, a radio host, and a former professional basketball player. She played nine seasons in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) for five different teams and is a two-time WNBA champion. She also represented Australia on the women's national basketball team, winning a gold medal at the 2006 FIBA World Championship for Women and serving as a co-vice captain at the 2016 Summer Olympics. Additionally, Phillips has played five seasons in the AFLW with the Adelaide Football Club, in which she is a three-time premiership player and two-time league best and fairest.
Phillips's father Greg played professional Australian rules football for , where he was an eight-time premiership player and earned an induction into the Australian Football Hall of Fame. Phillips played only Australian rules football until age 13, switching to basketball because of the lack of professional opportunities for female footballers at the time. She made her debut in the Women's National Basketball League (WNBL) for the Adelaide Lightning, her hometown team, at the age of 17 and was named to the All-WNBL Team three times by the age of 22, finally winning a WNBL championship in 2008 in her last year with the team. Phillips was drafted into the WNBA in 2005 by the Connecticut Sun. With the Indiana Fever, she established herself as a starter and won her first WNBA title in 2012. She won another WNBA title two years later with the Phoenix Mercury. During her basketball career, Phillips played both point guard and shooting guard, excelling at three-pointers and employing a physical style of play. Following her retirement from the WNBA, she was also an assistant coach for the Dallas Wings, the last team she played for in the league.
With the launch of the AFLW in 2017, Phillips began her football career at age 31 as a co-captain of Adelaide. Despite not having played competitive football in nearly 18 years, she quickly emerged as the league's best player and one of its biggest stars. She won the AFLW best and fairest award by a wide margin in both 2017 and 2019, as well as the AFLW Grand Final best on ground as a member of Adelaide's premiership teams in both years. Phillips plays as a midfielder and is also one of the leading goal scorers in the competition.
Early life and background
Erin Victoria Phillips was born on 19 May 1985 in the Melbourne suburb of Carlton to Julie and Greg Phillips. She grew up with her two older sisters Rachel and Amy in Adelaide. Her father was a professional Australian rules football defender who played most of his career with the Port Adelaide Football Club in the South Australian National Football League (SANFL), where he served as captain for three years, was an eight-time premiership player, and was named to the club's all-time Greatest Team in 2000. He also competed in the Victorian Football League (VFL), which was later renamed as the modern Australian Football League (AFL), as a member of the Collingwood Football Club. Her father was inducted into the Australian Football Hall of Fame in 2020.
Phillips has said she "wanted to be an AFL footballer since [she] could walk and talk, and wanted to be exactly like [her] dad". Her father was impressed with her athleticism at a young age, commenting, "Some kids who are born with this gift just stand out and you could always see that with Erin." Phillips began competing in football with the SMOSH West Lakes Football Club (then known as the St. Michael's Old Scholars and Hindmarsh Football Club) under-9 side, where she was the only girl on the team. Her under-11 team won the grand final. She was also named the best and fairest player on her under-13 team. John Cahill, one of her father's coaches at Port Adelaide, praised Phillips's ability, saying she was "as good a 14-year old as I've ever seen play football" in comparison to Port Adelaide Hall of Famers such as her father, Russell Ebert, and Gavin Wanganeen. Phillips had the opportunity to train with Port Adelaide on occasion while growing up.
Phillips began playing basketball at the age of 13. She decided to switch her sporting focus from football to basketball at the age of 14 due to the lack of opportunities at the time for female footballers to play professionally. Her father had also introduced her to Rachael Sporn, a member of the Australian national basketball team, around this time. As a junior, Phillips played for the West Adelaide Bearcats. She represented South Australia Metro in the under-16 and under-18 Australian national championships, winning the Norma Connolly Trophy as a member of the under-16 championship team in 1999. Phillips was also a member of the South Australia under-20 championship team in 2004, where she won the Bob Staunton Award as the most outstanding player in the women's tournament.
Basketball career
WNBL
Adelaide Lightning (2002–08): Three All-WNBL Teams, WNBL champion
Phillips made her professional basketball debut with the Adelaide Lightning in the Women's National Basketball League (WNBL) in 2002 at age 17. She played six consecutive seasons with the team through 2008. Adelaide made the finals in all six of those years. Phillips had earned an Australian Institute of Sport scholarship to join their WNBL team in 2003, but never played for them after being replaced before the start of that season. Phillips emerged as a breakout star in her third year and was named to the All-WNBL Team (then known as the WNBL All-Star Five) at the end of the 2004–05 season. Averaging 15.0 points, 8.6 rebounds, and 5.3 assists per game that season, she was second in the league in assists behind only her teammate Jennifer Screen who had 5.9 per game. Phillips was also fourth in the league in offensive rebounds with 3.1 per game and fifth in steals with 5.1 per game. Adelaide finished fourth on the ladder and lost their semifinal to the Sydney Uni Flames 94–93 in overtime. Before the game, the Adelaide team had been involved in a car accident that injured some of the players and delayed the start of the game. Phillips had 40 points in the loss. This was the third consecutive year that Sydney eliminated Adelaide in the finals.
Phillips continued to be one of the best players in the league through the remainder of her WNBL career. She was named to the All-WNBL Team again in 2006 and 2007. During the 2005–06 season, she averaged 15.7 points, 7.5 rebounds, and a league-leading 4.9 assists per game. She was also fifth in free throw percentage at 80.0%. Adelaide finished in a three-way tie for first with a 14–7 record and entered the finals in the second position based on the tiebreak criteria. They lost both of their finals, which were against the Dandenong Rangers and the Canberra Capitals, the two other teams with the same record as them. The second loss to Canberra, who were led by Lauren Jackson, in the preliminary final again came in overtime and was highlighted by Phillips scoring 23 points. Phillips's 2006–07 season ended early after 17 games when she tore the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in her right knee during a collision with Canberra player Tully Bevilaqua. She finished the season with a career-high 16.5 points per game to go along with 7.2 rebounds and 4.9 assists per game. This was the second consecutive season she led the league in assists per game. For the second year in a row, Adelaide lost to Canberra in the preliminary final.
The 2007–08 season was Phillips's last that she played in the WNBL. She was not ready to return from her ACL injury at the start of the year and ended up playing only 17 out of 24 games during the regular season. Although Phillips did not make the All-WNBL Team, her teammates Tracy Gahan and Jessica Foley were named to the team as they led Adelaide to a 21–3 record, earning them the minor premiership. Phillips had slight drops in her averages, finishing the year with 14.6 points, 5.4 rebounds, and 3.3 assists per game. After Adelaide lost the semifinal to Sydney Uni, they defeated Dandenong to set up a rematch with Sydney Uni in the WNBL Grand Final. Adelaide won the grand final 92–82 for Phillips's first and only WNBL championship. Phillips scored 16 points in the game, second on her team behind Renae Camino who had 32 and was named Grand Final MVP.
Seven years later, Phillips planned to return to the WNBL for the 2015–16 season. After originally wanting to return to the Adelaide Lightning, she became the first player to sign with the South East Queensland Stars, a new WNBL franchise. However, Phillips never played for the team due to injury and the franchise dissolved at the end of their first season due to financial difficulties. Phillips ranks in the top ten all-time for the Adelaide Lightning in points, assists, rebounds, and steals . She is tenth in points with 1498, sixth in assists with 423, seventh in rebounds with 731, and ninth in steals with 139.
WNBA
Connecticut Sun (2006–09): Debut at 21 years old
The Connecticut Sun of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) selected Phillips in the second round of the 2005 WNBA draft with the 21st overall pick. She was the only player taken in the draft who did not play college basketball in the United States and one of two international players drafted along with fifth overall pick Sancho Lyttle. She did not play during the 2005 WNBA season, instead choosing to play on tours and in training camps with the national team in Australia to increase her chances of making the team.
Phillips decided to join the Sun for the 2006 season despite national team coach Jan Stirling's saying it would hurt her chances of playing in the FIBA World Championship later that year, which was scheduled to begin just a week after the end of the WNBA Finals. Phillips played in all 34 games in her debut season. She was named a starter in the 22nd game of the season after an injury to Nykesha Sales and ended up starting the last 13 games. The Sun won their first eleven games with Phillips as a starter as part of a franchise-record twelve-game win streak. She recorded a season-high six assists in her first game as a starter, and then had season-bests of 19 points and 6rebounds a few games later. Overall, Phillips averaged 5.4 points and 2.5 assists per game. She was also ninth in the league in free throw shooting percentage at 88.0%. Led by their top scorer Katie Douglas and point guard Lindsay Whalen, the Sun finished the regular season with the best record in the WNBA at 26–8. With Sales back from injury, Phillips returned to the bench for the playoffs, where the Sun swept the Washington Mystics 2–0 in the Eastern Conference Semifinals. However, they were eliminated in the Eastern Conference Finals 2–1 by the Detroit Shock, the eventual champions. Phillips's only start in the playoffs came in the first game of that series, a loss on the road.
Phillips missed the entire 2007 season while recovering from an ACL injury suffered during the offseason while playing in the WNBL in Australia. She did not return to the WNBA until the second half of the 2008 season after missing the first half of the season to train with the Australian national team for the Olympics, which took place in August in the middle of the WNBA season. Phillips played in eight regular season games, all off the bench. In the last game of the season, she scored 18 points and recorded a career-high eight rebounds. Overall, she shot a career-high field goal percentage of 46.4%. Although the Sun finished second in the Eastern Conference, they were eliminated in the Eastern Conference Semifinals by the third-place New York Liberty, losing the decisive third game of the series at home by four points.
Phillips began the 2009 season as a starter. After starting the first 18 games of the season, Phillips and Amber Holt lost their starting roles to bench players and fellow guards Anete Jēkabsone-Žogota and Tan White. As a starter, she averaged 9.3 points, 3.2 rebounds, and 1.9 assists per game. She finished the season with a low three-point field goal percentage of 29.3%, shooting just 20.9% off the bench. The Sun did not make the playoffs that season due to the tiebreak criteria, despite finishing tied for fourth with the Mystics and Chicago Sky. The Sun attempted to trade Phillips before the start of the 2010 season. She was at risk of losing playing time after the team signed experienced guards Renee Montgomery and Kara Lawson to complement Jēkabsone-Žogota and White. They were unable to find a trade and did not sign her to the team roster. Phillips ultimately did not play the 2010 WNBA season.
Indiana Fever (2011–13): First WNBA title
Before the start of the 2011 WNBA season, Phillips and fellow Australian Belinda Snell signed with the Seattle Storm. Less than three months later, however, Phillips was traded to the Indiana Fever in April as part of a three-team deal that sent Katie Smith to the Storm from the Mystics, a trade Smith had requested. The Fever were led by team veteran forward Tamika Catchings as well as Phillips's former Sun teammate Katie Douglas. After beginning the season coming off the bench, Phillips won a starting role following a season-ending injury to point guard Briann January ten games into the season. She started a career-best 22 games that year, and averaged a career-best 8.6 points per game to go along with 2.8 rebounds and 2.4 assists per game. Phillips was also eighth in the league in three-point field goal percentage, shooting 42.6%. She scored a career-high 21 points on two separate occasions, both losses to the Atlanta Dream. The Fever entered the playoffs as the top seed in the Eastern Conference. They defeated the New York Liberty 2–1 in the Conference Semifinals before losing to the Atlanta Dream 2–1 in the Conference Finals. Phillips's best playoff game was the winner-take-all Game3 of the Conference Semifinals in which she scored 12 points and recorded five steals in the Fever's 10-point victory.
After beginning the 2012 season as a starter, Phillips was moved to the bench after five games, but ended up receiving more playing time coming off the bench. She also started the last three games of the season with January and Shavonte Zellous both missing a week due to concussion-like symptoms. The final two games were two of Phillips's best of the season, as she scored 19 and 21 points. Although both players returned for the playoffs for the second-seeded Fever, Phillips started every game in the playoffs except for the first. She saw an increased role on the team after an ankle injury kept Katie Douglas out of the rest of the playoffs following Game2 of the Conference Finals. The Fever defeated the Dream in the Conference Semifinals and then Phillips's former team, the Sun, in the Conference Finals, both in three games. In the WNBA Finals, the Fever defeated the defending champion Minnesota Lynx 3–1 for the WNBA title. Phillips scored at least 10 points in all five games Douglas missed, including 15 points in the winner-take-all game of the Conference Semifinals and 18 points and 8rebounds in the series-clinching Game4 of the WNBA Finals. Overall in the WNBA Finals, she averaged 13.5 points in 35 minutes per game while compiling a 46.7% three-point field goal percentage. Winning the WNBA title vindicated Phillips, who was left off the 2012 Australian Olympic team roster for choosing to play the entire WNBA season instead of sitting out the first half like some of her compatriots in the league. She also finished the regular season third in the league in three-point field goal percentage, shooting 43.8%.
Just before the start of the 2013 season in late May, Phillips tore her meniscus in her right knee, an injury that kept her out until early July. She ended up playing only 18 games, starting just six of them. Phillips made a career-high five three-pointers in her first start of the year in mid-August. She finished the season second in the WNBA in three-point field goal percentage, shooting 47.9%. Despite having a losing record, the Fever made the playoffs and swept the top-seeded Chicago Sky in the Conference Semifinals. Their season came to an end when they were swept by the Atlanta Dream in the Conference Finals.
One-year stints (2014–16): Second WNBA title
Two months before the start of the 2014 season, Phillips was traded to the Phoenix Mercury with a second-round draft pick in return for forward Lynetta Kizer and a first-round draft pick. She joined two of her compatriots on the team, fellow guard Penny Taylor and new coach Sandy Brondello. Led by a five-time WNBA scoring champion in Diana Taurasi and a perennial league leader in blocks in Brittney Griner, the Mercury finished the season with the best record in the WNBA at 29–5, leading the league in both offensive and defensive rating. Phillips missed only one game during the season. After beginning the year as a starter for the first nine games, she lost her starting role to Taylor. She started only one more game the rest of the season, matching her career-high with 21 points. Phillips led the WNBA in three-point field goal percentage, shooting 44.9%. The Mercury dominated the playoffs, defeating the Los Angeles Sparks, the Minnesota Lynx, and the Chicago Sky to win the WNBA title. The only game they lost in the playoffs was Game2 of the Conference Finals to the defending champion Lynx. Six of the team's eight playoff wins were by at least 14 points. Phillips's best games in the playoffs were the Game2 loss in the Conference Finals in which she had 10 points and 4assists, and Game2 of the WNBA Finals in which she had 7points and 3assists.
Phillips signed with the Los Angeles Sparks in the offseason. She played only 12 games during the 2015 season due to knee issues both early and late in the season. She finished the year with a career-low 26.7% three-point field goal percentage. Phillips missed the playoffs, where the fourth-seeded Sparks were eliminated in the first round by the Minnesota Lynx. During the offseason, Phillips was traded to the Dallas Wings for Riquna Williams and the sixth overall pick in the 2016 WNBA draft. She was named a co-captain of the new team, which had just relocated and was known as the Tulsa Shock in previous years. Phillips also ended up scoring the first points in Dallas Wings' history. She began the season as a starter before settling into a bench role for much of the rest of the season, averaging only 14.6 minutes per game, the second-lowest of her WNBA career. The Wings finished the season with an 11–23 record and did not make the playoffs. A week before the start of the 2017 season, the Wings waived Phillips. She retired from the WNBA several days later.
WNBA statistics
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2006
| style="text-align:left;"| Connecticut
| 34 || 13 || 18.1 || .393 || .343 || .880 || 2.1 || 2.4 || .9 || .1 || 5.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2008
| style="text-align:left;"| Connecticut
| 8 || 0 || 10.8 || .464 || .500 || .818 || 2.1 || .4 || .5 || .1 || 5.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2009
| style="text-align:left;"| Connecticut
| 32 || 18 || 23.1 || .382 || .293 || .813 || 3.2 || 2.1 || 1.3 || .1 || 8.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2011
| style="text-align:left;"| Indiana
| 31 || 22 || 22.2 || .462 || .426 || .833 || 2.8 || 2.4 || 1.0 || .0 || 8.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"| 2012†
| style="text-align:left;"| Indiana
| 29 || 8 || 21.4 || .390 || .438 || .862 || 2.8 || 2.2 || .8 || .1 || 6.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2013
| style="text-align:left;"| Indiana
| 18 || 6 || 21.3 || .367 || .479 || .750 || 1.1 || 1.6 || .8 || .1 || 5.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"| 2014†
| style="text-align:left;"| Phoenix
| 33 || 10 || 18.7 || .435 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|.449° || .844 || 1.6 || 2.2 || .7 || .0 || 5.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2015
| style="text-align:left;"| Los Angeles
| 12 || 12 || 30.9 || .286 || .267 || .850 || 3.0 || 3.1 || .9 || .2 || 6.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2016
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 32 || 12 || 14.6 || .438 || .383 || .906 || 1.2 || 1.2 || .2 || .1 || 4.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Career
| style="text-align:left;"|9 years, 5 teams
| 229 || 101 || 20.0 || .403 || .381 || .844 || 2.2 || 2.0 || .8 || .1 || 6.3
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2006
| style="text-align:left;"| Connecticut
| 5 || 1 || 20.2 || .455 || .538 || .750 || 1.4 || 1.4 || .8 || .2 || 6.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2008
| style="text-align:left;"| Connecticut
| 3 || 0 || 12.0 || .273 || .500 || – || 2.1 || .7 || .0 || .3 || 3.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2011
| style="text-align:left;"| Indiana
| 6 || 6 || 26.7 || .375 || .000 || .818 || 2.3 || 3.0 || 1.5 || .2 || 6.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"| 2012†
| style="text-align:left;"| Indiana
| 10 || 9 || 30.1 || .475 || .517 || .714 || 2.2 || 1.6 || .6 || .1 || 10.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2013
| style="text-align:left;"| Indiana
| 4 || 0 || 21.8 || .438 || .400 || 1.000 || 1.3 || 1.3 || .8 || .0 || 5.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"| 2014†
| style="text-align:left;"| Phoenix
| 8 || 0 || 15.3 || .323 || .231 || 1.000 || 2.5 || 2.4 || .9 || .1 || 3.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Career
| style="text-align:left;"|6 years, 3 teams
| 36 || 16 || 22.4 || .415 || .405 || .810 || 1.9 || 1.9 || .8 || .1 || 6.4
Other professional leagues
Israeli Ligat ha'Al (2008–09)
Phillips joined Ramat Hasharon in the Israeli Ligat ha'Al following the end of the 2008 WNBA season. This was the first year she did not return to the WNBL in Australia during the offseason. Phillips played only the first half of the season for Ramat Hasharon, averaging 11.6 points, 5.3 assists, and 2.8 rebounds per game in 10 regular season games. In the middle of the season, she injured her right knee during the second quarter of the Israeli Cup final in late December. Although she did not require surgery, Phillips returned to Australia for physical therapy and did not play another game with the team. Ramat Hasharon lost the Israeli Cup final.
Polish PLKK (2009–14): Three-time champion
Phillips began playing in the Polska Liga Koszykówki Kobiet (PLKK) in the 2009–10 WNBA offseason following her last year with the Connecticut Sun. She joined Lotos Gdynia in her first PLKK season, playing nearly the entire year. In 30 games, she averaged 10.9 points, 5.3 rebounds, and 4.3 assists per game, with a three-point field goal percentage of 44.1%. The team won the league championship after finishing second in the regular season. Gdynia also competed in EuroLeague Women, where Phillips was named an All-Star for the Rest of the World team against Europe.
The following offseason, Phillips signed with Wisła Can-Pack Kraków, where she played for the next four seasons. In her first two seasons, she won both the regular season and the league championships. In EuroLeague Women, they were eliminated in the quarterfinals during the 2010–11 season and finished in eighth place during the 2011–12 season. Phillips led the team in scoring in the EuroLeague during her first season in Kraków with 14.9 points per game. She was also named a PLKK All-Star in her first two seasons with Kraków.
Slovak Extraliga (2014–15)
Phillips moved to the Slovak Women's Basketball Extraliga for the 2014–15 season, playing for perennial league champions Good Angels Košice. The team won the league title as part of their stretch of 15 consecutive titles from 2004 through 2018. Phillips played seven games in both the Extraliga and the EuroLeague, averaging 7.4 points, 3.4 rebounds, and 3.4 assists per game in the Extraliga, as well as 10.4 points, 3.3 rebounds, and 3.3 assists per game during the EuroLeague season.
National team
2005–06: Commonwealth and World Championship gold medals
Phillips began training with the Australian women's national basketball team, the Opals, in 2005. She chose to participate in training camps and tours with the national team instead of joining the Connecticut Sun in the WNBA, who had drafted her in May of that year. She played several exhibition tournaments in China in July, and then helped the Opals qualify for the following year's World Championships in August with their victory in the Oceania Qualifying Series against the hosts New Zealand in August. Phillips's first major senior international tournament was the Commonwealth Games in March 2006, which were hosted by Melbourne and were including basketball for the first time. At home in Australia, the Opals won the gold medal in the women's basketball event, defeating New Zealand in the final by a lopsided margin. Phillips played an important role in the semifinal win against England. The following month, the national team hosted the Opals World Challenge in Canberra, where they defeated the United States women's national basketball team, who had not lost a game in seven years, for the first time since 1998.
After the World Challenge event, Phillips decided to forgo training with the Opals that summer to begin her WNBA career. National team coach Jan Stirling was against her decision, saying, "Erin has made a call which will obviously adversely affect her chances for a world championship berth." Nonetheless, Stirling ended up naming Phillips to the national team for the FIBA World Championship for Women in Brazil that September after praising her performance in her first WNBA season. Stirling commented, "Erin's been... playing very, very well. She is definitely a young developing player we've got earmarked for Beijing and to get a worlds under her belt is a bonus when you move the clock forward to [the Olympics]." Australia went undefeated and won the gold medal at the World Championship, their first gold medal at any major international competition. They defeated the hosts Brazil in the semifinals and then Russia in the final after Russia had upset the United States in the semifinals. Phillips had a minor role on the team during the tournament, averaging 2.0 points and 1.1 assists in 7.4 minutes per game.
2008–10: Olympic silver medal in Beijing
Despite being unable to play for the Opals in 2007 due to an ACL injury, Phillips was assured a place on the national team in their preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. She returned to play with the national team in April 2008 and missed the first half of the WNBA season to continue training with them up until and through the Olympics in August. In addition to exhibitions against New Zealand, Russia, and Chinese Taipei, Phillips was with the team for the Good Luck Beijing event, a warm-up tournament to help Beijing prepare their operations. Without their full team, Australia won only two out of six games. The Opals regrouped for the Olympics. They swept their round robin group, winning all five of those games by more than 15 points. They then won both their quarterfinal game against the Czech Republic and their semifinal game against China by more than 30 points. Nonetheless, Australia finished as silver medallists after losing the gold medal match to the United States 92–65 in a lopsided game, their third consecutive runner-up finish to the United States at the Olympics.
After the Connecticut Sun could not trade Phillips for the 2010 WNBA season, she instead trained with the national team, winning exhibition tournaments in Hungary during July and in Spain during September. The 2010 international season culminated with the FIBA World Championship for Women in the Czech Republic. Although Australia's only round robin loss was to the United States, they were defeated in the quarterfinals by the Czech Republic, the tournament hosts. Australia finished in fifth place after winning the 5th-to-8th-place consolation bracket. Phillips had more playing time in the tournament than in the previous World Championship, averaging 4.1 points, 2.7 rebounds, and 1.3 assists in 13.6 minutes per game.
2012–16: Olympic absence and return, World Championship bronze
Although Phillips participated in training camps with the national team in preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, she was not named to the team. The Australian press and the WNBA regarded her omission as a surprise. Nonetheless, Phillips knew she was hurting her chances of making the team by playing the full WNBA season instead of skipping the first half of the year to keep training with the Opals like Lauren Jackson. She decided to play the full season because she thought it was better preparation and she wanted to honour her contract with the Indiana Fever. The Opals won the bronze medal in London, and Phillips ended up winning her first WNBA title.
Phillips returned to the national team as one of 33 players selected to prepare for the 2014 FIBA World Championship for Women in Turkey. She was named to the team for the World Championship, having won the WNBA Finals just 15 days before the Opals' first game in the tournament. Australia swept their round robin group and won their quarterfinal game against Canada. After a 12-point semifinal loss to the United States, the Opals defeated the hosts Turkey for the bronze medal. Unlike her previous two World Championships where she had little playing time off the bench, Phillips established herself in the team's regular starting lineup, leading the team in minutes per game, and was third in scoring and second in assists. Overall, she averaged 8.7 points, 4.0 assists, and 4.0 rebounds in 26.2 minutes per game. In the loss against the United States, she led the team in scoring with a game-high 19 points and made her only three three-pointers of the tournament on six such shots.
The last major international tournament of Phillips's career was the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. Phillips and Laura Hodges were voted co-vice captains by their teammates, while Penny Taylor was voted captain. Despite sweeping their round robin group, Australia were upset in the quarterfinals 73–71 by Serbia in a game where the Opals had 26 turnovers. Phillips had 10 points and 4assists in the loss. Overall, she averaged 4.7 points, 3.2 assists, and 2.0 rebounds in 23.5 minutes per game while playing as a starter. The loss to Serbia ended the Opals' streak of five consecutive Olympics with a medal. Phillips officially retired from competitive basketball in January 2018.
Playing style
Phillips was a guard, and could play both the point guard and shooting guard positions. Her versatility allowed her to play as a combo guard between both of those positions. Phillips's first WNBA coach Mike Thibault compared her to Women's Basketball Hall of Famer Michele Timms, another Australian point guard. He also said she was "one of the best rebounding guards we've had". With her background in the much more physical sport of Australian rules football, Phillips had a physical style of play in basketball as well. Thibault commended her ability to take contact while driving to the basket, comparing her to then-teammate Lindsay Whalen in that regard. Phillips also excelled at taking offensive charges while on defence and was a good perimeter defender.
Phillips was one of the best three-point shooters in the WNBA during her career, ranking top ten in the league in three-point field goal percentage five times in the eight seasons where she played enough to qualify for the rankings. Her best rankings in three-point field goal percentage came in three consecutive years when she finished third in 2012, second in 2013, and first in 2014. Although she did not lead the league in 2013, her 47.9% three-point field goal percentage that year ranks 13th overall in WNBA history as of 2020. Phillips's career three-point field goal percentage of 38.1% ranks 34th all-time as of 2020. Phillips was also an excellent free-throw shooter. Her 84.4% career free throw percentage ranks 33rd all-time in the WNBA as of 2020.
Coaching
Following her release by the Dallas Wings and retirement from the WNBA immediately before the start of the 2017 WNBA season, Phillips was named the Wings' director of player and franchise development a week later. Shortly after the end of the season, Phillips was promoted to assistant coach of the team for 2018, replacing Bridget Pettis. She coached alongside fellow assistant coach Taj McWilliams-Franklin and under head coach Fred Williams, who had been the team's head coach in Phillips's last year as a player in the WNBA as well. She retained her position the following year as the Wings hired new head coach Brian Agler. She had turned down the opportunity to interview for that head coaching vacancy in order to return to Australian rules football in the AFLW during the offseason. Phillips left the coaching staff following the 2019 WNBA season in search of opportunities in Australia.
Australian rules football career
Adelaide Football Club (2017–2022 (S6))
With the AFL planning to launch a national Australian rules football women's competition in 2017, Phillips agreed to become a marquee signing for , her father's club in the SANFL, if they received a licence for the inaugural AFL Women's (AFLW) season. By March 2016, however, Port Adelaide decided not to bid for a licence for 2017 in order to focus on their plan to play the first AFL game in China that same year.
As a result, Phillips instead ended up signing with the Adelaide Football Club as a rookie, a spot reserved for footballers coming from other sports. She had previously stated it was "highly unlikely" that she would join Adelaide if Port Adelaide were not granted a licence. Phillips later reneged, saying, "When the Adelaide Crows contacted me I was just so blown away how professional they were and how committed they were, not only just in getting me to play but how committed they were to the women's game itself." She also commented that she thought "[her] time had passed at playing football" when Port Adelaide did not pursue a licence.
Phillips had not played in a football match since participating in the Little Heroes Slowdown in 2004, a charity match featuring retired AFL and SANFL players as well as celebrities. She was named best on ground in that game. Before she returned to training in 2016, the last time she had played football in a competitive league was 17 years earlier at 13 years old.
2017: Inaugural best and fairest, and AFLW premiership
Phillips was named as a co-captain of Adelaide for the inaugural 2017 AFLW season, along with Chelsea Randall, one of the club's marquee signings. Although Phillips received approval from the Dallas Wings to play in the AFLW during the WNBA offseason, medical insurance on her WNBA contract did not cover any injuries from playing Australian rules football. Despite the possibility of an injury voiding her WNBA contract or the fact that her salary was about ten times higher in the WNBA compared to the AFLW, Phillips decided to play in the league at her own risk.
The 2017 AFLW competition consisted of eight teams playing a home-and-away schedule of seven games, one against each of the other teams. At the end of the season, the top two teams on the ladder would contest the Grand Final. Adelaide had a strong start to the season, winning their first two games with the largest margin of victory in each week. Phillips was awarded best on ground in both games, receiving the maximum three votes that were to be tallied at the end of the season to decide the competition's best and fairest. She led the Crows in goals in the first game of the season with three. Although Adelaide trailed at three-quarter time against in Round3, Phillips led her team to victory with the only goal of the final term, which she kicked from a long distance of 60 metres. Phillips was awarded best on ground for the third and final time during the home-and-away season in Adelaide's Round4 win, leading the Crows with 18 disposals.
Adelaide and the entered their Round5 encounter as the only remaining unbeaten teams in the competition, even though the press had not expected either team to be top two on the ladder. After Adelaide led at three-quarter time, they lost the game after conceding the only goal of the final term. This was the only game of the season that Phillips did not receive any votes as one of the three best players on the ground. She received an additional two votes in both of the last two games of the season. Adelaide lost their next game as well to , who were led by Daisy Pearce. With the loss, the Crows were left with the same number of wins as Melbourne and retained the second position on the ladder only by virtue of their much better points percentage. After Melbourne began the last round with a win, Adelaide needed to win their game against to finish second on the ladder. Although Adelaide trailed by seven points entering the final term, they won the game with the only five goals in the last quarter, the first two from Sarah Perkins who had four in total and the next two from Phillips who kicked three in total.
The inaugural 2017 AFLW Grand Final was a rematch of Adelaide's Round5 loss to Brisbane, who won the right to host the match as minor premiers. Adelaide won by a score of 4.11 (35) to 4.5 (29), never trailing in the match. Phillips won best on ground, having recorded 28 disposals, 7marks, and 7tackles, all personal season-bests and team-highs in the game. She also kicked both of Adelaide's goals in the second half. Phillips ended the year as the third-leading goalkicker in the AFLW with ten goals. At the AFLW Awards, Phillips was named the inaugural AFLW best and fairest, finishing the season with 14 votes, four ahead of the ' Ellie Blackburn and Melbourne's Karen Paxman. Her match-winner from Round3 against Carlton was also named the AFLW Goal of the Year. She was also a finalist for AFLW Mark of the Year for an on-the-shoulders mark that she took against Melbourne, losing the award to Darcy Vescio. Phillips also won the AFLW Players' Most Valuable Player Award and was named to the All-Australian team.
2018: Struggle with injuries
Phillips struggled with a right quad injury through much of the 2018 season. She first injured the quad in the preseason and then aggravated it the day before the start of the season, keeping her out for the first two games. Adelaide lost both of the those games without Phillips, which were against Brisbane and Melbourne. When Phillips returned, Adelaide resumed winning as Phillips starred with four of Adelaide's six goals and two of their five behinds, earning best on ground. However, this was the only game of the year where Phillips earned any votes. After a draw against in heavy rain, Adelaide won their next two games in Round5 and Round6. Phillips's quad injury forced her to miss the second half of the Round5 win. She recovered to kick three goals the following week. Just like in 2017, Adelaide entered their Round7 game against Collingwood needing a win to make the AFLW Grand Final. This time, however, Adelaide squandered a 17-point lead in the second quarter and lost the game after defender Chelsea Randall missed the second half due to a concussion.
2019: Another best and fairest, and second AFLW premiership
With the expansion of the AFLW to 10 teams for the 2019 season, the league was restructured into two conferences. The number of home-and-away games was kept at seven, and the finals system was expanded to include one pair of preliminary finals before the grand final. Adelaide opened the season with a one-point loss to the Western Bulldogs, the reigning premiers, largely as a result of kicking an inaccurate 1.11 (17). Despite the loss, Phillips earned two votes with 18 disposals and two behinds. From the next game on, Phillips and the Adelaide Crows dominated the rest of the season. They did not lose another game, and Phillips received three votes for best on ground in five of the six remaining games. After their 13-point Round2 win against Carlton, Adelaide won each of their last five home-and-away games by at least 29 points. They won the minor premiership after finishing tied with with six wins, but had a markedly better percentage in part due to defeating them by 42 points in Round4 in Fremantle's only loss. Phillips had a season-high 25 disposals as well as two goals in that win against Fremantle. She kicked a season-high three goals one week earlier against .
Adelaide continued their dominance into the finals, winning their preliminary final against Geelong by a season-high margin of 66 points and keeping their opponents scoreless through three-quarter time. They held Geelong to just seven points, the lowest score in AFLW history at the time. Phillips had 23 disposals in the game, trailing only her teammate Ebony Marinoff who had 27. Adelaide faced Carlton in the 2019 AFLW Grand Final. In front of 53,034 fans, a record for a standalone women's sporting event in Australia, Adelaide won convincingly by a score of 10.3 (63) to 2.6 (18). Despite not playing the final quarter after tearing the ACL in her left knee late in the third quarter, Phillips was named AFLW Grand Final best on ground for the second time. She had 18 disposals and kicked two goals before leaving the game. She received a standing ovation when she was taken off the field on a stretcher. At the end of the season, Phillips won her second AFLW best and fairest award. She accumulated 19 out of 21 possible votes from her seven matches, and finished eight votes ahead of Fremantle's Dana Hooker. Like in 2017, she was the third-leading goalkicker in the AFLW, this time behind teammates Stevie-Lee Thompson and Danielle Ponter. Phillips made the All-Australian team for the second time, and was also named captain of the team. She again won the AFLW Players' Most Valuable Player Award.
2020–22: Return from injury and third premiership
For the 2020 season, the league expanded to 14 teams and the season was extended to eight games. An additional round of finals was added, allowing three of the seven teams from each conference and six in total to make the finals. Phillips was not ready to return from her ACL injury until Round4. In her return, Adelaide lost to Carlton in a rematch of the previous year's grand final. Phillips had 13 disposals in the loss. After missing Round5 due to soreness resulting from not playing for 11 months, Phillips played one more game the following week. After Round6, the AFLW cancelled the remainder of the home-and-away season in favour of starting the finals early due to the global COVID-19 pandemic. Even though the finals were also expanded from six to eight teams, Adelaide did not qualify with just two wins in their first six matches. Ultimately, the finals series was cancelled due to the pandemic after only the first round was played.
Before the start of the 2021 season, Phillips relinquished her role as co-captain with Randall, setting up Randall to be appointed sole captain of the team. The league was restructured back to a single ladder in which the top six teams made the finals and the top two teams received byes into the preliminary finals. Adelaide entered the last round third on the ladder behind Brisbane and Collingwood. Although they were never in the top two because of losses to Fremantle and Melbourne, they were able to finish on top of the ladder by defeating Collingwood after Brisbane's loss earlier in the round. Phillips played better in the first half of the season, being named best on ground twice, first in Round 1 against and then in Round 4 against Brisbane. She also earned one vote in each of her team's next two games, including against when Adelaide scored 85 points, the second-highest total in AFLW history at the time. She kicked at least one goal in the first six games of the season, highlighted by four of her team's six goals against Brisbane, tying her career high for goals in a game. In the second half of the season, Phillips struggled with an injury to her left knee that was first aggravated in Round 5 and not publicly disclosed until after the season ended. After Round 6, she did not receive any more votes. Although Phillips scored two goals in Adelaide's preliminary final win against Melbourne, she did not reach ten disposals in either of her finals games, despite tallying at least fourteen in all of her home-and-away games. Adelaide lost the 2021 AFLW Grand Final to Brisbane. Phillips had minor surgery on her left knee a week later. Overall, she was named to her third All-Australian team and finished the season as Adelaide's leading goalkicker for the second time.
Phillips played 11 games in 2022 season 6, and averaged some of the highest playing statistics of her career in tackles, marks and disposals. She predominantly played up forward and rotated through the midfield during the season, kicking a goal in the Crows' 13-point premiership victory over at Adelaide Oval, her third premiership in the league. She finished fourth in the club's best and fairest count.
Port Adelaide Football Club (2022 (S7)–present)
The other South Australian AFL club, , was granted a license to compete in the AFLW in 2022 season 7. Though she reportedly considered retiring from the game, Phillips elected to become Port's first marquee signing ahead of the season, and play for the club her father won eight SANFL premierships with. She was appointed the club's inaugural captain, with Ange Foley her vice-captain.
Style of play
Phillips plays primarily as a midfielder who is also a goal-scoring threat like a forward. She excels at being able to read plays in order to capitalize on opportunities, such as creating set shots for her teammates off of free kicks. Phillips was the all-time AFLW leading goalkicker at the end of 2019, having kicked 28 goals in the league's first three seasons. She is capable of kicking goals in a variety of ways. She can kick from long distances such as her 60-metre AFLW Goal of the Year in 2017, or from sharp angles in the pocket. In addition to scoring goals, Phillips is prolific at score involvements, leading the league in that statistic by wide margins in 2017, 2019, and 2021. Although Phillips is not one of the bigger players in the competition, she is tough and physicaluseful traits for taking marks either in the air or after bodying off defenders to establish positioning. She is not considered one of the faster players in the league due to her relative age compared to other players.
AFLW statistics
Statistics are correct to the end of the 2021 season.
|- style=background:#EAEAEA
| scope=row bgcolor=F0E68C | 2017# || || 13
| 8 || 10 || 8 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 124† || 36 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 160† || 23 || 30 || 1.3 || 1.0 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 15.5† || 4.5 || 20.0 || 2.9 || 3.8 || bgcolor=98FB98 | 14±
|-
| scope=row | 2018 || || 13
| 5 || 7 || 3 || 46 || 14 || 60 || 8 || 11 || 1.4 || 0.6 || 9.2 || 2.8 || 12.0 || 1.6 || 2.2 || 3
|- style=background:#EAEAEA
| scope=row bgcolor=F0E68C | 2019# || || 13
| 9 || 11 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 11† || 129 || 64 || 193 || 31 || 29 || 1.2 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 1.2† || 14.3 || 7.1 || 21.4 || 3.4 || 3.6 || bgcolor=98FB98 | 19±
|-
| scope=row | 2020 || || 13
| 2 || 0 || 1 || 21 || 5 || 26 || 4 || 5 || 0.0 || 0.5 || 10.5 || 2.5 || 13.0 || 2.0 || 2.5 || 0
|- style=background:#EAEAEA
| scope=row | 2021 || || 13
| 11 || 14 || 9 || 128 || 54 || 182 || 50 || 24 || 1.3 || 0.8 || 11.6 || 4.9 || 16.5 || 4.5 || 2.2 || 8
|-
| scope=row | 2022 (S6) || || 13
| 11 || 8 || 9 || 124 || 65 || 189 || 48 || 29 || 0.7 || 0.8 || 11.3 || 5.9 || 17.2 || 4.4 || 2.6 || ?
|- style=background:#EAEAEA
| scope=row | 2022 (S7) || || 1
| 10 || 0 || 6 || 79 || 67 || 146 || 21 || 28 || 0.0 || 0.6 || 11.3 || 6.7 || 14.6 || 2.1 || 2.8 || ?
|- class=sortbottom
! colspan=3 | Career
! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !!
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Personal life
Phillips is married to American former basketball player Tracy Gahan. The two of them met when they became teammates on the Adelaide Lightning in the WNBL in 2006, and became a couple the following year. They married in 2014 in the United States before same-sex marriage was legalised in Australia. They have three children: son and daughter twins born in 2016, and a second son born in 2019. Phillips and Gahan have split their time between living in Texas and Adelaide.
Phillips was one of many female athletes in Australia who advocated for the legalisation of same-sex marriage in the lead-up to the nationwide marriage law postal survey in late 2017. The positive support found in the survey led to its legalisation before the end of that year. While Phillips does not see herself as a leading advocate for LGBT rights, she has presented her marriage openly and wants to be seen as a role model to others in this respect, in particular to young girls and both male and female athletes.
Phillips has also been the co-host of a weekday Adelaide morning radio show with Mark Soderstrom on the Mix 102.3 station. The show is eponymously named Erin Phillips & Soda in the Morning. She began hosting permanently in December 2020 after Jodie Oddy departed from the show. Phillips had previously co-hosted on a temporary basis when Oddy was on maternity leave.
Phillips's sister Amy is married to Australian rules footballer Shaun Burgoyne, who has played for Port Adelaide and . Phillips also played on the same football team as Burgoyne's younger brother Phil when they were children.
Phillips was the Adelaide Lightning's WNBL Ambassador during the 2005–06 season as part of a program to promote the league's athletes as role models. She has also served as a club ambassador for Port Adelaide, and has participated in their Community Youth program to educate primary school students on physical and mental health.
In 2008, "provocative pictures" from a photo shoot of Phillips were published in Alpha magazine. This was during the lead up to the 2008 Olympics, and Phillips was quoted as saying, "We're not going to be team USA's little bitch."
Phillips was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia in the 2021 Queen's Birthday Honours, for "service to Australian rules football, and to basketball".
See also
List of Australian WNBA players
List of Olympic medalists in basketball
List of AFL Women's best and fairest winners
List of AFL Women's premiership captains and coaches
References
External links
1985 births
Living people
Adelaide Football Club (AFLW) players
Port Adelaide Football Club (AFLW) players
Adelaide Lightning players
All-Australians (AFL Women's)
Australian expatriate basketball people in Poland
Australian expatriate basketball people in the United States
Australian expatriate sportspeople in Israel
Australian rules footballers from South Australia
Australian women's basketball players
Basketball players at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
Basketball players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Basketball players at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Basketball players from South Australia
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Australia
Commonwealth Games medallists in basketball
Connecticut Sun draft picks
Connecticut Sun players
Dallas Wings players
Indiana Fever players
Lesbian sportswomen
LGBT basketball players
LGBT players of Australian rules football
Australian LGBT sportspeople
Australian lesbians
Los Angeles Sparks players
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Olympic basketball players for Australia
Olympic medalists in basketball
Olympic silver medalists for Australia
Phoenix Mercury players
Point guards
Shooting guards
Women's National Basketball League players
Recipients of the Medal of the Order of Australia
Medallists at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
Sportswomen from South Australia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepper%20Potts
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Pepper Potts
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Virginia "Pepper" Potts is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writers Stan Lee and Robert Bernstein, and designed by artist Don Heck, the character first appeared in Tales of Suspense #45 (September 1963). Pepper Potts is a supporting character and love interest of the superhero Tony Stark / Iron Man. The character has also been known as Hera and Rescue at various points in her history.
Since her original introduction in comics, the character has been featured in various other Marvel-licensed products, including video games, animated television series, and merchandise. Gwyneth Paltrow portrays Pepper Potts in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) films Iron Man (2008), Iron Man 2 (2010), The Avengers (2012), Iron Man 3 (2013), Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), and Avengers: Endgame (2019). Beth Hoyt voices an alternate version of the character in the animated Disney+ series What If...? (2021).
Development
Concept and creation
Don Heck modeled Pepper Potts as Ann B. Davis’ character of Schultzy from The Bob Cummings Show. She is rendered with brown hair done up in a hairdo similar to Schultzy's. Someone on the creative team or in editorial came to feel that the resemblance was too great, and in Tales of Suspense #50, Potts' look was altered to give her red hair and a different hairdo. Though she was named Pepper Potts from the start, Tony Stark addresses her as "Kitty" in one panel, which is thought to be a typo.
Publication history
Virginia "Pepper" Potts debuted in Tales of Suspense #45 (September 1963), created by writer Stan Lee, writer Robert Bernstein, and artist Don Heck. She appeared in the 2020 Rescue comic book series.
Fictional character biography
Early history
Potts is originally a member of a secretarial pool, and gets her job by fixing an accounting error made by Stark. She is depicted initially as being infatuated with Stark, and rejects the advances of Stark's chauffeur and assistant Happy Hogan, who debuted in the same issue, with acerbic remarks. As Stark's affection for her grows in the ensuing issues, she becomes part of a love triangle between the two men, and eventually falls in love with and marries Hogan, eloping with him in Tales of Suspense #91.
Pepper and Happy eventually leave Stark Industries, settling in the Rocky Mountains and then finally in Cleveland, where they adopt children after being unable to conceive, and disappear from the main Iron Man storyline. After being kidnapped by Stark's rival Obadiah Stane, Pepper tells Tony to stay out of their lives. Pepper and Happy soon divorce after she has an affair with a former college boyfriend. After Tony Stark's return from the Heroes Reborn universe, Pepper and Happy join Tony at his new company, Stark Solutions, and once again become core characters. After some time, Happy and Pepper once again became involved and remarry, eventually considering conceiving a child to supplement their adopted children. Stark entrusts Pepper with a special remote that could shut him down. However, Pepper, tortured by the responsibility, is forced to return it, and the trauma causes her to miscarry. Stark is able to deal with the remote, but feels guilty that he has placed her in such danger.
After Happy sustains massive injuries in a fight with Spymaster during the 2006-2007 "Civil War" storyline, Pepper requests that Tony turn off Happy's life support.
The Order
After the events of the "Civil War" story line, Pepper joins the Fifty State Initiative as a member of The Order, a government sanctioned superhero team operating within California. She assumes the moniker of the Greek goddess Hera, and uses advanced computer-hardware and prosthetics to monitor and coordinate the team's missions. Upon the absorption of The Order into the Initiative, Tony Stark offers her a job on the special-projects team at Stark Enterprises, which she accepts.
2008 – present
Pepper Potts resumes her activities as personal secretary of Tony Stark. When Pepper is caught in a terrorist explosion caused by Ezekiel "Zeke" Stane, she sustains multiple internal injuries, including shrapnel wounds, and rendered unable to withstand a prolonged surgery. In response, Tony embeds a strong magnet (similar in appearance to the arc reactor of the movie) in her chest, essentially turning Pepper into a cyborg dependent on keeping her chest magnet engaged to stay alive, as he was once.
Pepper's body is further enhanced with new cybernetics and upgrades to the magnet, which are based on Danny Rand's battery designs, and which afford Pepper new super abilities.
When Tony is blamed for the Skrull invasion of Earth that occurs in the 2008 storyline "Secret Invasion", S.H.I.E.L.D. is taken over by Norman Osborn, replaced with H.A.M.M.E.R., and Stark and Maria Hill are fired, along with all of S.H.I.E.L.D.'s employees. Tony realizes that Osborn is after the identities of superhumans that registered with the government following the passage of the Superhuman Registration Act that occurred during the "Civil War" storyline, which is stored in a database in his brain. Stark decides to go underground with Hill, and to wipe the knowledge in his own brain. Stark makes Pepper the new CEO of Stark Industries, trusting only her to shut down the company in his absence. Pepper discovers a secret room in Stark's office which contains a suit of armor that he made especially for her, which she uses under the name Rescue. Though Osborn has seized all Stark Industries facilities and equipment, Pepper states that all components of her armor are legal and that the design specifications are available to anyone. Despite Osborn threatening her loved ones with prison if she interferes with his search for Tony or attempts any more heroic actions, after being freed she endeavors to find Tony herself. They are reunited in Russia, and consummate a now-sexual relationship, but are subsequently captured and tortured by Madame Masque, who was assigned by Norman Osborn to track Stark down. Stark admits that he had loved Masque in the past, but when pressed to make a choice, with his own life on the line, Tony chooses Pepper. Pepper decides to engage Masque in a physical altercation in order to provide a distraction for Stark to escape.
During the 2009 "World's Most Wanted Storyline" (which ran concurrently with Marvel's company-wide storyline "Dark Reign"), Pepper, after defeating Masque, disguises herself as Masque, infiltrating H.A.M.M.E.R. while presenting the Rescue armor to Osborn as spoils of battle. Pepper reveals herself when she rescues Black Widow and Maria Hill from Osborn's imprisonment, while the Rescue suit uploads a virus into H.A.M.M.E.R.'s computers, taking control of the Helicarrier's armory of suits. They then retrieve the hard drive that Hill was assigned by Stark to get, escaping to give it to Captain America in order to restore Stark's mind. As part of "re-booting" Tony (in a vegetative state), the magnet in her chest is removed and placed into his.
Though Stark's memories are restored from a somewhat years-old backup, he no longer remembers the events of the "Civil War" nor his role in it, its aftermath or his affair with Pepper. Pepper survives the removal of her chest magnet, but demands that a new one similar to Tony's own chest repulsor be re-installed, which is done. Recovered, Stark also gifts Pepper with a new Rescue armor, complete with JARVIS.
During the 2011 "Stark Resilient" storyline, when Justine Hammer and Sasha Hammer use their own armored enforcer Detroit Steel to attempt to sabotage Stark Resilient (Tony's new company) and its design for a repulsor technology-powered vehicle, Pepper joins War Machine in helping Stark, during which Pepper experiences a near-death experience in which JARVIS, masquerading as Happy, gives Pepper a cryptic warning of the future.
In the 2012 storyline "The Future", Pepper returns to her civilian life following her destruction of J.A.R.V.I.S., the artificial intelligence that helped her control her Rescue armor, after its compromise led it to go rogue and attempt to kidnap her. She became engaged to Marc Kumar, a public relations and marketing consultant, but broke off the relationship after he briefly became a supervillain.
After Tony undergoes a moral inversion following a confrontation with the psychic Red Skull, Pepper attempts to oppose his efforts to release Extremis on a large scale with the aid of an A.I. back-up of Tony's mind he created eight years ago in the event of his mind being attacked in such a manner. Although the A.I. concludes that Tony's mind is irreversibly twisted, and is subsequently destroyed by Tony, Pepper states that she bought one of the largest media companies from under him which she will use to destroy his reputation by broadcasting his plans to the rest of the world. She then proclaims that any attempts he makes to create his 'perfect world' will have to be carried out with people fully aware that he is now nothing but a monster.
As part of the "All-New, All-Different Marvel" brand, Pepper Potts has not been seen in the public life. When Tony Stark (who was no longer inverted) had hired Mary Jane Watson to work for Stark Industries, Peter Parker attempted to recruit Pepper to work for Parker Industries. Pepper declined the offer.
Appearing in her Rescue armor following the "Civil War II" storyline, Pepper Potts confronted Riri Williams and her Tony Stark A.I. in an attempt to tell Riri the problems of being a superhero only for them to be attacked by Techno Golem and her Biohack Ninjas. As Riri flees, Pepper fights against Techno Golem and her Biohack Ninjas as Techno Golem tries to get answers from Pepper on how she knows Riri. When Techno Golem's armor breaks and Tomoe tries to attack Riri, Pepper fires her Rescue armor's gauntlets at Tomoe which knocked her out. Upon Sharon Carter formally meeting Riri upon the arrest of Tomoe and the Biohack Ninjas, Pepper states to Riri that they will talk again as she flies off in her Rescue armor. Pepper Potts was present with Mary Jane Watson, Friday, the Tony Stark A.I., and Tony Stark's biological mother Amanda Armstrong when they are in the Hall of Armor where Riri voices her knowledge of each of the Iron Man armors. When Amanda Armstrong offers to have Riri let Tony Stark's labs be her base of operations, Riri is hesitant as Pepper encourages her.
During the "Secret Empire" storyline, Rescue is among the superheroes that are part of the Underground where she is part of their resistance against Hydra following their takeover of the United States.
In the pages of "Iron Man 2020", Tony Stark came to accept that he is an artificial construct of the real Tony and Pepper Potts is among the people who Tony did not return the calls to. Pepper and Bethany came up with a way to rebuild Tony that involves the DNA samples of his parents. As the A.I. Army's rebellion is happening, Pepper is introduced to an off the grid navigation incorporated in the Rescue armor that Tony previously developed before Y2K called H.A.P.P.Y. (short for Host Analogue Program Pre-Y2K) where its personality is modeled after Happy Hogan. Donning the Rescue armor, Pepper flies to England to seek out Tony's biological mother Amanda Armstrong while recalling that his father Jude is a Hydra agent. After Rescue subdues the automated studio equipment at North Star Studios, Amanda is reluctant to give up a DNA sample as she wants Pepper to move on. Following a fight with Hydra drones and receiving aid from the automated studio equipment, Amanda is injured as she gives Rescue her hair sample. While Amanda doesn't know if what is planned is the right thing, she does believe in Pepper Potts.
Powers and abilities
Stark-tech mag-field generator
The Stark-tech mag-field generator implanted in Pepper's chest was not weapons-based like Stark's, but borrowed non-weaponized electromagnetic technology from Rand Industries, which caused a number of physical changes to her body. It cured her tinnitus, improving her hearing and her other senses. It allows her to sense electromagnetic fields, and manipulate them to levitate her body. It enhances her strength and durability, and allows her to recover more quickly from injuries.
Armor
Potts' Stark-tech armor suit, which is designated Mark 1616, but named Rescue by Potts, represents a hybrid of repulsor technology and portable electromagnetic super-field generators that give the suit flight, speed, strength, and magnetic-field manipulation. Its electromagnetic force fields are powerful enough to enable Rescue to stop a falling jet airliner without physical contact with it, and can also be used as an offensive weapon with other armored opponents. The suit's physical strength enables it to hold up a stilt mansion felled by an earthquake, and to rip the lower leg of the Black armor. The armor also features an artificial intelligence named J.A.R.V.I.S. that acts as a guide for Potts. During the 2012 storyline "The Future", when Potts is using the second version of the Rescue armor, she and Carson Wyche come to suspect that the Mandarin has hacked J.A.R.V.I.S. to spy on her, and when they attempt to troubleshoot the Rescue helmet, J.A.R.V.I.S. takes control of the armor, and takes Potts and Wyche hostage. J.A.R.V.I.S. is disabled by James Rhodes with an electromagnetic pulse from the Black armor. Potts eventually destroys J.A.R.V.I.S. by placing the Rescue helmet inside an MRI scanner, seeming to end her career as Rescue.
Subsequent comics depict Potts wearing new Rescue suits without clearly showing when she started using them. In the series Superior Iron Man, Potts uses a purple and white Rescue armor armed with sonic disruptors. After the Marvel universe was rebooted in the Secret Wars event, this version of the armor did not appear again. The red Rescue armor that Potts wears when she meets Riri Williams in The Invincible Iron Man vol. 4 #3 (2017) is based on the Marvel Legends Rescue action figure released in 2015. The Iron Man 2020 event and its Rescue 2020 spinoff depict Potts using a blue Rescue armor based on the one from the film Avengers: Endgame.
Reception
Critical response
Deirdre Kaye of Scary Mommy called Pepper Potts a "role model" and a "truly heroic" female character. Comic Book Resources ranked Pepper Potts 1st in their "10 Love Interests Of Iron Man" list, and 4th in their "15 Iron Man Armors Ranked Worst To Best (And 5 Who Wore The Armor Better)" list. The A.V. Club ranked Pepper Potts 85th in their "100 Best Marvel Characters" list.
Impact
In the American animated sketch comedy television series Mad, Pepper Potts appears as a parody character and is voiced by Tara Strong, Rachel Ramras, and Meredith Salenger across different episodes.
Other versions
Amalgam Comics
An alternative version of Pepper Potts appears in the Amalgam Universe. DC Comics' Green Lantern and Marvel's Iron Man are combined to create Iron Lantern. Iron Lantern is secretly Hal Stark, owner of Stark Aircraft, a developer of experimental aircraft. One of his test pilots is Pepper Ferris (an amalgamation of Pepper Potts and DC's Carol Ferris). Like both her DC and Marvel counterparts, she is involved in a love triangle, this time with Stark and his chief mechanic Happy Kalmaku (an amalgamation of Marvel's Happy Hogan and DC's Thomas Kalmaku). When Pepper comes in contact with a mysterious alien gem, she is transformed into Madame Sapphire (a combination of Marvel's Madame Masque and DC's Star Sapphire). Pepper Ferris first appeared in Iron Lantern #1 (April 1997), published jointly by Marvel and DC.
Heroes Reborn
An alternative version of Pepper Potts appears in the "Heroes Reborn" storyline. She and Iron Man are lovers, although she can also be seen in a relationship with Happy Hogan. Stark is forced to leave her unexpectedly and without explanation, as his very presence in the universe will endanger her life and the lives of everyone else.
Marvel Zombies
An alternative version of Pepper Potts appears in the Marvel Zombies Universe. She submits her resignation to Tony Stark, who at this point is a near-useless drunk. However, when the zombie Hank Pym / Giant Man initiates an outbreak at Stark International, Pepper Potts and Happy Hogan are among the zombified casualties. She is killed by Tony Stark when he vomits a nanite-ridden formula upon her, which dissolves Pepper Potts into a skeleton.
Ultimate Marvel
An alternative version of Pepper Potts appears in the Ultimate Universe. She and Happy Hogan, with whom she appears to be in a relationship, can be seen monitoring Tony Stark using the Iron Man armor.
The Invincible Iron Man
The Invincible Iron Man #500 shows a flashforward 40 years ahead. Her (and Tony's) son Howard Anthony Stark and granddaughter Virginia "Ginny" Stark are in an apocalyptic future where the Mandarin has conquered the world. An aged version of Tony Stark defeats the long-time foe with the help of Howard and Ginny Stark but Howard and Tony Stark sacrifice themselves in the process. At the story's close, Ginny Stark buries the two next to Pepper Potts' gravestone.
In other media
Television
Pepper Potts appears in the "Iron Man" segments of The Marvel Super Heroes, voiced by Margaret Griffin.
Pepper Potts appears in Iron Man: Armored Adventures, voiced by Anna Cummer. This version is a teenager whose full name is Patricia "Pepper" Potts and is initially unaware of Iron Man's secret identity until she learns it after he saves her life. Later in the series, she eventually learns to use Iron Man's stealth armor, is given her own armor, and becomes Rescue.
Pepper Potts appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes, voiced by Dawn Olivieri.
Pepper Potts appears in Marvel Anime: Iron Man, voiced by Hiroe Oka in the Japanese dub and by Cindy Robinson in the English dub.
Pepper Potts appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes: Maximum Overload, voiced by Grey DeLisle.
Pepper Potts appears in Marvel Disk Wars: The Avengers, voiced by Fumie Mizusawa in the Japanese dub and Ali Hillis in the English dub.
Pepper Potts appears in Lego Marvel Avengers: Time Twisted, voiced by Elyse Maloway.
Film
Pepper Potts appears in The Invincible Iron Man, voiced by Elisa Gabrielli.
Pepper Potts appears in Iron Man: Rise of Technovore, voiced by Hiroe Oka in the Japanese version and Kate Higgins in the English dub.
Marvel Cinematic Universe
Pepper Potts appears in media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, portrayed by Gwyneth Paltrow. Introduced in the live-action film Iron Man (2008), this version is Tony Stark's personal assistant and friend who later becomes one of the first people to learn of his work as Iron Man and helps him defeat Obadiah Stane.
In Iron Man 2, Pepper Potts is named the new CEO of Stark Industries and meets her replacement "Natalie Rushman," who she initially distrusts. She also joins Happy Hogan in rescuing Stark from Ivan Vanko and has Justin Hammer arrested for attacking the Stark Expo.
Potts makes a minor appearance in The Avengers, in which she contributes to the construction of Stark Tower before they convert it into Avengers Tower.
In Iron Man 3, Pepper Potts is kidnapped by Aldrich Killian, who takes her hostage and injects her with the Extremis as part of his scheme to get revenge on Stark. She later uses her Extremis powers to kill Killian before Stark funds a surgery to cure her of Extremis.
Pepper Potts makes a cameo appearance in Spider-Man: Homecoming, in which she and Stark get engaged.
Pepper Potts makes a minor appearance in Avengers: Infinity War, in which she and Stark discuss having children before he is taken by Stephen Strange and Bruce Banner to save the universe from Thanos.
In Avengers: Endgame, Pepper Potts is reunited with Stark. Over the course of the following five years, they go on to get married, have a daughter named Morgan, and live at a lakeside cabin until Stark is recruited by the Avengers to undo the Blip. Potts later joins the Avengers in fighting an alternate timeline version of Thanos and his army before Stark sacrifices himself to defeat them. Potts, Morgan, the Avengers, and their allies subsequently hold a funeral for him.
An alternate timeline incarnation of Pepper Potts appears in the animated Disney+ series What If...?, voiced by Beth Hoyt. In the episode "What If... Killmonger Rescued Tony Stark?," Potts suspects Stark Industries' new COO, Erik "Killmonger" Stevens, of killing James Rhodes and Stark before she is approached by Princess Shuri of Wakanda, who offers an alliance to expose Killmonger. In the episode "What If... the Watcher Broke His Oath?," Potts, Shuri, and the Dora Milaje storm Killmonger's throne room, only to find him gone as he had been recruited by the Watcher to save the multiverse.
Video games
Pepper Potts appears in the Iron Man film tie-in game, voiced by Meredith Monroe.
Pepper Potts appears in the Iron Man 2 film tie-in game, voiced again by Meredith Monroe.
Pepper Potts appears in Marvel Pinball, voiced by Tara Platt.
Rescue makes a cameo appearance in Strider Hiryu's ending in Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3.
Rescue appears as a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online, voiced by Laura Bailey.
Rescue appears as a playable character in Marvel: Avengers Alliance.
Pepper Potts appears as a non-playable character in Marvel Heroes, voiced by Brett Walter.
Pepper Potts / Rescue appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes, voiced again by Laura Bailey.
Pepper Potts / Rescue appears in Lego Marvel's Avengers, voiced by Eliza Schneider.
Pepper Potts appears in Marvel Avengers Academy. This version is initially depicted as Nick Fury's assistant. On March 20, 2016, Potts as Rescue was made obtainable for a limited time.
Pepper Potts / Rescue appears as a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest.
Pepper Potts / Rescue appears as a playable character in Marvel Strike Force.
Rescue appears as a playable character in Marvel: Future Fight.
Pepper Potts / Rescue appears in Iron Man VR, voiced by Jennifer Hale. This version is Tony Stark's former assistant who was recently promoted to CEO of Stark Industries.
Pepper Potts / Rescue appears in the digital collectible card game Marvel Snap.
Miscellaneous
Pepper Potts appears in the a touring live action arena show Marvel Universe Live!.
In 2019, Hot Toys released a Pepper Potts / Rescue action figure inspired by the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) incarnation of the character.
References
External links
Pepper Potts at Marvel.com
Fictional secretaries
Fictional business executives
Fictional female businesspeople
Iron Man characters
Comics characters introduced in 1963
Characters created by Stan Lee
Characters created by Don Heck
Marvel Comics businesspeople
Marvel Comics female superheroes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesellschaft%20zur%20Verfolgung%20von%20Urheberrechtsverletzungen%20e.V.
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Gesellschaft zur Verfolgung von Urheberrechtsverletzungen e.V.
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The Gesellschaft zur Verfolgung von Urheberrechtsverletzungen e.V. (GVU, Society for the Prosecution of Copyright Infringement) is a registered association under German law. According to its own description it works for the video game industry and film industry and helps to protect intellectual property and to counter the illegal distribution of copied materials. For this purpose, the association cooperates with the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA).
The GVU was founded in the spring of 1984 and entered the register of associations in February 1985 for the first time. The headquarters were located first in Hamburg, since 2008 they have been in Berlin-Mitte. The GVU became known to a wider public by participating in campaigns such as "pirates are criminals“ and investigations in the Kino.to case.
History
Early Years
Against the backdrop of a rapidly increasing demand for movies on VHS and an increase in "piracy" at the same time, film industry representatives agreed in early 1984 to set up a separate company to combat illegal distribution of copyrighted material. The decision was primarily driven by the motivation of the industry, to detach from the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). The longtime chairman of the Bundesverband Audiovisuelle Medien (BVV, Federal Association of Audiovisual Media) and Managing Director of the German subsidiary of Twentieth Century Fox Home Entertainment, Bodo Schwartz, was key in the establishment of GVU.
The establishment of the GVU as a legally registered association was formally announced in the autumn of 1984 at the HiFi trade fair in Düsseldorf. The first constitution was adopted on December 17, 1984. It first entered the register of the city of Hamburg on February 27, 1985, finalising the establishment of the association on that day. Next to Bodo Schwartz, Paul Miller of the Cinema International Corporation (CIC) and Manfred Goller of the Verband der Filmverleiher (VDF, Association of Film Distributors) were members of the founding board.
Software Era
After exclusive funding of the GVU by the movie industry in its initial years, the organisations range of tasks expanded in 1997 to include computer games. On the one hand this was due to the parallels between illegal copies of films and games - both in the production and distribution - and on the other hand, the simpler distribution of unauthorized material over the emerging Internet. Sony Computer Entertainment’s membership of the GVU in 1997 initiated the membership of the entire Entertainment Software Association in the GVU in the following year.
In 2000, Microsoft entered the GVU as the first member of the software industry, which represented a significant milestone for the work of the GVU and directed the attention of the general public to the association. Simultaneously, this resulted in an expansion of the range of GVU’s tasks. As early as in 2001, the GVU took over the administration of the organization SAFE, which is responsible for the fight against copyright infringement in Switzerland. At the same time, cooperation intensified with the Austrian Verein für Anti-Piraterie (VAP, Association for Anti-Piracy) in the film and video industry, so the entire German-speaking area was fully covered.
Management
The statutes of the GVU provides that the board consists of a chairman and at least three others. The GVU is represented jointly by at least two board members. Currently (as of November 2012) the committee includes Vincent de La Tour (Chairman), Dr. Holger Ensslin, Violetta Psofiou, Ralph Tübben, Alexander Skipis and Dr. Bernd Fakesch. According to the Commercial Register there are committees for finance, legal and technology. Next to the executive board the association has a full-time executive director who is responsible for the daily operations and reports to the Board. Dr. Matthias Leonardy currently holds this position, who previously worked as a general counsel for the German eBay Group.
Work and structure of the GVU was mainly characterized by Bodo Schwartz, who was on the executive board for over 20 years and led it as Chairman for a long time. He also represented the GVU to media and shaped the image of the association in the public, including through various interviews. Schwartz retired from his position of CEO of Twentieth Century Fox in 2002, and retired from the GVU in October 2006. His retirement speech in late January 2007 was held by Sabine Leutheusser-Schnarrenberger.
Members
In 2011, a total of about 50 companies and organizations were represented as a member of the GVU. In the field of film this includes virtually all major Hollywood studios, such as Sony Pictures, Twentieth Century Fox, Paramount Pictures, Warner Bros. and Walt Disney Studios. Members from the gaming industry include Ubisoft, Microsoft, Activision, Konami and Koch Media as well as respective affiliates of the major film studios. In addition, in its Annual Report 2011, the service providers arvato, Cinram, OpSec and Rovi got quoted as members.
A special role is played by the membership of numerous professional organizations, in which the interests and positions of certain industries are bundled. So for example currently the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI, Federal Association of Music Industry), the Bundesverband Informationswirtschaft, Telekommunikation und neue Medien (BITKOM, German Association for Information Technology, Telecommunications and New Media) and the Bundesverband Interaktive Unterhaltungssoftware (BIU, Federal Association of Interactive Entertainment Software) belong to the GVU. The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), one of the foremost organizations against copyright infringement in the English speaking world, is a full member too.
Overall, in 2011, nine organizations, 21 films- and 15 games providers and five other companies supported the GVU. Over the last five years the number of members has remained largely constant. However, as a result of the economic and financial crisis, the association lost some companies from the movie industry. The most prominent example in this case is the production and distribution company Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, which in 2007 was still listed as a member of the GVU, but no longer in the following year. MGM went into administration in 2010 and withdrew from other industry associations.
Since 2007, the GVU has published annually a list of its members. Organizations and companies indirectly involved in the GVU through third-party associations are not explicitly listed in it.
Activities
The activities of the Association focuses on preventing economic losses of its members, resulting from unauthorized copying and its dissemination. The GVU estimated the loss at several hundred million euros annually. In addition to those defined in the constitution, the association based its efforts primarily on copyright law.
Investigations
The association applies a large part of its resources to the actual detection of copyright infringements. The action is driven by the view that government agencies alone cannot monitor the entire market for unlicensed content, which is why the GVU tries to fill this gap. The employees of the GVU, including former police officers and commissioners, systematically scour the relevant sources of illegal copies, especially on the Internet. Unlike other organizations, by its own admission the GVU does not primarily aim at end-consumers, rather, it targets mainly the "big fishes". Besides those people who for example record a movie at the cinema or make copies from a computer game, these increasingly include the operators of so-called Trackers.
The GVU mainly focuses on large, internationally active release groups where copyrighted products are reproduced and distributed systematically, especially for profit. In its work, the association - if possible - accesses to public registers, for example, to reveal the real people behind a shell company. Due of their private-sector activity, the GVU may not identify IP addresses directly. Instead the association directs this as evidence to the relevant authorities. This is usually done as part of criminal procedure, which then leads to public prosecutorial investigations. Unless a criminal procedure is actually opened, an employee of the association often act as an expert witness. Not every complaint will automatically lead to a successful prosecution, for example the GVU had to make a total of three applications in the case of Kino.to.
As far as it is known to date, the GVU does not claim damages from warez users according to civil law. Instead the association allows its members the freedom to make possible claims for losses incurred. However, the association engages in strongly communicating its legal opinion in individual cases. Particularly in cases related to so-called illegal streaming of copied content, many legal assessments and opinions remain debatable.
Public Relations
In addition to its investigative activities the GVU does intensive public relations, which aims to raise awareness of copyright infringement. In the years 2009 to 2011 members of the association participated in nearly 100 events and reached about 2.000 participants through their speeches. In addition, since the late 80s the GVU has offered seminars for police officers and prosecutors, where they can learn about the consequences of "piracy" as well as the activities of the association.
In 1990, the GVU launched a prevention program on the topic of holography, a technology making it easier for retailers and consumers to identify unauthorized copied media. In addition, the association was known to a wider audience through the campaign "Pirates are criminals". This was produced by a subsidiary of the Central Association of German Film Theatres, where the GVU sits on the advisory board. During the World Cup 2006 an action of the umbrella organization MPAA was supported by Pelé.
Since 2008, the GVU has performed annually the so-called ROOF-industry forum together with VAP and SAFE, which recently took place in the Kalkscheune venue in Berlin. At the event, lawyers, representatives of the games and movie industries are brought together with trade associations and other stakeholders under the slogan "prevention and education". In 2011, the study of digital content usage (short DCN study) received large attention, since it was the first to cover the specific uses of legal and illegal online content. The study was prepared by the GVU and the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (Federal Association of Music Industry) as well as the Börsenverein des Deutschen Buchhandels (Association of German Book Trade).
Political Influence
Beside the main activities, GVU also gives advice to politicians and represents its interests there. For example, the association - as well as others around the globe - requested a "piracy" warning. This should be presented to an Internet user as soon as it first wants to call a pirated copy, but this remains controversial in Germany. In the course of this particular position, the GVU criticized the Federal Ministry of Justice. Furthermore, the association has complained for years that in case of copyright infringement there is a right of access to Internet service providers, but this would fail due to the lack of storage of communication data ("web problem").
The GVU also calls to execute the missing third basket of the reform of copyright law at last. Likewise, the trend towards trivialisation of copyright infringement by individual politicians criticized repeatedly, most recently in an article by Frank-Walter Steinmeier and Paul van Dyk in TIME.
Proceedings
The investigations conducted by the association were influenced by technological progress over the years: After the beginning of the 80s the fight against pirated VHS tapes were in the spotlight, many prosecutions in the 90s and the following years related to the distribution of movies and games via peer-to-peer networks. Since 2010 streaming has taken an increasingly larger space.
The number of cases opened in the years 2007 to 2011 fell from 576 to 204. The decrease is mainly due to the fact that since 2008 many prosecutors have focused on those investigations in which more than 200 copies of a work were produced. The GVU in its own words has adopted this trend and focuses its investigative activities increasingly on major cases.
In addition to the operations that stern directly from GVU investigations, the association supports those proceedings initiated by the relevant legal authorities. In addition, each year several proceedings are officially reported, which were initiated jointly by law enforcement agencies and the GVU. About a quarter of all cases result in a verdict or penalty order.
Significant Cases
In recent years, the GVU has uncovered many release groups and other networks, some of which stand out because of their size or importance. Especially if in the course of the investigation a house search takes place, the respective cases and the activities of the association experienced increased media attention. Mentioned in the annual reports of the GVU important procedures include the following:
In September 2007, 50 properties were searched simultaneously in Germany, the Netherlands, France and Belgium. The aim of the objective, which was launched by the GVU project "autumn storms", was primarily to obtain evidence. According to media reports, a total of 60 computers and 15 hard drives were seized. The GVU itself evaluates the action a success, for example by Keinohrhasen was no unauthorized copy in circulation until 2007.
Also in the same year a person could be found who was responsible for the spread of so-called first seeding the first illegal version of Spider-Man 3. The person was also senior member of a release group that was responsible for numerous other software "piracy".
In March 2008, a request by the MPAA umbrella organization caused that the GVU has started investigations against the operator of an internet portal, that offered primarily latest films like Rush Hour 3. In the course of the proceedings it became clear that behind the offer stood a broad network, which had connections to the U.S. and Australia. Following a criminal complaint of the GVU the Frankfurt Criminal Police confiscated ten servers of the group, which were hosted there in one datacenter.
Earlier this year, the GVU acted against a Payserver-ring that gave users access to pirated copies for a fee. In this case 13 terabytes of data were provided for a total of more than 10,000 registered users. In addition the association led a criminal conduct against operators of so-called trackers in BitTorrent network.
In the spring of 2009 this led to another spectacular lawsuit: After raids in Lüneburg, Wolfenbüttel and Braunschweig three men were arrested, who ran a tracker with 24,500 copied movies, TV shows, games, audiobooks, eBooks, music and software. This was characterized particularly by the fact that every user had to pay a fee to access the tracker. In addition, extensive instructions were provided to make the access to pirate copies simply as possible for less experienced people too.
The annual report also points to another important event: In 2005, the Swiss organization SAFE had received a notice of information about a large Payserver ring. Since the physical location was in Germany, the persecution was handed over to the local association. The GVU set a criminal complaint against the head of the server in 2009.
In March 2010, the GVU presented a criminal complaint, which was directed against a projectionist from North Rhine-Westphalia. The projectionist was one of the most active Cinegroups and procured high-quality pirated audio material for the production of pirated copies. The investigations of the association revealed that they were identical to the original material even to the audio watermarking. The group ended their activities completely after the arrest of the projectionist.
Another complaint in the same year was directed against the streaming hosting clickandload on which more than 20 terabytes of pirated copies were provided. According to the GVU-investigation the platform was organized as far-flung release group and, in particular, those who provided an illegally copy, shared revenue from advertising on the site. During the police investigation the portal was completely shut down. Against the relevant uploader clickandload also proceedings were initiated.
In the following years, the association wants especially to tackle the financing of "piracy". The aim of the operation is to prevent professional service of ad-funded websites with pirated works.
Platform Kino.to
The most important proceeding of the GVU in the last decade was against Kino.to. In June 2011 Kino.to was one of the 50 most visited sites in Germany and was thus well known to the general public. According to the film industry over 96 per cent of visitors were located in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. At Kino.to it was possible to view tens of thousands of videos via so-called Streams, including numerous high-quality movies and TV series.
Since Kino.to has become available in March 2008, the GVU was determined to go against its backers. According to the GVU, the process was difficult, as those behind Kino.to had specifically concealed their identities. For example, the top-level domain .to was chosen, as the responsible authority in Tonga does not releases any information about the respective owners of domains. Only when the third formal complaint by the Association was reported to the authorities in Dresden on April 28, 2011, the desired outcome was achieved: In early June, in raids across several European countries, several persons were arrested who were directly involved in Kino.to - including the owner Dirk B.
Mainly responsible for the success was the Integrierte Ermittlungseinheit Sachsen (INES, Integrated Detection Unit Saxony). During the course of process Kino.to was shut down on the suspicion of the backers forming a criminal organization and copyright infringement on an industrial scale. A message relating to the criminal investigation is now found at Kino.to. What is seen in the film industry as a major success fuelled huge criticisms by the majority of Kino.to users.
As a direct result of the closure of Kino.to, Anonymous started an attack on the Web server of the GVU, which finally led to an overload and failure of the website. In addition under the name KinoX.to a portal got created which is a direct descendant of Kino.to. The GVU has now also initiated an investigation into this portal. In addition, the association and authorities are investigating the advertising and marketing of Kino.to and KinoX.to.
Malware
A Trojan, which had been discovered for the first time on 20 March 2012, used the logo of GVU without permission of the Association. It targets and infects PCs running Microsoft Windows XP or later versions and claims to have locked the PC on behalf of the GVU, as pirated content had been detected on it. In fact not a single file on the hard disk is checked; however the user is prompted to pay a fee in order to regain access to the computer. Usually, the requested amount is between 50 and 100 euros and is to be paid via paysafecard or (now defunct) Ukash.
Meanwhile, numerous variants of the GVU Trojan are circulating purporting to be a program of the Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI, Federal Office for Information Security) or the Gesellschaft für musikalische Aufführungs- und mechanische Vervielfältigungsrechte (GEMA, Society for musical performing and mechanical reproduction rights). Due to the widespread use of the Trojan, in August 2012 the GVU released its first statement regarding the malware, aimed in particular at the malware authors. It was speculated that the Trojan was written by operators of illegal streaming portals in order to open up new financial sources. The page KinoX.to which strongly resembles Kino.to was used for the mass dissemination of new variants of the malware according to GVU.
Criticism
In January 2006 the GVU was itself under investigation. The state prosecution of Ellwangen accused the association of having promoted the illegal distribution of copyrighted material. As the accusation details the association had allegedly had financial dealings with an administrator of the so-called IOH server, over which numerous release groups had collected and distributed copied content. In addition, the association got accused of directly providing hardware for the operation of the server.
During the course of the investigation the business premises of the GVU in Hamburg, as well as the home of a senior employee, were searched. The GVU has officially confirmed the raid and, according to the authorities, made available all of the information. Due to the particular urgency of the case, the action gained widespread media attention. However, suspicions against the association have not been confirmed. The investigation has since halted.
Also, during another investigation, the role of the GVU was criticised: The Kiel District Court said that during the course of proceedings against a suspected software pirates, it is essential to ensure the independence of police investigative work. Specifically, there were complaints that an employee of the GVU had worked as an expert in the process and at the same time had a free hand in the analysis of seized computers. The requirement of impartiality, not only for judges but also for prosecutors and the police had, in their opinion, not been fully safeguarded. Investigating authorities were prohibited to privatize their work.
Also, the strategy of the GVU in luring software pirates through a so-called honey pot trap has remained a subject of criticism. For example, during the course a raid in autumn 2007 suspicions were raised that the GVU and other organizations had installed open FTP servers on network, intended for the use by release groups, thus enabling the determination release group members based on their IP address. According to the unanimous opinion of experts, this approach is, at least legally, unobjectionable.
Individual media outlets have criticised the GVU’s close proximity to lawyers, prosecutors, police and internet service providers, although naturally these kind of co-operations are part of the work of any interest group. The Association’s close cooperation with various other organizations is repeatedly criticized, especially during its annual Industry Forum.
In August 2010, the GVU was suspected of having caused the unjustified removal of several posts on the video platform Vimeo, which had been published under a Creative Commons license and are therefore available to all. Among other contents, "You are a terrorist" and "Electric Reporter" were affected. During the course of the investigation into the case it was revealed that the removal of the content was not initiated by the association, but by the company OpSec Security, based in Munich. The authors Alexander Lehmann and Mario Sixtus were able to obtain an injunction against the company and the GVU has since explicitly distanced itself from the company. According to the GVU, OpSec Security had at no point been contracted to clear videos from Vimeo in its name.
References
External links
DACH Content Protection (Englisch / German)
Corporate Website of the GVU (in German)
Official Blog of the GVU (in German)
Arts and media trade groups
Communications and media organisations based in Germany
Copyright law organizations
Entertainment organizations
1984 establishments in Germany
Organizations established in 1984
Non-profit organisations based in Berlin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan%20Gunn
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Bryan Gunn
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Bryan James Gunn (born 22 December 1963) is a Scottish former professional goalkeeper and football manager. After learning his trade with Aberdeen in the early 1980s, he spent most of his playing career at Norwich City, the club with which he came to be most closely associated. This was followed by a brief spell back in Scotland with Hibernian before his retirement as a player in 1998.
Gunn feels the peak of his playing career was making what he calls the save of his life in the UEFA Cup match against Bayern Munich in 1993. This event was called the summit of Norwich City's history by The Independent. He is one of only nine Norwich players to win the club's Player of the Year award twice. He was made an inaugural member of Norwich City's Hall of Fame. He was a member of the Scotland national football team, making six appearances for his country in the early 1990s.
Gunn worked for years behind the scenes at Norwich in a variety of roles, from matchday hosting to coaching. He was appointed temporary manager towards the end of the 2008–09 season and then confirmed as permanent manager during the summer. However, after a 7–1 home defeat in the opening game to local rivals Colchester United, he lost his job a week into the 2009–10 Football League One season.
Since the death of his young daughter from leukaemia in 1992, Gunn has been extensively involved in fundraising to combat the disease and its effects. As of 2011 he has raised more than £1 million for research into childhood leukaemia. The money has been used to fund projects to improve the lives of children with leukaemia and their families, notably a national telephone support line. The city of Norwich recognised Gunn's charity work and his long association with the city's football club by naming him Sheriff for 2002. Published in 2006, his autobiography, In Where it Hurts: My Autobiography, includes a foreword by his former manager Alex Ferguson.
Early life
Gunn was born on 22 December 1963 in Thurso, Scotland, "twenty miles from John o'Groats". His parents were James Gunn, a long-distance lorry driver, and Jessie Sinclair, a canteen worker at the Dounreay nuclear power plant; the pair had married despite being on opposite sides of a family feud stretching back to the 16th century. James was an amateur sportsman, playing football on the right wing for local team Invergordon F.C. and winning medals at Highland games events.
The Gunn family home in Thurso was a farm, and the young Bryan would often pester the farmhands to play football with him. They would use a turnip if no ball was available. By the age of four he was keen on goalkeeping; he was fearless of injury and enjoyed diving on the ball. When Bryan was four-and-a-half, the family moved to Invergordon, 20 miles from Inverness. He attended Park Primary School in the town and joined the school football team. Future professional Bobby Geddes was favoured over him as first-choice goalkeeper for the team; Gunn played as an outfield player until Geddes moved on to secondary school.
Gunn attended secondary school at Invergordon Academy from 1975 to 1980, and gained O Grades in a variety of subjects, including English, maths, history and chemistry. He failed his French exam after taking it while "on the road" with Scotland under-15s. At the age of 13, he was invited to play for the under-15 Invergordon F.C. team by one of his school teachers, who managed the team. The team was beaten 9–0 in Gunn's debut, but his subsequent performances attracted the attention of national selectors, and he joined the Scotland under-15 squad around the same time he signed for Aberdeen at age 14.
Club career
Aberdeen
Gunn commenced his professional career with Aberdeen in 1980, (signing a week prior to Eric Black who came from the same part of the country) and forged a good relationship with then-Aberdeen manager Alex Ferguson—evidenced by the fact that in 1997 Ferguson brought Manchester United to Carrow Road for Gunn's testimonial match. While an apprentice at Aberdeen, Gunn was a frequent babysitter for Ferguson's children. He later said, "I probably babysat more than I played". Gunn portrays the relationship as warm, but businesslike:
As a youngster, Gunn did not always play in goal and he was viewed as a handy outfield player in his early years at Aberdeen. Ferguson recalls, "He could strike a ball as well as anyone, so well in fact that I once played him at centre-forward in a reserve match ... He scored a brilliant goal ... It was a marvellous moment." However, as a professional, and at his adult height of , Gunn settled into playing in goal.
Gunn ascribes much of his goalkeeping success to the support of Belgian Marc De Clerck, a specialist goalkeeping coach at Aberdeen. At a time when few British teams provided such training, De Clerck introduced Gunn and Scottish international keeper Jim Leighton to what were then innovative training techniques. The goalkeepers would participate in special drills whilst training with the rest of the squad. Gunn also notes the influence of Aberdeen coach Teddy Scott, who taught the value of hard work and dedication; Gunn also served as a boot boy for Alex McLeish. Leighton's presence meant that Gunn played only 21 games for Aberdeen. He made his debut against Hibernian at Pittodrie on 30 October 1982, and went on to keep four clean sheets for the club. Despite being rivals for a first-team place, Gunn had an excellent relationship with Leighton that included joining Leighton's family for a meal once a week.
Gunn's training and performances for the reserve team and occasional first-team appearances paid dividends: he was called up for the Scotland under-21 team, and made his debut in November 1983 against East Germany. He also received Scottish League Cup and European Cup Winners Cup winner's medals while with Aberdeen, although he was an unused substitute in both finals. He made an unexpected appearance in the 1986 European Cup quarter final, against Gothenburg. "Jim and I were warming up and he lost [his] contact lenses [so] I ended up being included in the starting line up," Gunn recalls. Gunn had an excellent match: The Glasgow Heralds match report stated, "Only outstanding work by Willie Miller and Bryan Gunn kept the Swedes at bay". As well as making several key saves, he was credited with playing a part in Aberdeen's second goal following a long kick upfield.
As Leighton was unlikely to be dislodged, Ferguson promised to find Gunn another club, and fulfilled his pledge when he sold him for £100,000 to Norwich City in October 1986. The transfer nearly went through in the summer of 1986, but Ferguson delayed the move until October to allow time for Leighton to recover from an injury.
Norwich City
Gunn says of the move south: "Norwich was easy to settle into, a bit like Aberdeen in many ways—a city surrounded by lovely countryside and lots of farms." However, since he joined the club partway into the new season, he initially found it difficult to take over as first-choice goalkeeper. Gunn had been bought as a replacement for England international goalkeeper Chris Woods, who had moved to Rangers F.C. Meanwhile, reserve team keeper Graham Benstead made a series of good performances and Norwich were top of the league. Ken Brown wanted to be fair to Benstead and made Gunn wait. A 6–2 defeat at Anfield proved to be the catalyst for Gunn's promotion to the first team. He made his debut in a Full Members Cup win against Coventry City, conceding a penalty, and made his league debut in a 2–1 victory against Tottenham Hotspur at Carrow Road on 8 November 1986.
Norwich went on to finish fifth in the First Division in his first season, their highest-ever league finish at the time. By May 1988 Gunn's consistency meant his value had risen considerably, and the club reportedly declined a £500,000 offer from Ian Porterfield to take the goalkeeper back to Aberdeen. The purpose of the proposed transfer was to replace Leighton, who by then had moved to Manchester United, where he was reunited with Alex Ferguson.
Norwich reached the semi-final of the FA Cup in 1989 with Gunn in goal, but he missed the semi-final in 1992 through injury. What has been described as his—and Norwich's—greatest moment came in their upset victory over European giants Bayern Munich in the UEFA Cup in 1993. The Independent described the match as "the pinnacle of Norwich City's history". Gunn made several saves that kept the Canaries in the match. He describes the save he made from Bayern striker Adolfo Valencia as the finest of his career; it has also been described as "one of the most outstanding saves by a City goalkeeper". However, he was involved in an own-goal incident in an East Anglian derby match in the 1995–96 season, when a backpass from Robert Ullathorne bounced awkwardly off the pitch and over Gunn's attempted clearance kick.
In November 1989, Gunn was involved in a controversial incident that attracted significant media attention. Norwich played Arsenal at Highbury and with five minutes remaining, Arsenal's David O'Leary scored an equaliser that brought the scores to 3–3. Then, in the dying seconds of the match, the referee awarded Arsenal a penalty kick—and the chance to seal the match. The Norwich players were already annoyed by the match situation, and their perception was that the decision was "really dodgy". Gunn saved Lee Dixon's shot, but the ball was not cleared. In the resulting melee, Mark Bowen and Ian Culverhouse for Norwich and Alan Smith for Arsenal challenged for the ball. "The three of them got in an almighty tangle and the ball, along with all of them, was bundled over the line," Gunn remembers. The goal was awarded, but the situation rapidly deteriorated: the three players in the goal had "a little skirmish". Separately, Arsenal's Nigel Winterburn gave "a gloat to Dale Gordon, who promptly pushed him". The result was mayhem:
All of a sudden it was kicking off, big time. Everyone started piling in, right in front of me... The only people not involved were [Arsenal players] John Lukic, Tony Adams, David O'Leary and me... I went over to break things up... and spotted the cavalry coming over the half-way line, in the shape of O'Leary and Adams. I felt it was my job to head them off at the pass and moved in, instinctively grabbing Adams with one hand and thumping him with the other."
All but one of the 22 players on the pitch were involved in the fracas, but no one was sent off. The next day, the newspapers carried headlines and photos of what they called 'The Highbury Brawl'. That afternoon, Gunn received a phone call from a Today journalist, who told him that the Arsenal players had said Gunn had instigated the fight. Enraged, the Norwich keeper retorted that it was the other way around. Monday's headline read "Gunn blames Arsenal". Gunn was censured by The Football Association and warned about his future conduct. Both clubs were fined, and Gunn was docked a fortnight's wages (about £800) by Norwich City.
Under the management of John Deehan, Norwich were seventh in the Premier League in the 1994–95 season when Gunn broke and dislocated his ankle whilst playing against Nottingham Forest. His importance to the team was underlined when they subsequently plummeted down the table, winning just one of their remaining 17 games as Gunn recovered. The team was ultimately relegated. Gunn retained a regular first team place for the 1995–96 season and, beginning with the match against Wolverhampton Wanderers on 17 February 1996, began to captain the side, initially in the absence of regular captain Jon Newsome then on a permanent basis after Newsome left the club. However, when Mike Walker took over as manager for the following 1996–97 season, he appointed Ian Crook as captain instead.
Gunn's final first-team game for the club was a 1–0 defeat to Crewe Alexandra on 31 January 1998. According to the Sunday Mirror, he produced "a sparkling display", which proved his abilities had "not been dulled by time". Gunn made 478 first team appearances for Norwich in all competitions. He was voted Norwich City Player of the Year in 1988 and 1993. The latter award came at the end of the 1992–93 FA Premier League season, in which Norwich finished third in the Premier League, their best-ever performance. The club awarded Gunn a testimonial match in 1996, and Alex Ferguson brought Manchester United to Carrow Road.
Hibernian
In the 1997–98 season, Gunn was forced out of the Norwich team by the emergence of Andy Marshall. With his first-team opportunities at Norwich now limited, he signed a deal with Hibernian in February 1998, for a three-month loan. According to Scottish transfer regulations the loan deal was invalid, so instead he was swiftly transferred on a permanent basis for an undisclosed fee, later revealed by Gunn to have been £25,000.
Gunn's reflections on joining Hibernian are tinged with regret: "[leaving Norwich was] very difficult indeed. I had spent 12 great years at Norwich and suddenly I was not regarded as the number 1 (by Mike Walker) anymore." He joined Hibernian when they were bottom of the Scottish Premier Division; Alex McLeish had recently been appointed manager.
Gunn was unable to save the club from relegation to the First Division, but signed a two-year contract in July 1998. However, a hairline fracture to his leg, sustained during the 1998 close season, effectively ended his playing career. On his doctors' advice, Gunn formally retired in March 1999.
Despite his mixed feelings on joining the club, Gunn's overall impression of his time in Edinburgh is upbeat: "I only played 12 games for the Hibees but it was great. We beat Hearts in my only derby game 2–1 (John Robertson scored his [27th] goal for Hearts in derbies but I told him it was worth nothing as we had won) and had a clean sheet at Celtic Park (stopping them from winning the SPL that day)." He received what he described as a "wonderful reception" from Aberdeen fans when playing for Hibernian against his former club.
International career
Gunn represented Scotland at the youth international level. He was part of the squad that won the 1982 UEFA European Under-18 Football Championship, but was unavailable to play in the final because Aberdeen had reached the 1982 Scottish Cup Final. He was replaced by Robin Rae for the final, in which the Scots beat Czechoslovakia 3–1.
In 1983, Gunn travelled with the Scotland Under-19s to Mexico for the 1983 FIFA World Youth Championship. Gunn played in all four of Scotland's matches and it was a formative experience, as he faced a variety of challenges in the tournament. The adidas ball in use "really zipped through the air", which encouraged long-range shots at the high altitude. In the first match, against South Korea, an element of the 26,000 crowd "clearly didn't like us at all ... I got absolutely pelted with coins ... and rotten fruit". The final insult was when he was hit on the back of the neck by a rancid-smelling plastic bag containing rotten fish. Gunn found it "intimidation ... a nightmare" but adopted the strategy of patrolling the edge of his area to stay out of range and had "one of the best games of my life": he kept a clean sheet as Scotland won 2–0. Scotland's coach and future manager of the full international team Andy Roxburgh told Gunn "it was the best performance he'd ever seen from a Scottish goalkeeper, at any level." The final group match, which Scotland needed to win in order to progress, was against the home side, Mexico. The official attendance at the Azteca Stadium was 86,582, although Gunn believes the true figure was over 100,000. Once more, Gunn was targeted with a variety of missiles, including a bottle of Johnnie Walker, but as Scotland held on to their early 1–0 lead, the fans became disillusioned with their own team and switched to sending a "hail of bottles and coins" on the Mexican players. Scotland lost 1–0 in the quarter-final against Poland.
Gunn made six full international appearances for Scotland, conceding 10 goals. He was a member of the squad for the 1990 FIFA World Cup, but played in none of Scotland's three matches at the tournament, as he was third-choice goalkeeper behind Jim Leighton and Andy Goram. He made his Scotland debut in a pre-tournament friendly match against Egypt, but was at fault for two Egyptian goals, resulting in a 3–1 defeat for Scotland. The embarrassment was made worse by the fact that his parents were watching. Gunn made four appearances for Scotland in 1994 FIFA World Cup qualification matches. His last cap was as a second-half substitute in a 3–1 friendly defeat by the Netherlands in May 1994.
Coaching career and other activities
Gunn obtained his coaching certification while still with Aberdeen, in 1983, at Largs. After his retirement from playing professional football in 1999, Gunn initially worked on the hospitality staff at Carrow Road, particularly in "The Gunn Club", a catering outlet named in his honour.
Over the years, Gunn progressed from hospitality into other corporate positions at Norwich; he acted as sponsorship manager from 1999 to 2006. Manager Peter Grant moved Gunn to the "backroom" sports management side of the business in 2007. Gunn worked in a liaison role in negotiations of possible transfers and loan signings, tasks where he could make use of contacts gained during his playing career.
When Glenn Roeder was appointed manager in November 2007, goalkeeping coach James Hollman parted company with the club, and Gunn replaced him for the rest of the season—his first formal coaching role. Later in the season, Gunn was promoted to head of player recruitment, while retaining his goalkeeping coach role.
Manager of Norwich City
Following the sacking of Roeder as Norwich manager in January 2009, Gunn was asked to take temporary charge of the first team. In an interview with BBC Radio Norfolk, he revealed that he "told the players that they've let people down." In his first match as caretaker manager, he received "a euphoric reception" from the fans, and Norwich beat Barnsley 4–0. The players were equally supportive: according to Scotland on Sunday, "in the dressing room afterwards, [Norwich] midfielder, Darel Russell, dragged the chairman, Roger Munby, into the shower, and demanded that Gunn be appointed permanently." Momentum gathered, and a Facebook group called "Bryan Gunn for manager", created by his then 17-year-old daughter, Melissa, soon attracted about 3,000 members. Gunn considered applying for the role on a longer-term basis; he had previously applied without success to be Norwich manager in 1998. On 19 January 2009 he phoned the directors and requested to be considered. He was interviewed that afternoon and "by 10.30 am the next day had been appointed manager until the end of the season".
Gunn appointed a backroom staff of former Norwich colleagues, making Ian Crook first-team coach and John Deehan chief scout. However, the initial turnaround in form could not be maintained; having lost their last three games of the season, Norwich were relegated from the Championship. Gunn labelled his players as an "embarrassment" after the 4–2 defeat to Charlton Athletic that sealed relegation to League One. Despite relegation to the third tier of English football for the first time in nearly 50 years, Writing in Tales from the City, Gunn said of the match "Even going to Charlton on the last day, I thought we could survive… We lost 4-2 and were relegated to the third tier. I was shell-shocked; the emptiest I have ever felt in a sporting or professional context. The directors went on the field to face the fans and to thank them for their support and I had tears in my eyes when I saw Delia and Michael doing that. I told them how sorry I was."
Relegation changed Gunn's mind about taking the Norwich job. He had decided not to continue in the role if Norwich had remained in The Championship, and would have tried to land a job with Norwich that would have allowed more time to be spent with his family. However, "Relegation was a failure and I felt I couldn't quit then. I felt I had to do everything I could to put things right, if I was given the chance. And I was."
Norwich re-appointed Gunn as manager for the 2009–10 season. Crook, as first team coach, and former Canary Ian Butterworth, as assistant manager, completed the management team. Over the summer, Gunn signed 12 players, including Australian Michael Theoklitos, a goalkeeper from Melbourne Victory. He then steered the club through a programme of pre-season friendly matches, in which Norwich was unbeaten.
Just under a month after Gunn's reappointment, Norwich appointed a new managing director, David McNally. For the opening game of the new season, Norwich were to play at home against Colchester United, rivals for the Pride of Anglia. Gunn's team suffered a 7–1 defeat, and Theoklitos, signed by Gunn on a free transfer, was particularly blamed by the press for the scale of the defeat. Theoklitos later admitted it was "the worst performance of my career". Despite this, he retained Gunn's support, although in the eventuality, Theoklitos never played for Norwich again.
As early as during the match itself, fans and the media began to react strongly to the shock of Norwich's worst-ever home defeat. During the first half, after the side had gone 4–0 down, two supporters approached the Norwich bench, appearing to throw their season tickets at Gunn. Many fans walked out before the match ended, and there was a protest outside the ground afterwards. Media coverage of the match was unsurprisingly negative: the BBC used terms such as "calamitous defending", "Colchester run riot", "dismal", and a "disastrous start"; journalists also speculated about Gunn's competence as a manager. Matters seemed to stabilise a little with a 4–0 League Cup win at Yeovil the following Tuesday. However, Gunn was sacked by McNally on 14 August 2009, six days after the defeat by Colchester.
Gunn was influenced in his management philosophy by former Norwich manager Mike Walker. Himself a former goalkeeper, Walker believed—contrary to popular opinion—that goalkeepers can make good managers because their excellent view of the game enables them to develop a good tactical awareness. Gunn's short time at Norwich remains his only experience of professional football management. He says of the time spent as manager that his only regret is that "there must be a generation of fans who only know me as the manager who lost 7-1 against Colchester… My own memories are different."
Managerial statistics
After football
Gunn began work in November 2009 as director of business development for OneStream, part of the Digital Phone Company, based in Great Yarmouth. His role was to "promote their communication and mobile working solutions".
In 2011, Gunn announced he was leaving OneStream for a new job as a sports agent. In his new role as director of talent recruitment at a sports agency, he is responsible for recruiting young footballers.
Family and personal life
Gunn's wife, Susan, is a painter. She won the inaugural Sovereign Art Prize in 2008, which included a cash award of €25,000. According to The Daily Telegraph, before her marriage, Susan was "a beauty queen turned lingerie model" who "launched a fashion business". The couple met in Spain, where Susan had a bridal wear company, when Gunn was there on holiday. She told the Telegraph, "When I first met Bryan, I knew nothing about football and had no idea who he was because he told me he was a joiner."
Gunn explained that he was unsure what her attitude would be to footballers; he later confessed his calling to her. He proposed within three days of their meeting, and they were married the following year. They lived in Framingham Pigot, near Norwich, until moving to Cheshire in May 2011, and now live in Alderley Edge.
The Gunns have had three children: Francesca, Melissa and Angus. Melissa is a model, while Angus is a footballer and plays in goal, like his father. On the books as a youth player at Norwich City, in October 2010 he was selected for England under-16s, a full year ahead of the age group. In July 2011, Angus joined Manchester City; he has "sharp reflexes and strong wrists" and an "ambitious streak". Angus rejoined Norwich on loan in June 2017, and then played for Southampton, before returning to Norwich. Angus also played for the England under-21 football team, but changed his international allegiance in March 2023 so he could play for Scotland.
According to Scotland on Sunday, Gunn suffers from ankylosing spondylitis, "a rheumatic spinal condition", diagnosed in about 1995, "which he controls with medication". He appeared in an ITV2 celebrity football quiz called "Taking the Pitch" in 1998, alongside singer Fish. Gunn's autobiography—In Where it Hurts—was published in 2006, and includes a foreword by his former manager Alex Ferguson. He said of writing the book, "it brought up a lot of good memories and a lot of awkward memories". The book was described by The Times as "shot through with sharp humour and astute observation". The publishers agreed to donate £1 to Gunn's Leukaemia appeal fund for every book sold.
Leukaemia appeal
In 1992, Gunn's two-year-old daughter, Francesca, was diagnosed with leukaemia. Norwich City fans were at first astonished by the sight of the goalkeeper running out with a completely shaven head. In the words of author and Norwich supporter, Kevin Baldwin, "Occasionally, the gap between the crowd and the players can cause unfortunate misunderstandings. A few months ago, Gunn shaved his head and we all laughed at him ... I was especially keen ... to shout "Baldy!" ... It now turns out that his daughter was undergoing chemotherapy at the time, which made her hair fall out. He shaved his head to show her that this was nothing to be ashamed of. Sorry, Bryan." When news spread of the reason for Gunn's shaven head, he received "support from the whole of the sporting world and the people of Norfolk".
Gunn describes the period of Francesca's illness and death and how it caused him to reflect on his career:
"We had a charmed life ... then Francesca became ill. There was a game in the autumn of '92 ... that we lost 7–1 at Blackburn. The team stayed in a bleak hotel and it rained endlessly. I just wanted to get back home. With hindsight you think, 'Why the bloody hell was I playing?' Very soon afterwards, Francesca died. She was sleeping between us. I realised what was happening and woke Susan. We cradled Francesca and cried."
Francesca died in 1992, aged two. Gunn played a match for Norwich against Queens Park Rangers at Carrow Road just days after his daughter died; he said of it, "When I ran out, I thought, wow, I could feel the whole stadium was with me. I never thought about packing it in." At the end of the season, Gunn won Norwich's Player of the Year award, as the club finished third in the Premiership, its highest ever league position.
Following Francesca's death, Gunn established "Bryan Gunn's Leukaemia Appeal", a fund to raise money to combat the disease. He initially set a target of £10,000, but by 2011 he has raised £1,000,000, under the auspices of The Dove Trust. The fund aims to address three issues:
"Equipping local hospitals to be better able to deal with children suffering from the disease on both in-patient and out-patient bases. Providing training for nurses and other staff involved in the care of children with leukaemia over and above that which is available from their employers. To support further research into the causes and cures of leukaemia."
The third of these ambitions has prompted the funding of research into leukaemia at the Norwich-based University of East Anglia. Gunn says:
"The ultimate aim is to find a cure and if that can be done in the laboratory at the University of East Anglia bearing Francesca's name, then it would be the biggest testimony of all. Norwich is now one of the leading centres for leukaemia research and, with links to computer systems around the world, hopefully we'll get there."
In addition to the research, Gunn set up a telephone support line that offers advice and assistance for parents of children who have leukaemia or other forms of cancer. Known as gaps:line (an acronym for Gunn Appeal Parent Support), the service quickly grew. From its initial pilot launch in Norfolk in early 2004, it expanded to cover the "eastern region" by the end of the year, and launched nationally in early 2006. The appeal has also funded other research and support work.
Playing style, personality, achievements and legacy
As a player, Gunn was described as "a leader with a big presence" by his manager at Hibernian, Alex McLeish. Aberdeen manager Alex Ferguson recalls, "the first thing that hit me was his personality. It was abundantly clear ... that he was a warm, outgoing and endearing character", adding "He was a tremendous young keeper... always totally professional and I could never fault his discipline, effort or commitment."
Gunn had a "fantastic rapport with the Norwich supporters". As a player, he liked "to tease the crowd during the game". Before each half of a match, Gunn would run toward his goal and pretend to attempt to headbutt the crossbar. Gunn says this is a habit he began as a youngster, and cannot remember how or why he began to do it. Norwich fans noticed it soon after his arrival at the club and, in Gunn's words, "would wait until I got to about the 18-yard line and then start a small "Wooo..." which would build into a full-blown "WOOOO ... AH!" ... I loved it and came close to smacking my head against the woodwork a couple of times". During play, he would cup his ear, which would prompt shouts of "Bryan, Bryan, give us a wave".
Gunn is described as "a legend in Norwich", the result of his long years of service as player and official for the club. In 2002, he was made one of 25 inaugural members of the Norwich City Hall of Fame. A 2005 Football Focus fan poll for "Norwich's cult heroes" saw Gunn finish in first place. He polled 37% of votes, ahead of Robert Fleck and Iwan Roberts. Gunn is one of just nine players to have twice won Norwich City Player of the Year, in 1988 and 1993, and the only goalkeeper to do so. In 2003, as part of the Premier League 10 Seasons Awards, he was one of 10 players to be recognised by the Premier League with an "Outstanding Contribution to the Community" award. In response to his achievements with Norwich City and his charitable work, which has benefited the local university, in 2002 Gunn was made Sheriff of Norwich for the year by the City Council.
Career statistics
HonoursAberdeenEuropean Cup Winners' Cup: 1982–83
Scottish League Cup: 1985–86Scotland U18UEFA European Under-18 Football Championship: 1982Individual'
Barry Butler Trophy: 1988, 1993
Norwich City F.C. Hall of Fame Inaugural Member: 2002
Footnotes
Bibliography
References
External links
1963 births
1990 FIFA World Cup players
Living people
Aberdeen F.C. players
Men's association football goalkeepers
Hibernian F.C. players
Norwich City F.C. managers
Norwich City F.C. players
Sportspeople from Thurso
Premier League players
Scotland men's B international footballers
Scotland men's international footballers
Scottish Football League players
Scottish football managers
Scottish men's footballers
English Football League players
English Football League managers
Scotland men's under-21 international footballers
People with ankylosing spondylitis
People from Alderley Edge
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtaulds
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Courtaulds
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Courtaulds was a United Kingdom-based manufacturer of fabric, clothing, artificial fibres, and chemicals. It was established in 1794 and became the world's leading man-made fibre production company before being broken up in 1990 into Courtaulds plc and Courtaulds Textiles Ltd.
History
Foundation
The company was founded by George Courtauld and his cousin Peter Taylor (1790–1850) in 1794 as a silk, crepe and textile business at Pebmarsh in north Essex trading as George Courtauld & Co. In 1810, his American-born son Samuel Courtauld was managing his own silk mill in Braintree, Essex.
In 1818, George Courtauld returned to America, leaving Samuel Courtauld and Taylor to expand the business, now known as Courtauld & Taylor, by building further mills in Halstead and Bocking. In 1825 Courtauld installed a steam engine at the Bocking mill, and then installed power looms at Halstead. His mills, however, remained heavily dependent on young female workers – in 1838, over 92% of his workforce was female.
By 1850, Courtauld employed over 2,000 people in his three silk mills, and he had recruited partners including (in 1828) his brother, George Courtauld II (1802–1861) and (in 1849) fellow Unitarian social reformer Peter Alfred Taylor (1819-1891 – son of Peter Taylor who died the following year). By this time, Courtauld was a wealthy man but was also suffering from deafness. He had planned to spend more time on his country estate Gosfield Hall near Halstead, but continued to play an active role in the company until just before he died in March 1881.
His great-nephew Samuel Courtauld (1876–1947) became chairman of the Courtauld company in 1921 but is chiefly remembered today as the founder of the Courtauld Institute of Art in London. William Julien Courtauld was also a benefactor of the arts: he gave artworks to the Essex County Council chamber at Chelmsford and the town hall at Braintree in the 1930s.
Expansion
Wishing to reduce their dependence on natural silk, in 1904 Courtaulds acquired the Cross and Bevan's patents to the viscose process for manufacturing artificial silk or rayon from dissolving pulp. They set up the first factory to produce it in Coventry UK in 1905. The early yarns were first woven into fabrics at the Halstead Mill in Essex in March 1906, but the process remained troublesome until further inventions improved yarn strength. However, in a few years the process became highly successful and was responsible for transforming the silk weaver into the world's leading man-made fibre production company. In the interwar era, Courtaulds, along with its domestic rival, British Celanese, both benefitted from tariff protection extended to the rayon industry by the Finance Act of 1925.
Courtaulds also entered the market of cellulosics (viscose and acetate) in North America with the setting up of the American Viscose Corporation (AVC) in 1909. The investment in the US was highly successful, but its sale at a knock-down price was enforced in 1941 as part of the negotiations which preceded Lend-Lease. Courtaulds was Canada's only rayon manufacturer in the 1980s, and was criticized for polluting Cornwall, Ontario. By 1989 the company was dumping "an average of 12 million litres of water a day, loaded with acids, zinc, murky solid materials and other contaminants.... Tests in 1986 showed the company's waste killed healthy trout within five minutes."
In 1927–28 Courtaulds and Vereinigte Glanzstoff-Fabriken (VGF) gained control of the Italian rayon manufacturer SNIA Viscosa from Riccardo Gualino. A German director of VGF, Karl Scherer, replaced Gualino as head of the firm and cut output drastically. The foreign intervention was seen as humiliating by the fascists. In Europe Courtaulds expanded its cellulosics business both directly and in joint ventures, including British Cellophane.
In 1945 Courtaulds remained one of the four groups which dominated the man-made fibre industry in Europe (counting the German VGF and the Dutch AKU as one group, and including also the CTA—later merged into Rhone Poulenc in France, and Snia Viscose in Italy). Courtaulds' activities in continental Europe consisted in a wholly owned, one-factory viscose fibre business employing some 3,000 people in France, a 50% share in a similar business in Germany (of which the other 50% was owned by VGF, the major competitor), and a minority shareholding which controlled 20% of the voting capital in the Italian firm Snia Viscosa, also primarily a viscose fibre producer. This activity expanded until the 1960s, when these products were replaced by newer developments.
In 1964 Courtaulds acquired Fine Spinners and Doublers for £14 million and the Lancashire Cotton Corporation for £22 million.
Post World War II
Carbon disulfide, used in rayon production, increases the risk of heart attacks and strokes in rayon workers (among other health risks, some of them known since the 1800s). Data on these additional risks came out in the 1960s. Courtaulds worked hard to prevent publication of this data in the UK.
Courtaulds was one of the earliest companies in the UK to establish an economics department. In the three decades following World War II that department made notable contributions to the understanding of investment appraisal and the formulation of British, and later European, trade policy. The function also played a significant role in the development of Courtaulds from a rather sedate, man-made fibres producer to the world's largest textile manufacturer, a position the company attained in the mid-1970s. The economics department then influenced the early stages of the subsequent extensive restructuring of the company, a process that culminated in the demerging of its textile activities as a separately quoted company in March 1990.
In 1962 a hostile takeover attempt by Imperial Chemical Industries was defeated.
Throughout the 1980s, Courtaulds conducted research on solvent-spun cellulose fibres, using amine oxides. This process had previously been suggested by Eastman-Kodak, but their patent was nearing expiration. By the 1990s, this research led to pilot scale facilities and a subsequent patent battle with Lenzing. These companies initially cross-licensed, but the Lyocell process became Lenzing property after the demise of Courtaulds Plc in 1998. The lyocell process does not use carbon disulfide.
Break-up
By the late 1980s, the manufacture of clothing was quickly moving to South East Asia and China. Courtaulds had closed many of its UK factories and moved production to new Asian sites. Further, its main profit was coming from its fibre and chemicals businesses, which were being held back by the textiles business.
In 1990, Courtaulds plc demerged itself into two parts:
Courtaulds plc – The fibre manufacture and chemicals businesses.
Courtaulds Textiles Ltd – The yarn and fabric manufacture and clothing businesses.
Courtaulds plc
In 1990, the company began pilot production of Tencel, a brand of lyocell rayon. The production of lyocell does not use carbon disulfide, but is more expensive than viscose rayon. In January 1993, the Tencel plant in Mobile, Alabama, US reached full production levels of 20,000 tons per year, by which time Courtaulds had spent £100 million and 10 years on Tencel development. Tencel revenues for 1993 were estimated as likely to be £50 million.
In 1991, the company closed a viscose plant in Calais, France, allowing its other plants to boost output to 93% capacity, compared with an industry average of 75%. The share price doubled in the first three years following the demerger. CEO Sipko Huismans had focused the company on rationalisation and cost cutting, saying "We have to cut costs. We can't count on sales growth to pay us more or to allow us to buy more of our favorite things."
In 1993 the company employed 23,000 and had £2 billion in annual revenue, with 30% of revenue from the United States, 40% from Europe and 15% from Asia-Pacific.
Seeking to expand its business, specifically in Asia-Pacific, Courtaulds plc delivered part of its development in joint ventures, particularly with Akzo Nobel. It sought to merge with Akzo-Nobel, which the EU approved subject to the sale of Courtauld's aerospace business. In 1998 it merged with competitor Akzo Nobel. The name "Courtaulds" disappeared.
Akzo Nobel combined the Tencel division with other fibre divisions under the Accordis banner, then sold them off to private equity (CVC Capital Partners). In 2000, CVC sold the Tencel division to Lenzing AG, who combined it with their "Lenzing Lyocell" business, but maintained the brand name Tencel. At this time "Tencel" production was at 80,000 tonnes/year.
In September 2000, Courtaulds Fibers Inc. was found guilty of negligence for polluting the environment outside its plant in Axis, Alabama, US with carbon disulfide. 1991 emissions were more than double those of the nine other plants in Alabama combined, and made minimal improvements to abide by the 1990 amendments to the United States' Clean Air Act. In Europe, Courtaulds had taken much more stringent emissions-reduction measures.
Courtaulds Aerospace
In October 2000, PPG Industries announced it had agreed to buy Courtaulds Aerospace for $US512.5 million. Based in Glendale, California, US the aerospace business has annual sales of approximately $US240 million, employs 1,200 people. In the US it manufactures sealants in Glendale, California, US and Shildon, England; coatings and sealants in Mojave, California, US; glazing sealants at Gloucester City, New Jersey, US; and also coatings at Gonfreville, France. The business also operates 14 application-support centres in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia.
Courtaulds Textiles
After its demerger, Courtaulds Textiles sold off its retail businesses; the Contessa lingerie chain and McIlroys had been sold by 1995.
In 2000, the American-based Sara Lee acquired Courtaulds Textiles in a hostile takeover for £150million. "Courtaulds Textile" remained as a division of Sara Lee, unlike the chemical merger, which saw "Courtaulds" disappear into Akzo Nobel.
In the early 2000s, many jobs and factories were eliminated, especially in the UK, where manufacturing costs were higher. Marks and Spencer was squeezing its suppliers for lower costs. In 2007, 40% of Courtauld's turnover was from sales to Marks & Spencer (though sales had declined rapidly, as of 2006).
In February 2005, Brenda C. Barnes became the chairman and CEO of Sara Lee, and tried to sell the Courtaulds Textile division.
In April 2006, the UK pension regulator required Sara Lee to increase payments into Courtaulds' $483 million (£260 million) pension deficit from £20m to £32m a year until 2015. In May 2006, Sara Lee sold Courtaulds Textiles (but not its pension debt) for an undisclosed sum. It was bought by a consortium lead by PD Enterprise Limited, a private company based in Hong Kong. At the time, Courtaulds had about a thousand employees in the UK, of whom 300 were employed at a tights factory. Times Brenda Barnes commented that Sara Lee had effectively "given away" the unit.
In 2007, Courtaulds Textiles employed around 20,000 people across 16 countries in Europe, North America and Asia. It had moved most of its manufacturing jobs offshore, most of which was divested in joint ventures for flexibility. One of these joint venture was Slimline (Pvt) Ltd, Sri Lanka's largest apparel manufacturer, employing 1450 people and with a turnover of 25 million British pounds, and Courtaulds Clothing Lanka, which employed 700 people to make men's underwear. The whole company had an annual turnover exceeding £1billion.
PD Enterprise Ltd., a privately held company based in Hong Kong, operates nine facilities that produce more than 120 million garments annually. Its products include lingerie, underwear, nightwear, swim and beachwear, formalwear and casualwear, jackets and coats, babywear and socks.
Brands
Berlei – Lingerie and Activewear
Gossard – Lingerie
Aristoc – Hosiery
Pretty Polly – Hosiery, Lingerie and Activewear
Elbeo – Hosiery
Production sites
Flintshire – A subsidiary of a German company, the British Glanzstoff Manufacturing Company started an artificial silk factory in Flint in 1907. During World War I the factory closed down but was taken over by Courtaulds in 1917. In 1913, the company had started making the synthetic fibre viscose rayon, made from cellulose derived from imported wood pulp or cotton waste. Courtaulds in September 1919 bought the old Muspratt Alkali factory in Flint from United Alkali Co Ltd and called it Castle Works, where after conversion they started production in 1922 of manufactured viscose rayon yarn. Courtaulds also in December 1927 bought the Holywell Textile Mill in Flint which they called Deeside Mill and after reconstruction and alterations was used for yarn processing. At its height Courtaulds employed over 10,000 people at four sites. At Greenfield, some further down the Dee estuary, two additional large rayon production facilities existed from 1936 onwards, named Number 1 and Number 2. These mills employed over 3,000 people. Textile production declined from 1950, and Aber works shut initially in 1957, opened for rayon in 1966, and pulled down in 1984. Castle works closed in 1977 and Deeside Mill in 1989. The number 1 facility at Greenfield was mothballed in 1978, and the entire site was decommissioned in the mid-1980s.
Chorley, Lancashire – Talbot Mill on the eastern periphery of the town was built in 1908 and consisted of separate spinning and weaving divisions. The spinning division of the mill was managed by Courtaulds from the early 1970s and closed in 1989.
Preston – A large rayon production facility, called the Red Scar mill, existed in Preston. The main product was tyre cord. It employed around 4,000 people. It was decommissioned in 1980.
Northern Ireland – A rayon facility existed in Carrickfergus, which was designed specifically to make a fibre suitable for the Irish linen industry. Many of the latterly held British-based jobs were based in the grant-aided infrastructure of Northern Ireland. Limavady employed 185 jobs, which were lost in May 2004.
Wolverhampton – Dunstall Hall Works – Rayon facility.
Coventry – Foleshill Road Works:
Courtaulds Research – Developed Courtelle, Vincel, Evlan, Viloft, Galaxy, Kesp, synthetic tobacco, Tencel, lyocell, Hydrocel, Alginate.
Courtaulds Grafil – Production of carbon fibre for use in sports, aerospace and automotive industries.
National Plastics – Production of specialised plastic products including British military bulletproof helmets.
Courtaulds Engineering – Design of plant, production of spinnerets.
Derby – Spondon Works – Acetate fibre, water-soluble polymers.
Grimsby – The Grimsby 'Fibro' plant was built on the bank of the Humber West of Grimsby between 1952 and 1957 to produce viscose rayon staple fibre, known as Fibro. In 1959 a new 'Courtelle' factory was constructed to make a proprietary acrylic fibre. Both factories were substantially expanded in the 1960s and 1970s. Later the advanced form of rayon known as Tencel fibre was manufactured using a more environmentally friendly process. Acrylic dope for 'Grafil' carbon fibre was also manufactured. The site was sold in 1998 to Accordis UK Ltd; the Tencel plant sold to the Lenzing Group, whilst the acrylic fibre plant went through a number of administrations in the 2000s, with production ceasing 2013.
Trafford Park – Manufacture of carbon disulfide, base of Cowburn & Cowpar (chemical transport).
Worksop – Formerly known as "Bairnswear", the 36,000 m2, 205.72 m × 175 m factory first opened its doors in 1953 as Bairnswear knitwear. The site was a relativity modern mid-20th century mill which was located on Raymoth Lane and it employed over 1000 employees (1950s–1970s). In the early 1960s it was rebranded as Courtaulds when Bairnswear hit financial difficulty. In 1989 Princess Diana visited the site, at the same time as she visited to open the new Bassetlaw Hospital. Rumours of the site's closure circulated throughout the 1980s and 1990s and this happened in 2000. A small factory shop stayed open for another year selling all its goods off cheaply. During the early 2000s after the mill had ceased production the factory was still in good condition and a buyer was sought. The site deteriorated for three years until Westbury Homes bought it for residential redevelopment in July 2003. In spite of local objections including the MP John Mann to keep the 9-acre site to form another industry, planning permission was granted, asbestos was stripped and the factory demolished in September 2003 – January 2004, and the site has since been redeveloped into residential housing.
Middlesbrough – Started as factory then moved solely to warehousing and distribution closed July 2010.
Somerset (Bridgwater) British Cellophane was set up in the early 20th century to produce Cellophane, a cellulose based clear packaging. Production finally ceased in the early 1990s and the site is now to be used for housing for a new power station.
Courtaulds and its many subsidiaries had many other production sites not listed above.
References
Further reading
D. C. Coleman: Courtaulds: an economic and social history (Clarendon)
Vol 1: The nineteenth century: silk and crape (1969)
Vol 2: Rayon (1969)
Vol 3: Crisis and change, 1940-1965 (1980, )
Bramwell G Rudd: Courtaulds and the Hosiery & Knitwear Industry. Carnegie Publishing Ltd, 2014, (softback), (hardback)
External links
From Genesis to Exodus: The Development of Tencel in Courtaulds 1979-89
Courtaulds background
Courtaulds in Europe
Catalogue of the Courtaulds' Senior Staff Association archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick
Catalogue of the Courtaulds' Group One Staff Association archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick
Textile manufacturers of England
Textile companies of the United Kingdom
Defunct manufacturing companies of England
Chemical companies of the United Kingdom
Cotton industry in England
Former textile mills in the United Kingdom
Silk production
Companies based in Essex
British companies established in 1794
Manufacturing companies established in 1794
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1990
1794 establishments in England
1990 disestablishments in England
Companies formerly listed on the London Stock Exchange
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20in%20Israel
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Education in Israel
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The education system in Israel consists of three tiers: primary education (grades 1–6, approximately ages 6–12), middle school (grades 7–9, approximately ages 12–15) and high school (grades 10–12, approximately ages 15–19). Compulsory education takes place from kindergarten through 10th grade. The school year begins on September 1 (September 2 if September 1 is on Saturday), ending for elementary school pupils on June 30 (June 29 if June 30 is on Saturday), and for middle school and high school pupils on June 20 (June 19 if June 20 is on Saturday). Haredi Yeshivas follow an independent schedule, starting on 1 Elul.
Israeli culture views higher education as the key to higher mobility and socioeconomic status in Israeli society. For millennia medieval European antisemitism often forbade the Jews from owning land and farming, which limited their career choices for making a decent living. This forced many Jews to place a much higher premium on education allowing them to seek alternative career options that involved entrepreneurial and white-collar professional pursuits such as merchant trading, science, medicine, law, accountancy, and moneylending as these professions required higher levels of verbal, mathematical, and scientific literacy. The emphasis of education within Israeli society has its modern roots at least since the Jewish diaspora from the Renaissance and Enlightenment Movement all the way to the roots of Zionism in the 1880s. Jewish communities in the Levant were the first to introduce compulsory education for which the organized community, not less than the parents, was responsible for the education of the next generation. With contemporary Jewish culture's strong emphasis, promotion of scholarship and learning and the strong propensity to promote cultivation of intellectual pursuits as well as the nation's high university educational attainment rate exemplifies how highly Israeli society values higher education.
Israel's populace is well educated and Israeli society highly values education. Education is a core value in Jewish culture and in Israeli society at large with many Israeli parents sacrificing their own personal comforts and financial resources to provide their children with the highest standards of education possible. Much of the Israeli Jewish population seek education as a passport to a decent white collar professional job and a middle class paycheck in the country's competitive high-tech economy. Jewish parents take great responsibility to inculcate the value of education in their children at a young age. Striving for high academic achievement and educational success is stressed in many modern Jewish Israeli households as parents make sure that their children are well educated adequately in order to gain the necessary technological skills needed for employment success to compete in Israel's modern high-tech job market. Israelis see competency with in demand job skills such as literacy in math and science as especially necessary for employment success in Israel's competitive 21st-century high-tech economy. Israel's Jewish population maintains a relatively high level of educational attainment where just under half of all Israeli Jews (46%) hold post-secondary degrees. This figure has remained stable in their already high levels of educational attainment over recent generations. Israeli Jews (among those ages 25 and older) have average of 11.6 years of schooling making them one of the most highly educated of all major religious groups in the world. In Arab schools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam on Muslim, Christian or Druze heritage. Maariv described the Christian Arabs sectors as "the most successful in education system", since Christians fared the best in terms of education in comparison to any other religion in Israel. Israeli children from Russian-speaking families have a higher bagrut pass rate at high-school level. Although amongst immigrant children born in the Former Soviet Union, the bagrut pass rate is highest amongst those families from European FSU states at 62.6%, and lower amongst those from Central Asian and Caucasian FSU states. In 2014, 61.5% of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate.
As the Israeli economy is largely scientific and technological based, the labor market demands people who have achieved some form of higher education, particularly related to science and engineering in order to gain a competitive edge when searching for employment. In 2012, the country ranked second among OECD countries (tied with Japan and after Canada) for the percentage of 25 to 64-year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 46 percent compared with the OECD average of 32 percent. In addition, nearly twice as many Israelis aged 55–64 held a higher education degree compared to other OECD countries, with 47 percent holding an academic degree compared with the OECD average of 25%. It ranks fifth among OECD countries for the total expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP. In 2011, the country spent 7.3% of its GDP on all levels of education, comparatively more than the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development average of 6.3% and as a result has fostered an education system that helped transform the country and rapidly grow its economy over the past 70 years.
The Israeli education system has been praised for various reasons, including its high quality and its major role in spurring Israel's economic development and technological boom. Many international business leaders and organizations such as Microsoft founder Bill Gates and the technology giant IBM have praised Israel for its high quality of education in helping spur Israel's economic development.
Educational tracks
Israeli schools are divided into four different tracks: state-secular (Mamlachti), state-religious (Mamlachti dati), independent religious (חרדי Haredi or חינוך עצמאי Ḥinuch Atzmai), and Arab. There are also private schools which reflect the philosophies of specific groups of parents (Democratic Schools), or that are based on the curriculum of a foreign country (e.g., The American International School in Israel). The majority of Israeli children attend state schools. State-religious schools, catering to youngsters from the Orthodox sector (mainly Religious Zionist/Modern Orthodox), offer intensive Jewish studies programs, and emphasize tradition and observance. The Chinuch Atzmai schools focus almost entirely on Torah study and offer very little in terms of secular subjects. Schools in the Arab sector teach in Arabic, and offer a curriculum that emphasizes Arab history, religion, and culture.
The proportions of pupils attending schools in the Haredi and Arab sectors are increasing; according to a demographic study published in 2009, Haredim and Arabs together will amount to 60% of Israel's elementary school population by 2030. Haredim and Arab citizens are underrepresented in both the Israel Defense Forces and the workforce, since both groups are exempt from the otherwise compulsory military service, and in many Haredi sects men choose to focus only on religious studies throughout their life and rely financially on support from co-religionists, the State, etc.
The Haredim's lack of mainstream education, and consequent low participation in the workforce, are regarded by many in Israel as a social problem. The Council for Higher Education announced in 2012 that it was investing NIS 180 million over the following five years to establish appropriate frameworks for the education of Haredim, focusing on specific professions. Israel's Ministry of Education's statistics from 2014 show that only about 22 percent of Haredi students take matriculation exams, since Orthodox yeshivot mostly ignore core subjects. About 8 percent of Haredi students pass the exam. Miriam Ben-Peretz, professor emeritus of education at the University of Haifa, and winner of the 2006 Israel Prize notes: “More and more Israeli students don't have any foundation of knowledge, any basics — not in math, not in English, not in general...things have to change." Some Israelis who have been educated in Haredi yeshivas have established Leaving for Change (LFC), an organization seeking to sue the government for alleged failure to enforce Israel's law for compulsory education.
In 1984, the first integrated schools which had both Jewish and Arab students coexisting in a classroom were built by the residents of Neve Shalom – Wāħat as-Salām, a cooperative village founded by Arab and Jewish citizens of Israel. Today, this school receives some support from the state. Two more integrated schools were opened in Jerusalem and Galilee (Galil Jewish-Arab School) in 1997 by Hand in Hand: Center for Jewish Arab Education in Israel. As of 2010, there were five integrated schools in Israel, including Neve Shalom.
Israeli Pupils’ Rights Law
The Israeli Pupils’ Rights Law of 2000 prohibits discrimination of students for sectarian reasons in admission to or expulsion from an educational institution, in establishment of separate educational curricula or holding of separate classes in the same educational institution, and addresses rights and obligations of pupils. The law was fully supported by the Israeli Student and Youth Council However, discrimination still exists: in 2005, the municipality of Lod refused to allow a three-year-old Arab child to register in a Jewish kindergarten.
Matriculation (Bagrut)
High schools in Israel prepare students for the Israeli matriculation exams (bagrut). These are exams covering various academic disciplines, which are studied in one to five (sometimes up to 10) units (yehidot limud), usually of ascending difficulty. Students with a passing mark on the mandatory matriculation subjects (Hebrew language, English language, mathematics, scripture, history, state studies and literature), who have been tested on at least 21 units, and passed at least one 5-unit exam, receive a full matriculation certificate. In 2006/7, 74.4% of Israeli 12th graders took the bagrut exams while only 46.3% were eligible for a matriculation certificate. In the Arab and Druze sectors, the figures were 35.6% and 43.7% respectively.
A Bagrut certificate and Bagrut scores often determine acceptance into elite military units, admission to academic institutions, and job prospects.
Below is a table illustrating the percentage of matriculation certificate recipients in Israel's largest cities, according to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (graduation year of 2002).
The Adva Center, a social issues think tank in Israel, says that about 15% of the matriculation certificates issued do not qualify the recipient for admission to Israel's universities.
Christian Arabs tend to have had the highest rates of success in the matriculation examinations, both in comparison to the Muslims and the Druze and in comparison to all students in the Jewish education system.
Higher education
After secondary education, students are generally conscripted into the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), but may request a postponement of the conscription date to study at a pre-service Mechina, undertake a voluntary service year, or study in a college or university. Those who study in a university at this stage generally do so under a program called atuda, where part of the tuition for their bachelor's degree is paid for by the army. They are however obliged to sign a contract with the army extending their service by 2–3 years.
Universities generally require a certain amount of bagrut matriculation units (as well as a certain grade average) and a good grade in the Psychometric Entrance Test, which is similar in many respects to the American SAT. The Psychometric Entrance Test (colloquially known in Hebrew simply as "psychometry" - psixometri, פסיכומטרי) is a standardized test used as a higher education admission exam. The PET covers three areas: quantitative reasoning, verbal reasoning and the English language. It is administered by the Israeli National Institute for Testing and Evaluation (NITE) and is heavily weighed for university admissions. The test may be taken in Hebrew, Arabic, Russian, French, Spanish, or combined Hebrew/English. The Open University of Israel accepts all applicants regardless of their academic history, though it still maintains high academic standards.
All of Israel's nine public universities (and some of their colleges) are subsidized by the government, and students pay only a small part of the actual cost of tuition. Students who have completed military service are entitled to a 90% discount on their first-year tuition fees. Further financial assistance is provided by student loans, grants, and scholarships approved by the Ministry of Education.
According to the OECD, the median age Israeli students complete their first degree is slightly above 27.
Rankings
According to the Webometrics ranking, six of Israel's universities place in the top 100 schools of Asia. Four universities place in the top 150 in the world according to the Shanghai Jiao Tong University Academic Ranking of World Universities, and three are in the Times Higher Education-QS World University Rankings (i.e. amongst the "Top 200 World Universities").
In addition, Israeli universities are among 100 of the top world universities in science and engineering-related subjects, according to the QS World University Rankings: mathematics (TAU, Hebrew University and Technion); physics (TAU, Hebrew University and Weizmann Institute of Science); chemistry (TAU, Hebrew University and Technion); computer science (TAU, Hebrew University, Weizmann Institute of Science, BIU and Technion); engineering (Technion); life sciences (Hebrew University).
In the social sciences, TAU and the Hebrew University rank in the top 100, and these universities are also ranked in the top 100 for economics; Israel is ranked 23rd on RePEc's Country and State Ranking for economics.
In 2010, Hebrew University reached 57th place in the global ranking list published by Shanghai Jiao Tong University in China.Of note, the prestigious NYU, which enrolls the largest number of Jewish students of any public or private university in the United States, and is ranked in the top 34 globally in all major publications of university rankings, has a campus in Tel Aviv.
Comparisons with other countries
Despite strong post-secondary rankings, Israel spends less per student than countries like Norway and Mexico.
Some officials have criticized the claim that the strong test scores prove Israel is a highly educated country, pointing out that scores from standardized tests exclude Haredi and special education students, and thus are not an accurate reflection. Israeli teachers must contend with large classes, low wages and low morale.
Despite this, Israel ranks second among OECD countries (tied with Japan and just after Canada) for the percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds that have achieved tertiary education: 46% compared with an OECD average of 32%. Inequality is a problem reflected in Israel's performance on international tests. In the latest PISA exams, in which half a million students from 65 countries participated, Israel ranked 33 in reading achievement and 40th in mathematics and science. Only Taiwan had larger gaps in the performance between the best and worst students.
Arab sector
Israel is a signatory of the Convention against Discrimination in Education, and ratified it in 1961. The convention has the status of law in Israeli courts.<ref name="hrw">Human Rights Watch, 'Second class: Discrimination against Palestinian Arab children in Israel's schools, pp 13-16</ref>
Israel operates an Arab education system for the Israeli-Arab minority, teaching Arab students, in Arabic, about their history and culture. However, there have been claims that the Jewish education system gets more resources. According to the Follow-Up Committee for Arab Education, the Israeli government spends an average of $192 per year on each Arab student, and $1,100 per Jewish student. It also notes that drop-out rate for Israeli Arab citizens is twice as high as that of their Jewish counterparts (12 percent versus 6 percent). The same group also noted that in 2005, there was a 5,000-classroom shortage in the Arab sector.
In 1999, in attempt to close the gap between Arab and Jewish education sectors, the Israeli education minister, Yossi Sarid, announced an affirmative action policy, promising that Arabs would be granted 25% of the education budget, more than their proportional share in the population (18%). He also added that the ministry would support the creations of an Arab academic college.
In 2001, a Human Rights Watch report stated that students in government-run Arab schools received inferior education due to fewer teachers, inadequate school construction, and lack of libraries and recreational space. Jewish schools were found to be better equipped, some offering film editing studios and theater rooms. In 2009, Sorel Cahan of Hebrew University's School of Education claimed that the average per-student budget allocation for students with special needs at Arab junior high schools was five times lower.
In 2007, the Israeli Education Ministry announced a plan to increase funding for schools in Arab communities. According to a ministry official, "At the end of the process, a lot of money will be directed toward schools with students from families with low education and income levels, mainly in the Arab sector." The Education Ministry prepared a five-year plan to close the gaps and raise the number of students eligible for high school matriculation.
A 2009 report showed that obstacles to Arab students participating in higher education resulted in over 5,000 moving to study in nearby Jordan.Israel's Arab students are crossing to Jordan The National Apr 9, 2009 The Association for Civil Rights in Israel and various scholars have criticized wide disparities in education access between Jewish Israelis and Arab Israelis, and underfunding of Arab schools.Or Kashti, For Jews and Arabs, Israel's School System Remains Separate and Unequal, Haaretz (July 7, 2016).
The Ministry of Education announced in April 2010 that the suggested curriculum for the coming school year would not include civics, democratic values, or Jewish-Arab coexistence, and focus more on Zionist and Jewish values.
In 2010, the number of computer science teachers in the Arab sector rose by 50%. The Arab sector also saw a rise of 165% in instructors teaching technology classes and a 171% increase in the number teaching mathematics. The number of physics teachers in Arab schools grew by 25%, those teaching chemistry by 44% and in biology by 81.7%.
According to a 2012 report by the Higher Arab Monitoring Committee, there is a shortage of 6,100 classrooms and 4,000 teachers in Arab communities.
Christian Arabs tend to have had the highest rates of success in the matriculation examinations, both in comparison to the Muslims and the Druze, and in comparison to all students in the Jewish education system. Arab Christians were also the vanguard in terms of eligibility for higher education, and they have attained a bachelor's degree and academic degree more than the median Israeli population. The rate of students studying in the field of medicine was also higher among the Christian Arab students, compared with all the students from other sectors. The percentage of Arab Christian women who are higher education students is higher than other sectors.
In 2011, the Council for Higher Education introduced a 5-Year Plan to increase accessibility to higher education among Arab, Druze and Circassian students. The first plan ran through 2015/16, and was subsequently extended through 2021/22. The plan is being implemented in 30 institutions of higher education that receive their budgets from the CHE's Planning and Budgeting Committee, and where the student body includes Arab, Druze, and Circassian students. The program relates holistically to the many stages involved in succeeding in higher education: from providing information and guidance in grades 11 and 12, to offering pre-academic preparatory courses, to financial support while studying, to assistance in transitioning to the labor market. There are scholarships for excellence in postgraduate studies and academic staff. Beyond assistance to the individual students, a special effort is made to address the overall organizational culture of the institutions in terms of the degree to which they are culturally inclusive.Dalia Ben Rabi and Ayala Hendin. National Plan for Expanding Access of Arab, Druze and Circassian Students to Higher Education in Israel: Interim Report on the Support of Students as of the End of the 2015-16 School Year. Jerusalem: Myers-JDC-Brookdale Institute (2016).
Gender statistics
The dropout rate in grades 8–12 is higher for males than females. In 2011, the dropout rate declined, but was still higher among males, with 4.5% of male and 1.7% of female students dropping out of school. In addition, the passing rate of high school matriculation exams stood at 62% for females and 51% for males. The rate of women studying in universities and colleges is also higher; in 2011–2012, 56.7% of students at academic institutions were female. In 2012, women were also 59.3% of candidates for Master's degree programs and 52.4% for doctorate programs.
However, 81% of Israeli professors are men. In addition, fields such as engineering, electricity, physics, mathematics, computer science, and natural sciences are overwhelmingly male-dominated, though there are a large number of women in certain fields of engineering, such as biomedical, industrial, and environmental engineering. Women tend to study more in human and social sciences, such as education and occupational therapy.
Status of teachers
Over the years, government budget cuts have taken their toll. Israel was amongst the top-ranked nations in international rankings for science and mathematics performance in the 1960s, but dropped to 33 out of 41 nations in the 2002 survey. Wages for Israeli teachers are low compared to other industrialized countries, especially due to the small amount of frontal teaching hours with respect to other developed countries (the salary per hour is similar to that of the OECD standards), according to a survey of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The government-appointed Dovrat Commission, led by Shlomo Dovrat, concluded in 2004, that the key to improving Israeli education is not more money but better-quality teaching. The recommendations included a reform giving school principals the right to fire teachers of poor quality, and reward better ones with higher pay. These moves have been blocked by Israel's teachers' unions, which have paralyzed schools with a series of long strikes, mostly blocking the proposed reforms.
Textbooks
According to a paper by Nurit Peled-Elhanan, a professor of language and education at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, textbooks in Israel promote a negative image of Arabs. The Center for Monitoring the Impact of Peace, a schoolbook monitoring organization, disputed this finding, calling her claim heavily politicized and distorted.
In a report published in 2000, the Center for Monitoring the Impact of Peace stated that in textbooks of both the general state-run network and the religious state-run network, there was a genuine effort to remove stereotypes and to build a foundation for coexistence and mutual respect.
According to a 2011 report by the Arab Cultural Association, Arabic textbooks provided to third to ninth grade students in Israeli schools were found to contain many mistakes. The report was based on a study of textbooks in all subjects. Dr. George Mansour, who examined the history textbooks, said they ignored the presence of Arab-Palestinians in Israel and minimized Arab culture.
Strikes
Israeli schools and universities have been subject to repeated strikes over the years by faculty, and, occasionally, by students. The 2007 Israeli student strike started in April 2007 in protest at the government decision to increase tuition fees and the failure to implement the 2001 Winograd Committee recommendation that they be reduced by 25%. After three weeks, the universities threatened that all students who failed to return to their studies would have to retake the semester. Student leaders rejected a compromise which would have exempted students from the fee rises. Some students started a hunger strike.
The strike ended on May 14 after student leaders accepted the implementation of the Shochat reforms. Middle and secondary school teachers were on strike for a month and a half. Their demands included an 8.5% pay raise, reducing class sizes to a maximum of 30 students, and increasing the length of the school day. The school year was extended until July 10, 2008 for all schools that participated in the strike.
Awards and recognition
Each year, municipalities may receive an award for outstanding education initiatives and accomplishments. The 2012 Education Prize of the Israeli Ministry of Education and Culture was awarded to the municipalities of Ariel, Ashdod, Yokneam, Ma'aleh Adumim, Safed and Kiryat Bialik. The educational networks of these cities were cited for their unique projects, effectiveness of immigrant absorption, student empowerment, educational leadership, top-quality teaching, encouragement of entrepreneurship and innovation, and promoting excellence in a diverse school population.
See also
Education Minister of Israel
List of universities and colleges in Israel
Science and technology in Israel
Scientific Leadership
First Step to Nobel Prize in Physics
Academic grading in Israel
Yeshiva#Israel
References
Further reading
Agbaria, Ayman K. "The ‘right’ education in Israel: segregation, religious ethnonationalism, and depoliticized professionalism." Critical Studies in Education 59.1 (2018): 18-34 online.
Al-Haj, Majid. Education, empowerment, and control: The case of the Arabs in Israel (Albany NY: Suny Press, 2012).
Argov, Eyal. "The Development of Education in Israel and its Contribution to Long-Term Growth" (No. 2016.15. Bank of Israel, 2016) online.
Arar, Khalid. "Israeli education policy since 1948 and the state of Arab education in Israel." Italian Journal of Sociology of Education 4.1 (2012) online
Feldman, Dar Halevy, and Adib Rifqi Setiawan. "Education in Israel." (2020) online.
Feniger, Yariv, and Hanna Ayalon. "English as a gatekeeper: Inequality between Jews and Arabs in access to higher education in Israel." International Journal of Educational Research 76 (2016): 104-111 online.
Hakak, Yohai, and Tamar Rapoport. "Excellence or equality in the name of God? The case of ultra-Orthodox enclave education in Israel." Journal of Religion 92.2 (2012): 251-276 online.
Passow, A. Harry et al. The National Case Study: An Empirical Comparative Study of Twenty-One Educational Systems. (1976) online
Pinson, Halleli, and Ayman K. Agbaria. "Neo-liberalism and practices of selection in Arab education in Israel: Between control and empowerment." Diaspora, indigenous, and minority education'' 9.1 (2015): 54-80.
External links
Publications on Education by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20Ironside
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Christopher Ironside
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Christopher Ironside OBE, FRBS (11 July 1913, London – 13 July 1992, Winchester, Hampshire) was an English painter and coin designer, particularly known for the reverse sides of the new British coins issued on decimalisation in 1971.
Life and career
Ironside began his career as a painter, studying at the Central School of Arts and Crafts. During World War II he served in the Directorate of Camouflage, working for the Air Ministry in Leamington Spa.
After the war he worked for the Ministry of Town and Country Planning, as Education Officer for the Council of Industrial Design, but gave up the post in 1948 due to increasing design commissions. His subsequent known work included: 1951 design contributions to the Festival of Britain, South Bank Exhibition; 1952 ballet stage and costume design with his brother for Sylvia, the revival production choreographed by Sir Frederick Ashton, first choreographed by Louis Merante to music by Leo Delibes in 1876; 1953 design for Pall Mall for the coronation of Elizabeth II; 1964 he collaborated with his brother Robin on the Shakespeare commemoration issue of stamps and first day covers. He taught part-time at the Royal College of Art from 1953 to 1963. His paintings were exhibited at two main shows, shared with his elder brother Robin, at the Redfern Gallery in 1944 and at Arthur Jeffress in 1960. He received an OBE in 1971.
Ironside designed various coins for the Royal Mint, including the reverse of the pre-2008 British 50 pence, ten pence, five pence, two pence, and one penny coins, as well as the former half penny coin. He designed coins for the Isle of Man, Singapore, Tanzania, Brunei, Qatar and Dubai. He designed commemorative medallions including: the Britannia Commemorative Society's Medallion No.7 "The Spanish Armada" and No.42 "The Royal Navy"; the medal for the 1974 Centenary of Sir Winston Churchill's birth "This was Their Finest Hour"; the brass relief memorial for the Earl and Countess Mountbatten in Westminster Abbey; and, the brass relief for the 16th Duke of Norfolk in Arundel Castle (Fitzalan Chapel).
In 2013 the Royal Mint issued a 50 pence coin with one of his designs on the reverse to commemorate the 100th anniversary of his birth.
His collection of earlier concept sketches, plaster moulds and submission entries for the decimalisation competition are now housed in the British Museum.
He was married twice: to Janey Acheson (one daughter, the journalist and novelist Virginia Ironside); and, after that marriage was dissolved in 1961, to Jean Marsden (two daughters and one son).
Coins
Bahrain (1965)
In the beginning of the 1960s, there was a proposal by the Royal Mint Advisory Committee for a joint currency for Bahrain, Qatar, Abu Dhabi and Dubai. The committee had at this stage appointed Christopher Ironside on a term contract and asked him to provide prototype designs for these coins. Three sets were prepared and presented, the first set depicted each denomination within its own geometric Arabic design which was favoured by the committee; the second set, which was a thematic set depicting a goitred gazelle (Arabian gazelle now extinct), a peregrine falcon, a local fish, a mosque, an Arab dhow, oil derricks, and a date palm; and, a third set of Arabic designs. A file note, dated 24 February 1966, says: "The project for a common Gulf currency looks like being shelved for the time being and instead Qatar and Dubai are aiming to issue a joint currency in the near future."
The designs that were presented in the three sets were labelled as "Designs for Arabian Gulf coins", but were never taken further.
Tanzania (1966)
After World War I, the territory of Tanganyika became a mandate territory of the United Kingdom and its monetary system was aligned to that of Kenya and Uganda, through the establishment of the East African Currency Board (EACB) in December 1919. Following independence, the decision to dissolve the EACB and to establish separate Central Banks in Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda, the Bank of Tanzania Act, 1965, was passed by the National Assembly in December 1965, and the Bank was opened by the first President of Tanzania, Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere, on 14 June 1966.
Tanzania's first set of coins was issued in 1966, with a portrait of J. K. Nyerere on the obverse and African wildlife animals on the reverse. This set included circulation and commemorative sets. The last circulation coins with this first portrait were dated 1984. All regular types with this portrait have the word "TANZANIA" and the date above the portrait and the Swahili words "RAIS WA KWANZA" (roughly meaning "First President") below. Both the obverse and reverse were designed by Christopher Ironside.
Description
5, 10, 20 and 50 Senti; 1 and 5 Shilingi denominations (1966; circulation up to cir. 1984).
These coins were struck as:
5 senti in bronze, 4g, 22,5mm dia. 1966–1984 (170 Million coins minted), dodecagonal (12-sided). Design: Sailfish.
10 senti in nickel-brass, 5g, 25mm dia. 1977–1984 (48M), scalloped. Design: Running zebra.
20 senti in nickel-brass, 5g, 24mm dia. 1966–1984 (100M), round. Design: Running ostrich.
50 senti in copper-nickel, 4g, 21mm dia. 1966–1984 (56M); nickel-clad steel 1988–1990 (10M). Design: Bush rabbit.
1 Shilingi in copper-nickel, 8g, 27,5mm dia. 1966–1984 (118M); nickel-clad steel 1987–1992 (slight change to design) (15M). Design: Outstretched arm holding a flaming torch.
5 Shilingi in copper-nickel, 13g, 31mm dia. 1971– 1980 (19M), decagonal. Design: Value centre with four cell containing designs of crops and a resting bull.
Qatar and Dubai (1966)
In the beginning of the 1960s, there was a proposal by the Royal Mint Advisory Committee for a joint currency for Qatar and Dubai (the remaining Trucial States). The committee had at this stage appointed Christopher Ironside on a term contract and asked him to provide prototype designs for these coins. Three sets were prepared and presented, the first set depicted each denomination within its own geometric Arabic design which was favoured by the committee; the second set, which was a thematic set depicting a goitred gazelle (an Arabian gazelle now extinct), a peregrine falcon, a local fish, a mosque, an Arab dhow, oil derricks, and a date palm; and a third set of Arabic designs.
In the mid-1960s Qatar and Dubai entered a currency union and organised the design and production of their own coin set. This joint currency was issued in 1966. The country names and denominations appear on the obverse, whilst a relatively simple design of a goitred gazelle adorns the reverse of all the coins (originally destined for the common currency to be used by Arab states of the Persian Gulf). The obverse and reverse of the coins were designed by Christopher Ironside.
Description
1, 5, 10, 25 and 50 Dirhams (A. 1386–1389/ AD.1966 – 1969); Qatar and Dubai.
These coins were struck as:
1 Dirham in bronze, 1,5g, 15mm dia. 1966–1969 Ahmad II period (1966, 1 Million coins minted). Design: Gazelle on the reverse, value on obverse.
2 Dirhams in bronze, 3,75g, 22mm dia. 1966–1969 (4M). Design: as above.
5 Dirhams in bronze, 3,75g, 22mm dia. 1966–1969 (4M). Design: as above.
10 Dirhams in bronze, 3,75g, 22mm dia. 1966–1971 (2M). Design: as above.
25 Dirhams in copper-nickel, 3,5g, 20mm dia. 1966–1969 (4M). Design: as above.
50 Dirhams in copper-nickel, 6,5g, 25mm dia. 1966–1969 (2M). Design: as above.
A total of 17 million coins were minted (individual mintage, in millions of coins, indicated in brackets above).
Brunei (1967)
The Brunei Currency Board was established in 1967 and introduced the Brunei dollar as the new currency of Brunei, replacing the Malaya and British Borneo dollar after the Currency Union Agreement between Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei was terminated and all three countries issued their own currencies. The Brunei dollar was divided into 100 cents (or sen in Malay), with a portrait of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III on the obverse. The reverses of the coins were designed by Christopher Ironside.
Description
1, 5, 10, 20, 50 sen and dollar denominations.
These coins were struck as:
1 sen in copper-plated zinc, 1g, 17mm dia. (18,5M). Reverse design: representation of flower or blossom.
5 sen in Aluminium, 2g, 16mm dia. (25,5M). Reverse design: representation of a bird in flight.
10 sen in cupro-nickel, 2g, 19mm dia. (45M). Reverse design: representation of a land animal.
20 sen in cupro-nickel, 4g, 23mm dia. (32M). Reverse design: representation of a tree.
50 sen in cupro-nickel, 7g, 27mm dia.(13M). Reverse design: coat of arms.
A 10 dollar coin bearing a portrait of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin III on the obverse, and dollar signs on the reverse was prepared by Ironside but was never taken into production.
Jamaica (1969)
In 1968, the House of Representatives unanimously approved the report of the Select Committee of the House, which recommended that the currency of Jamaica should be decimalized in 1969. The introduction of a decimal currency provided the opportunity for the introduction of a complete Jamaican coinage as formerly, the coins (with the exception of the penny and halfpenny), were the same as those used in the United Kingdom. With regard to the design, it was decided that the portrait of the ruling British monarch, which had appeared on the obverse of all coins, would be replaced by the Jamaican coat of arms, with national symbols on the reverse depicting aspects of the island's flora and fauna, images that reflect the ideals of the newly independent country. The reverse of the decimal coinage was designed by Christopher Ironside.
Description
1, 5, 10, 20 and 25 penny/cent denominations
These coins were struck as:
1 cent in bronze, 4g, 21mm dia. 1969–1974 ( 65Million coins minted); Aluminium 1975–2002 (108M), only proofs cast after 1987. Design: Ackee fruit, the national fruit.
5 cent in copper-nickel, 2.8g, 20mm dia. 1969–1989 (82M); nickel-plated steel 1990–1993. Design: American crocodile.
10 cent in copper-nickel, 5.75g, 23,5mm dia. 1969–1989 (145M). Design: Butterfly within leafy sprigs of the lignum vitae, the national flower.
20 cents in copper-nickel, 11g, 29mm dia. 1969–1990 (18M). Design: the national tree, blue mahoe.
25 cent in copper-nickel, 14.5g, 32mm dia. 1969-1894 (20M). Design used for 25th Bank of Jamaica Anniversary. Design: National bird, the swallow-tailed humming bird retrieving nectar from a flower
50 cents (introduced 1976; ceased circulation 1989); 1, 5, 10 & 20 dollar coins (by other designers).
½ penny denomination used up to 1969; coat of arms on the reverse, designer Percy Metcalfe.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1970)
In the 1970s the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations initiated a panel of coins to "draw attention to the most important challenge of our time, that of providing food, training and work for a rapidly expanding world population". These coins had two purposes, to serve as daily reminders, over the period of a generation, of the national and international efforts needed to meet the challenge of world food development, and to provide, through seigniorage as funds to help finance such development. People buying these FAO coin panels were thus making a personal contribution toward tackling the challenge set by the programme.
The 1970s FAO coin panel was the first international coin issue in monetary history. There were 23 contributing designers from around the world, amongst them Stuart Devlin, William Gardner and Christopher Ironside.
Description
The complete set of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 1970 coin set was 45 coins, representing 33 countries. 10,000 numbered box sets were produced. The coins of the British Commonwealth had their reverse designed by Christopher Ironside.
These coins were struck as (Board 1):
Jamaica: 1 cent in bronze, 2g, 21mm dia. 1975–2000; shaped 12-sided; (Mintage 15M). Struck by the Royal Mint London; Design: Ackee the national fruit of Jamaica; Inscription: The national fruit.
Rwanda: 2 Francs in aluminium, 1,5g, 23mm dia. 1970; scalloped with 16 notches (Mintage 5M). Struck by the Royal Mint, London. Design: Boy filling coffee basket symbol of the Rwanda Savings Bank; Inscription: Augmentons La Production (Let us increase production).
Isle of Man (1970)
Under the provision of the Manx Decimal Currency Act of 1970, a decimal series of coins for the Isle of Man were prepared and released on 20 October 1971 (½, 1, 2, 5, 10 and 50 new pence coins). The reverse of most of these coins was designed by Christopher Ironside. This set had the same composition and size as the corresponding British coins.
These coins were struck as:
1971 first decimal set (issued from 1971 to 1974):
½ New penny, bronze; 2g, 17mm dia. (300,000 minted); reverse Cushag yellow field flower regarded as the national flower.
1 New penny, bronze; 4g, 20mm dia. (1M mintage); reverse design of a ring chain cross based on 10th- and 11th-century Norse decorations.
5 New pence, cupro-nickel; 5g, 24mm dia. (100,000 minted); reverse design showing the Tower of Refuge, which was erected in 1832 on the rock near the entrance to Douglas Harbour, notorious as a place of shipwreck.
10 New pence, cupro-nickel; 11g, 28mm dia. (1,6M); reverse design the Three Legs of Man (triskelion), the official arms of the Isle of Man. This is a traditional design that has appeared on a long line of IOM coins.
50 New pence, silver; 13g, 30mm dia. (Mintage 100,000); heptagonal; reverse design a Viking ship.
1 Crown; cupro-nickel; 38mm dia. Manx cat by C. Ironside. Commemorative Silver 1970. This is a very traditional design motif dating back to the 1700s.
On all of the above: obverse of Queen Elizabeth II by Arnold Machin; reverse by Christopher Ironside.
2 New penny bronze; reverse design of two falcons by Kruger-Gray.
Gibraltar (1971)
As a territory under the sovereignty of the United Kingdom, Gibraltar decimalised its currency in the 1970s. In 1971 a 25 New Pence (1 Crown) coin was issued with a reverse design by Ironside of a Barbary macaque.
Description
25 New Pence (= 1 Crown), copper-nickel, 38mm dia.; round, 1971 (75,000 minted by the Royal Mint; silver proofs, 20,000 minted). Obverse design: Queen Elizabeth II by Arnold Machin; reverse design: Barbary ape by Christopher Ironside.
Mauritius (1971–88)
In 1971 a new set of coins and banknotes for Mauritius were introduced by the Royal Mint. This set has Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse and a range of heraldic motives on the reverse. Some of the reverse designs for this set were designed by Christopher Ironside.
These coins were struck as:
1971 Mauritius Independence Proof Set: Set of 9 coins in fitted case, 750 issued, comprising:
200 rupees, gold, 27mm dia.; (2,500 minted); Obverse: Elizabeth II; reverse design courting couple by Christopher Ironside.
10 rupees, silver, 35mm dia.; Reverse design of a dodo by Christopher Ironside.
1974 to 1975 World Wildlife Fund Silver Proof Coin Collection. In the early 1970s the WWF organised for each of twenty-four different countries to issue two proof silver crowns, each depicting some form of endangered species from their particular region of the planet. Mauritius issues the following two coins:
50 rupees, silver, 42mm dia. Reverse Mauritius kestrel by C. Ironside (see below, originally this design was to be used on a 25 rupees coin).
1988, Mauritian Proof: 250 Rupees, gold. Obverse: The Rt. Hon. Jugnauth (designer unknown); reverse: Dodo design by C. Ironside.
Malta (1972)
As a country under the sovereignty of the United Kingdom, Malta decimalised its currency in the 1970s. In May 1972 a new set of Maltese coins was issued. The Malta pound, which was renamed Maltese lira (Lm) in 1983, was retained as the currency unit.
The design rationale for the new coins was both to proclaim the country's independence and to feature the distinguished personalities, historical monuments and edifices, flora, fauna and folklore articles of Malta. These coins were designed by Christopher Ironside.
Description
Eight coins were issued in the following denominations: 2 mils, 3 mils, 5 mils, 1 cent, 2 cents, 5 cents, 10 cents, 50 cents. The mils were in aluminium, the 1 cent in bronze, and the rest in cupro-nickel.
These coins were struck as:
2 mils in aluminium, 1g, 20,3mm dia., scalloped, 1972–1986 (100,000). Obverse design: Maltese cross (reference to the Knights of St John and the occupation of Malta). The Maltese cross is the national symbol of Malta and is displayed as part of the Maltese civil ensign. The obverse perimeter design of four fishes and the reverse design of plant leaves around edges with denomination in the centre standard to all coins.
3 mils in aluminium, 1,5g, 23mm dia., scalloped, 1972–1986 (71,000). Obverse design: Maltese bee wings outspread over a honeycomb. Historically the bee has long been the symbol of industry and hard work, while the honeycomb represents the manifestation of divine harmony in nature.
5 mils in aluminium, 2,1g, 26mm dia., scalloped, 1972–1986 (4,5M). Obverse design: figure of a water carrier.
1 cent in bronze, 7g, 26mm dia., round, 1972–1986 (10M). Obverse design: George cross.
2 cent in copper-nickel, 17mm dia. 1972–1986 (13M). Obverse design: Knights Hospitaler wearing an elm.
5 cent in copper-nickel, 5,6g, 23mm dia., round, 1972–1981 (5M). Obverse design: temple altar found in the Mnajdra, a megalithic temple complex in Malta (UNESCO World Heritage Site).
10 cent in copper-nickel, 11g, 28,5mm dia., round, 1972–1981 (10M). Obverse design: Grand Master's barge.
50 cent in copper-nickel, 13g, 32,9mm dia. 1972–1981 (10M). Obverse design: man with sword and shield flanked by two women.
Kuwait (1976)
Ironside designed the obverse of a Kuwaiti coin commemorating the 15th anniversary of the National Day of the State of Kuwait, which remained uncirculated. It was struck as:
2 Dinars in 50% silver and 50% nickel (although some descriptions state 99% silver), 28g, 38mm dia. 1976 ( 70,00 minted; uncirculated). Obverse carrying the profiles of Sheikh Abdullah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah, who was the last Sheikh and first Emir of Kuwait and who witnessed the independence of Kuwait, and his half-brother Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah who succeeded him and was Emir at the time the coin was struck; reverse depicting the gate of the old wall of Kuwait City; a dhows, a traditional sailing boat used throughout the region; and, an oil derrick, the main source of wealth for the country.
Christopher Ironside designed the obverse, while the reverse is not documented.
Singapore (1985)
Singapore's second series of coins, designed by Ironside in about 1981, and put into circulation in 1985, were known as the Floral Series. The design brief was to highlight the botanical diversity of Singapore as part of a government effort to foster national pride and identity. The Vanda 'Miss Joaquim' orchid was chosen as the country's national flower in 1981.
Description
1, 5, 10, 20 and 50 cent, 1 dollar denominations (design cir. 1980; circulation 1985 – current).
The obverse design bears the Singapore Arms in the centre surrounded by the word "SINGAPORE" in the four official languages around the circumference of the coins. The year-date is below the Singapore Arms.
These coins were struck as:
1 cent in bronze, 2g, 18mm dia. 1985–1990; copper-plated zinc 1992– current (636M). Stopped minting in 2002. Shows Singapore's national flower, Vanda Miss Joaquim.
5 cent in aluminium-bronze, 1,6g, 16mm dia. 1985– current (520M). Shows the fruit salad plant (Monstera deliciosa).
10 cent in copper-nickel, 2,8g, 19mm dia. 1985– current (1,300M). Shows the star jasmine (Jasminum multiflorum).
20 cents in copper-nickel, 6g, 24mm dia. 1985– current (900M). Shows the powder-puff plant (Calliandra surinamensis).
50 cent in copper-nickel, 7g, 24mm dia. 2 Dec 1985– current (450M). Stopped minting 2007. Shows the yellow Allamanda (Allamanda cathartica).
1 dollar in aluminium-bronze, 6g, 22mm dia. 28th Sept 1987– current (660M). Stopped minting 2006. Shows periwinkle (Lochnera rosea).
There is a possibility that the original design work is stored in the National Archives, Kew.
Medals, awards and general works
Camouflage Directorate (1940–1945)
Der Rosenkavalier Ballet – scenery and costumes (1947 onwards)
Festival of Britain, exhibitions: Shakespeare, Dome of Discovery and Crystal Palace (1951)
Exhibition stands (circa 1950)
Sylvia Ballet – scenery and costumes (1952)
Royal Yacht Britannia – Queen's Study mirror and Sitting Room fire-guard (1952)
Time and Life Building (London) clock (1952)
Coronation Procession – Whitehall heraldic shield (1953)
Alceste Ballet, Glyndebourne – Apollo statue (1953)
Mount Everest model figures of Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay (1953 and 1954)
A Midsummer Night's Dream Ballet – scenery and costumes; London, New York and Canada (1954)
Daily Mail Idea Home Exhibition – Dawn of Civilisation grotto and flying chariots (1954)
Royal Academy Summer Exhibition – paintings (c.1954)
SS Iberia – ship's clock (1954)
The Bedford Corner Hotel, martins Bank Ltd – entrance crest (1955)
Les Troyens Ballet – scenery (1955)
RSA Benjamin Franklin Medal (1956)
British Academy, Kenyon Award (1957)
Bank of London and South America (London) – clock (1957)
Sir James Swinburne Award (1958)
Leathersellers' Livery Hall – clock (1960)
British Exhibition Medal, New York(1960)
Trustee Saving Bank (TSB) – saving tokens (1960)
La Sylphide Ballet – scenery and costumes (1960)
Ministry of Housing and Local Government' Award for Good Design (1960)
Royal Musical Association, The Edward J Dent Award (1961)
Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation Medal (1962)
Royal Anthropological Institute, Patron's Medal (1962)
The National Trust Donor token (1963)
Shakespeare Festival stamps (1964)
British Sub-Aqua Club Award (1965)
Battle of Hastings 900th Anniversary Medal (1966)
Britannia Commemorative Society Medals (1968)
The Sailing of the Pilgrim Fathers Medals (1970)
The Worshipful Company of Painter-Stainers/ RCA, Hugh Dunn Award (c. 1970)
Man in Space medal box set; Danbury Mint (c. 1970)
Northern Ireland Parliament Medal (1971)
The Life of Jesus medal box set; Danbury Mint (c. 1972)
Warders of the Tower of London Medal (1972)
London Stock Exchange Medal and tapestries (1972)
Peter Cazalet Memorial, Shipbourne, Kent (c. 1973)
American Revolution medal box set; Columbia Mint (1974)
Churchill Medal (1974)
The 16th Duke of Norfolk Memorial, Fitzalan Chapel, Arundel Castle (1975)
Tallow Chandlers Award (1977)
Tower of London Queen's Silver Jubilee Medal (1977)
250th anniversary of the death of Sir Isaac Newton commemorative medal (1977)
Tower of London 900th Anniversary Medal (1978)
The Lumb Golden Bale Award (c. 1979)
The Earl Mountbatten of Burma Memorial, Westminster Abbey (1979)
The Earl of Perth Memorial
Mauritius Royal Wedding Commemorative 1,000 Rupees gold coin (1981)
Uranium Institute Award (1985)
Claridges interiors – restaurant and Ladies Lift (1985–1987)
Notes
References
Sources
1913 births
1992 deaths
20th-century English male artists
20th-century English painters
British currency designers
Camoufleurs
Designers from London
English designers
English male painters
Fellows of the Royal British Society of Sculptors
Painters from London
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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1981 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1981 in the United Kingdom.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – Margaret Thatcher (Conservative)
Parliament – 48th
Events
January
3 January – Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone, daughter of Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, and last surviving grandchild of Queen Victoria, dies at Kensington Palace aged 97.
4 January – British Leyland workers vote to accept a peace formula in the Longbridge plant strike.
5 January
Peter Sutcliffe, a 34-year-old lorry driver from Bradford arrested on 2 January in Sheffield, is charged with being the notorious serial killer known as the "Yorkshire Ripper", who is believed to have murdered thirteen women and attacked seven others across northern England since 1975.
BBC Two's The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy television adaptation begins airing; it subsequently receives a Royal Television Society award as "Most Original Programme" of the year.
Cabinet reshuffle: Norman St John-Stevas and Angus Maude leave the Cabinet while Leon Brittan and Norman Fowler join the Cabinet.
7 January – A parcel bomb addressed to the Prime Minister is intercepted at the sorting office.
8 January
A terrorist bomb attack takes place on the RAF base at Uxbridge
The report of the Royal Commission on criminal procedure is published.
9 January – The funeral of Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone, takes place at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, before her burial at Frogmore.
13 January – The prison officers' overtime ban ends.
14 January – The British Nationality Bill is published.
15 January – Two soldiers are found guilty of murder in Northern Ireland.
16 January
Northern Ireland civil rights campaigner and former Westminster MP Bernadette McAliskey is shot at her home in County Tyrone.
Inflation has fallen to 16.1%.
78% of British Steel Corporation workers vote in favour of the chairman's "survival" plan.
18 January – Ten people are killed in the New Cross house fire. On 25 January, another victim dies in hospital.
21 January
Sir Norman Stronge and his son, both former Stormont MPs, are killed by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA).
Two divers trapped below the North Sea are brought to safety to the surface.
22 January – Australian newspaper owner Rupert Murdoch agrees to buy The Times provided an agreement can be reached with the unions.
24 January – A Labour Party conference at Wembley votes for election of the party leader by electoral college with 40% votes for unions, 30% Labour MPs and 30% constituencies.
25 January – The Limehouse Declaration: four right-wing Labour MPs, Shirley Williams, Roy Jenkins, Bill Rodgers and David Owen (the "Gang of Four"), announce plans to form a separate political party – the Social Democratic Party (SDP). On 26 January, nine more Labour MPs declare their support for the new party.
26 January – Sir Keith Joseph, Secretary of State for Industry, announces further financial support for British Leyland.
27 January – Bill Rodgers resigns from the Shadow Cabinet following his defection to the newly formed SDP. He is replaced by Tony Benn.
28 January
Sir Hugh Fraser is removed as Chairman of the House of Fraser.
Fresh damage is caused in cells at HM Prison Maze in Northern Ireland.
29 January – The UK Government welcomes plans by the Japanese car firm Nissan to build Datsun cars in Britain.
30 January – David Owen tells his constituency party that he will not stand again as Labour candidate.
February
2 February – The report on the Brixton prison escape is released and the Governor is transferred to an administrative post.
4 February – Margaret Thatcher announces that the Government will sell half of its shares in British Aerospace.
5 February – Actor Lord Olivier, cancer researcher Sir Peter Medawar and humanitarian Leonard Cheshire are admitted into the Order of Merit as announced in the New Year Honours list.
6 February
The Liverpool-registered coal ship Nellie M is bombed and sunk by an IRA unit driving a hijacked pilot boat in Lough Foyle.
The Government drops two controversial clauses of the Nationality Bill.
The Canadian Minister warns British MPs against delaying changes in the Canadian constitution.
9 February – Shirley Williams resigns from Labour's national executive committee.
11 February – Closure of the Talbot car plant in Linwood, Scotland, is announced.
12 February
Purchase of The Times and The Sunday Times from The Thomson Corporation by Rupert Murdoch's News International is confirmed. Murdoch also announces that an agreement with the unions has been reached about manning levels and new technology.
Ian Paisley is suspended from the House of Commons for four days after calling the Northern Ireland Secretary a liar.
The National Union of Students calls off a 5-week strike.
13 February – The National Coal Board announces widespread pit closures.
15 February – The first Sunday games of the Football League take place.
16 February – Two are jailed in connection with the death of industrialist Thomas Niedermayer.
17 February – Princess Anne is elected Chancellor of London University.
18 February
The Government withdraws plans to close 23 mines after negotiations with the National Union of Mineworkers.
Harold Evans is appointed editor of The Times
20 February
Four more MPs announce their intention to leave the Labour Party.
Peter Sutcliffe is charged with the murder of thirteen women in the north of England.
21 February – 30,000 people march in an unemployment protest in Glasgow.
24 February – The engagement of the 32-year-old Prince of Wales (now Charles III), and 19-year-old Lady Diana Spencer is officially announced.
25 February
Margaret Thatcher arrives in Washington, D.C., for a four-day visit with U.S. President Ronald Reagan.
The Observer is taken over by "Tiny" Rowland, head of Lonrho.
26 February
The English cricket team withdraws from the Second Test after the Guyanese government serves a deportation order on Robin Jackman.
El Salvador dominates the first day of talks between Thatcher and Reagan.
27 February
Three British missionaries released from Iran land in Athens.
Sir Harold Wilson, former Prime Minister (1964–70, 1974–76) announces his retirement from Parliament at the next general election.
The Archbishop of Canterbury advises the church to see homosexuality as a handicap not a sin.
The Observer takeover is referred to the Monopolies Commission.
March
3 March – Homebase opens its first DIY and garden centre superstore, at Croydon, Surrey.
5 March – The ZX81, a pioneering British home computer, is launched by Sinclair Research, going on to sell over 1.5 million units worldwide.
9 March
John Lambe, a 37-year-old lorry driver, is sentenced to life imprisonment for the rape of twelve women in the space of less than four years.
Thousands of civil servants hold a one-day strike over pay.
17 March – The Conservative Government's budget is met with uproar due to further public spending cuts.
21 March
Home Secretary William Whitelaw allows Wolverhampton council to place a fourteen-day ban on political marches in the West Midlands town, which has a growing problem of militant race riots and was faced with the threat of a National Front march in two days time.
After seven years and the longest time playing the title role, Tom Baker leaves Doctor Who and is replaced by Peter Davison in the final episode of Logopolis.
Unemployment now stands at 2,400,000 or 10% of the workforce.
Motorcycle racer Mike Hailwood, known as 'Mike the Bike' and fourteen times winner of the Isle of Man TT, is seriously injured in a car crash at Tanworth-in-Arden in Warwickshire; he dies of his injuries two days later.
22 March – It is reported that a minority of Conservative MPs are planning to challenge the leadership of Margaret Thatcher in an attempt to reverse the party's declining popularity and fight off the challenge from Labour and the SDP.
23 March – The Government imposes a ban on animal transportation on the Isle of Wight and southern Hampshire after an outbreak of foot and mouth disease in cattle.
24 March – Barbados police rescue Great Train Robber Ronnie Biggs after his kidnapping in Brazil.
26 March – Social Democratic Party formed by the so-called "Gang of Four": Shirley Williams, Bill Rodgers, Roy Jenkins, and David Owen, who have all defected from the Labour Party.
28 March – Enoch Powell, Ulster Unionist MP (formerly a Conservative until 1974) warns of "racial civil war" in Britain.
29 March – The first London Marathon is held.
30 March – Academy Award-winning film Chariots of Fire released.
April
2 April – The effects of the recession continue to claim jobs as Midland Red, the iconic Birmingham-based bus operator, closes down its headquarters in the city with the loss of some 170 jobs.
4 April
Bucks Fizz representing the United Kingdom win the Eurovision Song Contest with the song Making Your Mind Up.
Susan Brown, a 23-year-old Biology student at Oxford University, becomes the first female cox in a winning Boat Race crew.
Bob Champion, a 32-year-old cancer survivor, is the popular winner of the Grand National with his horse Aldaniti.
5 April – The 1981 UK Census is conducted.
10 April – Bobby Sands, an IRA member on hunger strike in the Maze prison, Northern Ireland, is elected MP for Fermanagh and South Tyrone in a by election.
11 April – More than 300 people (most of them police officers) are injured and extensive damage is caused to property in the Brixton riot.
13 April
Home Secretary William Whitelaw announces a public inquiry, to be conducted by Lord Scarman, into the disturbances in Brixton.
Enoch Powell warns that Britain "has seen nothing yet" with regards to racial unrest.
Further rioting breaks out in Brixton.
20 April
23-year-old Steve Davis wins the World Snooker Championship for the first time.
More than 100 people are arrested and 15 police officers are injured in clashes with black youths in the Finsbury Park, Forest Green and Ealing areas of London.
21 April – The county administrative headquarters of Northumberland move from Newcastle upon Tyne to Morpeth.
23 April – Unemployment passes the 2,500,000 mark for the first time in nearly 50 years.
29 April – Peter Sutcliffe admits to the manslaughter of 13 women on the grounds of diminished responsibility, but the judge rules that a jury should rule on Sutcliffe's state of mind before deciding whether to accept his plea or find him guilty of murder.
May
May – Peugeot closes the Talbot car plant at Linwood, Scotland which was opened by the Rootes Group 18 years ago as Scotland's only car factory. The closure of the factory also results in the end of the last remaining Rootes-developed product, the Avenger, after 11 years, as well as the four-year-old Sunbeam supermini. There are no plans to replace the Avenger, but a French-built small car based on the Peugeot 104 will replace the Sunbeam in the next few months.
5 May
Bobby Sands, a 27-year-old republican, dies in Northern Ireland's Maze Prison after a 66-day hunger strike.
The trial of Peter Sutcliffe begins at the Old Bailey; he stands charged with 13 murders and seven attempted murders dating back to 1975.
7 May – Ken Livingstone becomes leader of the GLC after Labour wins the GLC elections.
9 May – The 100th FA Cup final ends with a 1–1 draw between Manchester City and Tottenham Hotspur at Wembley Stadium.
11 May – The first performance of the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical Cats takes place at the New London Theatre.
12 May – Francis Hughes (aged 25) becomes the second IRA hunger striker to die in Northern Ireland.
13 May – An inquest returns an open verdict on the thirteen people who died as a result of their injuries in the New Cross fire.
14 May – Tottenham Hotspur win the FA Cup for the sixth time in their history with a 3–2 win over Manchester City in the final replay at Wembley.
15 May
The inquiry into the Brixton riots opens.
the Queen's second grandchild, a girl, is born to The Princess Anne and her husband Capt Mark Phillips.
19 May – Peter Sutcliffe is found guilty of being the Yorkshire Ripper after admitting 13 charges of murder and a further seven of attempted murder. He will be sentenced later this week.
21 May – The IRA hunger strike death toll reaches four with the deaths of Raymond McCreesh and Patrick O'Hara.
22 May – Peter Sutcliffe is sentenced to life imprisonment with a recommendation that he should serve at least 30 years before parole can be considered.
27 May – Liverpool F.C. win the European Cup for the third time by defeating Real Madrid of Spain 1–0 in the final at Parc des Princes in Paris. Alan Kennedy scores the only goal of the game. Although they have yet to equal Spanish side Real Madrid's record of six European Cups, they are the first British side to win the trophy three times.
30 May – More than 100,000 people from across Britain march to Trafalgar Square in London for the TUC's March For Jobs.
June
3 June – Shergar wins the Epsom Derby.
9 June – King Khaled of Saudi Arabia arrives in Britain on a state visit.
11 June
The NatWest Tower (later known as Tower 42) is formally opened by the Queen.
Britain's first Urban Enterprise Zone is created in Lower Swansea Valley, Wales.
13 June – Marcus Sarjeant fires six blank cartridges at the Queen as she enters Horse Guards Parade.
13–14 June – More than 80 arrests are made during clashes between white power skinheads and black people in Coventry, where the National Front is planning a march later this month, on the same day as an anti-racist concert by The Specials.
15 June – Lord Scarman opens an enquiry into the Brixton riots.
16 June – Liberal Party and SDP form an electoral pact – the SDP-Liberal Alliance.
17 June – General and war hero Sir Richard O'Connor dies in London shortly before his 92nd birthday.
20 June
Rioting breaks out in Peckham, South London.
HMS Ark Royal is launched.
21 June – A fire at Goodge Street tube station kills one person and injures 16.
23 June – Unemployment reaches 2,680,977 (one in nine of the workforce), and Margaret Thatcher is warned that a further rise is likely.
24 June – The twelfth James Bond film – For Your Eyes Only – is released in UK cinemas. It is the fifth of seven films to star Roger Moore as James Bond and the final Bond film to be solely distributed by United Artists.
July
2 July – Four members of an Asian Muslim family (three of them children) are killed by arson at their home in Walthamstow, London; the attack is believed to have been racially motivated.
3 July – Hundreds of Asians and skinheads riot in Southall, London, following disturbances at the Hamborough Tavern public house, which is severely damaged by fire.
5 July – Toxteth riots break out in Liverpool and first use is made of CS gas by British police. Less serious riots occur in the Handsworth district of Birmingham as well as Wolverhampton city centre, parts of Coventry, Leicester and Derby, and also in the Buckinghamshire town High Wycombe.
7 July – 43 people are charged with theft and violent disorder following a riot in Wood Green, North London.
8 July
Joe McDonnell becomes the fifth IRA hunger striker to die.
Inner-city rioting continues when a riot in Moss Side, Manchester, sees more than 1,000 people besiege the local police station. However, the worst rioting in Toxteth has now ended.
British Leyland ends production of the Austin Maxi, one of its longest-running cars, after 12 years.
9 July – Rioting breaks out in Woolwich, London.
10 July
Rioting breaks out in London, Birmingham, Leeds, Leicester, Ellesmere Port, Luton, Sheffield, Portsmouth, Preston, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Derby, Southampton, Nottingham, High Wycombe, Bedford, Edinburgh, Wolverhampton, Stockport, Blackburn, Huddersfield, Reading, Chester and Aldershot.
Two days of rioting in Moss Side, Manchester, draw to a close, during which there has been extensive looting of shops. Princess Road, the main road through the area, will be closed for several days while adjacent buildings and gas mains damaged by rioting and arson are made safe.
11 July – A further wave of rioting breaks out in Bradford, West Yorkshire.
13 July
The IRA hunger strike death toll reaches six when Martin Hurson dies.
Margaret Thatcher announces that police will be able to use rubber bullets, water cannons and armoured vehicles against urban rioters. Labour leader Michael Foot blames the recent wave of rioting on the Conservative government's economic policies, which have seen unemployment rise by more than 70% in the last two years.
15 July – Police clash with black youths in Brixton once again, this time after police raid properties in search of petrol bombs which are never found.
16 July – Labour narrowly hang on to the Warrington seat in a by-election, fighting off a strong challenge from Roy Jenkins for the Social Democratic Party.
17 July – Official opening of the Humber Bridge by the Queen.
20 July – Michael Heseltine tours Merseyside to examine the problems in the area, which has been particularly badly hit by the current recession.
25 July – Around 1,000 motorcyclists clash with police in Keswick, Cumbria.
27 July
British Telecommunications Act separates British Telecom from the Royal Mail with effect from 1 October.
The two-month-old daughter of The Princess Anne and her husband Capt Mark Phillips is christened Zara Anne Elizabeth.
28 July – Margaret Thatcher blames IRA leaders for the recent IRA hunger striker deaths.
29 July – The wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer takes place at St Paul's Cathedral. More than 30 million viewers watch the wedding on television – the second highest television audience of all time in Britain.
August
Unknown date – Japanese carmaker Suzuki follows up the British success of its motorcycles by importing passenger cars to Britain for the first time, with first imported model being the Suzuki Alto, a small hatchback available with three or five doors and marketed as a competitor for the Mini and Citroen 2CV.
1 August – Kevin Lynch becomes the seventh IRA hunger striker to die.
2 August – Within 24 hours of Kevin Lynch's death, Kieran Doherty becomes the eighth IRA hunger striker to die.
8 August – The IRA hunger strike claims its ninth hunger striker so far (and its third in a week) with the death of Thomas McElwee.
9 August – Broadmoor Hospital falls under heavy criticism after the escape of a second prisoner in three weeks. The latest absconder is 32-year-old Alan Reeve, a convicted double murderer.
17 August – An inquiry opens in the Moss Side riots.
20 August
The tenth IRA hunger striker, Michael Devine, dies in prison.
Inflation has fallen to 10.9% – the lowest under this government.
Minimum Lending Rate ceases to be set by the Bank of England.
24 August – Mark David Chapman is sentenced to 20 years to life in prison for killing John Lennon.
25 August – Britain's largest Enterprise Zone is launched on deindustrialised land on Tyneside.
26 August – Vauxhall launches the second generation Cavalier, built on General Motors J-Car platform, available for the first time with front-wheel drive and a hatchback.
27 August – Moira Stuart, 31, is appointed the BBC's first black newsreader.
September
September – Little Miss Bossy, the first book in the Little Miss series (of the female versions of Mr. Men) is first published.
1 September – Filling stations start selling motor fuel by the litre.
8 September
Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp set up by women who have walked from Cardiff to RAF Greenham Common to protest at plans to site US nuclear missiles there.
Sixteen Islington Labour councillors join the SDP following the defection of Labour MP Michael O'Halloran.
The first episode of the long-running and iconic sitcom Only Fools and Horses is broadcast on BBC1.
10 September – Another Enterprise Zone is launched, the latest being in Wakefield, West Yorkshire.
14 September – Cecil Parkinson is appointed chairman of the Conservative Party.
16 September – The children's series Postman Pat is first broadcast on BBC1.
17 September – A team of divers begins removing gold ingots worth £40 million from the wreck of HMS Edinburgh, sunk off the coast of Norway in 1942.
18 September – David Steel tells delegates at the Liberal Party conference to "go back to your constituencies and prepare for government", hopes of which are boosted by the fact that most opinion polls now show the SDP-Liberal Alliance in the lead.
21 September – Belize is granted independence
23 September – Vauxhall launch their successful replacement for the Cavalier Mk1 the Cavalier Mk2.
25 September – Ford announces that its best-selling Cortina will be discontinued next year and its replacement will be called the Sierra.
29 September – Football mourns the legendary former Liverpool manager Bill Shankly, who dies that day at the age of 68 after suffering a heart attack.
October
1 October – Bryan Robson, 24-year-old midfielder, becomes Britain's most expensive footballer in a £1.5million move from West Bromwich Albion to Manchester United.
3 October – Hunger strikes at the Maze Prison in Northern Ireland end after seven months. The final six hunger strikers have been without food for between 13 and 55 days.
5 October – Depeche Mode release their debut album Speak & Spell.
7 October – British Leyland launches the Triumph Acclaim, a four-door small family saloon built in collaboration with Japanese car and motorcycle giant Honda at the Cowley plant in Oxford. It is based on the Japanese Honda Ballade (not available in Britain), has front-wheel drive, is powered by a 1.3-litre 70 bhp petrol engine and is between the Ford Escort and Ford Cortina in terms of size.
10 October – Chelsea Barracks bombed by the Provisional Irish Republican Army, killing two people.
12 October – British Leyland announces the closure of three factories – a move which will cost nearly 3,000 people their jobs.
12 October – 22 December – Original run of Granada Television serial Brideshead Revisited.
13 October – Opinion polls show that Margaret Thatcher is still unpopular as Conservative leader due to her anti-inflationary economic measures, which have now come under fire from her predecessor Edward Heath.
15 October – Norman Tebbit tells fellow Conservative MPs: "I grew up in the thirties with an unemployed father. He didn't riot. He got on his bike and looked for work and he kept looking until he found it".
19 October
British Telecom announces that the telegram will be discontinued next year after 139 years in use.
Scottish Celtic footballer Johnny Doyle, 30, is accidentally electrocuted while building his new home.
22 October – The case of Dudgeon v United Kingdom is decided by the European Court of Human Rights, which rules that the continued existence of laws in Northern Ireland criminalising consensual gay sex is in contravention of the European Convention on Human Rights.
23 October – The Liberal-SDP Alliance tops a MORI poll on 40%, putting them ahead of Labour on 31% and the Conservatives on 27%.
24 October – CND anti-nuclear march in London attracts over 250,000 people.
26 October – Rock band Queen release their Greatest Hits compilation album; it becomes the all-time best-selling album in the United Kingdom.
29 October – A patient dies of pneumocystis pneumonia at the Royal Brompton Hospital, London. He is the first person (patient zero) in the UK to die of an AIDS related illness. An investigation by ITN in 2021 will identify him as John Eaddie of Bournemouth.
30 October – Nicholas Reed, chief of the Euthanasia charity Exit, is jailed for two-and-a-half years for aiding and abetting suicides.
November
1 November – British Leyland's 58,000-strong workforce begins a strike over pay.
2 November – The TV licence increases in price from £34 to £46 for a colour TV, and £12 to £15 for black and white.
13 November – The Queen opens the final phase of the Telford Shopping Centre, nearly a decade after development began on the first phase of what is now one of the largest indoor shopping centres in Europe in the Shropshire new town.
16 November – Production of the Vauxhall Astra commences in Britain at the Ellesmere Port plant in Cheshire. The Astra was launched a year ago but until now has been produced solely at the Opel plant in West Germany.
18 November – The England national football team beats Hungary 1–0 at Wembley Stadium to qualify for the World Cup in Spain next summer, with the only goal being scored by Ipswich Town striker Paul Mariner It is the first time they have qualified for the tournament since 1970.
23 November – 1981 United Kingdom tornado outbreak, the largest recorded tornado outbreak in European history.
25 November – A report into the Brixton Riots, which scarred inner-city London earlier this year, points the finger of blame at the social and economic problems which have been plaguing Brixton and many other inner-city areas across England.
26 November – Shirley Williams wins the Crosby by-election for the SDP, overturning a Conservative majority of nearly 20,000 votes.
December
8 December
Severe snow storms hit the UK as temperatures plummet to the lowest in any December on record since 1874 and the heaviest snow falls since 1878. The snow storms continue in waves until 26/27 December.
Arthur Scargill becomes leader of the National Union of Mineworkers.
9 December – Michael Heseltine announces a £95 million aid package for the inner cities.
11 December – Seer Green rail crash: a train crash in Seer Green near Gerrards Cross, Buckinghamshire kills four people and seriously injures five others. The crash was caused by a combination of the severe blizzards and human error.
12 December – The first case of AIDS in the UK is diagnosed.
19 December – An opinion poll shows that Margaret Thatcher is now the most unpopular postwar British prime minister and that the SDP-Liberal Alliance has the support of up to 50% of the electorate.
20 December – Penlee lifeboat disaster: The crew of the MV Union Star and the life-boat Solomon Browne sent to rescue them are all killed in heavy seas off Cornwall; some of the bodies are never found.
Undated
Inflation has fallen to 11.9%, the second lowest annual level since 1973, but has been largely achieved by the mass closure of heavy industry facilities that have contributed to the highest postwar levels of unemployment.
In spite of the continuing rise in employment, the British economy improves from 4% contraction last year to 0.8% overall growth this year.
First Urban Development Corporations set up in London Docklands and Merseyside.
First purpose-built Hindu temple in the British Isles formally opens in Slough.
The London department store Whiteleys closes, after 107 years in business.
Last manufacture of coal gas, at Millport, Isle of Cumbrae.
Perrier Comedy Awards first presented to the best shows on the Edinburgh Festival Fringe.
Suzuki, the Japanese manufacturer famous for producing motorcycles, imports passenger cars to the United Kingdom for the first time. The first model sold in Britain is the entry-level Alto, with the SJ four-wheel drive set to go on sale in 1982.
In spite of the continued rise in unemployment, the British economy improved with 1.8% overall growth for the year compared to 3% overall contraction in 1980.
New car sales in the United Kingdom fall to just over 1.4 million. The Ford Cortina enjoys its 10th year as Britain's best-selling car since 1967, while the new front-wheel drive Ford Escort is close behind in second place. British Leyland's new Metro is Britain's fourth most popular new car with nearly 100,000 sales. The Datsun Cherry, eighth in the sales charts, is the most popular foreign car in Britain this year.
Publications
Alasdair Gray's novel Lanark: A Life in Four Books.
Terry Pratchett's novel Strata.
Salman Rushdie's novel Midnight's Children.
D. M. Thomas' novel The White Hotel.
Roger Hargreaves' children's book Little Miss Bossy, first of the Little Miss series (of the female versions of Mr. Men).
Births
6 January – Andrew Britton, novelist (died 2008)
11 January
Jamelia, singer
Tom Meighan, singer and songwriter
19 January – Thaila Zucchi, singer and actress
22 January
Richard Butcher, footballer (died 2011)
Guy Wilks, rally driver
25 January – Alex Partridge, rower
29 January – Rachna Khatau, actress
30 January – Peter Crouch, footballer
31 January – Gemma Collins, media personality and businesswoman
1 February – Rob Austin, racing driver
8 February – Ralf Little, actor and footballer
9 February – Tom Hiddleston, actor
10 February – Holly Willoughby, television presenter
16 February – Alison Rowatt, Scottish field hockey midfielder
17 February – Andrew Stephenson, politician
27 March – Terry McFlynn, Northern Irish footballer
1 April – Hannah Spearritt, pop singer (S Club 7) and actress
3 April – Arfius Arf, artist
10 April – Liz McClarnon, pop singer (Atomic Kitten)
23 April – Gemma Whelan, actress and comedian
25 April – John McFall, paralympic sprinter
3 May – Charlie Brooks, actress
5 May – Craig David, singer
13 May – Luciana Berger, Labour Member of Parliament
15 May – Zara Phillips, equestrienne, daughter of Anne, Princess Royal
16 May
Joseph Morgan, actor
Jim Sturgess, actor
17 May – Leon Osman, footballer
20 May – Sean Conlon, musician (5ive)
22 May – Sara Pascoe, writer and comedian
26 May – James Wong, ethnobotanist, broadcaster and garden designer
29 May – Rochelle Clark, English rugby union player
9 June
Helen Don-Duncan, English backstroke swimmer
Alex Neil, Scottish football player and manager
Anoushka Shankar, sitar player
11 June – Alistair McGregor, Scottish field hockey goalkeeper
23 June – Antony Costa, singer
25 June – Sheridan Smith, actress
27 June – Sam Hoare, actor and director
28 June – Joanne Ellis, field hockey midfielder
30 June – Tom Burke, actor
9 July – Jamie Thomas King, actor
14 July – Lee Mead, actor and singer
8 August – Bradley McIntosh, pop singer (S Club 7)
11 August – Sandi Thom, Scottish singer & songwriter
17 August
Johnny Mercer, army officer and Conservative Member of Parliament
Chris New, actor
20 August – Ben Barnes, actor (Prince Caspian)
27 August – Olivia Lee, comedian, actress and writer
28 August – Kezia Dugdale, Scottish Labour leader
2 September – Chris Tremlett, cricketer
3 September – Fearne Cotton, television presenter
7 September – Natalie McGarry, SNP Member of Parliament convicted of embezzlement
11 September – Mark Rhodes, singer, runner up from Pop Idol (series 2) and TV host
15 September – Richard Alexander, English field hockey defender
16 September – David Mitchell, Scottish field hockey defender
21 September – Sarah Whatmore, English singer-songwriter
23 September – Helen Richardson, field hockey defender
29 September – Suzanne Shaw, actress and singer (Hear'Say)
1 October – Deborah James, journalist and cancer campaigner (died 2022)
9 October – Rupert Friend, actor, producer and screenwriter
10 October – Stinson Hunter, filmmaker and journalist
13 October
Ryan Ashford, footballer
Kele Okereke, singer and guitarist (Bloc Party)
25 October – Shaun Wright-Phillips, footballer
31 October – Kate Granger, physician and fundraiser (died 2016)
7 November – George Pilkington, footballer
13 November – Tom Ferrier, racing driver
15 November – Jared O'Mara, politician and fraudster
17 November – Sarah Harding, pop singer (Girls Aloud) (died 2021)
20 November
Scott Hutchison, Scottish singer, songwriter and guitarist (died 2018)
Andrea Riseborough, actress
26 November – Natasha Bedingfield, singer
27 November – Gary Lucy, actor and model
29 November – Tom Hurndall, photographer (died 2004)
30 November – Lisa Head, soldier (died 2011)
1 December – Kathryn Drysdale, actress
15 December
Michelle Dockery, actress
Victoria Summer, actress
21 December – Sajid Mahmood, English cricketer
28 December – Frank Turner, punk and folk singer-songwriter
29 December – Charlotte Riley, actress
Undated – Sunjeev Sahota, novelist
Deaths
3 January – Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone, member of the royal family (born 1883)
6 January – A. J. Cronin, Scottish novelist (born 1896)
9 January – William MacTaggart, Scottish artist (born 1903)
16 January – Bernard Lee, actor (born 1908)
20 January – Derick Heathcoat-Amory, 1st Viscount Amory, politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (1958–1960) (born 1899)
11 February – Franz Sondheimer, German-born British-Israeli chemist (born 1926)
12 February – Bruce Fraser, 1st Baron Fraser of North Cape, admiral in both World Wars (born 1888)
6 March – George Geary, English cricketer (born 1893)
11 March – Sir Maurice Oldfield, intelligence chief (born 1915)
14 March – Ken Barrington, English cricketer (born 1930)
23 March
Sir Claude Auchinleck, field marshal (born 1884; died in Morocco)
Mike Hailwood, motorcycle racer (car crash) (born 1940)
29 March – Clive Sansom, British-born Australian poet (born 1910)
31 March – Enid Bagnold, author and playwright (born 1889)
16 April – George Cambridge, 2nd Marquess of Cambridge, member of the royal family (born 1895)
5 May
Sir Martin Lindsay, 1st Baronet, polar explorer and Army colonel (born 1905)
Bobby Sands, volunteer in the Provisional Irish Republican Army and member of parliament (born 1954; died in 1981 Irish hunger strike)
6 May – Gordon Parry, film director (born 1908)
9 May – Ralph Allen, footballer (born 1906)
23 May – Donald Macintyre, Royal Navy captain and historian (born 1904)
24 May – Jack Warner, actor (born 1895)
28 May – John Bryan Ward-Perkins, archaeologist (born 1912)
31 May – Barbara Ward, Baroness Jackson of Lodsworth, economist and writer (born 1914)
15 June – Philip Toynbee, author and communist (born 1916)
17 June – Sir Richard O'Connor, Army general (born 1889)
27 June – Gordon Fraser, publisher (born 1911)
10 August – Sir Alan Lascelles, courtier and civil servant (born 1887)
19 August – Jessie Matthews, actress, singer and dancer (born 1907)
26 August – Peter Eckersley, television producer (born 1936)
7 September – Kathleen Guthrie, artist (born 1905)
8 September – Bill Shankly, Scottish-born football manager (born 1913)
11 September – Harold Bennett, actor (born 1898)
14 September – Mary Potter, painter (born 1900)
21 September – Nigel Patrick, actor (born 1912)
23 September – Sam Costa, crooner, radio actor and disc jockey (born 1910)
27 September – Sir Stanley Davidson, physician (born 1894)
12 October – Robert McKenzie, political analyst (born 1917)
19 October – Johnny Doyle, Scottish footballer (accident) (born 1951)
22 October – David Cecil, 6th Marquess of Exeter, peer and Olympic athlete (born 1905)
26 October – Kenneth Howorth, Metropolitan Police officer (killed by IRA bomb) (born 1932)
27 October – John Warburton, actor (born 1903)
22 November – Sir Hans Adolf Krebs, German-born British physician and biochemist and Nobel laureate (born 1900)
7 December – Gordon Rattray Taylor, author and journalist (born 1911)
13 December – Cornelius Cardew, composer and musician (born 1936)
See also
List of British films of 1981
References
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Langley%20National%20Historic%20Site
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Fort Langley National Historic Site
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Fort Langley National Historic Site, commonly shortened to Fort Langley, is a former fur trading post of the Hudson's Bay Company in the community of Fort Langley of Langley, British Columbia, Canada. The national historic site sits above the banks of the Bedford Channel across McMillan Island. The national historic site contains a visitor centre and a largely reconstructed trading post that contains ten structures surrounded by wooden palisades.
Fort Langley was initially established in 1827 in present-day Derby. The fort's operations were later relocated to present-day Langley with the new fort completed in 1839. However, the new fort would be rebuilt in the following year, after a fire ravaged the trading post. The fort continued to see use by the Hudson's Bay Company until 1886, when the company ceased to operate the site as a trading post.
By the 1920s, only one building remained at the site, the fort's storehouse. The site was later acquired by the Government of Canada in 1923 and designated as a National Historic Site of Canada. The historic site operates as a learning resource for the North American fur trade in the 19th century, with the fort's storehouse having been reopened as a museum in 1931. The fort's other structures and palisades were reconstructed by Parks Canada in the latter half of the 20th century.
Background
Before Fort Langley was established, the area of the Fraser Valley has been home to the Sto:lo people for millennia. The Sto:lo people used the Fraser River as a major source of resources and enabled them to travel and interact with neighbouring Indigenous communities. The area of the Fraser Valley is described as being “one of the most economically productive regions of the Pacific Northwest” pre-contact. Within this area, the Sto:lo people developed highly complex social hierarchies, artistic traditions, and architecture. As the Royal Proclamation of 1763 affirmed the property rights of First Nations throughout British North America, the land belonged to the Sto:lo nation, and without signing nation to nation treaties between the British government and the Sto:lo, settler or company occupation of the land was illegal.
After John Jacob Astor's Pacific Fur Company sold its assets in the Oregon Country to the North West Company following the War of 1812, Astor's Fort Astoria was renamed Fort George and became the main depot for Pacific interior trade. Pelts collected in the northern New Caledonia district travelled south along the Fraser River to Fort Alexandria, then overland via a route known as the Brigade Trail to Fort Okanagan then along the Columbia River to Fort George on the coast. The Oregon Country/Columbia District was shared between the British and Americans as a result of the Treaty of 1818, but the treaty was to expire in 1828 and since Fort George stood on the south side of the Columbia River, it would likely be awarded to the United States in any boundary agreement.
After the North West Company merged with the Hudson's Bay Company in 1821, the HBC administrator George Simpson suggested the creation of Fort Vancouver on the northern bank of the Columbia, but that it serve as secondary post to a larger trade hub further north near the mouth of the Fraser River. Simpson felt such a location would help secure the coast from ocean-based American competition, and believed the Fraser to be more navigable than the Columbia River. He sent Chief Trader James McMillan to explore the region, and McMillan proposed an area near the Salmon River suitable to agriculture, and where fish were plentiful.
History
First location
James McMillan returned to the Fraser River with 24 men, including four Iroquois, two Native Hawaiian Kanaka, and one Métis worker, in 1827 to begin the construction of Fort Langley (named for Thomas Langley, a prominent HBC director) from the mouth of the Fraser River. The construction of this fort represented the first permanent contact of European settlers with Indigenous peoples on the Fraser River. This site was not the same as today's fort, but 4 km to the northwest at what was known by local Indigenous people as snaqʷaməx, and later called Old Fort Langley and finally renamed Derby in 1858 (now only farmland). But when they arrived at the end of July, five of the men were incapacitated with gonorrhea, another with "venereal disease", and all the horses were either dead, crippled, or exhausted. Despite these setbacks and the heavy brambles at the site, the remaining 19 men began to clear the land in preparation for the fort. The men at the fort were entirely at the mercy of the Sto:lo people, as they lacked the skills and knowledge to survive off of the land. To ensure lasting economic relationships with the Sto:lo, the men at the fort were encouraged to take Sto:lo women as their wives. The economic and social patterns adopted by the settlers post-contact illustrates their dependency on the Sto:lo (the original inhabitants of the land). Potatoes were planted in a garden during the establishment of Fort Langley. The first bastion was built by mid-August in order to defend against another attack by the Sto:lo, a second at the end of the month, and the palisade walls were completed in early September. Some of the Hudson's Bay men were nervous about the Indigenous people of the Fraser, and the bastions were completed first "to command respect in the eyes of the Indians, who begin, shrewdly, to conjecture for what purpose the Ports and loopholes are intended." After the stockade was complete only Indigenous people with furs were allowed past the gate. A number of buildings were built through autumn, and Fort Langley was officially completed on November 26. Native laborers resided in a camp a short distance from the station.
During the first few years, trade in furs with the Stó:lō, the Indigenous people (Fraser River), was surprisingly poor from the HBC point of view. Firstly, traders from Boston controlled most of the Maritime Fur Trade, travelling along the coast by boat. Such strong competition kept the price of pelts very high, much higher than Hudson's Bay was paying elsewhere. McMillan was advised by his superiors to intentionally undersell Americans in order to force them out of the region and assure a monopoly for the HBC. This came in the form of a trade tariff on that Indigenous people that they identified as a trading disadvantage where five beaver skins were required to receive one two-and-a-half point HBC blanket. Second, Indigenous people living along the river were not particularly interested in hunting or trapping, since they lived primarily on salmon. The Stó:lō initiated trade of salmon with the HBC, which would later become an important export of the Fort. As they had little contact with Europeans, they were quite self-sufficient and not in serious need of European goods. In the first year, guns were in high demand by the Stó:lō to fend off attacks from the Laich-kwil-tach, but when this threat died down, firearms became mainly symbolic yet infrequent items of trade. 1829 and 1831 were the most successful years for the fort's fur trading operations, each year netting 2,500 skins. Salmon pickling was begun by staff of the fort, creating nearly 300 barrels in 1831.
Also a disappointment to the HBC was Simpson's discovery that the Fraser was not as navigable as he had imagined. Along with Archibald McDonald (who would later replace McMillan at Fort Langley), Simpson travelled from York Factory to Fort St. James, the centre of trade for New Caledonia, before assembling a group of men (including James Murray Yale, who would later replace McMillan) to descend the Fraser towards Fort Langley. Their party found that travel down the Fraser was relatively easy until it forked with the Thompson River, after which the powerful rapids and sheer cliffs convinced Simpson the passage would be "certain Death, in nine attempts out of Ten." At least some part of the journey from the north would have to be made overland to bypass the Fraser Canyon and Hell's Gate.
Second location
As part of its plan to rid itself of American competition, the HBC sought to corner the market in Alaska by securing a monopoly on trade with the Russian American Company in 1839. McMillan went to many lengths to ensure that the Indigenous people were kept at a distance during the construction of the second fort. The location of the fort was moved four kilometres upstream in 1839 and changed its focus to farming, fish, and cranberry harvesting, rather than the fur trade. Although the fort was completed in 1839, a fire destroyed much of the fort in 1840 necessitating its reconstruction once again.
Trading was now only allowed through a wicket, with sentries posted on the second story. In 1840 the farm had "potatoes abundant" along with 750 bushels of wheat, 500 bushels of oats and 600 bushels of peas. Catholic Missionary Modeste Demers traveled to Fort Langley and performed religious services for the staff and neighboring Indigenous, baptising over 700 children in 1841. Despite baptizing many, white men would still administer beatings to Indigenous people who did not behave in a colonially respectful manner.
Due to its strategic location on the northern boundary of the Oregon Territory of the U.S. and in the path of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush, Fort Langley grew dramatically. It played a key role in the establishment of the 49th parallel as the international boundary with the U.S. and was the staging point for prospectors heading up the Fraser Canyon in search of their fortune. The gold rush represented a turning point for many of the Indigenous peoples of the Fraser Valley who experienced a loss of their trading relationship with the HBC and encroachment onto their land by settlers. Non-native settlement on the Fraser river compromised Indigenous access to their traditional fishing sites and land, leading to a disruption in the regularity of their traditional practices. Moreover, legal restrictions on the trade of Indigenous catch made it difficult for the Stó:lo to trade fish to make a living.
The social and political consequences of this influx of adventurers led the British Parliament to establish a crown colony on the Pacific Mainland. While some might have projected Fort Langley as the capital of the newly created colony, Colonial military commander, Colonel Moody of the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, deemed it militarily indefensible and ordered the construction of New Westminster on the high north bank of the Fraser River many miles downstream due to its much more defensible position. On 19 November 1858, the proclamation that established the Colony of British Columbia was read out by James Douglas, who was named the colony's first governor. Douglas made the proclamation on his journey upriver to confront American miners in the wake of the Fraser Canyon War as a pre-emptive move to forestall any drives for annexation to the US.
The decline of the fort over the next 30 years was attributed to three factors. First, the advent of paddle wheelers on the Fraser meant that river traffic was extended to Fort Hope and Fort Yale. Second, the capital of the colony was established at New Westminster, British Columbia and later moved to Victoria. Finally, competition for goods and services undercut the monopoly the Hudson's Bay Company had formerly enjoyed. In 1886, Fort Langley ceased to be a company post.
Conversion to a National Historic Site
In 1923, the Canadian government designated Fort Langley as a National Historic Site and erected a commemorative plaque near the storehouse. At this time, the site consisted only of the one building and of land. From 1931 to 1956, the Native Sons and Daughters of British Columbia operated a museum out of the storehouse. Parks Canada took control of the site in 1955, and a joint Federal-Provincial program reconstructed three buildings in time for the centennial of the founding of British Columbia in 1958. In 1978, the site became a national historic park, and has consisted of 8.5 hectares (21 acres) since 1985.
In 2019, the students of Langley Fine Arts School worked alongside the community members of the Kwantlen Nation as a part of the project This is Kwantlen, to increase Indigenous representation in Fort Langley. Photographs and biographies of Kwantlen First Nation members were displayed outside of the Fort Langley National Historic Site and throughout Fort Langley during April and May 2019.
Grounds
The national historic site is situated where the second Fort Langley was built in 1839, above the banks of the Bedford Channel across from McMillan Island. The grounds of the historic site is approximate . The national historic site initially comprised when it was acquired by the federal government in 1924; although the property grew in size in subsequent decades, including two major expansions. The site was first expanded during the 1950s with the reconstruction of several buildings, in conjunction with British Columbia's centennial; and again during the 1990s.
Ten structures are situated inside the palisades of the fort, although the only structure that dates back to the 19th century is the fort's storehouse. The other nine buildings in the fort are reconstructions of the fort's original structures, built during the 20th century. However, the grounds of the historic site does contain the archeological remains and remnants of structures dating to the 19th century fort. Most buildings are used to provide interpretive services for visitors, although two buildings within the fort are also used for maintenance and artifact storage.
In addition to structures built inside the fort, the site also contains a visitor centre, built in 1997 outside the palisades of the fort.
Bastion and palisades
The fort is bounded by timber palisades. The location of the fort's original palisades were identified through archaeological investigation in the years after the fort was designated a national historic site in 1923. A two-storey bastion built out of logs and topped with a pyramid-shaped roof is built along the northeast palisades walls. The northeast bastion is a small irregularly shaped square windows and two doors are situated on its second level, providing access to the wall's galleries. The northeast bastion was rebuilt in 1957. As a reconstruction, the bastion's designation as a Federal Heritage Building is confined to the building's footprint.
Buildings
The fort's storehouse is a rectangular one and a half storey building with a hipped roof. The storehouse is the only remaining structure that dates back to the original fur trading fort. It was rebuilt in the 1840s after a fire which destroyed a similar building in 1839, and was the only building which survived the demise of the Fort as an active trading post. The Mavis family, who later purchased the land, used it as a barn for a number of years, until Fort Langley was recognized as a site of historic significance in 1923.
Many of the other buildings at the fort are reconstructions. The Big House is a reconstructed two-storey log-structure erected in 1958, and is the largest building enclosed within the palisades of the fort. The exterior of the log-hewn structure is whitewashed. The Big House is a reconstruction of the living quarters of James Murray Yale and his wife; and William Henry Newton and his wife, Emmaline (Tod) Newton
The servants' quarters is a one-and-a-half storey rectangular timber structure with a whitewashed exterior, and is covered with a hipped roof; also reconstructed in 1958. The servants' quarters portrays the living conditions of three different HBC employees. The building was used to display barrel-making until 1992, when the display was moved to the newly built cooperage. The servants' quarters and the Big House were both erected using the Red River frame construction method. The Big House and servants' quarters designation as a Federal Heritage Building is confined to the building's footprint.
The blacksmith shop was first built in 1973, and then rebuilt in 1975. It features a working forge and live demonstrations of blacksmithing. The cooperage was built in 1992, slightly south of the original, and features all the required tools for barrel making and other woodworking. The Depot was reconstructed in 1997 and is mainly used as an exhibition area and administration building. The original building would have been used as a supply depot for shipments in and out of the Fort.
See also
List of forts
List of fur trading post and forts in North America
List of museums in British Columbia
Notes
References
External links
Langley, British Columbia (district municipality)
Langley
History of British Columbia
Oregon Country
Open-air museums in Canada
Museums in British Columbia
Hudson's Bay Company forts
National Historic Sites in British Columbia
1827 establishments in the British Empire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%20Cetera%20%28manga%29
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Et Cetera (manga)
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is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Tow Nakazaki. It was licensed in English by Tokyopop. The first volume was released in August 2004; the final volume was published in April 2007.
Story
Mingchao is an orphaned Chinese girl living in an alternate version of the American West. When her grandfather passes away, she inherits the Eto gun, a strange-looking weapon that at first appears broken. On her way home one day, she finds a priest unconscious out in the desert, and so she decides to rescue him. The priest introduces himself as Baskerville, and he becomes curious about her gun. As she tries to hand it to him to let him see it, the gun falls into her rabbit stew. At that moment they are confronted by a bandit who threatens to kill them, but Mingchao uses the Eto gun to shoot him, not realizing the gun was functional. Baskerville notices how the bullet hopped around like a rabbit before hitting the bandit, and believes this gun is something special.
Thus begins a journey that reveals the many mysteries of the Eto gun, a weapon that uses the "essences" of the twelve animals of the Chinese zodiac to fire its bullets. The bullets mimic the behavior of each animal, making the Eto gun the most powerful gun in the West. It doesn't take long for it to catch the attention of bandits and criminals, and most notably the Syndicate, an underground organization that deals in narcotics. As Mingchao learns more about the Eto gun, it becomes apparent this family heirloom has a dark history, and so she travels across the country to discover the truth behind its creation. Along the way, she and Baskerville befriend a fanatic gun collector, two Native Americans, and an enemy turned ally. Their road is paved with adventure, heartache and betrayal, and the joys of friendship. In the end, Mingchao must make a difficult choice: Protect her newfound friends, or protect what she once thought was lost—the last living member of her family.
Characters
Mingchao
is an ambitious girl who dreams of becoming a star in Hollywood. Her grandfather created the mysterious Eto gun, which she can fire with the number XII that was accidentally branded on her palm when she was younger. Mingchao has a kind, carefree personality, and can show outstanding courage when her friends are in danger. She is also incredibly fortunate to where Benkate has dubbed her as having the "Devil's Luck" due to her ability to narrowly avoid death or injury. She refuses to kill any person, and often stops others from killing their enemies, no matter how bad they are. This stems from her belief that it is sad whenever someone dies, and that killing someone would make her as bad as the murdering scoundrels she frowns upon. She is very forgiving, even allowing Alternate, a former enemy, to join the group. Her demeanor makes her likable to others, and she builds friendships easily, even with people who dislike her at first. She shares a special bond with Baskerville (or, as she calls him, "Mr. Priest"), and cares about him deeply. She was the most heartbroken when it was everyone thought he had died, even when knowing he might've been using her. When it was discovered he was still alive, but had amnesia and was working for Blush, she was the only one who had any confidence he would regain his memory. She has never wavered in her faith that he's a good person, even when the others, and even Baskerville himself, didn't believe so. She was so ecstatic when he showed the first signs of remembering her that she didn't care that she was falling several dozen feet into a stormy, raging ocean, and she cried happy tears when they were reunited. It is implied several times that she may have romantic feeling towards him despite their obvious age gap, as pointed out by other characters such as Benkate and Luriele. The only real indication is she seems happiest when he's by her side.
When it became clear how many lives were being ruined by the Syndicate, Mingchao and her friends started trying to find a way to stop it. But it seemed the closer they got to discovering what the Syndicate was, the more it seemed Mingchao's family was connected to it somehow. When the gang reached Manhattan, they soon found themselves battered, injured, and in the heart of the Syndicate, face to face with its leader "Gothic". To Mingchao's horror, he reveals himself as her father. Her father then gloated about his dark, underground exploits and how great it was he'd gained so much power. Mingchao, appalled that she shared this man's blood, grew enraged by his callous referrals to all the misery he caused. Her rage and sadness only amplified when Gothic, discovering his daughter didn't agree with him, mercilessly attacked her comrades. Desperate to stop him, Mingchao, with Baskerville's help, shot him with the Eto gun's powerful dragon bullet and he fell to his death. This made Gothic the first, and probably only, life she willingly took. She had to because she'd lose the people she cared about if she didn't. At the series' end, Mingchao goes off to continue following her dream of achieving stardom, and to her great joy, Baskerville decides to join her.
Baskerville
After Mingchao saves him from vultures, introduces himself as a traveling priest. He displays a deadly prowess with throwing knives. When it is shown that his "Bible" actually carries information on the Eto gun, it becomes obvious his goals are much darker than those of a simple missionary. At first he seems to only be using Mingchao to get the Eto gun, but this changes as he begins to care about her. It is later revealed his real name is } and he had been a member of The Syndicate, a shady organization that sells drugs and seeks to gather unique guns. The guns they want the most are the Eto and Zodiac guns. It is later shown that Baskerville lost his parents at a young age, leaving him to care for his younger sister, Chisel, whom he doted on. When Chisel fell ill, he joined the Syndicate out of desperation so he could get medicine for her. He gained a reputation as a ruthless killer who showed no mercy, even to children, all for the sake of his sister's health. However, the medicine he was receiving turned out to be a dangerous narcotic that if abused could over time rot the body from the inside out. By the time he learned this it was already too late for Chisel. After Chisel's death, he took on an identity as a wandering priest and started plotting to find and use the Eto gun to kill the Syndicate boss and avenge Chisel. The cross he wears identifies him as a Syndicate member with the engraving of a bride in a wedding dress on the back; however, he now wears the cross in memory of Chisel, as it had been a gift from her. He grows to be devoted to Mingchao; he hates seeing her hurt or cry, and he has wept at the thought of her dying. Because of his affection for her, it becomes a running gag in the series. He is often accused of having a "Lolita-complex", usually by Benkate, and the issue is the subject of a few omakes. Despite his criminal past, he's proven to be a very caring individual. He never goes back on his word once he promises something, and doesn't hesitate to put his life on the line to save his friends, and even people he doesn't know well.
After risking his life to save Mingchao and the others from Gordy, he suffers memory loss when Gordy's gold mine collapses on him, and is later found by Cavanaugh and taken in by Blush. His head injury caused him to suffer from intense headaches that seemed to worsen over time, and Blush starts to offer Baskerville "medicine" for his headaches to make him do his bidding. Unfortunately for Baskerville, he doesn't remember the medicine is the same drug that led his sister to her death. Eventually, Baskerville becomes so dependent on the addictive narcotic that he starts becoming a mental wreck. He begins following even the most dangerous of Blush's demands to get the "medicine", such as picking up a heated Eto gun from a burning furnace. This ended up branding his hand, enabling him to fire the gun. When he regains his memories, he stops experiencing headaches and stops relying on the drug. Later he's able to rejoin Mingchao and the others. In the final battle he is given a powerful dose of opium to numb the pain of his injuries so he can help Mingchao. The dose was so powerful that his lifespan is likely shortened. He decides to live out the rest of his life traveling alongside Mingchao and dedicating himself to helping others whose lives have been ruined by the Syndicate.
Benkate
is a collector of exotic guns. She enters the series having 99 guns in her possession, with a fierce desire to make the Eto gun, and later the Zodiac, the 100th and 101st guns in her collection. Many of her guns are concealed, some of which are even a part of her own clothing, so she is almost never unarmed. Her favorites include two gun earrings, gun boots, a gun designed to look like a cat, a three-barreled multi-directional pistol, and a powerful seven-foot-long folding rifle. She crossed paths with Baskerville in the past while they were looking for the same gun, though she was never aware of his real name or his ties to the Syndicate. Apparently the conflict resulted in the two having hostile feelings towards each other, until Mingchao forced them to work together. At first glance she's a tall, skinny, somewhat masculine woman with a ruthless disposition who shows no mercy towards anyone who gets between her and a gun she wants, but overtime she shows a more caring side. Like Baskerville, she begins to care about Mingchao as she learns the girl's more endearing and admirable qualities. Her relationship with Baskerville also softens, with the two of them eventually talking like old friends that like to annoy each other but at the same time respect each other. Despite themselves, they work well together, and Benkate likes to flirt with Baskerville and tease him. She is often paired with Yaghi when the group splits up and has protected him on many occasions.
She made a promise with Mingchao to never kill again after Mingchao saved her life. She started off in the series having long, bushy hair tied back with a ponytail, but when she gets captured and held hostage, her hair gets hacked off by Cavanaugh. Benkate later expresses annoyance with her new, shorter haircut, though is grateful that she and everyone else is alive. After the series ends she loses her desire for the Eto and Zodiac guns, and instead goes off to search for another gun that might be worthy of holding the 100th place in her collection.
Fino
is a teenage Native American girl who wields the Zodiac gun, which uses the essences of the Constellations. At first she doesn't trust Mingchao or the others, but later accepts them as friends. It is later revealed that her distrust of white people comes from when she met Blush as a small child. Her people found Blush in bad shape and Fino helped nurse him back to health. He'd been kind to her and her people and learned about their ways. But when Fino's parents refused to talk about the tribe's sacred treasure, Blush proceeded to murder them in cold blood with his guns, leaving the two children orphans. After that, she grew bitter and developed a hatred for guns and white men, thinking that no one could be trusted except her own people. Ever since then she's wanted revenge against Blush for deceiving her and ruining her family. She is the most cautious of the group and has a hard time trusting others. She is also a vegetarian.
She had been opposed to Alternate joining the team because he'd been so easily deceived by Blush. It wasn't until he saved her and the others from a monopolizing gang that she finally accepted him. He saves her yet again from Cavanaugh, taking a direct hit from the Eto gun in the process. At one point, she makes him an Indian-styled outfit after his shirt had been ruined. She and Alternate both share a common goal of wanting to bring Blush to justice. After the Syndicate is dissolved, she decides to travel with Alternate to track down Blush.
Yaghi
is Fino's younger brother. He is more trusting and outgoing than his sister. He's very adventurous and cares about his sister a lot. After Benkate saves his life, he starts hanging around her more and looks up to her, and she in turn looks out for him. An omake drawn by one of Nakazaki's assistants shows that Yaghi dreams of one day making Benkate his wife, though he fears his sister wouldn't approve. Yaghi is very talkative and friendly to other people, which makes him likable to others. However, he is sometimes too trusting, as once he allowed the Zodiac to be taken away while his sister was taking a bath. Yaghi is also incredibly brave for his age and is willing to do anything for people he cares about, though this causes worry for Fino since it puts him at risk of being hurt. A testament to his bravery is how he willingly stayed behind with Benkate to help her hold off a band of hooligans in order to let Mingchao and the others get away, despite the danger it put him in. At the end of the series he went with Fino and Alternate to return to his village.
Alternate
is the first recurring antagonist, who later becomes a hero. He is intelligent and a decent gunman, and is identified by the monocle he wears over his left eye. He wants to get his hands on the Eto gun, and makes several failed attempts to do so. His father, Gordy, a member of the Syndicate, is betrayed and murdered by fellow member Blush. Blush then told Alternate that Mingchao had done it. He becomes obsessed with revenge and is tricked into obeying Blush. Upon learning Blush was the true killer, Alternate assists the others in saving Mingchao from Blush. From then on he vows to find and punish Blush for what he did. When he wants to join the others, all seem to oppose the idea except Mingchao. After rescuing Fino, Yaghi, and Big, the others accept him as well.
Alternate had a very lonely life, as he was almost the polar opposite of Mingchao. He would lie, cheat, and hurt people to get what he wanted. Because of this, he had never had a single friend. However, like many of the other characters, he begins to change under Mingchao's influence, and his true personality eventually comes out. He is somewhat insecure, partly due to guilt and a disbelief that he'll be forgiven for all the trouble he caused. But he has proven to be brave in the face of danger, willing put his life on the line to defend his friends. He saves Fino's life twice, once taking a bullet in the chest from the Eto gun for her. She seems to reciprocate these feelings at least in part, when she makes him a new shirt after his old one is ruined. She also expresses worry after he is injured saving her. He goes off with Fino and Yaghi when the gang splits up at the end.
Blush
is a member of the Syndicate. He is sneaky, manipulative, and cruel. He killed Fino's parents as well as Gordy, Alternate's father, and tricked Alternate into thinking that Mingchao had done it. He used both Alternate and Baskerville to try to get his way, but ultimately did not succeed as he was later duped by Cavanaugh. He despises Cavanaugh despite her being his superior in the Syndicate. He claims she took credit for one of his reports and stole his bonus. After she tricks him he tries to bring her down, even when it meant helping out Mingchao briefly. He is noted for his ability to fire up to twelve bullets at once with his two guns.
Blush disappears after Cavanaugh's attack on the ship heading for New York. At the end of the story, an omake by one of Nakazaki's assistants jokes that Blush was killed by the giant energy wave created by the Eto gun's dragon bullet.
Concept art shows a female version of Blush, as Tow Nakazaki had been unsure whether he wanted Blush to be male or female. He eventually settled on a male character.
Cavanaugh P. Script
is a high-ranking member of the Syndicate and considered to be one of the most feared and cruel of them all. She at first appears to be an authoritative figure with the ability to hold a stern hand over her peers, but she is sadistic, calculating, and controlling. She becomes increasingly sociopathic and violent as the story progresses, and her obsession with killing Mingchao and her companions escalates. She had found Baskerville after he'd lost his memory. After Blush took him and she discovered Baskerville could fire the Eto gun, she sought to bring him to her side. She used a concentrated form of a potent drug to convince Baskerville to do her bidding, though he defected after his memory returned. She loses her right eye in a train accident resulting from a gunfight between herself, Baskerville, and Mingchao's friends. Following the injury she swears revenge against them for scarring her face. She brands XII into her palm so she is able to use the Eto gun, though the brand later gets destroyed when her hand is scarred by a shot from the Zodiac gun. She is killed after falling from a high flight of stairs in a battle with Mingchao and her friends.
Gothic
Gothic is the boss of the Syndicate as well as Mingchao's father. He wants to rule all of the United States in revenge for the death of his wife, Mingchao's mother, who died because she couldn't get proper medical treatment as a Chinese immigrant in America. He bleached his hair, damaged his vocal cords to change his voice, and wore a mask to disguise that he was actually Chinese. Mingchao declares that neither he nor she should exist, and he is the first and probably only life she takes, if only to put a stop to the misery he's caused others. He is ultimately killed by the Eto gun's dragon bullet.
The Eto Gun and the Zodiac
Hypothetical Bullets
Fans writing to Tow Nakazaki came up with ideas for other bullets, such as firing two different bullets to create a combined bullet. For instance, a Pegasus bullet could be created using bird and horse bullets, and Virgo with a snake bullet would create a mermaid bullet. Snake bullets were also a popular discussion, with an idea of combining the Eto gun's snake with the Zodiac's serpent (Ophiuchus, which wasn't included in its repertoire). These were among several ideas presented by fans.
One of Nakazaki's assistants wished a cat bullet had been included as well.
Release
Et Cetera was licensed for an English-language release in North America by Tokyopop, which released the nine volumes from August 10, 2004, to April 10, 2007. The series has gone out of print. The series is also licensed in French by Glénat.
Volume list
Reception
The first volume placed 77th on the list of the 100 bestselling graphic novels for July 2004, with 1630 copies sold.
References
External links
Manga series
Shōnen manga
Tokyopop titles
Kodansha manga
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMCS%20Prince%20David
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HMCS Prince David
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HMCS Prince David was one of three Canadian National Steamships passenger liners that were converted for the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN), first to armed merchant cruisers at the beginning of Second World War, then infantry landing ships (medium) or anti-aircraft escort. For three years, they were the largest ships in the RCN.
The three 'Prince' ships were a unique part of Canada's war effort: taken out of mercantile service, converted to armed merchant cruisers, two of them (Prince David and ) were reconfigured to infantry landing ships and one () to an anti-aircraft escort; all three ships were paid off at war's end and then returned to mercantile service.
In the early part of the war, as armed merchant cruisers equipped with antique guns and very little armour, Prince David and her sisters were sent to hunt enemy submarines and surface ships, tasks better suited to warships. As the needs of the RCN changed, so were the 'Prince' ships able to adapt to new roles. Their flexibility offered the RCN greater scope and balance in its operations. They did not function as did the bulk of the Canadian fleet: no rushing back and forth across the ocean, cold and damp, chained to 50 degrees North. Prince David and her sisters, each with two separate employments, roamed most of the navigable world forming a little navy apart.
Passenger ship (1930–1939)
West Coast service
Three ships, Prince David, and were ordered in 1929 from Cammell Laird & Co. by the Canadian National Railways subsidiary CN Steamships to operate as small luxury liners on the West Coast of Canada. The specifications for all three ships had been identical: three decks, three funnels, cruiser sterns and accommodation for 300 passengers. Each had cost $2,000,000 at completion and with a speed of , they were among the fastest ships in the Canadian registry. Named after David E. Galloway, a vice president of Canadian National Steamships, Prince David arrived on the West Coast in the summer of 1930 and was put on the Vancouver – Victoria – Seattle daily service.
However, the decline in trade due to the Depression had made it impractical for all three ships to operate in British Columbia waters.
West Indies service
In 1932, Prince David and Prince Henry were sent back east to join the Canada – West Indies service. While on a voyage south, Prince David ran aground on the North-East Breaker at Bermuda on 13 March 1932 and remained hard aground for six months. Salvagers determined that the cheapest course was to turn her back to her owners, Canadian National Steamships, who eventually got her off, refitted her and sent her back for another four years' service. Prince David was laid up at Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1937.
By the late 1930s, and with war looming, the Canadian chief of the Naval Staff had designated the three 'Prince' ships as candidates for conversion to armed merchant cruisers, for the task of convoy escort. During the protracted negotiations for the CN ships, all three vessels had been inspected by the Naval Service and specifications drawn up. It was recognized that the task of converting the fast liners would not be an easy one. Their hulls and engines were basically sound. Prince Robert, which had had no accidents and had been well maintained, was to present no problems. Her sister ships, on the other hand, were a different story: both were in need of major repairs.
Prince David was suffering from neglect, with a badly fouled hull, rotten deck planks and bulkheads rusted thin. Holes in the deck plating, crystallized valves and decrepit auxiliary engines augured an expensive refit as well as conversion.
Preparing for war
When Canada officially declared war on Nazi Germany, 10 September 1939, the Royal Canadian Navy consisted of six destroyers, five minesweepers, two training ships and a mobilized strength of 366 officers and 3,477 ratings including reservists. The Naval Service lost no time in making arrangements for the conversion of the 'Princes'.
The British Admiralty had been depositing defensive equipment in Canada between the wars in order to arm fast liners as AMCs in the event of hostilities. Twelve guns were made available to the RCN to start the AMC program. The 6-inch guns were manufactured as early as 1896 and fitted in the wing casemates of s launched between 1903 and 1905. They had no range-finding or fire-control equipment and had been designed to train over a small arc, which had to be reconfigured to travel about 300 degrees. Some guns designed for light cruisers and of a newer vintage (1916) were also made available. On 9 February 1940, work commenced on Prince David at Halifax Shipyards from plans prepared by Messrs. Lambert, German and Milne of Montreal.
Armed merchant cruiser (1940–1943)
Substantial alterations were carried out at the Halifax Shipyard. The two top decks were cut away and light-cruiser superstructure was fitted, eliminating the boat deck cabins and lounges. The hull and deck were stiffened and some watertight subdivision added. All three ships suffered from the basic weakness of large cargo and accommodation compartments extending across their hulls.
Four 6-inch guns were fitted, one on each of the two decks forward and aft. Two 3-inch guns were fitted on the upper deck amidships, along with several light anti-aircraft machine guns. Two depth charge chutes were added to the stern, but no anti-submarine detection equipment was supplied. The three original stacks were replaced with two shorter, oval ones, which gave a decidedly more cruiser like appearance.
HMCS Prince David was commissioned with the pennant number F89 at Halifax on 28 December 1940, under the command of Captain W.B. Armit, RCNR.
Prince David, in company with Prince Henry, left Halifax on 12 January 1941 for work-ups off Bermuda. Crews of both ships were given a good introduction to the quick rolling characteristics of the 'Princes' during a stormy passage to Hamilton, Bermuda. Even as cruise ships, the three 'Princes' were known for their tendency to roll in heavy seas. As a gun platform, this was not an ideal trait and extra care and practice was needed to overcome the tendency to a quick rolling motion. Added to this was the age of the 6-inch guns themselves, which made it necessary to devote more care to the armament than was desirable in a hectic engagement.
West Indies Station
From early 1941, HMCS Prince David served as convoy escort from West Indies Station in Bermuda. On 1 April 1941, Prince David was ordered to patrol off of the Pará River. There she was to intercept two enemy merchant ships, the German Norderney and the Italian Monbaldo, which were preparing to sail. As Prince David steamed south, she was abruptly ordered to steer 025° at best possible speed and search along 's track.
Voltaire was a British AMC, in fact one of the RN's largest, and, like Prince David, she had been charged with the task of defending convoys and intercepting enemy shipping.
C-in-C America and West Indies had heard a German communiqué stating that Voltaire had been sunk by an auxiliary cruiser. Prince David increased her speed to and headed for Voltaires estimated position.
On 7 April, the Canadian ship entered a large oil patch. Small bits of charred wood, cloth and newspapers were found and sharks were seen. There was little doubt that a ship had gone down in the area. Two years later it was learned that the German auxiliary cruiser (Hilfskreuzer) had attacked Voltaire and Thors first salvo from outside Voltaires gun range had knocked out one of the British AMC's gun mounts, destroyed the bridge and put the wireless room out of action. After 2 hours of continuous shelling, the outgunned Voltaire began to sink. The German raider, which had fought successful actions with two other British merchant cruisers, rescued 197 officers and men from HMS Voltaire (72 crew members died in the action).
On 24 August, Prince David was ordered to rendezvous with , an 11,000 ton AMC. Their task was to patrol the central Atlantic to intercept enemy supply ships and raiders. At dawn, 29 August, before the rendezvous had taken place, Prince David sighted an unknown vessel. The vessel, which was seen stern on, in poor visibility, at a range of , was reported by Prince David to be a heavy cruiser, steering south-east at . She did not reply correctly to Prince Davids challenge and steamed off after 50 minutes.
Some rather fanciful stories arose from this brief encounter, and authorities were hard pressed to counter newspaper reports that Prince David had forced the to turn tail and run; some even classified the encounter as a shooting engagement. A press clipping sent from Vice Admiral Nelles to Captain Adams, apparently from a British newspaper, stated the following:
The identity of this ship remains a mystery. The Admiralty considered that she might be the afore-mentioned auxiliary cruiser Thor, but this raider had returned to Brest. Considering the location of German raiders at this period, it is unlikely that it was a ship of this kind and despite newspaper articles claiming otherwise, was not Admiral Hipper. HMCS Prince David probably sighted the U-boat supply ship Python or a supply ship for disguised raiders.
At the end of August Prince David came upon the 4,000 ton British merchantman St. Margaret wallowing towards Trinidad at , with engine trouble. When Prince David closed, the vessel's Master asked for the Canadian's Engineer Officer to come over to have a look, which he did, and reported he did not believe St. Margaret could make it. Bermuda was nearest land, west. Expecting that either U-boat or surface raider would sink her, if she did not founder first, Captain Adams decided to intervene, and took the merchantman in tow. St. Margaret was brought into Bermuda safely on 3 September.
The West Coast and Aleutian Campaign
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Prince David was transferred to Canada's West Coast to join her sister ships for a refit and upgrade of weapons. Now based in Esquimalt, they were to take up defensive duties in the Pacific Northeast, off British Columbia. As well as providing protection to shipping in the region, they were to reassure the public by their presence and satisfy American demands for a Canadian naval force in the area.
From 24 to 27 July 1942, Prince David participated in the filming of Commandos Strike at Dawn (some behind-the-scenes footage made during location filming in Canada is included in the CBC Television documentary "Canada's War in Colour").
After the Japanese occupation of Attu and Kiska in the Aleutian Islands, and fearing their attack posed a serious threat to the Northwest, a strong American naval force was deployed in Alaskan waters. Some estimates had put the Japanese naval strength at four 6-inch cruisers, eight destroyers and as many as eighteen submarines in the Aleutians. Late August 1942, Prince David, Prince Henry, Prince Robert and the corvettes and , were ordered to co-operate with American forces being transported to Kodiak. Operating under orders of the United States Navy, and designated as Force "D", they escorted convoys between Kodiak and Dutch Harbor (now Unalaska), Alaska as part of the Aleutian Islands campaign. Prince David and her sister ships made no actual contact with the enemy during their almost 3-month tour of duty in the northern waters. This was not to say, however, that the work was dull or uneventful. Seamen who were used to the open ocean seldom allow themselves to be impressed by anything the weather and navigational difficulties have to offer; but the men of the 'Prince' ships soon realized that whatever the perils of the North Atlantic, nothing compared with the sudden gales, erratic currents and uncharted shoals of the North Pacific. In 1942, the Canadian ships were equipped with only rudimentary radar which made navigation a source of constant danger. Fog gave way to gales which gave way to fog.
Known as the Aleutian "Williwaw", violent winds born in the "storm factory" of the Bering Sea roared down the narrow mountain passes to challenge labouring convoys with little sea room to begin with. Many of the convoy ships, who could not exceed , battled a current and, when hit with such a gale, often force 10, frequently had to disperse and find shelter as best they could.
The 'Princes' themselves were not known for their manoeuvrability; heavy and blocky, when forced to keep pace with a slow convoy and in order to maintain steerage, the ships often ran with the leeward shaft at twice the speed of the other. Despite these extreme conditions, there were surprisingly few mishaps.
On one occasion, while escorting two merchant ships to Dutch Harbor, Prince David encountered a thickening fog. Captain Godfrey deployed a fog buoy as a precaution. SS Elias Howe, one of Prince Davids charges, immediately sounded an emergency signal of six blasts on her whistle. Thinking that it was a periscope, she opened fire on the fog buoy streaming from Prince Davids stern. After the event Prince Davids commanding officer' with commendable objectivity, complimented Elias Howe on her "fine degree of alertness".
It was becoming apparent, by the fall of 1942, that Prince David and her sister ships were not equipped to defend themselves or their charges against well-armed enemy ships that, it was feared, may begin to operate off the West Coast. It was therefore decided to convert Prince David and Prince Henry to landing ships infantry (medium) in preparation for the coming invasion of Europe.
Landing ship infantry medium (1943–1945)
Normandy
In the spring of 1943, work was under way on the conversion of HMCS Prince David and HMCS Prince Henry to landing ship infantry (medium) LSI (M). They were reconfigured to carry 550 infantrymen transported in six landing craft assault (LCA) and two landing craft mechanised (LCM), and have large sick-bay facilities for the anticipated casualties. Their old 6-inch guns were replaced with two twin mountings, two single Bofors 40 mm guns, and ten Oerlikon 20 mm cannons. The rebuilding, which took place at Esquimalt and Vancouver, was completed in December 1943 and shortly after re-commissioning, she left for the United Kingdom via Cristobal and New York, under Captain T.D. Kelly RCNR, (her final commanding officer) who had supervised the fitting-out of both ships.
Upon arrival in the Clyde in February 1944, Prince David was taken to Clydebank for a final fitting out. After completion, Prince David and Prince Henry joined Combined Operations Command at Cowes, Isle of Wright.
At Cowes on 21 April the two Canadian landing ships were joined with their flotillas of assault landing craft. In addition, there arrived within the next few days three Canadian flotillas of the larger infantry landing craft which would make the cross-Channel voyage under their own power. During May, a series of intense, large-scale training exercises took place combining the Canadian craft with many more from the Royal Navy and the United States Navy.
On D-Day, 6 June 1944, Prince David disembarked 418 troops, including elements of Le Régiment de la Chaudière, Royal Marines and a detachment of British pioneers on the Mike and Nan beaches in the Juno sector. First to be lowered were the two Royal Navy craft which she carried in addition to her own.
Their mission was to provide supporting small-arms fire and to clear mines and obstacles in advance of the assault craft. The Canadian landing craft then followed to form up with craft from other Canadian Flotillas. H-hour was set for 7.25, and after a delay of twenty minutes for a more favourable tide in the Juno sector, Prince Davids landing craft started their hour-long trip to the beaches.
Over the course of the day, all but one of her craft had been crippled, sunk or beached high and dry. As the one remaining assault craft made its way back to Prince David, a charging tank carrier forced her over an obstacle, which tore out her bottom and she sank at once. An outbound lighter ferried her crew back to Prince David. With wounded on board and unable to retrieve any of her landing craft, Prince David sailed to Southampton, ending her D-Day involvement. Both ships made four more reinforcement trips to Normandy, one on 18 June and three in July.
Mediterranean Theatre
Equipped with new landing craft and in the company of Prince Henry, Prince David, sailed on 24 July for Naples to take part in Operation Dragoon, the invasion of southern France by the US 7th Army and troops from Canada, France and Britain. Acting as command ship for Operation Romeo she carried French commandos of Le 1er Commando Français de l'Afrique du Nord, (English: First French Commando of North Africa) whose task it was to take the gun batteries at Cap Nègre as a prelude to the main action.
On 15 August, the French commandos from Prince David were put ashore, some six hours before the main Operation Dragoon landings. The attacking flotilla included HMCS Prince David, , and four U.S. motor torpedo boats. After the action and her landing craft had returned with the wounded, Prince David sailed for Corsica. She made two reinforcing trips to the French coast, carrying a total of almost 3,000 troops.
HMCS Prince David sailed for the island of Kithera on 14 September with a force of 530 troops of the 9th British Commando to begin the liberation of Greece.
During the night of 14 September, the troops landed and were greeted not by the enemy, but by crowds of elated Greeks. Prince David loaned the commandos her flotilla of landing craft to facilitate a series of attacks and reoccupation designed to take control of the inner islands of the Aegean.
Prince David set sail on 15 October as part of a large force for the reoccupation and liberation of Greece. On board Prince David was Prime Minister George Papandreou of Greece and his government in exile. As the landing craft entered Piraeus, they were again met with a tumultuous welcome and no sign the enemy. The Germans had left for the north a few days earlier. For the next few weeks Prince David, in company with Prince Henry, ferried both troops and much-needed supplies to a famine-stricken Greece.
With the vacuum created by the hasty retreat of Nazi forces, the returning Greek government in exile clashed with left-wing resistance leaders, who now had military control over much of Greece. Prince David found herself involved in a struggle that would eventually lead to the Greek Civil War. During November and with public order deteriorating in Athens, Prince David was required to help concentrate forces there for a test of strength between the government and the opposition.
A general strike had sparked an armed clash between police and civilians near the Prime Minister's residence at Piraeus. Prince Davids 529th flotilla landed loyal Greek troops at first light on 4 December as rifle and mortar fire could be clearly heard in the city. On 9 December and with Greek hostilities expanded, Prince David sailed again for Piraeus, this time heavily laden with ammunition and a contingent of 311 troops of the British 2nd Parachute Brigade. While steaming through a swept channel, escorted by , a , a mine detonated on Prince Davids port side, directly forward of her 4-inch magazine and next to her fuel and fresh water tanks. Prince David limped into Salamis Bay under her own power, albeit slightly down in the bow. After an underwater inspection confirmed that the explosion had opened a hole below the waterline, it was decided that Prince David should withdraw to find repair facilities in quieter waters. She sailed for Ferryville Dry-dock, at Bizerta Tunisia; there she was to remain for the next four weeks while she was fitted with a large patch (which fell off a few days after leaving for Gibraltar ).
Late in February 1945 Prince David sailed for Esquimalt to be refitted and transferred to the RN for use in south-east Asia operations. She was transferred to the RN in June but was never taken over. Instead she was paid off, and by January 1946, both Prince David and her sister ship Prince Robert had been towed to and laid up in Lynn Creek, North Vancouver.
From Canada's War at Sea, first published December 1944,
Post war
Charlton Steam Shipping Co. purchased Prince David in September 1946. By February 1947 Prince David was in Britain undergoing conversions to her superstructure for passenger service. Renamed Charlton Monarch, she entered the immigrant trade and ran from Britain to Australia, enjoying the freedom of the sea which she helped to secure. Prince David seemed to be predisposed to striking underwater hazards: in 1932 as CNSS Prince David she spent six months hard aground on the North-East Breaker at Bermuda; in 1941, she was aground again in Bermuda; during her Alaskan tour, she struck an uncharted piling; and in the Mediterranean an exploding mine opened a hole in her plates. As Charlton Monarch, she once broke down off the coast of Brazil, and on 11 June 1948, SS John Biscoe towed her for twelve hours into Pernambuco. These events, plus the pre-war years of neglect, may have contributed to her early demise. She lasted only 6 years and was broken up at Swansea in 1951.
The 'Prince' ships time line
Notes
References
Boutillier, James, A. RCN in Retrospect 1910–1968. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver & London.
MacLeod, M. K. The Prince Ships, 1940–1945, Canadian Forces Headquarters (CFHQ) Reports, 31 Oct. 1965, National Defence Directorate of History and Heritage.
Schull, Joseph. Far Distant Ships, An official Account of Canadian Operations in World War II. Stoddart:
Leacock, Stephen and Leslie Roberts. Canada's War at Sea. Alvah M. Beatty: Publisher, Montreal, 1944.
Macpherson, Ken and John Burgess. The Ships of Canada's Naval Forces 1910 – 1985. Collins Publishers:
Douglas, A.B.W, Roger Sarty, Michael Whitby, No Higher Purpose, The Official Operational History of the Royal Canadian Navy, Volume II, Part 1. Vanwell Publishing Ltd. Catalogue No. D2-132/2002-2-1E (Part 1), D2-132/2002-2-2E (Part 2)
The photo of CNSS Prince David is from the Canada Science and Technology Museum Corporation "CN images of Canada Gallery"
External links
HMCS Prince Robert Tribute Page
The Prince Class Vessels
The Naval Museum of Alberta
Canada Science and Technology Museum, CN – Images of Canada Gallery
Hilfskreuzer page
Voltaire page
Remembering the Prince Robert
Ships of the Royal Canadian Navy
Cruisers of the Royal Canadian Navy
World War II cruisers of Canada
1930 ships
Troop ships
Steamships of Canada
Maritime incidents in 1932
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penalty%20card
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Penalty card
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Penalty cards are used in many sports as a means of warning, reprimanding or penalising a player, coach or team official. Penalty cards are most commonly used by referees or umpires to indicate that a player has committed an offence. The official will hold the card above their head while looking or pointing toward the player who has committed the offence. This action makes the decision clear to all players, as well as spectators and other officials in a manner that is language-neutral. The colour or shape of the card used by the official indicates the type or seriousness of the offence and the level of punishment that is to be applied. Yellow and red cards are the most common, typically indicating, respectively, cautions and dismissals.
History and origin
The idea of using language-neutral coloured cards to communicate a referee's intentions originated in association football, with English referee Ken Aston. Aston had been appointed to the FIFA Referees' Committee and was responsible for all referees at the 1966 FIFA World Cup. In the quarter-finals, England played Argentina at Wembley Stadium. After the match, newspaper reports stated that referee Rudolf Kreitlein had cautioned Englishmen Bobby and Jack Charlton, as well as sending off Argentinian Antonio Rattín. The referee had not made his decision clear during the game, so England manager Alf Ramsey approached a FIFA representative for post-match clarification. This incident started Aston thinking about ways to make a referee's decisions clearer to both players and spectators. Aston realised that a colour-coding scheme based on the same principle as used on traffic lights (yellow – stop if safe to do so, red – stop) would transcend language barriers and make it clear that a player had been cautioned or expelled. As a result, yellow cards to indicate a caution and red cards to indicate an expulsion were used for the first time in the 1970 FIFA World Cup in Mexico. The use of penalty cards has since been adopted and expanded by several sporting codes, with each sport adapting the idea to its specific set of rules or laws.
Commonly used penalty cards
Yellow card
A yellow card is used in many different sporting codes. Its meaning differs among sports; however, it most commonly indicates a caution given to a player regarding their conduct, or indicates a temporary suspension. Examples include:
Association football
In association football, a yellow card is shown by the referee to indicate that a player has been officially cautioned. The player's details are then recorded by the referee in a small notebook; hence a caution is also known as a "booking". A player who has been cautioned may continue playing in the game; however, a player who receives a second caution in a match is sent off (shown the yellow card again, and then a red card), meaning that they must leave the field immediately and take no further part in the game. The player may not be replaced by a substitute. Law 12 of the Laws of the Game (which are set by the International Football Association Board and used by FIFA) lists the types of offences and misconduct that may result in a caution or is cautionary. It also states that "only a player, substitute, substituted player or team official" can be cautioned. A player is usually given a one-match suspension (although it can be more for certain circumstances) after accumulating two yellow cards in a match.In most tournaments, the accumulation of a certain number of yellow cards over several matches results in disqualification of the offending player for a certain number of subsequent matches, the exact number of cards and matches varying by jurisdiction.For more details, see Yellow card (association football)
Athletics
In track events, a yellow card is used as a personal warning in both track and field events used to indicate that a second yellow card would result in a disqualification. World Athletics rules have abolished false start warnings; false starts now result in immediate disqualification except in combined events where a diagonal yellow/black card indicates a warning for false start. However, as of 2012, the false start rule is that an athlete's hands must leave the track or their feet must leave the starting blocks before the gunshot in order for a false start to be given. Therefore, if an athlete makes a twitch, while being in their final 'set' position, the maximum penalty is a yellow card.
Australian football
In Australian rules football, a yellow card is issued against a player for committing any reportable offence (such as striking an opponent, swearing at an official, amongst others), except those listed as 'serious' reportable offences. Any player issued a yellow card is unable to participate in the game for the length of a quarter of play, excluding breaks, although the player can be replaced. However, a yellow card may be issued against a player at the discretion of an umpire, despite the player not committing a reportable offence. Yellow cards and red cards are, however, not issued in the Australian Football League, the highest level of play in Australian rules football.
Badminton
In badminton, a yellow card is given to a singles player or doubles pair as a warning for breaching the Laws of Badminton. A yellow card can only be given once to a player or pair in a match, subsequent breaches are sanctioned with a red or black card.
Bandy
In bandy, a yellow card indicates a warning given to an entire team for technical fouls such as errors in the execution of goal-throws or free strokes, or the obstruction of a player without ball. Subsequent technical fouls by the same team result in a five-minute penalty indicated by a white card.
Canoe polo
In canoe polo, a yellow card indicates a player has received a two-minute temporary suspension. A yellow card can be awarded for a deliberate or dangerous foul that prevents the scoring of a near certain goal, dangerous illegal play that is deliberate or repeated, foul or abusive language, continuously disputing a referee's decisions or receiving a third green card for any reason.
Equestrian sports
In equestrian sports, yellow cards may be issued during FEI sanctioned events for abuse of a horse or incorrect behavior towards an official. Abuse of the horse may include riding an obviously lame horse, riding an exhausted horse, excessive use of whip or spurs, and dangerous riding. Riders may choose not to accept issued cards, but doing so may lead to a disciplinary hearing. A rider receiving a yellow card can be disqualified from the event and subsequently fined or suspended.
Fencing
In fencing, a yellow card indicates a warning to a fencer and is valid for the remainder of the bout. In some cases, an annulment of any hit scored by the fencer at fault may also occur. Yellow cards are awarded for "Tier 1" offenses, such as turning your back to your opponent, covering target area (most common in Foil), leaving the piste without permission, or refusing to obey the referee. A yellow card can also be awarded when, at the first call by the referee, a fencer does not present himself on the piste ready to fence. Any person not on the piste who disturbs the good order of the competition may also receive a yellow card on the first infringement.
Field hockey
Yellow cards in field hockey indicate a temporary suspension of at least 5 minutes. The length of the suspension is determined by the umpire. It is possible for a player to receive two yellow cards for different offences during the same match; however, the period of suspension must be significantly longer with each yellow card. When an offence for which a yellow card has been awarded is repeated, the yellow card must not be used again and a more severe penalty must be awarded. There must also be a clear difference between the duration of a yellow card suspension for a minor offence and the duration for a major offence. The yellow card can be shown to a specific player or to the captain for misconduct by the entire team. In this case, the captain is temporarily suspended.
Gaelic games
In the Gaelic games of camogie, Gaelic football, hurling and ladies' Gaelic football, yellow cards () are given to players for moderate fouls. A player who receives two yellow cards in a single game is sent off and receives a red card. Red and yellow cards were introduced to Gaelic games following an incident during the 1995 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship Final when the referee sent Charlie Redmond from the field of play but he refused to leave.
Handball
A yellow card in handball indicates a warning and can be given to a player or team official for unsportsmanlike conduct, or to a player whose actions are mainly or exclusively directed at the opponent and not at the ball. IHF rules also allow referees to use discretion to award a yellow card outside of these situations.
Loofball
In loofball, misconduct attracts either a verbal warning, a yellow or red card. While a verbal warning carries no penalty. A yellow card carries a point penalty while a red card carries both a point penalty and disqualification. A player usually gets sanctioned in the following order: first misconduct = verbal warning, second misconduct = yellow card + point to the opposition, third misconduct = red card + point to the opposition + disqualification.
Mixed martial arts
Mixed martial arts promotions PRIDE (defunct), DEEP, and ZST: A warning, the third leads to disqualification.
Racewalking
A yellow card in racewalking indicates a competitor's foot fails to be on the ground when the rear leg is being raised, or the front leg is not straightened when it makes contact with the ground.
Rugby
Rugby league: Yellow cards are not usually used in rugby league in the southern hemisphere with referees indicating a 10-minute suspension by raising both arms straight out with fingers spread (to indicate 10 minutes). This is otherwise known as a "sin bin". However, in the northern hemisphere it is common for a referee to use a yellow card in signaling a "sin bin" to indicate 10 minutes instead of using the arm and hand signal used in the southern hemisphere. It is possible for a player to receive seven yellow cards without receiving a red card (a player who receives eight yellow cards in a match will receive a red card, which results in ejection from the match). However, it is up to the referee's discretion at how bad the offences are, and in these cases, a red card may be commonly shown for a second major offence without the presence of a second yellow card.
Rugby sevens: Any player who commits an offence under World Rugby Law 9 – Foul Play may be shown a yellow card and suspended from the game for 2 minutes without replacement. Offences include obstruction, unfair play, repeated infringements, dangerous play and misconduct which is prejudicial to the game. Receiving a yellow card is known colloquially as being sent to the "sin bin". If that player later commits another yellow-card offence, the player will be shown a red card (see below) and be sent-off.
Rugby union: Under World Rugby Laws, any player who commits an offence under Law 9 – Foul Play may be shown a yellow card and suspended from the game for 10 minutes; the player cannot be replaced during that time. Offences include obstruction, unfair play, repeated infringements, dangerous play and misconduct which is prejudicial to the game. Receiving a yellow card is known colloquially as being sent to the "sin bin". Players receiving a second yellow card in a game will also be shown a red card (see below) and will be sent-off and unable to take part in the remainder of the match.
Volleyball
Under FIVB rules, receiving a yellow card is the second stage of a formal warning for a player(s)/coach for minor misconduct, the first being a verbal one given through the team captain. It is recorded on the scoresheet but has no immediate consequences; there is no loss of service (if applicable) and no point awarded to the opposition. It is shown together with a red card (in one hand) where a player(s)/coach is sanctioned with expulsion, and (with a card in each hand) separately with a red card where a player(s)/coach is sanctioned with disqualification, all such offences are recorded on the scoresheet.
Water polo
Yellow cards are given in water polo as an official warning for disrespectful conduct from the coach, individual players, or the entire bench.
Wrestling
In Germany/Austria and also in Calgary, Canada, yellow cards were traditionally given for a first or second severe infraction of the rules.
Table tennis
Under ITTF regulations, a yellow card is shown by the umpire to warn the player if they misbehave. If the player commits a second offence, one point is awarded to the opponent and two points for further offence, each time with a yellow and a red card together shown by the umpire. A yellow card can also be shown to an authorised advisor if they give advice illegally.
Red card
A red card is used in several different sporting codes. Its meaning differs among sports, but it most commonly indicates a serious offence and often results in a player being permanently suspended from the game (commonly known as an ejection, dismissal, disqualification, expulsion, removal, or sending-off). In many sports the ejected player's team cannot replace them and thus must continue the rest of the game with one fewer player, which may be a significant disadvantage. Examples include:
Association football
In association football, a red card is shown by a referee to signify that a player has been sent off. A player who has been sent off is required to leave the field of play immediately and must take no further part in the game. The player who has been sent off cannot be replaced during the game; their team must continue the game with one player fewer. Only players, substitutes, substituted players and coaches may receive a red card. If a goalkeeper receives a red card another player must assume goalkeeping duties (so teams will usually substitute an outfield player for another goalkeeper if this option is available). A red card will be shown to a player who has committed a serious offense such as violent conduct or an illegal and purposeful obstruction of a goal scoring opportunity for the opposing team. A red card will also be shown to a player who accumulates two yellow cards for more minor offenses.
Athletics
A red card in athletics indicates that the athlete is disqualified after receiving two yellow cards. A diagonal red/black card is issued if a false start has been made.
Australian rules football
In Australian rules football, a red card is issued against a player who has accumulated two yellow cards over the course of a match, or has committed a 'serious reportable offence' (such as striking an umpire or kicking an opponent). A player issued with a red card may not participate for the remainder of the match; however, unlike most sports, the player can be replaced, although not until a length of time equivalent to one-quarter (excluding breaks) has elapsed. Yellow cards and red cards are, however, not issued in the Australian Football League, the highest level of play in Australian rules football.
Badminton
In badminton, a red card is given to a singles player or doubles pair to penalize subsequent infractions after receiving a yellow card. It counts as fault, meaning the opposing side is awarded a point. After a second red card, a player or pair may be disqualified with a black card at the tournament referee's discretion.
Bandy
A red card in bandy indicates a match penalty, i.e. a player has been excluded for the remainder of the match and cannot be substituted. Red card offenses include directly attacking an opponent or using abusive language. A coach or substitute may also be penalized with a red card. In this situation, a player currently on the rink also serves a ten-minute penalty, resulting in the number of players being reduced by one.
Canoe polo
A red card in canoe polo indicates a player has been sent off for the remainder of the match and cannot be substituted. A red card can be awarded if a personal attack on a player occurs, repeated foul or abusive language, or when the award of a yellow card is disputed or has not had the desired effect of causing the player to control his play or attitude. A red card is also awarded when a player has received a second yellow card for any reason.
Cricket
Red cards are used in some cricket tournaments as part of efforts to penalise fielding sides for slow over rates. The penalised team's captain must select a teammate to be removed, and their side must complete the innings with one fewer fielder.
Fencing
In fencing, a red card is used to indicate that a fencer has committed an offence that warrants a penalty hit to be awarded to the opponent. Second and subsequent Group 1 offences, all Group 2 offences and first Group 3 offences are penalised with a red card. A red card may also be awarded when, at the second call by the referee, a fencer does not present himself on the piste ready to fence.
Field hockey
A red card in field hockey results in a player being permanently suspended from the game. The player cannot take any further part in the game and cannot be substituted. Unlike other penalty cards in field hockey, the red card is never given to the captain for team misconduct. In addition to their colour, red cards in field hockey are often circular in shape.
Floorball
In floorball, a red card is results in the player being ejected from the game and his/her team being penalised with a 5-minute bench penalty. In floorball, the red card can be linked with 3 different types of Match Penalties (MP 1, 2 and 3). MP1 is linked with violent play during the game, such as heavy hits (pushing) against the goal-cage or boarding; this penalty does not cause additional suspension in the tournament. MP2 is linked with offences such as sabotage of the game, mild brawl (no punches), and is also given when a player receives his/her second 5-minute bench penalty; this match penalty causes an automatic 1-game suspension. MP3 is linked with vulgar conduct, such as insulting the referee, another player or spectators, violent conduct that is not directly linked with play (such as punching an opponent); this match penalty causes an automatic 1-game suspension, and is further reviewed by a disciplinary committee that can penalise the player with additional suspension.
Gaelic games
In camogie, Gaelic football, hurling and ladies' Gaelic football a red card () is given to players for serious fouls and violent conduct. A player who receives two yellow cards in a single game is sent off and receives a red card. Red and yellow cards were introduced to Gaelic games following an incident during the 1995 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship Final when the referee sent Charlie Redmond from the field of play but he refused to leave.
Handball
A red card in handball indicates a disqualification of a player who has committed an offense such as unsportsmanlike conduct, serious foul play, or receiving a third two-minute suspension. A red card prevents a player from playing for the remainder of the match and as a result reduces the number of players that are available to a team. A red card also carries a two-minute suspension for the team, meaning that a team cannot replace the disqualified player until the two-minute team suspension has expired.
Quadball
In quadball a red card results in a player being ejected from the game. In addition, a substitute must go to the penalty box for two minutes. The entire two minutes must be served, regardless of any scores by the opposing team during that time. The player's team must play a player down while the substitute is in the penalty box.
Racewalking
In racewalking, a red card indicates that a competitor's foot failed to be on the ground when the rear leg is being raised or that his front leg is not straightened when it makes contact with the ground. A judge would issue a yellow card for the first infraction committed by a competitor. And if the same judge detects the second infraction from the same competitor, a red card is issued. Three red cards, from three different judges, will result in a competitor's disqualification.
Rugby
Rugby league: Red cards are not usually used in rugby league in the southern hemisphere with referees indicating a player has been sent from the field for the rest of the match with one extended arm above the head with the index finger pointed in the direction of a sideline. However, in the northern hemisphere, it is common for a referee to use a red card in signaling a player has been sent from the field for the rest of the match, with no replacement allowed. It is possible for a player to receive seven yellow cards without receiving a red card (a player who receives eight yellow cards in a match will receive a red card, which results in ejection from the match). However, it is up to the referee's discretion at how bad the offenses are, and in these cases, a red card may be commonly shown for a second major offense without the presence of a second yellow card.
Rugby union: A red card is used to indicate that a player has been sent off and can take no further part in the game. The player cannot be replaced, leaving their team with one fewer player for the remainder of the game. During international matches, a player who commits an offense under Law 9 – Foul Play may be shown a red card. Red cards are normally issued for serious offenses. Any player receiving a second yellow card in a game will automatically be shown a red card.
Volleyball
In volleyball, a red card can be issued by the referee for the first instance of Rude Conduct. It is recorded on the scoresheet and results in loss of service (if applicable) and a penalty point to the opposition. Rude Conduct is the only category of sanction punished by a Red card alone, and which results in loss of service (if applicable) and a penalty point. For the sanctions of Expulsion and Disqualification, a Red and Yellow card is shown simultaneously, held together in one hand, or separately in each hand, respectively.
Two Man (beach): The rules vary in one aspect from the six-a-side competition. A red card is shown for the first and any second offense of Rude Conduct in the same set. It is recorded on the scoresheet, resulting in loss of service (if applicable) and a penalty point to the opposition. Otherwise the procedural use of cards is the same as for six-a-side.
Water polo
In water polo, a red card is issued to a coach, player, or team official on the bench for a second incident of misconduct after receiving a yellow card or severe unsporting conduct. A person receiving a red card must leave the competition area.
Wrestling
In the same territories as listed above under yellow cards, red cards were traditionally given for a third severe infraction of the rules, signifying disqualification.
Table tennis
Under ITTF regulations, if after a warning the player misbehaves again, the umpire will show him or her a yellow card and a red card together and award one point to the opponent for the second offence and two for the third one. In case a player commits a serious offence or continues to misbehave after 3 points are awarded to the opponent for misbehavior, the umpire will suspend play and report to the referee, who has the power to disqualify the player from the match, showing a red card. The umpire can show a red card to an authorised advisor and ask them to leave the playing area if they give illegal advice after a warning had been given.
Other types of penalty card
Green card
A green card is used in some sports to indicate an official warning to a player who has committed a minor offence that does not warrant a more serious sanction.
Association football: Among others, Italy’s Serie B uses green cards to display a positive action by a player. The only positive card a referee has, it helps determine sportsmanship awards at the end of the season. On the other hand, in some instances, a green card is used for discipline. In some smaller leagues, a green card is used for situations such as unsportsmanlike conduct, diving, or minor dissent. In the 2018 CONIFA World Cup, any player given a green card had to exit the field right away. Teams that had a substitution available could bring in another player as a replacement, but those who had no more replacements left had to play with one less player.
Athletics: A green card indicates that the recall did not warrant a warning, which most commonly happens when the machines used to catch false-starters make a mistake.
Canoe polo: A green card indicates an official warning that can be applied to an individual player or a whole team. A green card can be awarded for deliberate unsporting behavior or unnecessary verbal communication to the referee.
Field hockey: A green card indicates an official warning when a minor offence has occurred resulting in a 2 minute suspension. A second green card for the same player will result in a yellow card (5 minute suspension). In this case, the umpire will show a green card, followed by a yellow card. When an offence for which a green card has been awarded is repeated, a yellow card should be awarded. A green card can be given to a specific player or to the captain as a warning to the entire team. Cards shown to the captain as a warning to the team are treated separate from cards shown to the captain as a player. A captain who receives a green card is ‘cautioned’ rather than suspended (as with a yellow or red card) and therefore this does not need an alternate captain to be named on the field. In addition to their colour, green cards in field hockey are triangular in shape. Under FIH Rules of Hockey, the green card carries a two-minute suspension during which time that player's team plays with one fewer player.
White card
Association football: In a women's cup game between Benefica and Sporting in Portugal, a white card has been shown to praise fair play for the first time in association football history.
Bandy: A white card is used in bandy to indicate a five-minute timed penalty given to a player. The offending player must leave the playing area and wait on a penalty bench near the centre line until the penalty has expired. During the 5 minute period the player may not be replaced, although he or she may be replaced with a different player when the penalty has expired. Offences that can warrant a white card include trying to hinder the opponents from executing a free-stroke, illegal substitution or repeated illegal but non-violent attacks on an opponent.
Rugby union: In the 2012 Super Rugby season in rugby union, a White Card was introduced for incidents of suspected foul play where the referee is unsure of the identity of the perpetrator, or where the referee is unsure if a red card is warranted. The incident is later referred to the citing commissioner, and may result in a suspension for the offending player. It is similar to a citation sign (arms crossed above the head) in rugby league. However, in 2013 the International Rugby Board, now known as World Rugby, extended the powers of the TMO to include reviewing suspected incidents of foul play. As a result, no white cards were issued in 2013.
Blue card
Association football: A blue card is frequently used in indoor soccer in the United States as a level below a yellow card for offenses such as breaking house safety rules, spitting on the field, committing minor physical fouls, or illegal substitutions, signifying that the offender must leave the field and stay in a penalty box (usually 2–5 minutes), during which time their team plays down a man (identical to ice hockey and roller hockey). If a goal is scored by the team opposite of the offender, then the offender may return to the field immediately. It is also used in the Clericus Cup association football league for a 5-minute bench penalty for unsportsmanlike play, and it is used in beach soccer for a 2-minute bench penalty for unsportsmanlike play.
Bandy: A blue card is used in bandy to indicate a ten-minute timed penalty given to a player. The offending player must leave the playing area and wait on a penalty bench near the centre line until the penalty has expired. During the 10 minute period the player may not be replaced, although he or she may be replaced with a different player when the penalty has expired. A blue card is typically shown for offences that are more serious than those warranting a white card including attacking an opponent in a violent or dangerous way, causing advantage by intentionally stopping the ball with a high stick or protesting a referee's decision.
Handball: The blue card has been in use in handball since the International Handball Federation announced a rule change that came into effect on July 1, 2016. First the Red Card is shown, then the referee will after a short discussion show the blue card. Following that a written report will accompany the score sheet and the Disciplinary Commission will then decide on further actions against the player.
Quidditch: A blue card is also used in quidditch to indicate a technical foul. The fouling player is sent to the penalty box for one minute or until a goal is scored against the fouling player's team. Unlike a yellow card, there is no additional penalty for multiple blue cards.
Black card
Badminton
A black card is used in the sport of badminton to indicate disqualification.
Fencing
A black card is used in fencing. It is issued by the director, or the referee for severe rule infractions. A second instance of a Group 3 offence, and all Group 4 offences including deliberate brutality, refusal to fence, refusal to salute, and refusal to shake hands can be punished with a black card. When the black card is issued, the offending fencer is excluded from the remainder of the competition and may be suspended from further tournaments. In the official record of the tournament, their name is replaced with the words "FENCER EXCLUDED".
Gaelic games
In the Gaelic games of Gaelic football and hurling, a tick or black book was formerly recorded against a player for a minor infringement not warranting a yellow card, though multiple bookings will result in the issuance of a yellow card. The act of the referee physically holding up his black notebook in the same manner as a card has been discontinued by the Gaelic Athletic Association.
Since 1 January 2014, a player in Gaelic football can be ordered off the pitch for the remainder of the game with a substitution allowed by being shown a black card (the referee's black notebook) in the same manner as any other penalty card for "cynical behaviour," including blatant tripping, pulling down and bodychecking. This forced substitution is an intermediate punishment between the yellow and red cards. A player who receives a yellow card and a black card in the same game is sent off without any substitute being permitted.
As of January 2020, a player who receives a black card is ejected from the field to the sin bin for a period of ten minutes. The player may return to the field after this period has elapsed, during a break in play with the permission of the referee. If a match extends into extra time and the player has not been in the sin bin for ten minutes, they must serve any remaining time before rejoining play. As in previous years, a player who receives both a yellow card and a black card or two black cards is then shown a red card and ejected for the remainder of the match and cannot be replaced.
See also
Racing instruction flags
Penalty flag
Walk of shame
Ejection
Shows red card to abuser
Show Racism the Red Card
Yellow Card Scheme
References
Sports equipment
Sports terminology
Terminology used in multiple sports
Association football terminology
Laws of association football
Bandy rules
Fencing
Field hockey terminology
Gaelic games terminology
Handball terminology
Rugby league terminology
Rugby union terminology
Water polo terminology
Rules of water polo
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5278853
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydia%20Mendoza
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Lydia Mendoza
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Lydia Mendoza (May 31, 1916December 20, 2007) was a Mexican-American guitarist and singer of Tejano and traditional Mexican-American music. Historian Michael Joseph Corcoran has stated that she was "The Mother of Tejano Music", an art form that is the uniquely Texas cultural amalgamation of traditional Mexican, Spanish, German, and Czech musical roots. She recorded on numerous labels over the course of her six-decade career of live performing. The aggregate total of her records numbers an estimated 200 different Spanish-language songs on at least 50 LP record albums. In 1977, she performed at the Inauguration of President Jimmy Carter, as part of the line-up for the Inaugural Folk Dance and Concert. Her most well-known tune was "Mal Hombre" (Bad Man), a song she had heard as a child.
She was born in Houston, Texas, into a Mexican musical family originally from San Luis Potosí. The family had fled Mexico at the onset of the Mexican Revolution, after which they returned home for two years. When she was four years old, the family once again immigrated to Texas. Although she lived most of her life in the United States, primarily Texas, she never spoke any language but Spanish. The family moved frequently to find work and entertained other migrant workers wherever they went.
Mendoza was known by many nicknames, such as "La Alondra de la Frontera" (The Meadowlark of the Border). In their early years of performing, "La Familia Mendoza" (the Mendoza family) would hitchhike around south Texas, performing for farm laborers. Answering an advertisement in a Spanish-language newspaper resulted in their first recording sessions with Okeh Records. She was only 12 years old, but Lydia provided vocals and played the mandolin for the recordings. They eventually caught the notice of San Antonio radio personality Manuel J. Cortez and were offered a recording contract with the RCA Victor subsidiary of Bluebird Records. During World War II, and for several years afterward, Mendoza and her sisters Juanita and Marie performed as Las Hermanas Mendoza (the Mendoza sisters). She fairly quickly emerged as the headliner of the group, but her family continued to perform with her as she toured. Not only did she perform throughout the United States, but also in Canada and Latin America, where her attendance records were estimated to be 20,000.
She was awarded a National Heritage Fellowship from the National Endowment for the Arts. In 1984, she was inducted into the Tejano Music Hall of Fame, and in 1991, into the Conjunto Music Hall of Fame. For her contributions to the performing arts, she was inducted into the Texas Women's Hall of Fame in 1985. In 1999, she was awarded the National Medal of Arts by First Lady Hillary Clinton and President Bill Clinton, and in 2003 she was bestowed with the Texas Cultural Trust's Texas Medal of Arts. She designed and sewed her own stage costumes, and at one point was an instructor at California State University, Fresno. Mendoza was married twice and the mother of three daughters. Ever the consummate live entertainer, she twice retired from performing but resumed singing both times. A stroke in her 60s finally brought an end to her career.
Early life
Mendoza was born on May 31, 1916, in Houston, Texas, to parents Leonor (some spellings list her as Leonora) Zamarripa and Francisco Mendoza. Both of her parents were musicians from San Luis Potosí, Mexico, who could trace their roots to Villa de Arriaga. They fled Mexico for Texas with the 1910 onset of the Mexican Revolution. The family had eight children, born in Mexico, Texas, and Detroit. Not all of them performed with the family music group. There were five sisters – Lydia, Beatriz, Francisca, Maria and Monica – and three brothers – Francisco, Manuel and Andrew. Both Lydia and her eldest sister Beatriz were born in Texas during this residency. The family made a temporary relocation back to Mexico, during which time Lydia's brother Francisco, and sister Francisca were born. Eventually, they returned to Texas. They lived for a time in Dallas. "La Familia Mendoza" (the Mendoza family) was the name of the musical group Leonor formed with her husband and children.
The Mendoza family experienced racial stereotyping from the United States immigration authorities when Lydia was just a toddler re-entering Texas with her family. Immigration agents on the Texas side of the border immersed Mexicans crossing into the United States with gasoline, to prevent any possible lice infestation from entering the United States. During a 1920 re-entry into Texas, immigration agents led her to a room with big tubs of gasoline, forcibly washed Lydia's hair with gasoline, and tossed gasoline on her. At the same time, she witnessed immigrant children being immersed in tubs of gasoline. Mendoza later recalled that the border agents were operating under the assumption that anyone crossing over from Mexico was bad, but that the children were the worst of all.
Musical beginnings
Mendoza was too young to attend school when she first began mimicking the singing of her mother and grandmother. It was during this time that Lydia first learned the song "Mal Hombre" (Bad Man) that would become her signature tune. Mendoza always said that she first saw the words to the song on a gum wrapper, when her family briefly lived in Ennis, Texas. Later when the family was visiting in Monterrey, Mexico, she saw the song performed at the Independencia Theater, as a tango tune. She memorized the song and its melody, repeatedly rehearsing it at home. She would not record the song for a few years, but it eventually became the song most associated with her.
Mendoza was surrounded by a family who loved music, and at four years old, knew she wanted to spend her life following the family tradition. From her mother, father, and her grandmother, she learned vocal styles and how to play stringed instruments. According to Mendoza, her maternal grandmother was a public school teacher named Teofina Reyna, of both Italian and Spanish heritage, who gave Lydia's mother guitar lessons. Her own account of her interest in playing the guitar, was one of wanting to mimic her mother's singing and talent with the guitar. As a pre-schooler, she had a natural curiosity about the instrument her mother played so well. No matter how many times she would try to strum on her mother's guitar, in spite of stern warnings not to, Lydia never tired of the tones and rhythm it produced when she ran her fingers across the strings. Her mother finally hung it on the wall out of her reach. Lydia was not to be deterred about making music, in spite of her mother's warnings. Inspired by seeing other little girls her age make a twanging sound by affixing rubber bands on their teeth and flicking with their fingers, Lydia made her own musical instrument with rubber bands. Within a couple of years, her mother relented and gave her lessons on a six-string guitar. She eventually also became proficient in both the mandolin and the violin. Her father taught her how to play 12-string guitars, including the Bajo sexto, also known as a "Mexican guitar", which is tuned one octave below a standard six-string. She turned hers, however, one perfect fourth below a six-string guitar, in the style of a baritone guitar.
Migrant audiences, OKeh Records
Before Mendoza was old enough to play any musical instrument, her family had become familiar entertainment to farm laborers along the Texas–Mexico international border. Her father was a railroad mechanic along the Texas Rio Grande Valley, while the family sang for the migrant workers in the fields. Even with her father's income from the railroad, they were unable to afford an automobile, so they hitched rides from one location to another. They never stayed in one place long enough for the children to receive formal educations, but they were home-schooled.
A 1928 advertisement in San Antonio's La Prensa Spanish-language newspaper caught their attention. The OKeh Records label was paying to record new Spanish-language talent. In the vernacular of that era, recordings made by non-white talent were known as race records. In a borrowed car, the family headed for San Antonio, and made their first recordings, as the Cuarteto Monterrey por la Familia Mendoza. The recordings, on which 12-year-old Lydia played the mandolin and provided vocals, were made over two days. For their efforts, the family was paid $140.
Like many migrant families of the era, the Mendozas relocated to Detroit, Michigan, in 1929, as farm laborers and as auto manufacturing plant workers. Many of the workers in the auto industry were of Mexican heritage and, like the Mendozas, had gradually moved northward for the available jobs. As a result of the cultural migration, the Mendoza family found a steady audience for their music. They performed throughout Michigan before returning to San Antonio, Texas, in 1932, at the onset of the Great Depression in the United States. Due to the labor market during World War II, the family remained in one place for a lengthy time, while Lydia's sisters Juanita and Maria performed as Las Hermanas Mendoza (the Mendoza Sisters). The income from the sisters allowed them to buy their first real home. Lydia was brought into Las Hermanas Mendoza as a soloist. The trio toured successfully through 1952, ceasing as a group when their mother died.
Bluebird Records, post-World War II success
The family found a steady audience in the Mexican farmworkers who migrated to San Antonio. During this period, Mendoza had switched from the mandolin to the 12-string guitar. Their core audiences were the working-class Tejano population of the city. They never made much money but managed to keep a roof over their heads, and food on the table.
While performing as a teenager at San Antonio's Plaza del Zacate in Milam Park, Mendoza was discovered by WOAI radio station's "La Voz Latina" Spanish-language host Manuel J. Cortez who gave her a slot on his show, where she won an amateur competition. She was paid $3.50 a week, and signed to record on Bluebird Records, a subsidiary of RCA Victor. It was during these sessions in 1937 that she recorded her signature tune "Mal Hombre", which instantly became a hit on both sides of the United States–Mexico border. Mendoza had never learned to either speak or read English nor did she or the family have an attorney representing her, when she signed a contract giving up her royalty rights in exchange for a cash payment of $15 per recording.
Mendoza's music struck a successful chord within the Tejano population, and she became the star attraction of the musical Mendoza family as they performed at Spanish-speaking venues along the international border from Texas to California. Their prolific musical influence fostered a period of goodwill and self-pride among the non-white audiences. Outside of that comfortable niche, persons of all color faced discrimination at hotels, restaurants, and other places where a "whites only" policy existed. Being an entertainer did not overcome the segregated facilities and ill will between the races. Nevertheless, the family persevered and was a popular cantina draw.
Later years
For the next several years up through the 1950s, the Mendoza family performed throughout the United States and Latin America. In 1971, Mendoza was on the stage at the Smithsonian Festival of American Folklife in Montreal, Canada. For a while, Mendoza was an instructor at California State University, Fresno. At the January 20, 1977 Inauguration of Jimmy Carter, Mendoza was part of the line-up for the Inaugural Folk Dance and Concert.
Personal life
As a teenager, Mendoza married cobbler Juan Alvarado in 1935, with whom she had three daughters, Lydia, Yolanda, and María Leonor. Mendoza then retired from performing to stay at home and raise her daughters: Her husband's family either did not like her chosen profession, or perhaps thought a woman should not be in the workplace, and their opinions influenced her. Thus, to keep the peace, she retired; however, she was the more financially successful wage earner in the family, so she eventually resumed touring with her family. The marriage lasted until his death in 1961, following which she once again retired from performing. She remarried in the early 1960s to Fred Martínez, also a cobbler, and continued her career. Not one to be idle in between her career obligations, Mendoza had been designing and sewing her own stage costumes since she began performing in front of audiences, and did so until the end of her career. Her popularity remained steady for the rest of her performing career, which continued until a 1998 stroke forced her to retire permanently at age 82.
Although she had been born in Texas and lived most of her life in the United States, the last several decades in San Antonio, Mendoza never learned to speak English. She died on December 20, 2007, at the age of 91, and was interred in the city's San Fernando Cemetery. Texas Historical Commission marker number 16BX04 was placed at her gravesite in February 2016.
Legacy, awards and honors
Mendoza was given affectionate nicknames by the public, such as "La Alondra de la Frontera ("The Meadowlark of the Border"), or simply ("The Lark of the Border"). She has also been called "La Cancionera de los Pobres" ("The Songstress of the Poor"), and "La Gloria de Texas" ("The Glory of Texas"). Texas author and historian Michael Joseph Corcoran believed she was "The Mother of Tejano Music". Tejanos, or Tejanas when referring to women, literally means Texans of Mexican heritage. The music itself is a blending of traditional Mexican-Spanish, German and Czech rhythms and styles. The musical fusion had been evolving since the 19th century, but really began to flourish along the borderlands of Texas and northern Mexico in the early 20th century. Her group was sometimes considered in the genre of Texas-Mexican conjunto, an accordion-centered musical style she helped popularize. In 1984, she was inducted into the Tejano Music Hall of Fame, and in 1991, into the Conjunto Music Hall of Fame.
In 1982, she was in the first class of 15 National Heritage Fellowships awarded by the National Endowment for the Arts. The grants are the United States government's highest honor in the folk and traditional arts, and given to artists who help preserve American culture. Mendoza had the distinction of being the first Texan to receive it.
Mendoza was inducted into the Texas Women's Hall of Fame in 1985, for her contributions to the performing arts.
She became the first Tejana elected to the Conjunto Hall of Fame in 1991. In 1999 on the South Lawn of the White House, she was among 18 individuals, as well as the Juilliard School of Music, awarded the National Medal of Arts by First Lady Hillary Clinton and President Bill Clinton. The Folk Alliance International presented Mendoza with its Lifetime Achievement Award in 2001. In 2003, she was among the second group of recipients to be awarded the Texas Medal of Arts by the Texas Cultural Trust.
In 2013, San Antonio actor Jesse Borrego unveiled the Lydia Mendoza postage stamp, the first of the United States Postal Service Music Icon series.
Select discography
Mendoza recorded Spanish-language songs on numerous labels over the course of her six-decade career of live performing. It has been estimated that the aggregate total of her records number an estimated 200 different songs on at least 50 LP record albums. Among the labels she recorded for were RCA Records, Columbia Records, Azteca, Peerless Records, El Zarape Records and Discos Falcon.
The sampling below are from her earliest recordings with her family.
The OKeh sessions – San Antonio
Recorded March 8, 1928
"Julia"
"Monterrey"
"Canción de amor"
"Amorcito consentido"
"Las cuatro milpas"
"El tecotote de Guadena"
Recorded March 10, 1928
"Delgadina"
"No quiero ser casado"
"A mi Juana"
"En el rancho grande"
"El hijo pródigo"
Bluebird Records – the Texas Hotel in San Antonio
Recorded March 27, 1934
Cuarteto Monterrey por la Familia Mendoza musical group, with Lydia as a vocalist and violinist
"Ojitos de mi chata"
"Por tus amores"
"Ojitos negros y chinos"
"La china"
"Para que necesitas a mi amor"
"Castos sueños"
Vocal solo, with guitar
"Mal hombre" (also as lyricist/composer)
"Al pié de tu reja"
"No puedo dejar de quererte"
"Lejos"
"La última copa"
"Lamento borincano"
Recorded August 10, 1934
Vocal solo, with guitar
"Sigue adelante"
"Lidya"
"Viviré para ti"
"Pero hay que triste"
"Los besos de mi negra"
"Mundo engañoso"
Lidya Mendoza y Cuarteto Mendoza, vocal and instrumental quartet
"No me anuncies"
"Toma este puñal"
"China de los ojos negros"
"Si estás dormida"
"María, María"
"Una rancherita"
Recorded January 31, 1935
Solo with guitar
"Siempre te vás"
"La mujer del puerto" (playing both guitar and mandolin)
"As de corazones"
"La cumbancha"
"Temo"
"La casteñita"
"El lirio "
"Deliciosa"
Recorded February 1, 1935
Lidya Mendoza y Familia, quartet leader, vocal and instrumental
"Panchita" (also songwriter)
"El muchacho alegre"
"Traje mi caballo prieto"
"Díos vendiga" (also songwriter)
See also
History of Mexican Americans in Houston
Bibliography
NOTE: Although Mendoza is credited as one of the main authors, this book is actually a compilation of a series of interviews with members of the Mendoza family, conducted by author Strachwitz. It also includes an extensively researched discography.
References
Further reading
External links
Smithsonian Center for Folklife & Cultural Heritage
John Burnett, Lydia Mendoza: The First Lady Of Tejano, National Public Radio
Lydia Mendoza recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
1916 births
2007 deaths
American musicians of Mexican descent
National Heritage Fellowship winners
Singers from Houston
20th-century American guitarists
Musicians from San Antonio
20th-century American singers
Guitarists from Texas
20th-century American women singers
Tejano musicians
Norteño musicians
Hispanic and Latino American musicians
Okeh Records artists
Bluebird Records artists
Imperial Records artists
20th-century American women guitarists
Hispanic and Latino American women singers
21st-century American women
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5278934
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokum
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Hokum
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Hokum is a particular song type of American blues music—a song which uses extended analogies or euphemistic terms to make humorous, sexual innuendos. This trope goes back to early dirty blues recordings, enjoyed a huge commercial success in 1920s and 1930s, and is used from time to time in modern American blues and blues rock.
An example of hokum lyrics is this sample from "Meat Balls", by Lil Johnson, recorded about 1937:
Terminology
"Hokum", originally a vaudeville term used for a simple performance bordering on vulgarity, but hinting at a smart wordplay, was first used to describe the genre of black music in a billing of a race record for Tampa Red's Hokum Jug Band (Tampa Red and Georgia Tom, 1929). After producing a big hit, "It's Tight Like That", with Vocalion Records (and its sequel) in 1928, the musicians went on to Paramount Records where they were called The Hokum Boys. Other recording studios joined the fray using similarly named ensembles. The application of "hokum" to describe the musical approach of these bands was fostered by Papa Charlie Jackson with his "Shake That Thing" (1925).
The term "hokum blues" did not become a formal designation of a style until 1960s. "Hokum" is also used to describe the low comedy acts that were used at the turn of the 20th century to lure audiences to musical performances. In the words of W. C. Handy, a veteran of a minstrel troupe, "Our hokum hooked 'em" outside the opera house, so that "ticket sellers would go to work".
Similar genres
Some of the hokum songs are also classified as belonging to the "dirty blues" subgenre of blues. Some sources treat hokum and dirty (also "bawdy") blues as interchangeable terms. However, music researchers point to differences: dirty blues were played before the appearance of hokum, the innuendo in the dirty blues is earnest and mature, while the hokum was full of sass and humor. The dirty blues are good for dancing the slow drag, while hokum, with its bouncy, ragtime-influenced songs is intended for more lively dance style typical for the “mischievous branch” of music (similar to lundu, maxixe, xote, samba).
Daniel Beaumont points to minstrel shows, vaudeville, and medicine shows as the origins of humor in blues. These genres influenced the classic and country blues, which in turn fed hokum in the 1930s. Hokum after its heyday influenced rhythm and blues in 1940s and Chicago blues in 1950s and 1960s.
Hokum in early blues
After the First World War, the fledgling record industry split hokum off from its minstrel show or vaudeville context to market it as a musical genre, the hokum blues. Early practitioners surfaced in jug bands performing in the saloons and bordellos of Beale Street, in Memphis, Tennessee. Light-hearted and humorous jug bands like Will Shade's Memphis Jug Band and Gus Cannon's Jug Stompers played good-time, upbeat music on assorted instruments, such as spoons, washboards, fiddles, triangles, harmonicas, and banjos, all anchored by bass notes blown across the mouth of an empty jug. Their blues was rife with popular influences of the time and had none of the grit and plaintive "purity" of blues from the nearby Mississippi Delta. Cannon's classic composition "Walk Right In", originally recorded for Victor in 1930, resurfaced as a number one hit 33 years later, when the Rooftop Singers recorded it during the folk revival in New York's Greenwich Village, and a jug band boom ensued once more.
Hokum blues lyrics specifically poked fun at all manner of sexual practices, preferences, and eroticized domestic arrangements. Compositions such as "Banana in Your Fruit Basket", written by Bo Carter of the Mississippi Sheiks, used thinly veiled allusions, which typically employed food and animals as metaphors in a lusty manner worthy of Chaucer. The hilariously sexy lyric content usually steered clear of subtlety. "Bo Carter was a master of the single entendre", remarked the Piedmont blues guitar master "Bowling Green" John Cephas at Chip Schutte's annual guitar camp. The bottleneck guitarist Tampa Red was accompanied by Thomas A. Dorsey (performing as Barrelhouse Tom or Georgia Tom) playing piano when the two recorded "It's Tight Like That" for the Vocalion label in 1928. The song went over so well that the two bluesmen teamed up and became known as The Hokum Boys. Both previously performed in the band of the "Mother of the Blues", Ma Rainey, who had traveled the vaudeville circuits with the Rabbit Foot Minstrels as a girl, later taking Bessie Smith under her wing. The Hokum Boys recorded over 60 bawdy blues songs by 1932, most of them penned by Dorsey, who later picked up his Bible and became the founding father of black gospel. Dorsey characterized his hokum legacy as "deep moanin', low-down blues, that's all I could say!"
Hokum in early country music
While hokum surfaces in early blues music most frequently, there was some significant crossover culturally. When the Chattanooga-based "brother duet" the Allen Brothers recorded a hit version of "Salty Dog Blues", refashioned as "Bow Wow Blues" in 1927 for Columbia's 15,000-numbered "Old Time" series the label rushed out several new releases to capitalize on their success, but mistakenly issued them on the 14,000 series instead.
In fact, the Allen Brothers were so adept at performing white blues that in 1927, Columbia mistakenly released their "Laughin' and Cryin' Blues" in the "race" series instead of the "old-time" series. (Not seeing the humor in it, the Allens sued and promptly moved to the Victor label.)
An early black string band, the Dallas String Band with Coley Jones, recorded the song "Hokum Blues" on December 8, 1928, in Dallas, Texas, featuring mandolin instrumentation. They have been identified both as proto bluesmen and as an early Texas country band and were likely to have been selling to both black and white audiences. Blind Lemon Jefferson and T-Bone Walker played in the Dallas String Band at various times. Milton Brown and his Musical Brownies, the seminal white Texas swing band, recorded a hokum tune with scat lyrics in the early 1930s, "Garbage Man Blues", which was originally known by the title the jazz composer Luis Russell gave it, "The Call of the Freaks". Bob Wills, who had performed in blackface as a young man, liberally used comic asides, whoops, and jive talk when directing his famous Texas Playboys. The Hoosier Hot Shots, Bob Skyles and the Skyrockets, and other novelty song artists concentrated on the comedic aspects, but for many up-and-coming white country musicians, like Emmett Miller, Clayton McMichen and Jimmie Rodgers, the ribald lyrics were beside the point. Hokum for these white rounders in the South and Southwest was synonymous with jazz, and the "hot" syncopations and blue notes were a naughty pleasure in themselves. The lap steel guitar player Cliff Carlisle, who was half of another "brother duet", is credited with refining the blue yodel song style after Jimmie Rodgers became the first country music superstar by recording over a dozen blue yodels. Carlisle wrote and recorded many hokum tunes and gave them titles such as "Tom Cat Blues", "Shanghai Rooster Yodel" and "That Nasty Swing". He marketed himself as a "hillbilly", a "cowboy", a "Hawaiian" or a "straight" bluesman (meaning presumably, black), depending on the audience for whom he was playing and where he played.
The radio "barn dances" of the 1920s and 1930s interspersed hokum in their variety show broadcasts. The first blackface comedians at the WSM Grand Ole Opry were Lee Roy "Lasses" White and his partner, Lee Davis "Honey" Wilds, starring in the Friday night shows. White was a veteran of several minstrel troupes, including one organized by William George "Honeyboy" Evans and another led by Al G. Field, who also employed Emmett Miller. By 1920, White was leading his own outfit, the All Star Minstrels. Lasses and Honey joined the Grand Ole Opry cast in 1932. When Lasses moved on to Hollywood in 1936 to play the role of a silver-screen cowboy sidekick, Wilds stayed on in Nashville, corking up and playing blues on his ukulele with his new partner Jam-Up (first played by Tom Woods and subsequently by Bunny Biggs). Wilds organized the first Grand Ole Opry–endorsed tent show in 1940. For the next decade, he ran the touring show, with Jam-Up and Honey as the headliners. Pulling a forty-foot trailer behind a four-door Pontiac and followed by eight to ten trucks, Wilds took the tent show from town to town, hurrying back to Nashville on Saturdays for his Opry radio appearances. Many country musicians, like Uncle Dave Macon, Bill Monroe, Eddy Arnold, Stringbean and Roy Acuff, toured with the Wilds tent shows from April through Labor Day. As Wilds's son David said in an interview,
Music was a part of their act, but they were comedians. They would sing comedic songs, a la Homer and Jethro. They would add odd lyrics to existing songs, or write songs that were intended to be comedic. They were out there to come onstage, do five minutes of jokes, sing a song, do five minutes of jokes, sing another song and say, "Thank you, good night", as their segment of the Grand Ole Opry. Almost every country band during that time had some guy who dressed funny, wore a goofy hat, and typically played slide guitar.
Legacy
Although the sexual content of hokum is generally playful by modern standards, early recordings were marginalized for both sexual suggestiveness and "trashy" appeal, but they flourished in niche markets outside the mainstream. "Jim Crow" segregation was still the norm in much of the United States, and racial, ethnic and class bias was embedded in the popular entertainment of the time. Prurience was seen as more antisocial than prejudice. Record companies were more concerned about selling records than stigmatizing artists and minority audiences. Modern audiences might be offended by the packaged exploitation these stock caricatures offered, but in early 20th-century America, it paid for performers to play the fool. Audiences were left on their own to interpret whether they themselves were sharing the joke or were the butts of it. While "race" musicians traded in "coon songs" crafted for commercial consumption by catering to white prejudice. "Hillbilly" musicians were similarly marketed as "rubes" and "hayseeds". Class distinctions bolstered these portrayals of gullible rural folk and witless southerners. Assimilation of African Americans and cultural appropriation of their artistic and cultural creations were not yet equated by the emerging entertainment industry with racism and bigotry.
The eventual success of African-American musical productions on Broadway, like Eubie Blake and Noble Sissle's "Shuffle Along" in 1921, helped to usher in the swing jazz era. This was accompanied by a new sense of sophistication that eventually disdained hokum as backward, insipid, and perhaps most damningly, corny. Audiences began to change their perceptions of authentic "Negro" artistry. White comedians like Frank Tinney and singers like Eddie Cantor (nicknamed Banjo Eyes) continued to work successfully in blackface on Broadway. They even branched out into vaudeville-based sensations like the Ziegfeld Follies and the emerging film industry, but cross-racial comedy became increasingly out of fashion, especially onstage. On the other hand, it is impossible to imagine that the success of comics such as Pigmeat Markham or Damon Wayans or bandleaders like Cab Calloway or Louis Jordan does not owe some debt to hokum. White performers have thoroughly absorbed the lessons of hokum as well, with the "top banana" Harry Steppe, singers like Louis Prima and Leon Redbone or comedian Jeff Foxworthy being prime examples. Offstage it is by no means extinct either, or practiced only by members of one race parodying another race. The Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club, a New Orleans Mardi Gras krewe, has marched on Fat Tuesday since 1900, dressed in raggedy clothes and grass skirts with their faces blackened. Zulu is now the largest predominantly African-American organization marching in the annual Carnival celebration. While the minstrel show, burlesque, vaudeville, variety, and the medicine show have left the scene, hokum is still here.
Rural stereotypes continued to be fair game. Consider the phenomenal success of the syndicated television program Hee Haw, produced from 1969 until 1992. Writer Dale Cockrell has called this a minstrel show in "rube-face". It featured country music stars, curvaceous comedians, and banjo playing bumpkins whose pickin' and grinnin' picked on city slickers and grinned at the buxom All Jugs Band. The rapid fire one-liners, Laugh-In rapid cross-cutting, animations of barnyard animals, hayseed humor and continuous parade of country, bluegrass, and gospel performers appealed to an untapped demographic that was older and more rural than the young, urban "hip" audience broadcasters were routinely cultivating. It is still in syndication today, and is one of the most successful syndicated programs ever. Admirers of hokum warmed to its slyness and the seeming innocence that provided a context for simplistic shenanigans. In the rural south in particular, hokum held on. Cast members like Stringbean and Grandpa Jones were familiar with hokum (and blackface), and if bands named the "Clodhoppers" or the "Cut Ups" and other country cousins of this comedic form are fewer in number today, their presence is still a clue to the country and western, bluegrass, and string band tradition of mixing stage antics, broad parodies and sexual allusions with music.
Examples of hokum
"Bow Wow Blues", the Allen Brothers, 1926
"It's Tight Like That", Tampa Red and Georgia Tom, 1928
"Selling That Stuff", The Hokum Boys (Tampa Red & George Tom), 1928
"The Duck's Yas-Yas-Yas", James "Stump" Johnson, 1928
"I Had to Give Up Gym", The Hokum Boys, 1929
"Please Warm My Weiner", Bo Carter, 1930
"Banana in Your Fruit Basket", Bo Carter, 1931
"My Pencil Won't Write No More", Bo Carter, 1931
"Pin in Your Cushion", Bo Carter, 1931
"Let Me Play with Your Yo-Yo", Blind Willie McTell, 1933
"Mouse's Ear Blues", Cliff Carlisle, 1933
"The Coldest Stuff in Town", Whistling Bob Howe & Frankie Griggs, 1935
"Let Me Roll Your Lemon", Bo Carter, 1935
"Get 'Em from the Peanut Man (Hot Nuts)", Lil Johnson, 1935
"Anybody Want to Buy My Cabbage?", Lil Johnson, 1935
"Press My Button (Ring My Bell)", Lil Johnson, 1935
"My Stove Is in Good Condition", Lil Johnson, 1936
"Sam the Hot Dog Man", Lil Johnson, 1936
"Trucking My Blues Away", Blind Boy Fuller, 1936
"They're Red Hot", Robert Johnson, 1937
"Meat Balls", Lil Johnson, probably 1937
"If It Don't Fit (Don't Force It)", Lil Johnson, 1937
"Flat Foot Floogie (with a Floy Floy)", Slim & Slam, 1938
"Southern Whoopee Song", the Anglin Brothers, 1938
"All That Meat and No Potatoes", Fats Waller, 1941
"I Like My Baby's Pudding", Wynonie Harris, 1950
"Sixty Minute Man", the Dominoes, 1951
"Lemon Squeezing Daddy", the Sultans, 1951
"Rocket 69", Todd Rhodes & Connie Allen, 1951
"Big 10-Inch Record", Bull Moose Jackson, 1952, covered by Aerosmith on Toys In The Attic
"Nosey Joe", Bull Moose Jackson (written by Leiber and Stoller), 1952,
"My Ding-a-Ling", Dave Bartholomew, 1952 (famously covered by Chuck Berry, 1972)
"Keep On Churnin", Wynonie Harris, 1952
"Laundromat Blues", the "5" Royales, 1953
"Big Long Slidin' Thing", Dinah Washington, 1954
"Hesitation Blues", Reverend Gary Davis, circa 1965
"She Loves My Automobile", ZZ Top, 1979
"Tube Snake Boogie", ZZ Top, 1981
NB. Various music historians describe many of these songs as dirty blues.
Hokum compilations
Please Warm My Weiner, Yazoo L-1043 (cover art by Robert Crumb) (1992)
Hokum: Blues and Rags (1929–1930), Document 5392 (1995)
Hokum Blues: 1924–1929, Document 5370 (1995)
Raunchy Business: Hot Nuts & Lollypops, Sony (1991)
Let Me Squeeze Your Lemon: The Ultimate Rude Blues Collection, (2004)
Take It Out Too Deep: Rufus & Ben Quillian (Blue Harmony Boys) (1929–30)
Vintage Sex Songs, Primo 6077 (2008)
Other collections containing hokum
Traditional Country Music Makers, Vol. 20: Memphis Yodel, Magnet MRCD 020 (Cliff Carlisle and other artists)
White Country Blues, 1926–1938: A Lighter Shade of Blue, Sony (1993)
Booze and the Blues, Legacy Roots n' Blues series, Sony (1996)
Good For What Ails You: Music of the Medicine Shows 1926–1937, Old Hat Records CD-1005 (2005)
References
Sources
The Souls of Black Folk by W. E. B. DuBois (Penguin Classics, New York: Penguin Books, reprinted April 1996) .
Reminiscing with Sissle and Blake by Robert Kimball and William Bolsom (The Viking Press, New York, 1973)
Demons of Disorder: Early Blackface Minstrels and Their World by Dale Cockrell (Cambridge University Press, 1997)
The Story of a Musical Life: An Autobiography by George F. Root (Cincinnati: John Church Co., 1891; reprinted by AMS Press, New York, 1973). .
We'll Understand It Better By and By: Pioneering African American Gospel Composers edited by Bernice Johnson Reagon. Wade in the Water Series. (Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C, 1993).
Black Gospel: An Illustrated History of the Gospel Sound by Vic Broughton (Blandford Press, New York, 1985)
Where Dead Voices Gather by Nick Tosches, 2001, Little, Brown, Boston. . On Emmett Miller.
A Good Natured Riot: The Birth of the Grand Ole Opry by Charles K. Wolfe (Country Music Foundation Press and Vanderbilt University Press, Nashville, Tennessee, 1999)
Bluegrass Breakdown : The Making of the Old Southern Sound by Robert Cantwell (University of Illinois Press, Chicago, 1984, reprinted 2003).
It Came from Memphis by Robert Gordon (Pocket Books, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1995).
Stephen Foster: America's Troubadour by John Tasker Howard. (Thomas Y. Crowell, New York, 1934; 2nd ed., 1953)
The Encyclopedia of Country Music edited by Paul Kingsbury (Oxford University Press, New York, 1998)
Minstrel Banjo Style various artists, liner notes, Rounder Records ROUN0321, 1994
You Ain't Talkin' to Me: Charlie Poole and the Roots of Country Music liner notes by Henry Sapoznik, Columbia Legacy Recordings C3K 92780, 2005
Good for What Ails You: Music of the Medicine Shows 1926–1937 liner notes by Marshall Wyatt, Old Hat Records CD-1005 (2005)
American country music
Blues music genres
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred%20Keenor
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Fred Keenor
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Frederick Charles Keenor (31 July 1894 – 19 October 1972) was a Welsh professional footballer. He began his career at his hometown side Cardiff City after impressing the club's coaching staff in a trial match in 1912 organised by his former schoolteacher. A hard tackling defender, he appeared sporadically for the team in the Southern Football League before his spell at the club was interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War. Keenor served in the 17th (Service) Battalion, Middlesex Regiment, led by Major Frank Buckley, which became known as the Football Battalion. He fought in the Battle of the Somme, suffering a severe shrapnel wound to his thigh in 1916. He returned to Britain and after a lengthy rehabilitation he ended the war as a physical training instructor, reaching the rank of sergeant. He also appeared as a guest player for Brentford during the war.
Overcoming doubts about the possibility of playing again, Keenor returned to the game with Cardiff as they embarked on the most successful period in their history. They won promotion to the First Division one season after joining the Football League in 1920. Keenor helped the club to the 1925 FA Cup Final, in which Cardiff suffered a 1–0 defeat to Sheffield United. In 1926, he replaced the departing Jimmy Blair as club captain, leading the team to success in the 1927 FA Cup Final later in the season, in which they defeated Arsenal 1–0. Their triumph remains the only time the competition has been won by a team based outside England.
Keenor was released by Cardiff at the end of the 1930–31 season, which saw the club relegated to the Third Division South. During his time at Cardiff, he made more than 500 appearances for the club, winning four Welsh Cup titles, the FA Cup and the FA Charity Shield in a 19-year association with the side. He is regarded as one of the club's all-time greats. A statue of Keenor, lifting the FA Cup, was erected outside Cardiff's new ground, the Cardiff City Stadium, in November 2012 following a public fundraising campaign.
Keenor finished his career with spells at Crewe Alexandra, Oswestry Town and Tunbridge Wells Rangers. During his career, he also attained 32 caps for the Wales national football team. He helped the side win the British Home Championship three times, in 1920, 1924 and 1928, and captained the side on numerous occasions, scoring two goals. Following his death in 1972, the Football Association of Wales secretary Trevor Morris commented, "Fred Keenor will go down as one of the greatest players and greatest characters ever produced by Wales".
Early life
Frederick Charles Keenor was born in Cardiff, Wales, on 31 July 1894. He was one of eleven children born to Robert and Mary Keenor. The family lived in a terraced house in Theodora Street in Roath, a working class suburb of Cardiff. His father was a stonemason in the city, working long hours to be able to afford employing Elizabeth Maler, a live-in nanny, to help his wife care for their children. Although they were not regarded as being in poverty, the family lived in cramped conditions; Keenor shared a bedroom with three of his brothers in a house that did not have an inside toilet. Their home did have electricity, which had been introduced in Cardiff fewer than ten years earlier.
Keenor developed a keen interest in football as a child, using tennis balls to play the game in his local streets. Due to the cost of footballs, he and his friends would also use rags tied together to form a ball. He attended Stacey Road Primary School in Adamsdown where he captained the school's football team for several years. He led the side to an undefeated season to win the local schools division in 1908. He was later selected to represent the city of Cardiff's schoolboy team and developed a reputation as a promising footballer. One of his former teachers, Walter Riden, went on to join the board at Cardiff City while Keenor was a player.
Early football career
Cardiff City
Keenor's former teacher Riden invited him to attend a trial at Cardiff City in 1912 after spotting him playing local amateur football for Cardiff-based side Roath Wednesday. Keenor later said that he "did not think twice about it". He was impressive enough during a trial match to be offered an amateur contract with the club at the age of 17. He joined Cardiff City as the club was looking to establish itself as a professional football team having joined the newly formed Second Division of the Southern Football League two years earlier. The club's amateur side competed in the Western Football League and Keenor appeared several times in games. A loss to Camerton during a Western League fixture left a lasting impression on him after an over-confident Cardiff side suffered an upset, losing 3–1 in a match they were widely expected to win. Keenor often spoke of using the defeat as motivation in later stages of his career, remarking, "In subsequent seasons I always thought of that game when we were supposed to be on a 'good thing'. It has a moral which I pass on to every young footballer".
His whole-hearted performances for the amateur side persuaded the club to offer Keenor his first professional contract. Although he was given a wage of 10 shillings per week, he continued to work locally as a labourer. He described his two streams of income as making him "feel like a millionaire". The Cardiff squad was undergoing a significant overhaul under the management team of secretary-manager Fred Stewart and trainer George Latham; all but four of the senior team players they had inherited from previous manager Davy McDougall were released. The pair were impressed by Keenor's performances and handed him first-team opportunities at the end of the 1912–13 season. Keenor featured in two friendly matches, a 9–0 victory over Bridgend YMCA, in which he scored, and a 1–1 draw with Mid Rhondda. The presence of Billy Hardy, Patrick Cassidy and Kidder Harvey, who became known as the "holy three" by fans, restricted his first-team opportunities as the trio ensured the club won promotion to the First Division of the Southern Football League after conceding just 15 goals during the campaign. Keenor was forced to wait until 6 December 1913 to make his competitive debut for the club, playing in a 1–1 draw with Exeter City in the First Division. He endured a difficult start and was described in a local newspaper report as "the weak link in a very strong side". He made just two further appearances for the side during the remainder of the 1913–14 season. He featured in a 2–1 victory over Plymouth Argyle and a 0–0 draw with Millwall.
1914–15 season
The following season, Keenor became much more involved in the first team at Ninian Park, Cardiff's home ground. After missing the opening game of the season, a defeat to Watford, he featured in five consecutive matches to replace an injured Cassidy. His performance during a victory over Brighton & Hove Albion earned glowing reviews in the Athletic News. Cassidy's return from injury saw Keenor drop out of the side. He did not appear for the first team from October 1914 until a match on 2 January 1915. Following this, he featured in 15 of his side's next 18 matches.
During the season, Cardiff came under pressure from local newspapers, most notably the Western Mail, for the club's perceived lack of contributions to the war effort. The Western Mail printed numerous scathing comments focused on association football clubs and even refused to report on Cardiff's matches for a time. The club later countered the paper's actions by accusing it of chasing "cheap popularity". Keenor, himself a patriot, was torn between the two, having finally established himself in the first team after three years at Ninian Park. He eventually enlisted in February 1915, along with teammate Jack Stephenson, trainer George Latham, who had previous military experience having served in the Second Boer War, and two of the club's directors. He joined the 17th Middlesex Battalion, which became known as the Football Battalion due to the many footballers who made up the core of the unit. Led by former England international Frank Buckley, the regiment had been founded by William Joynson-Hicks, 1st Viscount Brentford, in December 1914 in the hope of attracting footballers and fans into enlisting in the armed forces.
Stationed in London with the regiment, an arrangement was made allowing players to return to their clubs for league matches to fulfill their contractual obligations. Keenor travelled by train every weekend to the venue of each Cardiff fixture to keep playing and was listed in the matchday programmes as "Private Keenor" for the remainder of the season. Cardiff finished the season in third place in the First Division. Keenor made 21 appearances in the league during the season, scoring two goals. The effects of the war effort crippled the club's finances. With travel restrictions placed on train services, and local men enlisting en masse, Cardiff's income from attendances dwindled. The situation became so dire that players were told to look for part-time jobs during the summer break in case the club was unable to pay their wages. When they threatened to strike, the club's committee approached Keenor over the possibility of forming a squad from his fellow soldiers of the Football Battalion. With the war escalating, the Football Association officially suspended all its competitions at the end of the 1914–15 season, negating any need for Keenor to raise a team.
First World War
Keenor and his battalion were moved to the country residence of the regiment's founder, William Joynson-Hicks, near Dorking, where they began basic training. Keenor was a notoriously poor shot with a rifle, even being described by the regimental sergeant major as "the worst shot he had ever seen". During their posting, the battalion organised a fixture against Cardiff City on 2 October 1915. Keenor was originally due to play for the army side against his club, but Cardiff manager Fred Stewart asked that he play for his club side. The match ended in a 1–0 victory for the battalion.
One month after the match, on 16 November, Keenor and his battalion began the journey to France to join the front lines. They billeted in the village of Les Ciseaux for one month before moving to the city of Béthune. Most of his posting during his battalion's first months in France involved training and guard duty. On 9 December 1915, they were posted to Annequin near the front line. They were soon moved into the main trenches, which were knee-deep in mud and infested with rats. His battalion remained on duty until 22 December when they were relieved, resting in the nearby village of Beuvry over Christmas. Cardiff City organised regular collections at their wartime fixtures during this period to send parcels to Keenor and Jack Stephenson containing letters from fans and home comforts. The Middlesex Battalion claimed the Divisional Football Cup with relative ease, defeating a team from the 34th Brigade 11–0 in the final on 11 April 1916; each player received a winners' medal made of bronze.
The war soon took its toll on the battalion as they began suffering casualties from the fighting, including Buckley who suffered severe shrapnel injuries. Having returned to the front, the regiment was involved in the Battle of the Somme, one of the bloodiest battles in history, in particularly the Battle of Delville Wood. Keenor later described the scene during what he called a "hellish battle", stating:
During the battle, Keenor was badly wounded when a piece of artillery shrapnel struck his left leg above the knee on 28 July, leaving him unable to walk. An unknown soldier saw him attempting to crawl away from the incoming fire and managed to help him back to the nearby medical facilities where army doctors were able to tend to his injury. The wound was so severe that they considered amputating the leg but decided against it. He was removed from the Western Front and transported to an army hospital in Dublin where he spent six months undergoing rehabilitation on his injured leg. Following his return to service, Keenor was stationed in Chatham, Kent, as a physical training instructor for the 5th Reserve Brigade. He was later promoted to the rank of sergeant and was awarded the Victory Medal, the 1914–15 Star and the British War Medal for his service during the war. Between 1915 and 1919, Keenor appeared as a guest for Brentford in the London Combination. During the 1918–19 season, the side won the league title with Keenor making 19 guest appearances.
Return to football
After returning to Wales, Keenor hoped to resume his playing career immediately, but the Southern Football League had set no official date for its return. To support his family during the hiatus, he worked as a milkman and in a local gas works. When the Football Association resumed fixtures in 1919 following the end of hostilities, he rejoined Cardiff City, despite being told by army doctors that his shrapnel wound meant he would never play football again. He resumed playing in the Southern Football League for the club, playing his first competitive match in August 1919. Having mostly been a member of the reserve team before the outbreak of the war, Keenor returned to Cardiff as an experienced member of the squad having played for his battalion and Brentford during wartime. He featured in two of the club's three pre-season fixtures. Fred Stewart resumed his role of secretary-manager following the war. He was given a selection issue in the form of Keenor and the presence of his regular first choice Patrick Cassidy. However, Cassidy pushed for Keenor to be given the chance to play due to his "youth and promise". After this, Keenor featured regularly for the first team. Cardiff's squad had escaped the war relatively intact with most of the side returning to play. They went on to win the 1920 Welsh Cup, defeating Wrexham 2–1 in the final. They finished fourth in their final season in the Southern League, and were admitted into the Football League Second Division in 1920.
By the time Cardiff entered the Football League, Keenor had established himself in the first team. As a result, Cardiff allowed two of the "holy three", Cassidy and Harvey, to leave the club. Keenor appeared for the side in their first-ever Football League fixture, scoring in a 5–2 victory over Stockport County. In their first season, Cardiff finished second to Birmingham City, missing out on first place because of goal average after finishing level on points. They were subsequently promoted to the top tier of English football and reached the semi-final of the FA Cup, losing to fellow Second Division side Wolverhampton Wanderers in a replay. Keenor scored his side's only goal in a 2–1 defeat. He later revealed that he had been approached by an unknown person before the game who offered him a bribe to throw the match but had flatly refused to consider the idea.
After a difficult start in the First Division, losing the first six matches of the season, Cardiff secured their first victory in the top division by beating Middlesbrough 3–1 on 24 September 1921. Keenor had been switched to centre-half for the match, a move Fred Stewart had resisted for some time because of his concern over Kennor's lack of height. Away from his usual position at right-half his performance impressed so much that he would go on to play the position for the remainder of his career. The 1921–22 season was also Keenor's tenth year at Ninian Park, and he was subsequently awarded a testimonial match against Bristol City. In the following five years, Cardiff became an established side in the First Division, missing out on the league title in the 1923–24 season to Huddersfield Town on goal average after drawing the final game of the season when a win would have guaranteed them the title.
Soon after, in May 1924, the club embarked on its first-ever European tour, beginning with an ill-tempered match against Czechoslovakian side Sparta Prague. The match was an intensely physical encounter with Cardiff accusing their opposition of dirty tactics. As the teams left the pitch at the end of the first-half, a furious Keenor, upset at the nature of some tackles he had received, yelled at the Prague players, "If I get anymore kicks on the shin I shall be chopping someone off at the knee". In the second-half, Cardiff players found themselves being physically assaulted by members of the crowd, who aimed kicks and punches at the players, when they approached the sidelines to take throw-ins and corner-kicks. Cardiff went on to lose the match 3–2. They later played matches against First Vienna in Austria and Borussia Dortmund and Hamburger SV in Germany. The following season, Cardiff reached the final of the 1924–25 FA Cup where they lost 1–0 to Sheffield United, who claimed their fifth FA Cup win following a goal from Fred Tunstall. After the final, Keenor stated: "Just because we lost in our very first Cup Final, I don't think there is any cause to get down in the mouth. I can say here and now that one day soon our followers can be sure that Cardiff City will bring that cup to Wales".
1926–27 season
At the start of the 1926–27 season, the departure of club captain Jimmy Blair saw Keenor appointed the new permanent captain of the Bluebirds. He led the team to a second FA Cup final in 1927. He came close to not playing in the match as, having struggled to hold down a first team place due to injury, he handed in a transfer request in January 1927. His request was approved by board members Walter Riden and Syd Nicholls and negotiations over a proposed move to Severnside rivals Bristol Rovers were opened. The move later collapsed, with Rovers' offer being deemed unsatisfactory. Instead, Keenor returned to the starting eleven that defeated Arsenal 1–0 with a goal from Hughie Ferguson. He was praised for his leadership of the team's defence during the match and earned plaudits from opposing captain Charlie Buchan. By winning the trophy, Cardiff had become the first team outside England to win the FA Cup and Keenor, as captain, was handed the trophy by King George V.
Following the match, Keenor and the rest of the team travelled to the Palace Hotel in Bloomsbury, which hosted a celebratory dinner for the players and their wives. The next day, they returned to Cardiff, with around 150,000 people lining the streets of the city to see the team arrive. After a parade through the streets of the city, they were taken to City Hall where they were presented to the crowd by the Lord Mayor. Keenor was overawed by the adulation of the crowd, stating: "The cup was worth winning if only to get a reception like this". One newspaper published a caricature the following day, describing him as "the most important man in Wales" with an image depicting Keenor knocking former Prime Minister David Lloyd George off a pedestal. Keenor also captained the side to victory in the Welsh Cup, defeating Rhyl 2–0 in the final, and their 2–1 victory over amateur side Corinthians in the 1927 FA Charity Shield at the start of the following season.
Later years
The club entered a period of decline in the following years. Two seasons after their cup triumph and despite conceding the fewest goals in the division, Cardiff were relegated to the Second Division at the end of the 1928–29 season. An ageing Keenor became a target of frustrated fans as Cardiff suffered financial difficulties that saw the majority of the team's star names sold in a bid to raise funds. Replacements were signed from amateur sides, but the team struggled in the Second Division. Before the 1930–31 season Keenor was still on the wages he had received when the club was in the First Division. They gave him a twenty-five per cent pay cut during the season and a fifty per cent cut during the off-season. Club director Walter Bartley Wilson, who had intended to leave Keenor with no choice but to leave the club due to the severe drop in wages, instigated the cuts. Keenor told him, "Bart, I'm going to surprise you too. I'm going to take it". Despite this, he was eventually dropped from the team as they struggled for form and the club signed Jack Galbraith from Clapton Orient as a replacement. The side's form showed little improvement. Keenor played his final match for the club on 6 April 1931 against Tottenham Hotspur, along with the club's all-time record goalscorer Len Davies. They finished the season in 22nd position and were relegated to the Third Division South. Keenor was released at the end of the season, ending a 19-year spell with the side.
Following his release, he considered retiring from the game but eventually signed for Third Division North side Crewe Alexandra. Despite being 37 years old, Keenor played a pivotal part in the club's sixth-placed finish during the 1931–32 season. This was the joint highest finish that the club had ever achieved in the Football League, and only the second time they had finished in the top ten in the previous nine seasons. Despite a strong season, he was disappointed that the club was unable to achieve promotion as he described the squad as having the "nucleus of a very good side". They recorded several strong results, including defeating eventual Division Three North champions Lincoln City 8–0. Crewe later lost the return fixture against Lincoln 5–0. They conceded all five goals during an hour-long spell when Keenor had left the pitch after being knocked unconscious earlier in the match when attempting to block a shot. Although his advancing years had lessened his abilities, Keenor became a huge draw for Crewe, and if he was unable to play due to injury, the club would withhold the information before the match in fear of affecting attendance figures. He spent three years at Gresty Road, winning one final cap for Wales. At the age of 41, Keenor left the professional game, moving into non-League football. He was player-manager for Oswestry Town and then Tunbridge Wells Rangers, eventually retiring from the game in February 1937.
International career
Keenor was selected to represent the Welsh schoolboy side in 1907 and appeared in the first-ever meeting between the English and Welsh schoolboy sides, playing in the match as an outside-right. He also featured in two Victory Internationals at the end of the First World War. Keenor was handed his debut for the senior team on 15 March 1920. He was named in the squad for their 2–1 victory over England in the 1919–20 British Home Championship, following the withdrawal of Billy Jennings through injury. On 16 February 1924, Keenor was handed the Wales captaincy for the first time in his career for a match against Scotland. The Scots were captained by his Cardiff teammate Jimmy Blair, making the match the first time in the history of international football that opposition teams had been captained by players from the same club side.
Keenor's senior international career coincided with a period of success for the Welsh national side and he won a total of 32 caps. They won the British Home Championship in 1920, 1924 and 1928, overcoming an increasing reluctance on the part of English clubs to release players for games they saw as being of no importance. In a match against Scotland in 1929, with Wales unable to call up a replacement, Keenor had to play with strapping to protect his injured neck and was advised by a doctor to avoid heading the ball during the game. Despite saying he was "in agony throughout", Keenor played the full 90 minutes of a 4–2 defeat.
Keenor and the unknowns
In October 1930, for a fixture in Glasgow against Scotland, a heavily depleted Welsh side who were unable to call up many of their star players as Football League clubs refused to release them for international duty became known as 'Keenor and the 10 unknowns'. FAW secretary Ted Robbins' side, playing on a Saturday when the English leagues had a full programme, had no choice but to play 10 players from either the lower divisions, Welsh League sides, or from the non-leagues. The Welsh featured just seven players from Football League sides, with only Keenor and Cardiff teammates Len Evans and Walter Robbins playing in the top two divisions. The rest of the side contained three players from Welsh league sides Cardiff Corinthians, Llanelli and Colwyn Bay and one player from non-league side Oswestry Town. The side featured nine debutants in the line-up, with Keenor and Cardiff teammate Len Evans being the only two with previous experience at international level. Wales had been forced into a similar situation eight months earlier, in February 1930, when Keenor had played in a severely weakened side that lost 7–0 to Ireland. Joe Bambrick scored six of Ireland's seven goals in the game. Keenor described the match as the worst game he had ever played.
Before the match, Keenor had asked Robbins if he could have the players to himself for four hours before the game. Taking the team to relax and discuss tactics for the match, in his pre-match team talk he exhorted his teammates, "There's eleven of them and eleven of us, and there's only one ball, and it's ours". Despite their inexperience, the Welsh side held Scotland to a 1–1 draw having taken the lead after six minutes through a Tommy Bamford goal. The display led the Welsh public to call for the same side to remain for the following match against England. There was no repeat of the result; the Welsh side lost 4–0 at the Racecourse Ground. Keenor won his final cap for Wales on 26 October 1932 in a 5–2 victory over Scotland.
International goals
Results list Wales' goal tally first.
Style of play
Described as possessing a "terrible" shot and unable to reliably run with the ball, Keenor's strength lay in his commitment and uncompromising tackling. Fred Stewart, who coached Keenor for more than 15 years at Cardiff City said, "I honestly do not believe the word 'beaten' is in his vocabulary." Former teammate, Ernie Curtis said of him: "He was one of the hardest tacklers in the game, some said he was dirty but he was just hard. Nobody took liberties with old Fred ... [He] could run all night, he couldn't run with the ball mind you, but he could run all day". Charlie Buchan, captain of the opposing Arsenal side in the 1927 FA Cup final, described Keenor as having "a store of energy (that) seemed inexhaustible in defending his goal". His hard-tackling style made him a target for opposition fans; he was once assaulted following a match for Crewe Alexandra during the later years of his career after a physical performance against an opposition side angered some of their fans.
Keenor was renowned for his fitness levels, despite being a heavy drinker and smoker. During training sessions at the club, he would often ignore the ball control drills used by other players and complete laps of the training pitch in heavy army boots. He was also famed for his leadership qualities. He was renowned at Cardiff City for being a vocal player on the pitch well before his appointment as captain in the mid-1920s, often barracking considerably more experienced players. In his biography of Keenor, James Leighton stated "he ran tirelessly for the cause and would frequently put his body on the line ... His endeavours could only inspire his teammates to reach a higher standard of play". Martin Johnes of Swansea University described Keenor as "the quintessential 'British' player: physical, committed and determined, making up in strength for what he lacked in skill. And he expected the same from those around him."
Personal life
After returning from his war service, Keenor met Muriel Mary Griffiths, a church organist from Swansea who had worked in a munitions factory during the First World War. They were married soon after they met, on 11 November 1919. The pair had their first child, Frederick, in May 1920. The couple went on to have seven children; their last child, Graham, was born in 1931. After establishing himself in the first team at Cardiff, he moved to Whitchurch, in a house that he had designed and helped build, and became a keen gardener, growing his own vegetables in the garden. He also purchased an Irish Terrier and entered the dog in local competitions.
Keenor's diabetes along with his hard-living lifestyle – perhaps a consequence of his tough upbringing – eventually took its toll. Following his retirement from playing professional football in the Football League, his ill health made it difficult for him to find work and earn a living. Supporters of Cardiff City held a collection during one league match to raise money for Keenor and his family. The Football Association of Wales also organised a fund for him as well as donating him some money. After a long spell in hospital for treatment of his diabetes, Keenor moved his family to Lamberhurst in 1935 to recuperate. There he and his wife ran a corner shop and raised chickens to be sold at Christmas time, alongside his player-manager role with Tunbridge Wells Rangers. He later worked at a petrol refinery in the nearby town of Hove, and volunteered for the Territorial Army, serving as a sapper in the Royal Engineers. He was discharged in June 1939 due to continuing problems with his diabetes treatment, just months before the start of the Second World War. Two of his sons, Frederick and Alfred were killed in action during the conflict. Keenor and his wife later visited the village of Fruges in northern France, where Alfred's plane had been shot down.
After the end of the Second World War, Keenor worked as a builder's labourer for several years, waking up in the early hours each morning to catch a lift in a newspaper delivery van before walking the remaining five miles to the site. He returned to Cardiff with his wife in 1958, being employed as a storeman in the building department of Cardiff Corporation. Muriel, his wife of nearly 50 years, died in 1967 when a gas leak outside their home went undetected and filled the house with poisonous gas, leaving Keenor hospitalised after being discovered by a neighbour. He made a full recovery but was deemed to need full-time care and moved into a residential nursing home in Gabalfa. He continued to attend Cardiff matches until his death on 19 October 1972. His ashes were buried in Thornhill crematorium in Cardiff. His son Graham, who had joined Cardiff City as a youth player but never appeared for the first team, served as club secretary following the resignation of Trevor Morris between 1959 and 1972. He left the post just days after his father's death.
Legacy
Keenor is considered to be one of Cardiff City's all-time great players and was inducted into the Welsh Sports Hall of Fame. On 15 November 2007, a petition to the Cardiff Civic Authorities was begun, to bestow a tribute both upon Keenor and upon the 1927 FA Cup squad he captained. On 4 December 2009, the road approaching Cardiff City Stadium was named Ffordd Fred Keenor (Fred Keenor Road).
In 2010, a fundraising campaign was started by the Cardiff City Supporters' Trust to raise funds for a statue of Keenor to be placed outside the club's stadium. The statue cost £85,000, which was raised through public donations and donations from the Welsh government and the Football Association of Wales. It was designed by artist Roger Andrews, who had previously designed a statue of Tasker Watkins that was erected outside the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. On 10 November 2012, the statue of Keenor holding the FA Cup was revealed outside gate 3 of the Cardiff City Stadium.
Career statistics
Honours
Cardiff City
FA Cup
Winner: 1927
Finalist: 1925
FA Charity Shield
Winner: 1927
Welsh Cup
Winner: 1923, 1927, 1928, 1930
Finalist: 1929
Division One
Runner-up: 1923–24
Division Two
Runner-up: 1920–21
Brentford
London Combination
Winner: 1918–19
Wales
British Home Championship
Winner: 1919–20, 1923–24, 1927–28
References
Bibliography
Specific
1894 births
1972 deaths
Footballers from Cardiff
Wales men's international footballers
Cardiff City F.C. players
Crewe Alexandra F.C. players
English Football League players
Southern Football League players
Tunbridge Wells F.C. players
Middlesex Regiment soldiers
Brentford F.C. wartime guest players
British Army personnel of World War I
Welsh football managers
Men's association football defenders
Welsh men's footballers
Oswestry Town F.C. managers
People from Lamberhurst
Military personnel from Cardiff
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Andrews%20Trophy
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St Andrews Trophy
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The St Andrews Trophy is a biennial men's team golf tournament contested between teams of amateur golfers representing Great Britain & Ireland and the Continent of Europe. It takes its name from St Andrews in Scotland.
It was first played in 1956 and takes place in even-numbered years; Great Britain & Ireland plays in the United States in the Walker Cup in odd-numbered years. It is staged alternately in Great Britain & Ireland and on the Continent, and is organised by The R&A (an offshoot of The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews) and the European Golf Association. The St Andrews Trophy itself was presented by the Royal and Ancient Club in 1963.
The event is played on two consecutive days. On both days there are four morning foursomes followed by afternoon singles, eight on the first day and nine on the second.
History
The first event was held at Wentworth on 20 and 21 October 1956 and followed a similar format to that used for the Joy Cup which featured professional golfers. The teams were called the British Isles and the Rest of Europe. There were five foursomes on the first day and ten singles on the second. All matches were over 36 holes. The British Isles used the same ten players on both days, while the Rest of Europe used a total of twelve players. The British Isles won all five matches on the first day and finished 12½–2½ winners.
The second event was held at Golf de Saint-Cloud in France on 2 and 3 October 1958, retaining the same format as in 1956. Britain used 11 players while the Rest of Europe used 12 as they had in 1956. The British Isles won four of the five foursomes on the first day and, although the Rest of Europe won four singles, Britain won comfortably, 10–5. In 1960 it was held at the Berkshire Golf Club on 3 and 4 September. With 12 players from the Rest of Europe attending, it was decided to extend the format to include six foursomes and twelve singles, all 12 in each team playing both days. Britain won the foursomes 5–1 and the singles 8–4 to win convincingly.
The 1962 event was held at Halmstad GK in Tylösand, Sweden on 11 and 12 August. Matches were reduced to 18 holes with five foursomes and ten singles on each day. Teams were standardised to 11 players. Great Britain and Ireland won the foursomes sessions 4½–½ and 4–1 and, although the Continent of Europe tied the first-day singles and won the second set of singles 5½–4½, Great Britain and Ireland won 18–12 thanks to their domination of the foursomes. The next tournament was held on 31 July and 1 August 1964 at Muirfield and was the first time the St Andrews trophy was contested. Great Britain and Ireland led 12–3 and won by a large margin, 23–7. The 1966 event was held at Real Sociedad de Golf de Neguri near Bilbao, Spain on 29 and 30 July. Although Great Britain and Ireland won the first-day foursomes 4–1, the singles and the second-day foursomes were both tied. The Continent of Europe could have won the match with a good final session but they lost the first seven singles matches and the final result was 19½–10½.
Portmarnock Golf Club in Ireland was the host for the 1968 match, held on 2 and 3 August. The match was very one-sided with Great Britain and Ireland leading 12½–2½ after the first day and winning 20–10, despite losing the final singles 6–4. The 1970 event was held at Royal Zoute Golf Club, Belgium on 1 and 2 August. Great Britain and Ireland won all five foursomes on the first morning but after the Continent had won the singles and the second-day foursomes, Britain only led 10½–9½. The Continent were however only able to win three second-day singles and Britain won 17½–12½. The Berkshire was the venue for the 1972 match, played on 4 and 5 August. The Continent won the first set of foursomes 3–2 but Britain won the singles 8½–1½ and the second-day foursomes 4–1 to take a convincing lead. The second set of singles was tied to give Great Britain and Ireland a 19½–10½ win, their ninth successive victory.
The Continent of Europe had their first success on 2 and 3 August 1974 at Golf Club Punta Ala on the Tuscan coast in Italy. On the first day the foursomes were tied but the Continent won the singles and led 8–7, the first time they had been ahead after the first day. On the second day the Continent won the foursomes 3–2 and with 5 wins in the singles they took the trophy by a 16–14 margin. The Old Course at St Andrews hosted the 1976 match, played on 30 and 31 July. Although the Continent lost 18½–11½, it was their best performance on British soil. The 1978 event was held on 4 and 5 August at Club zur Vahr in Bremen, Germany. Britain won comfortably by a margin of 20½–9½. Royal St George's Golf Club hosted the 1980 match, played on 27 and 28 June. Great Britain and Ireland led 12–3 after the first day and had ensured success after leading 16–4 after the second-day foursomes. The Continent won the second-day singles session, Britain winning by a score of 19½–10½.
The format was revised in 1982 with only four foursomes and eight singles on each day. Teams were reduced from 11 to 9. The Continent of Europe gained their second success. The match was played at Rosendaelsche Golfclub, Arnhem in the Netherlands on 25 and 26 June. The Continent led 8–4 after the first day. On the second day they halved both the sessions and won 14–10. The 1984 match, played on 30 and 31 May at Saunton Golf Club, was the first time the Continent came close to winning in Britain. Great Britain and Ireland led 6½–5½ after the first day and 8½–7½ after the second-day foursomes. In the afternoon five of the eight singles went to the final green with Britain winning two of these and halving the other three, giving Britain a close 13–11 win. Halmstad hosted the event for the second time on 27 and 28 June 1986. The Continent had an immediate disadvantage when Anders Haglund, who had the inaugural European Amateur earlier in the year, had to withdraw because of illness. This meant that the same eight players had to play in each session. Britain won the first-day singles 7–1 to lead 9–3. The Continent won the second-day foursomes but Britain again won the singles for a 14½–9½ win.
The 1988 match was held at St Andrews on 29 and 30 June. Great Britain and Ireland led 7½–4½ after the first day and won easily, 15½–8½.
The 2020 match was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom.
Results
Future venues
2024 - Royal Porthcawl, Wales
Appearances
The following are those who have played in at least one of the matches.
Great Britain and Ireland
Neil Anderson 1988
Harry Ashby 1974
Michael Attenborough 1966, 1968
Sam Bairstow 2022
Peter Baker 1986
Roger Beames 1996
John Beharrell 1956
Peter Benke 1970
Warren Bennett 1994
Peter Berry 1972
Findlay Black 1966
Warren Bladon 1996
Michael Bonallack 1958, 1960, 1962, 1964, 1966, 1968, 1970, 1972
David Boote 2016
Wallace Booth 2008
Jamie Bower 2016
Gordon Brand Jnr 1976, 1978, 1980
Paul Broadhurst 1988
Allan Brodie 1974, 1976, 1978, 1980
Colin Brooks 1986
Michael Brooks 1996
Sam Brough 1960
Barclay Brown 2022
Raymond Burns 1992
Alan Bussell 1956, 1962
James Byrne 2010
Ian Caldwell 1956, 1960
Jonathan Caldwell 2008
Hugh Campbell 1964
Laurie Canter 2010
David Carrick 1986
Joe Carr 1956, 1968
Iain Carslaw 1978
Jim Carvill 1990
Paul Casey 2000
Craig Cassells 1990
Brian Chapman 1962
Roger Chapman 1980
Ashley Chesters 2014
Martin Christmas 1960, 1962, 1964
Darren Clarke 1990
Clive Clark 1964
Gordon Clark 1964, 1966
Graeme Clark 2002
Todd Clements 2018
Andrew Coltart 1990
Lee Corfield 2004
Tom Corridan 1984
Gordon Cosh 1966, 1968
Tom Craddock 1958, 1966, 1968
Bruce Critchley 1970
David Curry 1986, 1988
Paul Cutler 2010
Colin Dalgleish 1982
Archie Davies 2022
John Davies 1972, 1974, 1976, 1978
Rhys Davies 2006
Robin Dawson 2018
Peter Deeble 1978
Robert Dinwiddie 2006
Luke Donald 1998, 2000
Jamie Donaldson 2000
Nick Dougherty 2000
Paul Downes 1980
Bradley Dredge 1994
Alan Dunbar 2012
George Duncan 1956
Paul Dunne 2014
Simon Dyson 1998
Nigel Edwards 2002, 2004, 2006
Arron Edwards-Hill 2022
Bobby Eggo 1988
Matthew Ellis 1996
Jamie Elson 2002
Duncan Evans 1980
Ryan Evans 2014
Richard Eyles 1974
Jody Fanagan 1992, 1996
David Fisher 1994
Oliver Fisher 2006
Grant Forrest 2014, 2016
Rodney Foster 1964, 1966, 1968, 1970
Noel Fox 2000
David Frame 1958, 1960
Mark Gannon 1974, 1978
Ian Garbutt 1992
David Gilford 1986
Graham Gordon 2002
John Gough 2022
Charlie Green 1962, 1966, 1968, 1970, 1972, 1974, 1976
Scott Gregory 2016
Stuart Grehan 2016
David Hague 2018
Matt Haines 2008
Pádraig Harrington 1992, 1994
Max Harris 2000
John Hawksworth 1984
Garry Hay 1980
James Heath 2004
Peter Hedges 1974, 1976
Craig Hinton 2012
Trevor Homer 1972
Barclay Howard 1980, 1994, 1996
Gordon Huddy 1960
Jack Hume 2016
Warren Humphreys 1970
Gary Hurley 2014
Ian Hutcheon 1974, 1976
Sam Hutsby 2008
Reid Jack 1956
Lee S. James 1994
Richard Johnson 1994
Matthew Jordan 2018
Raymond Kane 1974
Ross Kellett 2010
Michael Kelley 1976, 1978, 1982
Lorne Kelly 1998
Stephen Keppler 1982
Nathan Kimsey 2012
Michael King 1970, 1972
Craig Laurence 1984
Tom Lewis 2010
Mark Loftus 2000
Shane Lowry 2008
Michael Lunt 1958, 1960, 1964
Jon Lupton 2002
Sandy Lyle 1976
Callum Macaulay 2008
Scott Macdonald 1970
George Macgregor 1970, 1974, 1984
Keith Macintosh 1980
Robert MacIntyre 2016
Simon Mackenzie 2002
David Madeley 1962
Brian Marchbank 1976, 1978
Geoff Marks 1968, 1970
David Marsh 1958
Nick Marsh 2014
Steve Martin 1976
Paul Mayo 1986
Andrew McArthur 2004
Matthew McClean 2022
Peter McEvoy 1978, 1980, 1984, 1986, 1988
Garth McGimpsey 1984, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1992
Ross McGowan 2006
Rory McIlroy 2006
Paul McKellar 1978
Jamie McLeary 2004
John Metcalfe 1990
Jim Milligan 1988, 1990, 1992
Angus Moir 1984
Colin Montgomerie 1986
Peter Moody 1972
Robert Moran 2022
Jamie Moul 2006
Pat Mulcare 1972
John Murphy 2018
Gordon Murray 1978
Stuart Murray 1958, 1962
Bradley Neil 2014
Matthew Nixon 2010
Keith Nolan 1996
Eoghan O'Connell 1988
Steven O'Hara 2000
Andrew Oldcorn 1982
Bryan Omelia 1998
Peter Oosterhuis 1968
Sam Osborne 2004
Chris Paisley 2008
Philip Parkin 1984
David Patrick 1998
Jim Payne 1990
Eddie Pepperell 2010
Gian-Marco Petrozzi 2018
Kevin Phelan 2012
Arthur Pierse 1980, 1982
Sandy Pirie 1970
Alfie Plant 2016
Nick Poppleton 2018
Garrick Porteous 2012
John Povall 1962
Mark Power 2022
Rhys Pugh 2012
Conor Purcell 2018
Ronan Rafferty 1980
Richie Ramsay 2006
Graham Rankin 1998
Neil Raymond 2012
Matthew Richardson 2004
Dean Robertson 1992
Graeme Robertson 2012, 2014
Neil Roderick 1988
Sandy Saddler 1960, 1962, 1964, 1966
Lloyd Saltman 2006
Jamie Savage 2014
Zane Scotland 2002
Calum Scott 2022
Doug Sewell 1958, 1960
Ronnie Shade 1962, 1964, 1966, 1968
David Sheahan 1962, 1964
Alec Shepperson 1956, 1958, 1960
Andrew Sherborne 1984
Gordon Sherry 1994
Martin Sludds 1982
Billy Smith 1972
Dickson Smith 1958
Hugh Smyth 1976
Matt Stanford 1992
Sandy Stephen 1972
Michael Stewart 2010
Hugh Stuart 1968, 1972, 1974
Connor Syme 2016
Keith Tate 1956
Ben Taylor 2012
Alan Thirlwell 1956, 1958, 1964
Martin Thompson 1982
Peter Townsend 1966
Steven Uzzell 2008
Mitch Waite 2018
James Walker 1958, 1960
Richard Walker 2002
Philip Walton 1982
Craig Watson 1998
Dale Whitnell 2008
Robert Wiggins 1996
Craig Williams 1998
Ricky Willison 1990
Stuart Wilson 2004
Gary Wolstenholme 1992, 1994, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004
Guy Wolstenholme 1956
Darren Wright 2010
Ian Young 1982
John Young 1960
Continent of Europe
José Luis Adarraga 2006
Antti Ahokas 2006
Björn Åkesson 2008
Anton Albers 2022
Fredrik Andersson 1992
J Andersson 1960
Alvaro Arana 1966
Christian Aronsen 1998
Morten Backhausen 1994
Marius Bardana 1956, 1958, 1960
Olivier Barras 1956, 1958, 1960
Léonard Bem 2014
Daniel Berna 2014
Nadi Berruti 1958, 1960
Nino Bertasio 2010
Thomas Besancenez 2000
Wil Besseling 2006
Stefano Betti 1976
Franco Bevione 1958
Gustaf Adolf Bielke 1956, 1962
Alberto Binaghi 1984
Thomas Bjørn 1990
Pietro Bovari 2022
Heidar Bragason 2004
Kalle Brink 1994
Andrea Brotto 1996
Walter Brühne 1966, 1968
Jorge Campillo 2008
Andrea Canessa 1980, 1982, 1984
Iván Cantero 2016
Gunnar Carlander 1962
Joao Carlota 2014
Edgar Catherine 2018
Didier Charmat 1970
Luca Cianchetti 2016
Julien Clément 2002
Patrick Cotton 1974
Martin Couvra 2022
Alberto Croce 1964, 1966
Patrick Cros 1962, 1964, 1966
Alberto Croze 1974, 1976
Emilio Cuartero 2014
Daniel Da Costa Rodrigues 2022
Baldovino Dassù 1970
Olivier David 1998
Nuno de Brito e Cunha 1968, 1972
Henri de Lamaze 1956, 1958, 1960
Eduardo de la Riva, Snr 1972, 1976, 1980, 1990
Matteo Delpodio 2006
José de Sousa e Mello 1972
Erik Donnerstad 1972
Diego Dupin 1994
Marco Durante 1980
Albert Eckhardt 2014
Olivier Edmond 1990
Mathias Eggenberger 2014
Klas Eriksson 1990
Martin Erlandsson 1996
Édouard España 2012
Niclas Fasth 1992
Gonzalo Fernández-Castaño 2004
Markus Frank 1982
Hervé Frayssineau 1966
Lorenzo Gagli 2006
Mario Galiano Aguilar 2014, 2016
José Gancedo 1968, 1970, 1972, 1974
Jordi García del Moral 2006
Alfredo García-Heredia 2002, 2004
Sergio García 1996
Ignacio Garrido 1992
Ignacio Gervás 1984
Ivó Giner 1996
Alexis Godillot 1964, 1966, 1968, 1970, 1972, 1974, 1976, 1978, 1980, 1982
Tim Gornik 2014
Thomas Gottstein 1988
Julien Grillon 2006
Stephan Gross 2008
Julien Guerrier 2006
Mark Haastrup 2004
Anders Haglund 1986^, 1988
Marc Hammer 2018
Chris Hanell 1994
Herluf Hansen 1962
Peter Hanson 1998
Cristian Härdin 1986, 1988
Benjamin Hébert 2008
Hans Hedjerson 1968, 1970, 1976
Ángel Hidalgo 2018
Gabriel Hjertstedt 1990
Yves Hofstetter 1974, 1976
Mikael Högberg 1984
Matias Honkala 2018
François Illouz 1980, 1982, 1988
Mikko Ilonen 2000
Peter Jochums 1966, 1970
P O Johansson 1962, 1964
Claes Jöhncke 1962, 1966, 1968, 1970, 1972, 1974
Úlfar Jónsson 1990
Alexandre Kaleka 2008
Rune Karlfeldt 1964
Robert S. Karlsson 2012
Martin Kaymer 2004
Jesper Kennegård 2008, 2010
Maximilian Kieffer 2010
Krister Kinell 1982
Jesper Kjaerbye 1994
Espen Kofstad 2010
Jeroen Krietemeijer 2016
Panu Kylliäinen 1998, 2000
Frédéric Lacroix 2018
Maarten Lafeber 1996
Roger Lagarde 1958, 1972
Hans Lampert 1958, 1960
Moritz Lampert 2012
José Manuel Lara 1996
Alejandro Larrazábal 2002
Mika Lehtinen 1996
Lennart Leinborn 1962
Niklas Lemke 2002
José-Filipe Lima 2002
John Lindberg 1986, 1988
Fredrik Lindgren 1984, 1988
Antonio Lionello 1974, 1978
Johann Lopez-Lazaro 2010
David Lundgren 2022
Göran Lundqvist 1976, 1978
Jochen Lupprian 2000
Morten Ørum Madsen 2010
Stefano Maio 1998
Luis Masaveu 2022
Iván Maura 1956, 1958, 1966
Stefano Mazzoli 2016, 2018
Guido Migliozzi 2016
Jacques Moerman 1956, 1958, 1960, 1970
Edoardo Molinari 2004
Francesco Molinari 2004
Gaëtan Mourgue D'Algue 1962, 1964, 1966, 1968
Rolf Muntz 1990, 1992
Peter Möller 1962
Jan-Gerhard Müller 1974, 1976
Klaus Nierlich 1970, 1974
Fredrik Niléhn 2018
Enrico Nistri 1990
Bart Nolte 1986
José María Olazábal 1984
Daniel Olsson 1996
Thomas Ortner 2004
Veit Pagel 1972, 1976, 1978, 1980
Jesper Parnevik 1986
Jacobo Pastor 2012
Andrea Pavan 2008
Magnus Persson 1982
Robin Petersson 2016
Carlos Pigem 2012
Tim Planchin 1976, 1978, 1980
Philippe Ploujoux 1982
Tapio Pulkkanen 2012
Borja Queipo de Llano 1988, 1990
Raúl Quirós 1998
Jacob Rasmussen 1980, 1984
Christophe Ravetto 1996, 1998
Stefano Reale 2000
Franco Revione 1956
Luis Rezola 1956
Freddy Rodesch 1960, 1962, 1964, 1966, 1968
Paul Rolin 1956, 1964
Jan Rube 1976, 1978, 1980
Johan Ryström 1986
Nicasio Sagardia 1978
Kalle Samooja 2010
Francisco Sanchiz 1964
Hugo Santos 2002
Ricardo Santos 2004
Reinier Saxton 2008
Lorenzo Scalise 2018
Massimo Scarpa 1992
Jan-Erik Schapmann 1992
Alberto Schiaffino 1958, 1964, 1968
Laurenz Schiergen 2022
Frank Schlig 1984
Marcel Schneider 2012
Ulrich Schulte 1982
Tino Schuster 2000
Matthias Schwab 2016
Erik Sellschopp 1956, 1960, 1962
Daniel Silva 1986, 1988
Lorenzo Silva 1964, 1966
Timo Sipponen 1980
Tim Sluiter 2008
Anders Sørensen 1982
Thomas Sørensen 2012
Mikael Sorling 1978
Maximilian Steinlechner 2022
Henrik Stenson 1998
Christian Strenger 1974, 1978
Sven Strüver 1988
Nicolas Sulzer 2002
Thomas Sundström 2002
Björn Svedin 1980
Tore Sviland 1984
Victor Swane 1972
Eric Tavernier 1958, 1960
Roman Taya 1970, 1972, 1974, 1978
Jacques Thalamy 2000
Michael Thannhäuser 1998, 2000
Niels Thygesen 1956, 1958
Philippe Toussaint 1968, 1970
Manuel Trappel 2012
Damian Ulrich 2006
Francisco Valera 1992, 1994
Erkki Välimaa 1986
Sami Välimäki 2018
Darius van Driel 2014
Jean van de Velde 1986
Nicolas Vanhootegem 1992, 1994
Rafael Vera 2000
Victor Veyret 2016
Adam Wallin 2022
Philippe Washer 1960
Romain Wattel 2010
Jürgen Weghmann 1968
Elis Werkell 1956, 1960
Leif Westerberg 1994
Pontus Widegren 2010
Martin Wiegele 2002
Manny Zerman 1992
Niki Zitny 1994
See also
Vagliano Trophy – the equivalent event for women (since 1959)
Jacques Léglise Trophy – the equivalent event for boys (since 1958)
Seve Trophy – the equivalent event for professionals (2000–2013)
References
External links
EGA coverage
R&A coverage
EGA Results Archive
Team golf tournaments
Amateur golf tournaments in the United Kingdom
R&A championships
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Top%2010%20characters
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List of Top 10 characters
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This is a list of Top 10 characters. Top 10 is a comic book series published by Wildstorm Comics under their America's Best Comics imprint. All characters were created by Alan Moore unless otherwise stated.
The following list includes characters from the original twelve issue series that ran from 2000–2001, the five issue Smax mini-series (2003), and the five issue mini-series Top 10: Beyond The Farthest Precinct (2005).
Officers
Top 10 is the tenth precinct in a multiversal police force. It is responsible for law enforcement in the city of Neopolis, where most citizens are superhuman, alien, robot, monsters, or magical beings of some sort. To police a city like this, extraordinary individuals are needed.
S.W.A.T. Team Leader Bill "The Wolfspider" Bailey
Leader (and apparently only member) of Top 10's SWAT team, he is usually seen inside a multi-armed exo-skeleton and armed with a variety of hi-tech weaponry. Bailey lost his legs in a teleporter accident.
Officer Duane "Dust Devil" Bodine
A "techno-cowboy" with giant twelve-shooter revolvers. Partner to Shock-headed Pete, Duane is constantly exasperated by Pete's bigotry against sentient robots. A reluctant bachelor who is often shown to be afraid of his mother with ample reason, as she is a superhuman lie detector. Duane's mother's apartment becomes overrun with super-powered mice and cats. Duane attempts to solve the problem until cosmic powers erase the incident from everyone's mind (except the exterminator, who is now angry at not getting paid). Duane is seen flirting with Jack Phantom, even though he is aware that she is a lesbian and also outranks him. Professor Gromolko, while in custody, manages to grab one of Duane's guns and commit suicide. Duane takes this very badly.
Five years after the Ultima incident, Dust Devil's mother has died, and he finds solace in the arms of his new partner, Curlew, a female with bird features.
Officer Peter "Shock-headed Pete" Cheney
A bigoted officer with electric shock powers gained when ball lightning hit his family's still. He harbours a racist attitude towards Neopolis' robot minority. This brings him into conflict with fellow officer Joe Pi. He experiences much guilt after releasing a young prostitute (Immune Girl) who is subsequently killed by The Libra Killer. He is also reluctant to believe that The Seven Sentinels are in fact a pedophile ring. He is Dust Devil's partner. Five years after the Ultima incident, Pete is partnered with the Subliminal Kid.
Dispatcher Linda "Janus" Burnett
A woman with two faces from Grand Central (Precinct 1), a world where the Roman Empire never fell. Named after the Roman God Janus, her front face and her back face are in fact two separate people who even have separate boyfriends and occasionally squabble over how to do their job. "Back Jan" is once seen to cover for "Front Jan" when she had drunk too much the night before. Five years after the Ultima incident, Janus has quit over increasing aggression towards her, due to Major Cindercott's new rule of radio check-ins every quarter-hour. She returned to her home on Grand Central to enter the family business of dog breeding.
Sergeant Kemlo "Hyperdog" Caesar
A super intelligent, talking doberman in a man-shaped robotic exoskeleton. Kemlo is a humorous and kind individual, hiding his feelings of inadequacy at being a dog in a human world. Although he quells an objection by Girl One with a claim that he is not attracted to humans, he eventually falls in love with a former prostitute called Neural Nette and the two become intimate despite the species difference. Five years after the Ultima incident, Hyperdog and his wife adopt a young Anubis-headed girl named Cynothia Cephali. He eventually replaces Major Cindercott as head of Precinct 10.
Lieutenant Cathy "Peregrine" Colby
A born-again Christian with artificial wings (resembling The Falcon) and a powerful physique. Peregrine is married and, in Season Two, catches her husband "crossover-dressing" as a different superhero and insists he attend a rehabilitation clinic for 'identity crisis' sufferers with Sgt. Lopez. She suffered a broken rib arresting Andy 'Airbag' Soames when Soames inflated in panic and crushed her against a door. Five years after the Ultima incident, Peregrine was partnered with the Hoodoo Priest, but after seeing her personal Deity drunk and disorderly in a gods' bar, she had a crisis of faith and took some time off.
Detective John "King Peacock" Corbeau
A highly pious follower of the Yazidi religion and often referred to as a "Devil worshipper" by others. Able to perform superhuman feats and detect faults and weak spots (similar to Marvel's Karnak) by communing with his god, he is also an excellent hand-to-hand combatant. He is married with three children and is a good father and a loyal husband, albeit a conservative one. His partner is Synaesthesia Jackson. Five years after the Ultima incident, the Corbeaus have a fourth child.
Officer Willie "Stochastic Fats" Beaumont
Seen only in a dream of Jeff Smax and in the prose back up story in #1, he also has a very brief cameo in the Smax mini-series. Fats was killed shortly prior to the events of issue #1 and replaced by Toybox. Fats was a jovial, overweight African-American officer and Jeff's partner and friend. He had the ability to sense or affect probabilities, giving him "hunches" that would always work out for the best. Despite this, he was shot in his home, later being discovered by his then-8-year-old daughter. It is remarked by Irma Geddon that Smax did not take his death well and in grief started a bar fight that ended in Officer Smax pulling the roof down on top of himself. Fats' death weighs heavily on Smax throughout the series.
Officer Alexei "Spaceman" Glushko
An alcoholic Russian telepath and former cosmonaut with a fondness for Vodka. He lives with his intelligent telepathic Russian space chimp, Tanya, who is his friend and housemaid. His telepathy is often used in interrogating suspects. He may also be able to use his power to detect radiation.
Detective Wanda "Synaesthesia" Jackson
A sensible detective apparently considered boring by some of the officers. Her advanced synaesthesia leads into the realm of clairvoyance. She had a romantic relationship with Smax that ended badly, but later harbored an unrequited sexual attraction for her partner King Peacock. When Smax nearly went berserk after failing to protect Toybox from Ultima, Synaesthesia instinctively called him "Jeff, Baby" while calming him, suggesting she retains some strong feeling for him. Five years after the Ultima incident, she is romantically involved with her new partner, Saltator.
Doctor Sally-Jo "Micro-Maid" Jessell
The precinct's pathologist, who uses her powers to shrink in order to closely examine bodies. She became a pathologist to avoid giving bad news to patients and is overcome by nerves when she needs to tell Andy Soames he has S.T.O.R.M.S. She can also use her technology to shrink others, but rarely does (one occasion being when she shrank the drunk monster Gograh to prevent him damaging the Neopolis Police Station).
Sergeant Jackie "Jack Phantom" Kowalski
One of the most popular characters of the series (according to the letters page). Jackie is a lesbian with the ability to turn insubstantial. Her partnership with Peregrine is strained by her partner's conservative Christian values. She shares a flirtatious relationship with Dust Devil although he realises nothing will come of it. Five years after the Ultima incident, Jackie is in a relationship with her partner, Panthalassa.
Officer Sung "Girl One" Li
A bio-engineered woman based on a collection of video game characters, created by a small group of rich friends. She is superhumanly agile and fast and has chameleonic skin that disguises the fact she is actually naked at all times (not due to immodesty but simply for the sake of comfort). Kemlo, being canine, doesn't see color. His failure to inform her of this causes tension between the two, which he avoids by claiming not to be attracted to humans (although this is later revealed to be false). Girl One dies in battle against Commissioner Ultima. Her successor, Girl 54, appears in the "Beyond the Farthest Precinct" mini-series, her name a reference to the cop show Car 54, Where Are You?. Her name and face were based on glamour model Sung-Hi Lee. The premise for the character, a superpowered bio-engineered woman, seems to be based on the Weird Science film that presented Kelly Le Brock as the creation of two adolescent kids. The film itself is based on a comic made by EC Comics.
Sergeant Hector "Monsoon" Lopez
Usually seen manning the front desk, Hector has weather control powers and wears an ill-fitting costume covered in isobars. Apart from booking criminals, little is seen of him, but he remarks to Jack Phantom that he's married after The Libra Killer tries to seduce him with telepathy. Hector retired from active field duty after a hip injury. That injury led him to join the Premise Keepers, a group led by James Eternity that claims to help heroes rediscover their true heroic identity.
Hostage Negotiator Harry "The Word" Lovelace
Harry wears a long black suit with a steel "neck-brace" that covers his lower jaw. His powers, to have people obey what he says, are the same as Jesse Custer from Preacher (whose power is called "The Word") and the same red font is used to show his power in use.
Officer Jenny "Multi-Woman" McCambridge
An officer capable of generating several bodies at once, each with a different super-power, somehow connected to her chakras. Super-speed, flame-wielding, flight and becoming a giantess are among the abilities she has displayed.
Officer Joe Pi
A robot (although he prefers to be called "post-organic" or "Ferro-American") who is extremely talented at his job and highly skilled at interpersonal relations. He replaces Girl One as Irma Geddon's partner after her death, to a cold reception from his fellow officers. His skill as an officer and his kindness with Irma's family however cause them to quickly become close friends. As a robot, he apparently experiences emotions but can not display them, and has a sardonic sense of humour. He frequently outsmarts and teases bigoted Officer Cheney much to the amusement of other officers. Using psychology, he convinces Atoman of the Seven Sentinels, a pedophile, to commit suicide after he and Irma agree that he will not receive a fair trial. He is modelled after 1970s Japanese anime Super Robots, most notably Mazinger, and his head resembles Joe Pineapples from 2000AD's ABC Warriors.
Officer Robyn "Toybox" Slinger
A novice straight from the academy in issue #1, Robyn is the daughter of former Precinct 10 member Colonel Lilliput, who appears in The Forty-Niners. She carries a cubic box filled with elaborate, robotic "toys" built by her father, which are capable of various tasks. She has a troubled home life as she must take care of her elderly father who is suffering from Alzheimer's disease. She is partnered with Jeff Smax whose attitude doesn't help things for her, but the two eventually become close friends, with Smax eventually babysitting Robyn's father once in a while. Smax is driven into a rage when Commissioner Ultima goes on a rampage and buries Robyn under rubble. While trapped and injured, Robyn learns of a possible greater destiny from the precinct's local ghost, "the Rumor". Robyn accompanies Smax to his home dimension in the Smax mini-series. The intent was to attend the funeral of Smax's beloved dwarven uncle (he was adopted) but things go out of control. Robyn learns her arrival was predicted by an ancient evil called Morningbright and she must team up with Smax and many others to stop it.
While there, she has a brief affair with the elf that the quest bureaucracy mandates must be part of each questing party. She severs ties once she realizes he only wants a Green Card. It is also revealed she may or may not be of royal blood due to a reference to the Princess and the Pea fairy tale.
Despite Robyn's box of toys failing to work in this new realm, she becomes a vital part in the fight against Morningbright. This, of course, with the assistance of the elf, several dwarves, and Smax's sister, who is also his romantic interest (which is common in Smax's world). Robyn helps the two settle into a new life back in the Top Ten universe.
Five years after the Ultima incident, it is revealed that Robyn's mother was Pandora and it is her infamous box that contains her father's toys. After using all of her toys to distract the Hell Ditch Pilgrim, Andy Soames, she unleashes the lingering emotion of Hope to heal him. She was left without any notable abilities following the incident, save a lingering radiant halo, like Smax. This may be a result of visiting superspace or the doings of Andy Soames himself.
Officer Jeff Smax
Born Jaafs Macksun, Smax hails from a "Back worldly" parallel Earth where magic replaces the common laws of science. Jaffs is the son of a travelling heroine who was imprisoned and raped by an ogre. His mother died giving birth to Jaffs and his twin sister Rexa and the children were raised by their father who physically and sexually abused them. Smax eventually killed his father as he slept and he and Rexa ran away. They were eventually taken in by the Dwarf couple Mack and Minka. To earn a living Smax became a dragon-slayer. He was highly successful until he failed to save a young princess from a near omnipotent dragon called Morningbright. After that he fled to Neopolis where he changed his name to Jeff Smax and became a police officer. Jeff is an obtuse and slightly dimwitted police officer ashamed of his background (which tends to make him highly intolerant of fantasy/magic-based Neopolis residents) and prone to violent rages. His first partner was Stochastic Fats who was killed in a drug bust. In Top 10 #1 he is curmudgeonly and hostile to his new partner Toybox due to his inability to deal with grief. Despite this rocky start he and Toybox became very close friends. After the events of the Smax mini-series he now lives with his sister/lover Rexa in Neopolis (claiming they look alike because they are the "same species"). Smax is about eight feet tall and muscular with blue skin and white hair. He is almost invulnerable, super strong and can fire a blast of energy from his chest. Five years after the Ultima incident, Smax lives in the city with Rexa. After saving Toybox from the Hell Ditch Pilgrim, he is left with a lingering radiant halo, despite his argument that he is not a saint.
Captain Steve "Jetman (formerly Jetlad)" Traynor
A Veteran of the Neopolis PD and greatly respected. During World War II, at the age of 10, he was a daredevil pilot responsible for shooting down numerous German aircraft. After the War he was moved to Neopolis along with all other "science heroes" where he met Wulf. The two men became lovers and have been together ever since, despite the fact that Traynor has still not "come out" about his sexuality to his fellow officers. He is one of the main characters of Top 10: The Forty-Niners. Five years after the Ultima incident, Traynor is fired from his position, succeeded by Major Cindercott and Hyperdog.
Officer Irma "Irma Geddon" Wornow
A stocky, middle-aged woman in a nuclear-armed battlesuit. Irma is a patriotic, working class police officer with a bit of a propensity for aggressive tactics (and lethal, radioactive force). She is married to Ron, a precog whose abilities prevent him from gaining employment for most of the series. They have two children Cherry Bomb and Cerebra. She was partner and a close friend to Girl One until her death and is then partnered with Joe Pi. Her grief over Sung Li's death makes her acceptance of her new partner very difficult but they eventually become friends. Five years after the Ultima incident, Irmageddon is briefly paired with Rexa Smax.
New officers
The following characters were added by writer Paul Di Filippo for his spin-off series, Beyond the Farthest Precinct.
Officer Chelle "Curlew" Chambliss
Chamblis is Dust Devil's new partner. A bird-woman, her physiology does not display the ability to fly, in contrast to Peregrine, though she does have a sonic cry. She and Dust Devil eventually enter a sexual relationship after Bodine's mother passes away.
Major Sean Cindercott
Cindercott replaces Captain Traynor as head of Precinct 10. He is a cyborg whose torso resembles a Franklin stove. He issues numerous mandates that are restrictive and controlling of his officers, and he does not publicly interact with them, instead issuing commands via monitors, while watching everything going on in the station through closed-circuit television. He was placed in his position by Mayor Albert Famaile, in attempt to subvert dissidence in the populace and the police. He is transformed into a stone facsimile during the Hell Ditch Pilgrim case.
Officer Parsifal "The Hoodoo Priest" Congo
Hoodoo Priest is partnered with Peregrine. He has vast knowledge of religion and spirituality, believing that numerous deities and mythological figures are in fact the same entity viewed differently across multiple cultures. He calls on large spiritual avatars to perform various tasks, most often in physical confrontations. He knows of the Rumor, and is one of the few to believe Toybox's claims of having met him.
Officer "The Subliminal Kid" Luhan
The Subliminal Kid is a rookie partnered with Shock-headed Pete. His body appears organic, but his head is an oval-shaped television, which can show his thoughts and ideas as images. He can also create images, such as a hypnotic swirl to gain information from someone. His first name is not revealed.
Officer Paulie "Saltator" Oldwood
Saltator is partnered with Synaesthesia. The two eventually develop a romantic relationship, with prodding by Jack Phantom. He has significant strength and durability, seemingly able to leap great distances and fight hand-to-hand without any armor or protection. He appears to be modelled on a 'rocker' as he has long blonde hair, never wears a shirt, is shown sleeping with an electric guitar and, despite being a police officer, displays a rebellious attitude towards authority.
Officer Jenny "Panthalassa"
Jenny is partnered with Jack Phantom and the two share an intimate relationship. Aside from being a mermaid, Jenny also has hydrokinesis. Her restricted mobility out of water serves as a hindrance to her police duties, and she eventually gets a flying device to compensate - specifically to enable her to get in and out of their police cruiser. Her last name is never revealed.
Officer Rexa Smax
Rexa is Smax's twin sister and his lover. She was sexually abused by her father until Jeff killed him and they both were taken in by Uncle Mack and Aunt Minka. After the events of the Smax mini-series, she came to live with Jeff on the outskirts of Neopolis. She possesses the same super-human abilities as Jeff but her "Strong Light" (energy blast) is far more powerful. Five years after the Ultima incident, Rexa is an officer for Precinct 10, and paired with Irma for a brief time, eventually being partnered with the Hoodoo Priest. She and Jeff now live in a house in the city. While it was implied in Smax that Rexa and Smax would keep their family relationship a secret, in the new series, it is apparently common knowledge.
Dispatcher Tara
Dispatcher Janus has quit over increasing aggression towards her, due to Major Cindercott's new rule of radio check-ins every quarter-hour. She is replaced by Tara, seemingly a real manifestation of the Buddhist goddess Tara.
Criminals and suspects
Gograh
An aging Godzilla and Gorgo analogue who rampages through Neopolis after his son Ernesto is taken into custody by Smax and Toybox. He is a drunk and carries beer trucks on his belt to drink from. He usually resides on "Monster Atoll" with other movie monsters. He resents the other monsters intensely and pines for the days when he was a big movie star.
Ernesto Gograh
An reptilian gang member. Ernesto is very strong but does not appear to have the radioactive breath of his father, nor does he have his immense stature. He is the head of the Fabulous Five street gang. He has little respect for the police which leads to his arrest by Smax and Toybox. While in custody, he mentions an "Uncle Gojira" who was "dumb enough to fight (a) smog monster for ya" - a reference to the many Godzilla films, as well as "Uncle Tom" actors in Kaiju.
The Ghostly Goose
An undetectable shapeshifter who uses his powers to fondle women. Believed captured by Jack Phantom, he actually escaped and was last seen as a chair in the station's cafeteria.
Professor Gunter Gromolko
Diminutive Nazi scientist who was granted immunity from prosecution after World War II for helping to build Neopolis (and remain among the other super-villains). He was seen in The Forty-Niners living a life of luxury until he tried to use time travel to change history and ensure the Germans won the war. In Top 10 he is seen making illicit drugs and commits suicide in custody with Dust Devil's 12-shooter to protect one of his clients (later revealed as Ultima). He is based on numerous mad scientists such as Doctor Sivana.
M'rrgla Qualtz, the Libra Killer
A former member of the Seven Sentinels (a Justice League analogue) as the Vigilante from Venus, Qualtz was a female analogue of The Martian Manhunter who retired from superheroics and used her telepathy and shapeshifting to become a porn star. After several years, she disappeared and it was later revealed that she had undergone a metamorphosis unique to her species. She became a gigantic, multi-eyed worm covered in monofilaments capable of slicing between atoms. Yearly she would exit the sewers of Neopolis where she hibernated and remove the heads of prostitutes to eat their pineal glands. The regular yearly appearance of these bodies was blamed on the "Libra Killer". She was arrested by a team of officers led by Jack Phantom. She ends up in a large, clear tube inside the precinct's holding cells. She manages to use her telepathy to try to trick other heroes into freeing her but these attempts are foiled. The Seven Sentinels promise to bring legal action on her behalf, but Qualtz is killed during the fight between the precinct's offices and Commissioner Ultima. It is implied, in part by Qualtz herself, that even if she had not been killed by Ultima the Seven Sentinels would have killed her, to ensure she would be unable to reveal their secret activities as a pedophile ring.
The Seven Sentinels
A group of nine, not seven, heroes who are exposed as pedophiles. They are: M'rrgla "Vigilante from Venus" Qualtz (see above); Craig "Atoman" Wallace (based on Superman); Laurence "The Hound" Lomax (based on Batman); Delia "Sun Woman" Spyros (based on Wonder Woman); Gilbert "The Black Boomerang" Marchioness (based on Green Arrow); James "The Scarlet Sceptre" Nile (probably based on Green Lantern); Perry "The Kingfisher" Somerville (probably based on Hawkman); David "Davy Jones" Jones (probably based on Aquaman); and "The Sizzler" Fields (first name unknown, based on The Flash).
Andy "Airbag" Soames
First appearing in issue #4, Soames is a married man who frequents prostitutes and is suspected of being the Libra Killer after one prostitute he visits (Immune Girl) is found decapitated. He discovers from Micro-Maid that he has S.T.O.R.M.S. (Sexually Transmitted Organic Rapid Mutation Syndrome) that may turn him into a non-viable organism. He may also have infected his loving wife Susan. Soames can inflate his body and is presumably an analogue of Bouncing Boy (even wearing a similar costume). Five years after the Ultima incident, Soames' S.T.O.R.M.S. virus has stabilized but mutated him into a new entity, the Hell Ditch Pilgrim.
Hell Ditch Pilgrim
A menace that first manifests itself as a giant, apocalyptic avatar in the sky, the Pilgrim quickly exerts his control over robotic intelligences through the "darkshot" drug. Soon, he begins possessing organic intelligences as well. He is eventually revealed to be a mutated Andy "Airbag" Soames, existing in superspace, an underlying reality giving him control of the entire multiverse. Toybox uses Pandora's Box to give Andy hope and put him at eternal peace.
Commissioner Ultima
Commissioner Ultima was the supreme authority at Grand Central (Precinct 1, the same world Janus comes from) a parallel Earth where the Roman Empire never fell. She can travel between parallel worlds under her own power and fire energy blasts, and while her other abilities were not catalogued she was said to have enough power to destroy all of Neopolis and its citizens. Ultima had killed the drug runner Saddles in an attempt to get a unique radioactive drug that he had been transporting for Prof. Gromolko and it was Ultima who Gromolko feared when he killed himself. When Detective Corbeau travelled to Grand Central to investigate the case she had him placed in the gladiatorial games in an attempt to have him killed. When Detective Jackson realised Ultima was responsible and attempted to arrest her, Ultima attacked the police station and Girl 1 and M'rrgla Qualtz were both killed. While Smax held her off (getting badly beaten in the process) other officers gathered the drug she was after and Toybox used her automatons to inject it into Ultima causing her to overdose. As a final act Ultima brought down part of the station's roof burying Toybox alive.
Other
Bob "Blindshot" Booker
A taxi driver who transported Toybox to Precinct 10 on her first day. Booker claims to have "zen senses", letting the car decide where he should go, and wearing a blindfold over his eyes (which may be sightless anyway). Of course, Booker suffers numerous auto accidents, but they seem to serendipitously affect events positively. Booker's remaining senses seem enhanced, perhaps alluding to the Marvel Comics character, Daredevil. Physically he resembles comedian George Carlin.
Mayor Albert Famaile
Five years after the Ultima incident, this talking baboon is instituting harsh new legislation, seemingly patriotic but also near-fascistic. He fires Captain Traynor to insert Major Cindercott, a man who agrees with his politics, and enforces his laws without question. He and Cindercott are transformed into a stone facsimile on the outside wall of a building during the Hell Ditch Pilgrim case.
Phillipe Jouet-Homme
Five years after the Ultima incident, Phillipe lives with Toybox in his apartment. A seemingly wealthy private citizen, Phillipe is not a flesh and blood humanoid like Robyn, but an android. His style of dress and accessory seem to indicate he is inspired by either Marvel's Arcade or DC's Toyman. He eventually cheats on her with another android. His last name is French for Man Toy.
Grease Monkey
Grease Monkey is a robotic chimpanzee seen in the station's "shop" repairing Kemlo Caesar's damaged exo-skeleton and also works on police vehicles as well.
Dr. Qubit
Five years after the Ultima incident, Qubit is Commissioner Ultima's replacement. For a more neutral leader, Qubit was selected as a member NOT from Grand Central. Aside from superior intelligence, his abilities seem to be a take off of the qubit's superpositioning quality, allowing multiple copies of himself, each displaying different moods and personalities, to perform numerous tasks at once.
The Rumor
Believed at first to be a running joke at the precinct, "the Rumor" was blamed for unexplained events or used as a transparent excuse ("I was waiting for the Rumor to show up"). When Toybox was trapped under a collapsed part of the station, however, he appeared to her as a translucent, featureless humanoid. Five years after the Ultima incident, the Rumor eventually reveals his ultimate role as multiversal "criticality adjuster", applying slight adjustments to pivotal moments to effect a positive outcome. He can access superspace, the underlying connective region of the multiverse, to traverse great distances. He knows about Toybox's origins, and knows she has some greater, unrevealed destiny to fulfill.
Sam "Colonel Lilliput" Slinger
Senile father of Robyn "Toybox" Slinger and former member of Precinct 10 (he is seen in The Forty Niners as having commanded an army of toy soldiers). After Robyn is injured by Commissioner Ultima, Smax helps take care of him. He is based on General Jumbo, a British character from The Beano. Five years after the Ultima incident, his Alzheimer's has progressed to where he is hospitalized and only occasionally visited by Robyn and the Rumor, who has promised Sam to help Robyn fulfill her destiny. His wife was apparently Pandora.
The Forty-Niners
Top 10: The Forty-Niners is a prequel to the America's Best Comics series Top 10. It features several characters from the previous series, relatives of characters from the previous series and many new characters as well.
Main characters
Steve "Jetlad" Traynor: Only ten when he first began flying fighters against the Nazis, Traynor is sixteen in this story. He makes friends with Leni early on and takes a job as a mechanic with the Skysharks. In the original series, he has grown up to become the Captain of Precinct 10.
Leni "Sky Witch" Muller: A German pilot who rode a mechanical flying machine that resembled a broomstick, Leni defected to the United States due to her hatred of the Nazis. She joins the new Neopolis Police Department after encountering several officers, the Maid among them, at an incident at Scowling Joe's Bar.
The Skysharks
An international team of fighter plane aces who fought for the Allies, inspired by the Blackhawks and Skywolf's team. Members include:
John Sharkey: Leader of the Skysharks, Sharkey has a deep distrust of the robots and vampires and wants the military to take policing duties of Neopolis.
Wulf: Twenty-five-year-old German Skyshark, Wulf becomes Jetlad's first and possibly only lover, as they are still together in the future of the original series.
Lars: A Danish Skyshark with a crude sense of humor who shares Sharkey's views on robots and vampires.
Pierre: A French pilot and great fan of Jetlad's, Pierre is still friends with Jetlad and Wulf in the future and probably knows about the nature of their relationship by that point.
Tiki Face: A New Zealand pilot.
Police
Zaran "Doctor Omega" Orval: The Doc is the progressive Captain of Neopolis's Police Department, understanding of new ideas, but stringent on the rules. As an alien champion, he is based on Superman (visually his Kryptonian father Jor-El from the Silver Age).
Rocket Ryan: An officer with a rocket on his back, apparently had two side-kicks known as the "Time-Twins" that the Doc ordered him to downplay, due to rising concerns about the relationship between heroes and their sidekicks, as well as the dangers young wards were put in. He is from the 25th Century (a reversal of Buck Rogers who awakens in the 25th century).
Joanna "The Maid" Dark: A Joan of Arc-style officer with full chainmail and holy powers to determine the truth and bless things. She is considered the heavy artillery against the Undead, with her Holy Light emanating naturally from her costume. In addition to her sword, she also carries a globus cruciger which can enlarge to transport Joanna and her teammates as a pseudo-spacecraft.
SteelGauntlet: Introduced as a disfigured scientist inside a heavy robotic suit of armor, similar to characters like DC's Robotman, but revealed to be the first fully intelligent robot.
Sam "Major Lilliput" Slinger: Previously seen as "Colonel Lilliput", senile father to Robyn "Toybox" Slinger, in the original Top 10 series. Looking like a foppish 18th-century French officer, he commands an army of mechanical toys (many more than Robyn has in the future, but seemingly less sophisticated).
Ramon "Black Rider" Morales: Leni's partner, a Mexican-American sword-and-flintlock wielding biker.
Adam "Spirit of '76" Pure: Partner to SteelGauntlet, the Spirit is a rather overbearing and prejudiced character, holding conservative views in contrast to Doctor Omega.
Minor characters
Johnny "John Q Public" Genovese: The Mayor of Neopolis lacks the slick rhetorical skills normally associated with politicians, instead being blunt and uncompromising. He fears that the volatile experiment that is Neopolis will blow up in his face and his main concern is to keep his citizens from their natural tendency towards vigilantism so that the new police can keep order. The Q that is his crest looks strikingly similar to "Captain BBQ" hot dog chef seen in Precinct 10 in the future.
Betty "Doesgood": New landlady of Steve and Leni. One of the first residents of Neopolis, she came from a generation where the special people didn't have superpowers, they simply stood out for being smart or funny. She gave advice and is eager to forget about those days. She is friends with Sloppy Sullivan and is very similar to early comic strip characters like Mary Worth. Betty owns a radio made out of the helmet of the Rocketeer, as alluded to her turning it off and exclaiming 'all that racket'.
"Sloppy" Sullivan: The Skysharks cook and apparently the lover of Betty Doesgood.
Laurence "The Newshound" Lomax appears here as a reporter, broadcasting on a bone shaped microphone. Many years later in "Court on the Street" he has become a wealthy owner of much of Neopolis and a leading member of the pedophile Seven Sentinels ring. Raiding his mansion with an arrest warrant, Duane Bodine calls out "You had the rep, you had the dough ... why risk all that, just for underage tail?"
America's Best Comics characters
Alternate history characters
Top 10
Top 10
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SD%20Gundam%20Force%20Emaki%20Musharetsuden
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SD Gundam Force Emaki Musharetsuden
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SD Gundam Force Emaki Musharetsuden Bukabuka Hen is a sequel to the SD Gundam Mushamaruden series. Like its predecessor, the manga was released alongside a promotional series of gunpla making it the first SD Gundam manga to be specifically overseen by Sunrise. The series also has a single volume prequel that was released later titled SD Gundam Force Emaki Musharetsuden Zero.
The Comic BomBom stories were published in 18 chapters on 3 volumes, with each volume containing 6 chapters.
Plot
The actual story is a revival of the very first Musha Gundam storyline focusing on Ark's "Seven of Light" defenders, seven brave Musha Gundams who defend the land of Ark by order of the Shogundam. This basic story was presented in Musha Retsuden Zero, whilst Musha Retsuden was set a few years later. Just about all of the legendary defenders have fathered sons and are training them to one day assume their father's roles.
After the war against Yamikoutei (闇皇帝), Ark is ruled by evil forces. Descendants of the Seven of Light defenders scattered across the land, in search of the Bukabuka (武化舞可) armour that can bring peace to the world. One day, when Retsumaru's family was threatened, a sword from the armour set appeared in front of Retsumaru, and so the story began...
Volume 1- Years ago, the forces of good and evil met in a climactic battle. Now, Ark is ruled by various tyrannical warriors. Retsumaru, son of the legendary hero Rekka Musha Gundam, sets out to form a new band of heroes and restore Ark's former glory.
Volume 2- Uniting with their fathers, the new generation of defenders prepare to strike the final blow against the demonic warlord Capiturn.
Volume 3- With the defeat of Capiturn, the young defenders have gone their separate ways. However, Retsumaru soon becomes aware of an even greater danger. Matured by his adventures, Retsumaru must launch a covert mission into the heart of enemy territory.
This form of the storyline was backed up by a model kit line which featured all of the fathers and sons, as well as their Mobile Musha secret weapon. Each of the kits had elements of interchangeable armour, with a story point being that one certain combination gave the central father and son pair a Dai-Shogun form. This form itself was released as the final kit of the line, based on how it appeared in Gundam Evolve 14.
The instructions for the model kits also presented a full colour manga side story. This sidestory, despite using elements from the main manga, appears to conflict with it, most notably in the portrayal of characters. The sidestory was primarily used to show the gimmicks of the kits (such as armour changing) in action in a story setting. Additionally, some of the kits had brief 4-panel humour comics on the bottom of their boxes. These comics made reference to events happening in the main manga story.
Characters
Team Rekka (烈火隊)
Shōnen-Musha Retsumaru (少年武者 烈丸) - Son of the legendary Rekka-Musha Gundam with very bushy eyebrows. After the family had been exiled, Retsumaru has been trained by his mother with a heavy wooden bat, seeing weapons were banned. Upon facing his first real threat, the large Bukabuka No Goutou (號刀) sword was crafted from flames in his hand and with it a magical living phoenix scabbard. Somewhat cocky and arrogant, Retsumaru becomes leader of a new generation of defenders. After the successful defeat of Capiturn, Retsumaru becomes aware of a greater villain who abducts his teammates which leaves him to rescue them. During this period he becomes a big brother/father figure to the mysterious child Saizo. He is also a fan of baseball.
Character based: Impulse Gundam, Strike Freedom Gundam (Combined Buka Buka Weapon system), Sword Impulse Gundam (Repair Retsu Maru), Destiny Gundam (Moda shou Retsu maru).
Goutou (號刀) - The sentient sheath of Retsumaru's sword, he gives advice to the young Musha during the adventure, but is also used for other purposes. The sword also includes a knife (炎の小刀(ほむらのしょうとう)) on the sheath, designed for the wielder who has yet to achieve the power to unsheathe the sword. While Retsu is not able to unsheathe the Goutou for a long time, he does find other ways and means to use it, such as the Karamitsuki Mode and making the scabbard spit flames at enemies.
Jimusuke (自無助) - Retsumaru's best friend and squire, he joins his friend on his travels. As a running gag, he is often shown to be as ineffective as the GM mobile suits he is based on. However, he eventually proves his worth when he is able to bring the various children together to lend their power to Retsumaru. He attempted to later join Retsumaru on his covert mission into Barzam Shogun's fortress but was refused, reuniting with his friend when the mission was over.
Character based: GM Quel.
Shōnen-Kenshi Ranmaru (少年剣士 嵐丸) - Son of Zeta. A pretty boy, Ranmaru initially meets Retsumaru whilst under the employ of Ebirhu. When Ebirhu orders him to murder innocent civilians, Ranmaru realises his mistake and joins up with Retsumaru and Jimusuke. Despite the legendary teamwork of their fathers, the two boys often engage in rivalry. Ranmaru is the guardian of the Bukabuka No Hatou (覇兜) helmet, which grants him the power of flight.
Character Based: Gundam TR -1 Hazel Custom.
Shōnen-Hoshi Kirimaru (少年法師 霧丸) - Adopted son of Nu. He greatly respects his somewhat over-protective father and struggles to live up to his legacy. When he is extremely angered, however, he is possessed by a dragon spirit which goes ballistic on everything in sight (This happens once only). Kirimaru is plagued by self-doubt, often relying on Retsumaru to build up his confidence. He wields the Bukabuka No Tenyoku fan, which splits into powerful Fin Funnels to attack. Ironically, Kirimaru and Nu are probably the pair which have one of the most demonstrative father-son relationships.
Character Based: Xi Gundam, Hi Nu Gundam (With Funnel) .
Younen-Gunshi Ikazuchimaru (幼年軍師 雷丸) - Son of Double Zeta. Although only roughly toddler age, his father has built him a powerful set of armour which can combine with his motorized tricycle in various ways and even combine with the armour of his father. Ikazuchimaru uses his youth to mislead enemies into a false sense of security. He is one of the first to realise Jimusuke's hidden potential and pressures him to show it, and does not reveal his identity as a powerful strategist until the final battle.
Character based: Deep strikers.
Shōnen-Ninja Kakuremaru (少年忍者 隠丸) - Trained in the ninja arts like his father, he often uses these abilities to play tricks on others. He is the guardian of the Bukabuka No Shunkyaku, gigantic shoes which enable him to crush most enemies. His hiding techniques are very basic and obvious, but seem to work against enemies. For most of the series he referred to his Bukabuka-armed form as the "Ally of Justice Veiled in Mystery" and refused to acknowledge that it was he under the disguise.
Character based: Gaplant TR -5 [ Hrairoo ] (Masked mode), Perfect Gundam III (Unmasked).
Susamaru (鬼面武者 凄丸) - Son of Gyakubatsu and wielder of the Bukabuka No Tekken, gigantic arm extensions. Gyakubatsu and his son are from a line of musha that also possess 'the blood of ogres'. To combat this, Gyakubatsu left his family very early and left his son an ogre-mask to rein in his aggressive nature. The measures did not work and Susamaru was taken over by the ogre-mask, becoming a single-minded machine of destruction, bent only on collecting all the Bukabuka and defeating his father. Susamaru is only able to see the truth and forgive his father after he has died.
Character based: Crossbone Gundam X1 kai.
Saizo/Blank Form 0 (斎造/素体０) - A robot resembling a young Musha, it is perhaps the most lifelike of Mk II Titan's creations and is required to control the Tekki Musha Psyco Mk-II. Whilst being secretly transported, the convoy delivering it is attacked by Retsumaru. As Retsumaru is the first thing it sees, Saizo imprints on Retsumaru as father. Saizo can transform into weapons for use by Retsumaru, and is able to summon ancient war machines with a flute. The war machines later become part of Psyco Mk II's body.
In Comic World version, Saizo was a product of Psyco (斎胡) and Crystal Phoenix (結晶鳳凰), raised by Noomaru.
Character based: Gundam TR - 6 [ Wound Wort], Gundam TR -6 Hyzen thlay II Rah (With Crystal phoenix/ Plamo only) .
Moudashou Retsumaru (猛打将烈丸(もうだしょうれつまる)) - A form taken by Retsumaru when Saizo transformed into an armour.the form based ZGMF - X42A Destiny Gundam.
Seven of Light (光の七人衆)
Rekka-Musha Gundam (烈火武者頑駄無) - A famed hero of Ark who vanished during the last war. At the start of Retsumaru's quest, Rekka returned to life briefly in a borrowed body. He then appears whenever possible to aid his son and allies.
Rekka Gundam Dai-Shogun (烈火頑駄無大将軍) - When Retsumaru's own powers proves ineffective against Capiturn, Jimusuke gathers the others to lend their Bukabuka weapons in the form of a new set of armour which allows Retsumaru to combine their abilities with his own. Later, Rekka briefly wields this power as well.
Hurricane Swordsman Zeta (疾風剣豪 精太) - Trusted friend of Rekka and leader of a powerful force of horsemen. Zeta is always ready to use his skills to defend his country.
Dragon Monk Nu (龍神導師 仁宇) - Nu carries a glaive into battle but usually prefers to merge with his dragon spirit.
Hot-blooded Mechanic Double Zeta (剛熱機械師 駄舞留精太) - A budding inventor, he has produced a set of advanced armour for himself which includes a powerful cannon and also serves as inventor and mechanic for the Seven.
Covert Ninja Noomaru(隠密忍者 農丸) - A ninja warrior, Noomaru has seen the biggest change from his original design and now has a distinctive yin yang inspired black and white armour. He fights with a ninja star, each blade housing a different weapon. Noomaru wears an eyepatch over his right eye. The model kit implies this is just a bluff to fool enemies and that he has two healthy eyes. Rekka Musha Gundam's younger brother.
Soaring Hunter Mk II (天翔狩人 摩亜屈)- Seemingly the only warrior not to have fathered a son, Mk II hides a great secret...
Black Cavalryman (黒の騎兵) - A mysterious horse-mounted swordsman who provides aid to Retsumaru during his infiltration of Barzam Shogun's fortress.
AEUG (天翔狩人 衛有吾) - Black Cavalryman's true identity, younger sibling to Soaring Hunter Mk II and twin brother of Titan Mk II. He has taken it upon himself to bring his twin to justice.
Mecha Musha Psyco (鉄機武者 斎胡) - Having received great damage in the last war, Psyco is later revived as a mindless servant of Barzam Shogun. However, when the emotional bond between Saizo and Retsumaru broke Barzam's control, Psyco emerged from Psyco MK-II. After the war against Yami Jashin, Psyco's old data was used to resurrect the old musha.
Others
Kishiria (貴紫利亜) - Wife to Rekka and mother to Retsumaru, Kishiria has mostly raised her son by herself. However, she remains loyal to her husband and has raised her son to follow in his father's footsteps. With a tough attitude, she is perhaps the only person Retsumaru fears.
Mobile Musha Rekka Dai Hagane (機動武者 烈火大鋼) - A large mechanical Gundam left in a lake, Retsumaru is led to it to use in his battles against Musha Turn A's gigantic land battleships.
Ball (暴留(ボール)) Gundam army's infantry soldier.
Evil Musha army (邪悪武者軍団)
Capiturn Kyo (カピターン卿) - The initial main villain of the story, he draws power from evil spirits to launch his plans to conquer Ark. Initially portrayed as somewhat comical, he shows his true deadliness in a one-on-one battle against Retsumaru.
Gyakubatsu (抜刀武者 逆伐(ギャクバツ))/Musha X (武者鋭駆主(ムシャエックス)) - Capiturn's most trusted general, he is a descendant of demons.
In Hobby Japan version, Gyakubatsu is a descendant of Musha Gundam Mark-III (武者頑駄無真悪参).
Zirah (格闘士 勢羅) -
Jabaco (妖術使い 邪覇呼) - Killed by Rekka-Musha Gundam.
Bertigo (操術士 鈴程呼(べるてぃご)) - The only female general in the army. She can reanimate dead units. Revived unit has bell on its head.
Zans (斬首(ザンス)) - Jabaco's regular soldier.
Muzo (無象(ムゾー)) - Zirah's regular soldier. A cone-shaped robot half the height of regular SD unit, with 3 eyes in triangular formation. The name came from the term '有象無象', or mob.
Jenice (銭集(ゼニス)) - Bertigo's foot soldier wearing coned hat and wield spanner.
Dautap (導太夫(ドータップ)) - Bertigo's foot soldier.
Giros (魏呂須(ギロス)) - Zirah's henchman, and Retsumaru's first opponent.
Ebirhu (蝦流(エビル)) - Zirah's henchman, and Retsumaru's second opponent. Ranmaru followed Ebirhu until Retsumaru challenged Ebirhu second time.
Shy-Tarn (射威耽(シャイターン)) - Jabaco's henchman. Deputy captain of the investigation team. Its body is filled with eyeballs. Shy-Tarn hid in the haunted house visited by Retsumaru, Jimusuke, Ranmaru. Shy-Tarn was killed by Retsumaru and Ranmaru.
Sandhoge (参胴珠(サンドージュ)) - Jabaco's henchman and captain of the investigation team, possessing a centipede-like body. It appear in the rubble after the death of Shy-Tarn. It was killed by Rekka-Musha Gundam.
Jenicus (銭数(ゼニカズ)) - Bertigo's henchman.
Septem (接点(セッテン)) - Bertigo's henchman.
Mecha Musha army (鉄機武者軍団)
Barzam Shogun (刃斬武将軍) - A powerful warlord who has experimented in creating artificial Musha Gundam soldiers. His armour hides a great secret...
Titan (逞鍛) - Barzam's Shogun true identity and younger sibling to Soaring Hunter Mk II. He reveals his true form upon encountering his other twin sibling, AEUG. According to Titan, the original Mark II (his elder brother) died long ago fighting another war. However, the people afterwards did not remember his sacrifice and continued to bicker and create unrest. Deeply distressed, Titan was touched by the darkness and came to the conclusion that emotions create unrest, and the perfect world is one ruled by emotionless machines. He infiltrated the Seven of Light under his brother's former title whilst working covertly under his Barzam disguise.
Psyco MK-II (鉄機武者 砕虎魔悪屈) - Once a member of the Seven of Light, Barzam Shogun took Psyco's damaged body and rebuilt it to be his most deadly robotic warrior. However, it requires Saizo to operate.
In the Comic World version of the story, Psyco MK-IIs are a mass production unit (量産型巨大鉄機・砕虎摩亜屈).
Marasai (魔羅斎) - The leader of the transport that carried Saizo.
The 3 Sharp Point Brothers (尖裏三兄弟(とんがりさんきょうだい)) - The 3 brothers Hambrabi (反斧羅尾), Himbrabi (貧斧羅尾), Humbrabi (粉斧羅尾) worked for Barzam to uncover ancient weapons, and specialized in using their sharp heads as weapons. However, their schemes tend to backfire. When Barzam revealed his plan to replace citizens in Ark with machines, the brothers changed sides to fight against the mass-produced machines.
Others
Yamijashin (闇邪神)- The force of evil given physical form by the creation of a copy Armour of Buka Buka by Barzam Shogun. He hopes to make this creation his most powerful minion but the powerful Yamijashin refuses. Realising the danger he has unleashed on Ark, Titan Mk II self-destructs in a failed attempt to destroy the monster. Without Retsumaru's sword, the Bukabuka armour is incomplete, and unable to keep the armour. Yamijashin was sealed away by Daishogun.
Character based:gundam TR -6 Psycho inle
Model kits
Bandai released a full line of model kits based on the manga within the long running BB Senshi model kit line. In contrast to the earlier Musha Maruden series, a fair number of Gundams in the story did not receive model kits. In cases where such a character contributed to the Dai-Shogun armour, their contribution was given to another character. Specifically, a lack of kits for Kakuremaru and Susamaru saw their Bukabuka given to Double Zeta. Hobby Japan's SD Gundam World mook revealed that kits were designed for the two characters but not released. This small number of kits extends to the series releasing a single kit of the main character Retsumaru, in contrast to earlier series releasing multiple kits of the lead Gundam. At least one of his later forms was designed to at least be achievable using parts from the other kits. Also scrapped were more gimmicks for Kirimaru (including a pet dragon, a bird-like mask similar to Barzam Shogun's and a Base Jabber sled) and more armour for Retsumaru which seemed to imply he would grow up to be the First Gundam Dai-Shogun seen in Musha Senki.
This model kit series is also the second time a BB senshi Musha Gundam model series printed with Romanized names. Previously, Romanized Musha Gundam names were used on models based on the first SD Sengokuden series, running from BB #23 (MUSHA Z GUNDAM) to BB #41 (SHŌ GUNDAM), and also a limited box set which included BB #113, #158, #232 . Romanized names were included with BB models 265-278.
In 2009, a new series titled BB Senshi Sengokuden Bushin Kourin was announced. The series will reuse molds from this line with additional parts to make the Gundams resemble actual historical samurai such as Takeda Shingen. Most of the kits will also come with a Ball or Zako soldier. Coming at the same time as the similar Sangokuden Sidestory, the line is likely a response to the Late-2000s recession. Although designs for ZZ and Psyco were shown in initial announcements (in addition to GM soldiers, using the Sangokuden GM designs as a basis), no such kits have been released as of April 2010. The line instead opted to reuse two unrelated Dai-Shogun kits from previous BB Senshi Musha Gundam series.
BB #265- Retsumaru (Can be converted between normal mode and battle mode.)
BB #267- Rekka Musha Gundam (Removable armour, which can be placed on Retsumaru.)
BB #270- Ranmaru (Removable armour.)
BB #271- Musha Zeta (Removable armour, which can be placed on Ranmaru. Can combine with horse. Additionally, Ranmaru's chest armour can be placed on horse.)
BB #274- Kirimaru (Removable shoulder armour.)
BB #275- Musha Nu (Removable armour, some of which can be placed on Kirimaru. Can combine with dragon. Additionally, can wear Kirimaru's shoulder 'wings'.)
BB #277- Ikazuchimaru (Basic figure can be armoured up in various ways.)
BB #278- Musha Double Zeta (Removable armour. Armour can combine separately to make a tank. Additionally, can combine with Ikazuchimaru to make a larger armour vehicle.)
BB #279- Onmitsu (Removable armour. Large ninja star which can assume many forms, with each blade holding a different weapon. Additionally, can wear Rekka Musha Gundam's armour to disguise himself as him.)
BB #282- Musha Mk II (Removable armour. Can form an eagle like form. Contains parts to be built as either the good or evil Mk II.)
BB #283- Mobile Musha Rekka Dai Hagane (Large Musha-styled robot. Can be transformed between Mobile Musha and statue. Retsumaru or the included pilot can sit in the chest. Various weapons can be used by other kits in the series. Additionally, armour from other kits in the series can combine with it.)[Note: This kit is in fact a re-release of an earlier kit with some additional parts to give better proportions. The parts of both versions are intentionally included, with the instructions implying the unused characters/elements maybe connected to the unit's original use]
BB #284- Tekki Musha Psyco (Can be transformed into various forms. Can be built as good or evil Psyco.)
BB #286- Dai-Shogun Evolve Version (Can be built as new sculpt basic Rekka Musha Gundam or as golden armoured Dai-Shogun. Basic form can wear the armour from BB #267.)
See also
Musha Retsuden Official Site (Japanese)
Musharetsuden dictionary
Gundam Force Emaki
Shōnen manga
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20F.%20Hamilton
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Thomas F. Hamilton
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Thomas Foster Hamilton (July 28, 1894 – August 12, 1969) was a pioneering aviator and the founder of the Hamilton Standard Company.
Since 1930, Hamilton Standard (now Hamilton Sundstrand) was involved with revolutionizing the propulsion technology of propeller-driven aircraft, prior to World War II. The introduction of Frank Caldwell's variable-pitch propeller made Hamilton Standard one of the leading aerospace companies of today. Hamilton contributed a great deal in shaping the aviation industry into what it is today. Hamilton worked hard from an early age to understand technical concepts and their application to aircraft design and manufacturing. He was also a skilled businessman and marketer, known in social and political settings, and a devoted family man.
Life
Hamilton was born on July 28, 1894. He spent most of his childhood in Seattle. He was the older of two boys (his brother, Edgar Charles Hamilton, born later) to his parents (Thomas Luther and Henrietta Hamilton). Hamilton's early interests in aviation began when he was around 10 years old. His mother had taken a trip to see the 1904 St. Louis Exposition, where there was a display of gliders organized by Octave Chanute and, somehow on her return, Hamilton became more focused on aeronautics. Mrs. Hamilton may have made a connection with Chanute at the fair since the young Tom Hamilton did not make the long trip with her. Some years later, Hamilton indicated that he often wrote to Chanute concerning technical matters related to his early aircraft, though no record has been found mentioning Hamilton in Chanute's letter collection currently located at the Library of Congress thus far.
During the 1909 Alaska–Yukon–Pacific Exposition, held in Seattle (held on the site of the present-day University of Washington), the young Hamilton, now at the age of 14, had a job of repairing hot-air balloons. This job would also allow him to ride what he repaired (possibly a type of insurance policy to ensure the balloons were fixed properly) which helped fuel his continuing interest in aviation. Also, during this time, Hamilton and a school friend, Paul J. Palmer established a partnership and called their company “Hamilton and Palmer”. Their office and factory were located in their respective parents' garage and kitchen tables. The two built and experimented with various biplane glider designs of the time. The two quickly gained a better understanding of the principles of how aircraft worked and were put together. Three gliders were actually built and flown around the steep hills around their neighborhood in Seattle called Leschi which was on the west shores of Lake Washington. There was only one mishap. The second glider jerked out of the hands of Palmer and soared away and crashing into pieces blocks away. Many years later, Hamilton would recall that even though he got a scar on his left hand from one of the flights, he had learned how to fly from those tests.
In 1910, after finishing their experiments with the gliders they moved on to building propeller-driven aircraft. At this point, there was a disagreement between Palmer and Hamilton, and the former was no longer involved with the company and was totally removed from the partnership. It seems this split was so severe that Hamilton changed the name of the company to the “Hamilton Aero Manufacturing Co”.
Early aircraft designs
In 1911, Hamilton teamed up with Ted Geary, a young yacht designer, to create a number of unique seaplane designs that were seen around Seattle's Lake Washington and various aerial demonstrations of the day. The total number of known aircraft built by Hamilton's Seattle company is estimated to be around 10 to 25 aircraft, though a more accurate account of his aircraft built during the 1909 to 1914 period is yet unknown. His designs were a combination of other designs of the era and his own unique ideas incorporated into the aircraft. Even at an early age, he was able to comprehend and build complicated flying machines. Although he dropped out of high school and did not have any formal education after that, he was able to manufacture and sell these aircraft all before he was 16 years old. This was done prior to William Boeing taking his first flight and setting up his operation in Seattle, which is the Boeing Company of today. Incidentally, Hamilton and Boeing became friends during this time and their friendship lasted throughout the years both professionally and personally. It was recorded that in 1914, Hamilton introduced Bill Boeing to Conrad Westervelt (a young Navy lieutenant commander) at a club in Seattle that was the start of the Boeing Company.
Also in 1914, a number of wealthy businessmen from Vancouver, British Columbia, approached Hamilton. They were looking for someone to build airplanes for the non-profit, private BC Aviation School Ltd. that would teach their Canadian sons to fly in the Great War being fought over in Europe. Hamilton accepted the invitation and immediately moved his whole operation up to Vancouver and established the Hamilton Aero Manufacturing Ltd. The contract was to build four planes to be used in training purposes for the school. However, only one airplane was ever completed. It was a biplane patterned after a Curtiss tractor design, with two seats, a six-cylinder engine, and a tricycle landing gear. Unfortunately, the aircraft was not successful because it crashed in a muddy field outside of Vancouver. Out of the 12 students, two were able to graduate and went on to fight in the war with the RFC (Royal Flying Corps – the precursor to the RAF). The rest were integrated into other aviation training programs and transferred to the war effort later. In the meantime, Hamilton had become very interested in the physics of propellers and had started making inquires about his possible involvement in the war effort for the United States. This was around 1917; at this point, the U.S. just entered the war and needed experienced people to help the country establish an aviation industry in support of the war overseas in Europe.
Military interest
The US military was very interested in Hamilton's background and requested that he come out east. The military leaders at the time wanted to keep most of their aviation resources closer to Washington D.C., and not in the remote Pacific Northwest. A Milwaukee woodworking firm, the Matthews Brothers Furniture Company, needed an experienced person to run their new aviation division since a large military contract was signed to produce wood propellers for the Navy and Army. Hamilton became their director of aviation in 1918. However, once the war ended Hamilton bought their entire inventory of wood propellers and again started his own company called the Hamilton Aero Manufacturing Company in Milwaukee. Around this time, Hamilton met and married Ethel Inez Hughes, from Milwaukee. The Hamiltons spent ten years in Milwaukee, where it was established as one of the nation's major aviation hubs in the 1920s.
Propeller manufacturing
Propellers were the first item to be manufactured by the new Hamilton Manufacturing Company, in Milwaukee. The limitations of using wood as a material for aircraft propellers were well known. Metal propellers can be thinner, more closely approximating the ideal airfoil sections needed for maximizing efficiency, while not being affected by the problems caused by moisture and vibrations, which can cause wood propellers to delaminate.
Float manufacturing
Pontoons were the second product to be manufactured by the company. Again, wood was also used in the construction and even preservatives to protect them, prolonged exposure to water caused the wood to deteriorate quickly.
Despite the clear advantages, there was initially a strong resistance to using materials that rusted easily but this changed with the widespread introduction of a new aluminum alloy developed at Zeppelin. Duralumin may have been the greatest metallurgical advance of its time and allowed aluminum to be used for structural members for the first time, normally being too soft in its pure form, while still being lighter than steel and very resistant to the types of corrosion that would compromise the strength of iron and steel alloys.
All-metal aircraft
Following World War I, the German Junkers Flugzeug-und Motorenwerke company was the first to manufacture all-metal, monoplane transport aircraft, the Junkers F.13. This was a development of their wartime all-metal corrugated-skin aircraft. In turn, having seen examples that had been imported by Junkers-Larsen, Stout copied Junkers's construction methods but failed to see much success until his company was bought by the Ford Motor Corporation, where he developed the similar Ford Tri-motor, affectionately called the “Tin Goose”. Like the Junkers aircraft, it too had a cantilevered monoplane wing and corrugated metal skin over a metal framework and was built to haul mail and passengers. In response, Hamilton and some shareholders in the Milwaukee community also decided to build an aircraft out of metal, which resulted in a new company called the Hamilton Metalplane Company being formed to do just that.
Hamilton Metalplane H-18
The first aircraft built by this company was the Metalplane H-18, christened the “Maiden Milwaukee” in 1927. Its design came from the chief designer of the Metalplane Company of the time – James McDonnell. McDonnell had worked for Stout and Ford and incorporated similar features and new ideas into the construction of the H-18. It used a tubular frame with corrugated skin, a thick monoplane wing projecting from the fuselage beneath an open cockpit, with a Wright J-4 Radial engine in the nose, and using a Hamilton (metal) propeller. The “Maiden Milwaukee” was the first aircraft produced by the Hamilton Metalplane Company and it achieved a number of awards. It first came in second during the Ford Air Tour of 1927 and it won the Spokane Air Race of the same year. It was also the first all-metal airplane to achieve certification in the United States. It was designed primarily to haul the mail, with passengers as a possible revenue bonus for the airlines. The design reflects this priority, as the wing root was in the middle of the fuselage and hardly any passengers could fit.
Hamilton Metalplane H-18 Helicopter Experiment
One of the interesting concepts, was when the designers took the H-18 and fitted two large downward facing propellers (i.e. on under each wing at midpoint) driven by a small engine mounted in the fuselage. It was claimed that this conversion resulted in an aircraft that could take off in a very short distance. Very little else is known about the conversion of an H.18 to this mode.
Hamilton Metalplane H-45 and H-47
The aircraft was redesigned and these modifications were introduced in the sequential new models of the Metalplane called the H-45 and H-47. The aircraft now could accommodate passengers and mail. To do this, they had to specifically change the aircraft such as: moving the wing above the fuselage so six seats could be added; enclosing the cockpit and adding windows and leather padding the interior of the aircraft for the passengers' comfort. Offering different types of radial engines that could be incorporated per the customers' request (both Wright and Pratt & Whitney) and different types of landing gear that could be fitted too (such as skis, wheels, and pontoons). Since most of the Hamilton Metalplanes used most of the products generated from the other Hamilton factory it was a cheaper than the Ford Tri-Motor. The Hamilton Metalplane was definitely a plane of its time, for it was the era when airlines were being developed with cargo/mail-in mind instead of passengers. Both the Hamilton Metalplane and the Ford tri-motors started to change this trend. Northwest Airlines started by purchasing a number of Hamiltons to be used in their first passenger run throughout their routes in the Northwest. Ralph Sexton bought a number of Hamiltons to be used for his Panamanian airline called Isthmian Airways. A few went to Alaska and Canada for use in the Arctic. As with Hamilton's earlier aircraft in Seattle, it is not known the exact figure of how many Hamiltons were built but it is estimated to be between 27 and 40 aircraft. Unfortunately, the Hamilton Metalplanes were not as successful as the Ford Tri-Motors. Ford was successful at its marketing strategy of stating it is safer to fly on three engines than on one. For this reason, the Hamilton Metal plane struggled in the market, for it was a good airplane developed ahead of its time.
Consolidation
In 1929, a holding company called the United Aircraft and Transport Company incorporated a number of aviation companies under one control. This resulted in the Metalplane Company becoming part of Boeing as a separate division for a short time. Eventually, it was absorbed into the Boeing Company with all its patents and other assets becoming a part of the Boeing enterprise. It has been suggested that Boeing may have used these items from the Hamilton Metalplane Company in the development of their Boeing 247 (Boeing's first all-metal monoplane).
In the meantime, Hamilton became president of United Airports (a division of UA&T) and was in charge of building the new Burbank Airport in California. He also moved some of his propeller operations out west and established a propeller factory at the Burbank site. Hamilton's entire family moved to Beverly Hills and eventually built a house out at Lake Arrowhead, California, where he established a permanent residence. Meanwhile, the UA&T Company decided to merge the Hamilton Aero Manufacturing Company with the Pittsburgh propeller firm Standard Steel Propeller Company and the entire Milwaukee operation was moved to that location. Both Hamilton and the owner of Standard Steel had been intense business rivals. According to Eugene Wilson (who took over the propeller operation for UA&T) the Standard Steel Company had the patent rights to the Reed propeller design and there was concern about a lawsuit. As a compromise, it was decided to move the propeller operation to Pittsburgh and combined the names of the companies to be called the Hamilton Standard Company. A year later, the propeller operation moved again to Connecticut and has been there since. Incidentally, Hamilton did not receive the news of the merger right away, which was a little unsettling to him. As a compromise, Hamilton agreed to the merger only if his name took precedence in the new trademark and was called Hamilton Standard.
Build-up to war
After the Burbank Airport opened with big fanfare in 1930, Hamilton then became a foreign representative for the United Aircraft Export Company in Europe of which he would become a leading individual for the survival of several aviation companies. In 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal policies started actively working on an anti-monopoly campaign against the aviation industry. This legislation resulted in the UA&T being reorganized into new companies: United Aircraft (later to be called United Technologies), United Airlines, and the Boeing Company. The timing of this governmental legislation was poor at best for most of the United States and the World was under the black cloud of the Great Depression. United Aircraft had to rely on foreign sales to survive as a company for the domestic market in the US was depressed. Hamilton started with the “United Aircraft Export Company” as a sales representative, quickly rising to become president of the corporation by 1936. Eugene Wilson described Hamilton as the “Yankee Peddler” and felt that he was a man that was full of “salesmanship” and was a “master-entertainer”.
Hamilton had set up his headquarters in Paris's George V Hotel, representing companies like Hamilton Standard, Sikorsky Aviation, Chance Vought Aircraft, and Pratt & Whitney. During the time from 1936 to 1940, Hamilton was successful in getting licensing rights for foreign countries to build Pratt & Whitney engines and Hamilton Standard variable-pitch propellers. According to Wilson, it was a fight for survival as an American company. He also mentioned there was a kind of naivete when it came to dealing with countries like Germany, Japan, and Russia. For example, a deal was set up with BMW to license them to build a number of Pratt & Whitney engines, which was approved by the United States Congress. This was granted because neither the US businessmen nor governmental officials expected any war in Europe. As Wilson stated, “thanks to Mr. Thomas F. Hamilton moving around through these different ministries, he could appraise this situation more clearly than most people. And he came back from one trip and in a meeting of the executive committee of our company he said, ‘Don't discount this fellow Hitler.’ ‘To you, he's got a Charlie Chaplin mustache, but whatever he may look on the outside, either he or somebody behind him has a strategic insight and a political foresight that is not available anywhere else in the world that I know of’ ”. It has also been suggested that Hamilton also tried to convince the United States Congress of the seriousness of doing business with countries like Germany, Japan, and Russia. However, at the time business interests came first and Hamilton was asked to continue in his position until the fall of France in 1940, after which Hamilton and his staff had to make an unorthodox exit out of Europe through Spain.
Return to the US
Once back in the United States, Hamilton found a different sort of career in the hotel and hospitality business. He started developing a resort on the coast of British Columbia, Canada at the entrance of Princess Louisa Inlet, called the Malibu Club in Canada (named after his yacht, MV Malibu, that had been designed by Ted Geary). It officially opened in July 1941 and catered to yachters, the wealthy, and the Hollywood crowd. However, the attack on Pearl Harbor changed Hamilton's plans and he again went back into the aviation industry to run Hardman aircraft (which made nacelles for the B-17 bombers) in Southern California during World War II, for the nominal salary of a dollar a year. After the war, he reopened Malibu and also started an airline called “Malibu SeaAero” that served the resort with a single war-surplus Grumman Goose. After a few years, Malibu was abandoned and sold due to financial difficulties. During his final years, he was involved with the Early Bird Organization where he was a regular participant until his death. Hamilton also loved to paint and spent many years in Paris working on his craft. He was also the technical assistant to the 1966 movie “Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines”.
Death
Hamilton died on August 12, 1969. His funeral was held at All Saints Episcopal Church, Beverly Hills.
References
1894 births
1969 deaths
American aviation businesspeople
Aviation pioneers
Aviators from Washington (state)
Members of the Early Birds of Aviation
Businesspeople from Seattle
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
20th-century American businesspeople
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape%20Fold%20Belt
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Cape Fold Belt
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The Cape Fold Belt is a fold and thrust belt of late Paleozoic age, which affected the sequence of sedimentary rock layers of the Cape Supergroup in the southwestern corner of South Africa. It was originally continuous with the Ventana Mountains near Bahía Blanca in Argentina, the Pensacola Mountains (East Antarctica), the Ellsworth Mountains (West Antarctica) and the Hunter-Bowen orogeny in eastern Australia. The rocks involved are generally sandstones and shales, with the shales (Bokkeveld Group) persisting in the valley floors while the erosion resistant sandstones (belonging to the Peninsula Formation) form the parallel ranges, the Cape Fold Mountains, which reach a maximum height of 2325 m at Seweweekspoortpiek ('Seven Weeks Defile Peak' in Afrikaans).
The Cape Fold Mountains form a series of parallel ranges that run along the south-western and southern coastlines of South Africa for 850 km from the Cederberg 200 km to the north of the Cape Peninsula, and then along the south coast as far as Port Elizabeth, 650 km to the east (see the two maps one above the other on the right).
Geological origin
The rocks were laid down as sediments in a rift valley that developed in southern Gondwana, just south of Southern Africa, during the Cambrian-Ordovician Periods (starting about 510 million years ago, and ending about 330–350 million years ago). (See the yellow block labeled C on the Earth's geological timeline diagram on the right.) An 8-km-thick layer of sediment, known as the Cape Supergroup (see below), accumulated on the floor of this rift valley. Closure of the rift valley, starting 330 million years ago, resulted from the development of a subduction zone along the southern margin of Gondwana, and the consequent drift of the Falkland Plateau back towards Africa, during the Carboniferous and early Permian periods. After closure of the rift valley, and rucking of the Cape Supergroup into a series of parallel folds, running mainly east-west (with a short section running north-south in the west, due to collision with eastward moving Patagonia), the continued subduction of the paleo-Pacific Plate beneath the Falkland Plateau and the resulting collision of the latter with Southern Africa, raised a mountain range of immense proportions to the south of the former rift valley. The folded Cape Supergroup formed the northern foothills of this towering mountain range.
The weight of the Falkland-Cape Supergroup mountains caused the continental crust of Southern Africa to sag, forming a retroarc foreland system, into which the Karoo Supergroup was deposited. Eventually much of the Cape Supergroup became buried under these Karoo deposits, only to re-emerge as mountains when upliftment of the subcontinent, about 180 million years ago, and again 20 million years ago, started an episode of continuous erosion that was to remove many kilometers of surface deposits from Southern Africa. Although the tops of the original Cape Fold Mountains were eroded away, they eroded much slower than the considerably softer Karoo deposits to the north. Thus the Cape Fold Belt "erupted" from the eroding African landscape to form the parallel ranges of mountains that run for 800 km along the southern and south-western Cape coastline today. In fact, they form the coastline, either sloping steeply directly into the sea, or are separated from it by a relatively narrow coastal plain.
The Falkland Mountain range had probably eroded into relative insignificance by the mid-Jurassic Period, and started drifting to the south-west soon after Gondwana began to break up 150 million years ago, leaving the Cape Fold Belt to edge the southern portion of the newly formed African continent. Even though the mountains are very old by Andean and Alpine standards, they remain steep and rugged due to their quartzitic sandstone geology (see below) making them very resistant to weathering. The famous Table Mountain forms part of the Cape Fold Belt, being made up of the local lowest (oldest) strata of the Cape Supergroup, composed predominantly of quartzitic sandstone which forms the impressive, almost vertical cliffs which characterize the mountain and the rest of the range which constitutes the backbone of the Cape Peninsula.
The degree to which the original Cape Fold mountains (formed during the Carboniferous and early Permian Periods) have been eroded is attested to by the fact that the 1 km high Table Mountain on the Cape Peninsula is a syncline mountain, meaning that it formed part of the bottom of a valley when the Cape Supergroup was initially folded. The anticline, or highest elevation of the fold between Table Mountain and the Hottentots-Holland Mountains (1.2 to 1.6 km elevation), on the opposite side of the isthmus connecting the Peninsula to the Mainland, has been eroded away. The Malmesbury shale and granite basement on which this anticline mountain rested also formed an anticline; but being composed of much softer rocks, readily eroded into a 50 km wide flat plain, (now covered with dune sands) called the "Cape Flats".
The Cape Fold Belt (i.e. the mountain ranges) extends from about Clanwilliam (approximately 200 km north of Cape Town), to about Port Elizabeth (approximately 650 km east of Cape Town). The Cape Supergroup sediments beyond these points are not folded into mountain ranges, but do, in places, form steep cliffs or gorges, where the surrounding sediments have been eroded away (see, for instance, Oribi Gorge in KwaZulu-Natal).
The mountains, although only of moderate height, are majestic and dramatic. This is due in part to numerous geological factors; The ranges usually have few to no foothills and rise directly from valley floors. The bases of the mountains are usually at or near sea level.
Cape Supergroup
The mountains of the Cape Fold Belt are composed of rocks belonging to the Cape Supergroup, which is more extensive than the Fold Belt. The Supergroup is divided into several distinct Groups.
The western and southern extents of the Supergroup have been folded into a series of longitudinal mountain ranges, by the collision of the Falkland Plateau into what would later become South Africa (see diagrams on the left). However, the entire suite in this region slopes downwards towards the north and east, so that the oldest rocks are exposed in the south and west, while the youngest members of the Supergroup are exposed in the north, where the entire Cape Supergroup dives beneath the Karoo rocks. Drilling in the Karoo has established that Cape Supergroup rocks are found below the surface up to approximately 150 km north of their northernmost exposure on the surface.
The Cape Supergroup extends eastwards beyond the Fold Belt into the Eastern Cape and northern KwaZulu-Natal, where no folding took place.
Klipheuwel and Natal Groups
The initial sedimentation into the rift valley which developed in southern Gondwana (see diagram at top left) was confined to the western and eastern ends of the rift. Rivers diverted into these early rifts deposited sand and gravel to form the Klipheuwel Group in the west, and the Natal Group in the east. These formations contain no fossils. Today the Klipheuwel Group is exposed in several small patches near Lamberts Bay, Piketberg, and to the south-west of Paarl Rock.
The Natal Group, which is similar to the Table Mountain Group (see below), is found in several elongated patches near the coast of the northern Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. It forms the impressive cliffs of Oribi Gorge, and can also be seen in a road cutting between Durban and Pietermaritzburg, particularly at the Marian Hill Toll Plaza. Most of the group has been deeply eroded by numerous rivers creating the ragged plateaus and scarps of the Durban-Pietermaritzburg region.
Table Mountain Group
With the widening and deepening of the rift valley, the entire southern portion of what was to become South Africa, as far as a line extending from Calvinia in the west to East London in the east, plus the KwaZulu-Natal coastline, became flooded, leading to a seaway across the southern and eastern parts of the country, called the Agulhas Sea. The sea floor consisted of the Klipheuwel Group in the west, the Natal Group in the east, and eroded pre-Cambrian rocks in between.
The first sediments into the initially still shallow, possibly inland, sea were alternating layers of maroon-colored mudstones and buff-colored sandstones, each mostly between 10 and 30 cm thick. The mudstone units commonly display ripple marks from the ebb and flow of tidal currents, as well as polygonal sand-filled mud cracks that indicate occasional exposure to desiccation. This layer, known as the Graafwater Formation, reaches a maximum thickness of 400 m, but on the Cape Peninsula it is only 60–70 m thick. No fossils have been found in the Graafwater rocks, but shallow-water animal tracks have been found. A particularly good example of these tracks can be viewed in the foyer of Geology Department of the University of Stellenbosch, where a slab of Graafwater rock from the Cederberg mountains has been built into the wall.
The cutting for Chapman's Peak Drive, on the Cape Peninsula, is carved into the Graafwater Formation which overlays the Cape Granite basement rock below the road. The Graafwater Formation can also be clearly seen in the cutting on the second hairpin bend as the Ou Kaapse Weg (road) goes up the slope from Westlake on to the Silvermine plateau. In the cutting one can also see the abrupt and obvious transition into the Peninsula Formation above it. Looking up the slope from below to the first hairpin bend, the granite basement on which the Graafwater formation rests is visible. And in the cutting at the first hairpin bend, the ocher-colored, gritty clay into which the granite weathers is clearly displayed.
With further subsidence of the rift valley floor, and possibly breaking through to the ocean, the sediments abruptly become more sandy, indicative of a sudden increase in the depth of the Agulhas Sea (see photograph on the right). A deposit, known as the Peninsula Formation (also often referred to as Table Mountain Sandstone), consisting of thickly layered quartzitic sandstone, with a maximum thickness of 2000 m, was laid down. These sandstones are very hard, and erosion resistant. They therefore form the bulk of mountains and steep cliffs and rugged crags of the Cape Fold Belt, including the upper 600 m of the 1 km high Table Mountain, below which Cape Town is situated. It contains no fossils.
The Peninsula formation can be traced from 300 km north of Cape Town (i.e. about 50 km north of Vanrhynsdorp on the West Coast), southwards to Cape Town and then eastwards to northern KwaZulu-Natal, a total distance of approximately 1800 km, roughly along the South African coastline. Only the section between Clanwilliam (approximately 200 km north of Cape Town) and Port Elizabeth (approximately 650 km east of Cape Town) is folded into the Cape Fold Mountains.
During the laying down of the Peninsula Formation sediments, the western portion of the region was covered for a brief period of time by glaciers. The diamictite sediments that were laid down by these glaciers, or in glacial lakes, are known as the Pakhuis and Cederberg Formations. A small patch of Pakhuis tillite occurs on the top of Table Mountain at Maclear's Beacon, but most of the Pakhuis and Cederberg Formations are found as a thin layer (on average only about 60 m thick) in the Peninsula Formation rocks of the more inland mountains to the west of a line between Swellendam and Calvinia. These diamictite rocks are composed of finely ground mud, containing a jumble of faceted pebbles. They can easily be recognized at a distance as this formation readily erodes into fertile, gently sloping, green swaths in a landscape where this contrasts starkly with the bare rocky surfaces of the quartzites above and below. In several locations the quartzites below the glacial horizon have been rucked into a series of folds. This is believed to have been caused by the movement of ice ploughing into the underlying unconsolidated sands. A good example of this can be seen on a ridge of rocks near Maclear's Beacon on Table Mountain, close to the edge of the plateau overlooking the Cape Town City Bowl and Table Bay.
The Pakhuis Formation is also well exposed on the road along Michell's Pass just below the Tolhuis, and especially on the Pakhuis Pass near Clanwilliam, from which the formation derives its name.
The glaciers which formed the Pakhuis and Cederberg formations came from the north west, in the direction of the South Pole which was located in the neighborhood of Cameroon at the time.
The Upper Peninsula Formation, above the Pakhuis and Cederberg Formations, consists of much softer sandstone than the Lower Peninsula Formation, and is often referred to as the Nardouw Formation. In the Cederberg this formation has been eroded by the wind into a wide variety of "sculptures", caves, and other fascinating structures for which these mountains have become well-known.
Bokkeveld Group
About 400 million years ago (in the early Devonian Period) there was further subsidence of the rift valley floor. This brought about the deposition of deeper-water, fine grained sediments of the Bokkeveld Group. This is in marked contrast to the predominantly sandy sediments of the Table Mountain Group. The Bokkeveld Group consists predominantly mudstones.
After the Cape Supergroup had been folded into the Cape Fold Mountains, these soft mudstones readily washed away from the mountain tops, and only remain in the valleys. Here they form the fertile soils on which the vineyards and fruit orchards of the Western Cape flourish with the help of irrigation from the rivers that have their sources in the surrounding mountains.
The Bokkeveld Group does not extend on to the Cape Peninsula or its isthmus (the Cape Flats). Here the Stellenbosch, Franschhoek, Paarl, Durbanville, Tulbagh and Constantia vineyards have been planted on the weathered Cape Granite and Malmesbury shale soils, which form the basement rocks on which the Cape Supergroup rocks in this region rest.
The Bokkeveld Group extends eastwards to Port Alfred (near Grahamstown), approximately 120 km beyond the eastern extent of the Cape Fold Belt.
The bulk of the fossils found in the Cape Supergroup occur in the Bokkeveld mudstones. They include a variety of brachiopods, as well as trilobites, molluscs, echinoderms (including starfish, crinoids, and the extinct blastoids and cystoids), foraminifera and fish with jaws (placoderms).
Witteberg Group
The upper layers of the Bokkeveld Group become increasingly more sandy, grading into the sandstone of the Witteberg Group, named for the range of mountains to the south of Matjiesfontein and Laingsburg in the southern Karoo. These rocks were laid down 370 – 330 million years ago in the silted up, and therefore shallow marine conditions of what remained of the Agulhas Sea. The group contains fewer fossils than the Bokkeveld Group, but the assemblage that is preserved includes primitive fish, an extinct species of shark, brachiopods, bivalves, and a meter long sea scorpion. There are also plant fossils and numerous animal tracks.
The Witteberg Group is truncated by the overlying Dwyka sediments of glacial origin. The latter forms part of the Karoo Supergroup. Therefore, the Witteberg Group forms the uppermost layer of the Cape Supergroup. It tends to form the most inland outcrops of the Cape Supergroup, and can be traced eastwards as far as the Bokkeveld Group can be traced (i.e. to Port Alfred), about 120 km beyond the Cape Fold Belt.
The Bokkeveld and Witteberg groups do not occur in the north-eastern Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal, where the Cape Supergroup is represent only by the Natal Group and a trace of the Peninsula Formation (without the intervening Graafwater Formation).
Formation of the Fold Mountains
The Witteberg sediments were laid down in what remained of the Agulhas Sea – a shallow, much reduced expanse of water compared to its size during the Bokkeveld period. Immediately following the Witteberg period (about 330 million years ago) much of Gondwana (particularly what was to become Africa and Antarctica, but also parts of South America and India) became covered in a kilometers thick layer of ice as the super-continent drifted over the South Pole. The diamictite deposits left by these glaciers form the first layer of the Karoo Supergroup, called the Dwyka Group. During the glaciation period the Falkland Plateau started to move northwards into what was to become southern Africa, closing the depression that had been the Agulhas Sea, and rucking the Cape Supergroup sediments into folds running roughly parallel to what would ultimately become the south-western and southern coastlines of South Africa. This mountain building continued into the next phase of the Karoo sedimentation, which began about 260 million years ago, after the ice sheets had melted, leaving a large lake (the Karoo Sea) extending over much of South Africa. The resulting marine or lacustrine deposits form the Karoo's Ecca Group. During these Ecca times continued collision of the Falkland Plateau into Southern Africa, and subduction of oceanic crust under the plateau caused the formation of a range of mountains of Himalayan proportions to the south of South Africa. The Cape Fold Mountains became fully formed during this period to become the northern foothills of this enormous mountain range. The folding that occurred during this period therefore involved not only the Cape Supergroup sediments, but also the southern portions of the Dwyka and Ecca Groups of the Karoo Supergroup.
By the time Gondwana broke up about 150 million years ago, the Falkland Mountains had been all but eroded away, before drifting south-westwards to their present position off the coast of southern South America, close to Cape Horn, leaving behind only the submarine Agulhas Bank along the southern coastline of Africa. The Cape Fold Mountains possibly survived erosional obliteration, firstly because of the extremely hard rocks (the Peninsula Formation Sandstone) that form the backbone of the mountain chains, but also possibly because they had become buried under the Karoo deposits which originated in the Falkland Mountains. Thus traces of Karoo deposits can, for instance, be found in the Worcester-Robertson valley in the middle of the Fold Belt.
Although the Dwyka and Ecca sediments adjoining the Cape Fold Mountains were subjected to the same compression forces that gave rise to the Cape Mountains, they do not form the same mountain ranges as do the Cape Fold Mountains. This is because they are composed of much softer rocks than the Peninsula Formation Sandstone, and were thus soon eroded into the flat plains of the "Lower Karoo", except where they were protected by hard, erosion resistant dolerite or turbidite caps, to form isolated mountains that stand out from the plain.
Appearance
The mountains are not particularly ancient, despite their old-looking appearance. They are considered middle-aged in geologic terms. They were created when the Falkland Plateau collided with Southern Africa, when Pangaea, the supercontinent formed during the Cambrian-Ordovician periods (from 510 to about 330–350 million years ago),. Their stature, with heights varying from 1000m to 2300m, is mostly due to the weather-resistant rocks of quartzitic sandstone of the Peninsula Group (see above).
They occur in long parallel ranges each not much more than 10 km wide, separated by equally long valleys with a maximum width of about 50 km (mostly only 15–30 km wide). Almost all of these ranges consist of hard erosion resistant Peninsula Group rocks. The valleys tend to be floored by Bokkeveld Group mudstones. A remarkable feature of these ranges is that the 1500 m high mountains (from base to crest) are cut through by very narrow, almost vertically walled defiles, not much more than 50–70 m wide at the bottom, through which rivers flow from the inland Great Escarpment to the sea. It is from within these narrow defiles, many of which can be traveled by road, that one is afforded a cross sectional view of the mountains, and can appreciate their intense folding and distortion (see the photographs on the top right above). Their origin is as follows:
After the fold mountains had been formed they became buried under sediments derived from the massive Himalaya-sized Falkland Mountains to the south of the Cape Fold Belt. Sediments eroded from these mountains provided the bulk of the 6 km thick Beaufort sediments in the Karoo Basin, but they also covered the Cape Fold Belt, thereby protecting them from erosion. At the end of the Karoo Period about 180 million years ago, the subcontinent was covered by a thick layer of Drakensberg lavas, an event that was accompanied by upliftment or bulging of Southern Africa, ushering in an almost uninterrupted period, continuing to the present, of erosion removing many kilometers of surface rocks from the entire subcontinent. Rivers running off this bulging interior into the seas that were forming around South Africa as Gondwana was breaking up 150 million years ago, eventually encountered rocky ridges as the protective layer over the Cape Fold Belt eroded away, exposing their mountain tops. The rivers breached these ridges, after possibly being dammed back for a short period, creating a narrow passage through the low rocky barrier. Continued erosion exposed more and more of these quartzitic mountain ranges, but the rivers, now confined to narrow, fast flowing gorges, continued breaking through each barrier as the surrounding landscape eroded to lower and lower levels, particularly during the past 20 million years.
These 150‑million-year-old rivers therefore cut the defile, starting by flowing over, and then through the gradually erupting Cape Fold Mountains, to form the spectacular "poorte" and "klowe" (plural of "poort" and "kloof", the Afrikaans for defile or chasm) that characterize these mountains today. The best known defiles are: Meiringspoort, Seweweekspoort, the Tradouws Pass, Kogmanskloof, Garcia's pass, the Gourits River gorge (which does not have a road running through it), and Michell's Pass, which is, however, more V-shaped than the others, but impressive nevertheless. In addition several roads and highways crest the mountains over cols, or go through them via tunnels.
A number of parallel faults still run roughly parallel with the coast, having formed during the Gondwana rifting when South America and the Falkland Plateau separated from Africa. Patagonia was to the west of Cape Town and the Falkland Islands were to the south during the Jurassic Period prior to separation. Most of these faults are inactive today, but on 29 September 1969 the towns of Ceres and Tulbagh, about 160 km north-east of Cape Town, were severely damaged by a major earthquake, originating from movement of the northern end of the Worcester Fault.
Another major (inactive) fault runs for 300 km along the southern edge of the Swartberg Mountains. The Swartberg Mountains were uplifted along this fault, to such an extent that in the Oudtshoorn region the rocks that form the base of the Cape Supergroup are exposed. These are locally known as the "Cango Group", but are probably continuous with the "Malmesbury Group" that forms the base of Table Mountain on the Cape Peninsula, and similar outcrops in the Western Cape. In the Little Karoo the outcrop is composed of limestone, into which an underground stream has carved the impressively extensive Cango Caves.
The ranges
The following is a list of the largest individual ranges within the Cape Fold Belt include from west to east. (Translations in brackets; berg is Afrikaans for mountain; its plural is berge.)
Cederberg (Cedar) – Table Mountain Group
Olifants River Mountains (Elephant's) – Table Mountain Group
Piketberg (Picket) – Table Mountain Group
Winterhoek Mountains (Winter corner) – Table Mountain Group
Skurweberge (Rough or scaly) – Witteberg Group
Hex River Mountains (Witch river) – Table Mountain Group
Cape Peninsula and Table Mountain – Table Mountain Group
Du Toitskloof Mountains (Du Toit's canyon, from a French surname) – Table Mountain Group
Drakenstein Mountains (Dragon stone, the name of a country estate in the Netherlands) – Table Mountain Group
Simonsberg (Simon's) – Table Mountain Group
Hottentots-Holland Mountains (Hottentot, an old name for the Khoi aboriginal inhabitants) – Table Mountain Group
Kogelberg (Bullet, or cone-shaped) – Table Mountain Group
Stettynsberge (probably a surname) – Table Mountain Group
Langeberg (Long) – Table Mountain Group
Riviersonderend Mountains (River without end) – Table Mountain Group
Kleinrivier Mountains (Small river) – Table Mountain Group
Witteberge (White) – Witteberg Group
Swartberge (Black) – Table Mountain Group
Outeniqua Mountains (aboriginal: place of honey) – Table Mountain Group
Langkloof Mountains (Long valley) – Table Mountain Group
Kouga Mountains (aboriginal) – Table Mountain Group
Tsitsikamma Mountains (aboriginal: place of much water) – Table Mountain Group
Baviaanskloof Mountains (Valley of baboons) – Table Mountain Group
Zuurberge (Sour, acid or acidic) – Witteberg Group
See also
References
Geology of South Africa
Mountain ranges of the Western Cape
Natural history of Cape Town
Table Mountain
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45th%20Infantry%20Brigade%20Combat%20Team%20%28United%20States%29
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45th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (United States)
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The 45th Infantry Brigade Combat Team ("Thunderbird") is a modular infantry brigade combat team of the United States Army headquartered in Norman, Oklahoma. It is a part of the Oklahoma Army National Guard.
The 45th Infantry Brigade was formed from existing elements of the disbanded 45th Infantry Division which had seen extensive action during World War II and the Korean War. The 45th Infantry Brigade was activated in 1968 and assigned to training duties for active duty army units until 1994 when the 45th was selected as one of 15 Separate Enhanced Infantry Brigades. In 1999, the brigade deployed two companies (A/1-179 and C/1-179) as part of the UN peacekeeping force in the wake of the Bosnian War. In 2003, A/1-179th Infantry deployed to Saudi Arabia while B/1-179th deployed to Kuwait to provide security for Patriot missile sites. During the invasion of Iraq, B/Company 1–179th pushed North of Baghdad establishing a foothold in Taji, Iraq. Later that year, the 45th Infantry Brigade deployed to Afghanistan to train soldiers of the Afghan National Army which was followed by another brigade deployment to Iraq, in 2007, to assist in turning over of American military bases to Iraqi forces. A third brigade deployment to Afghanistan in 2011, saw the brigade assigned full-spectrum operations for the first time since the 1950s.
The brigade received all heraldry, lineage and honors from the 45th Infantry Division, including its shoulder sleeve insignia and campaign streamers for combat in World War II and Korea. It is the last brigade in the Army inventory that has a diamond-shaped shoulder sleeve insignia. Since 1999, the 45th Infantry Brigade has since received several of its own decorations for participation in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom.
Organization
The brigade is a subordinate unit of the Oklahoma Army National Guard, headquartered in Norman, Oklahoma There is a headquarters company, a cavalry squadron, an airborne infantry battalion, two infantry battalions, a field artillery battalion, an engineer battalion, and a brigade support battalion.
Headquarters and Headquarters Company
1st Squadron (Reconnaissance Surveillance and Target Acquisition), 180th Cavalry Regiment
2nd Battalion (Airborne), 134th Infantry Regiment (Nebraska Army National Guard)
1st Battalion, 179th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 279th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 160th Field Artillery Regiment (105mm Towed Howitzer)
545th Brigade Engineer Battalion
700th Brigade Support Battalion
45th Infantry Division
The history of the 45th Brigade Combat Team can be traced back to 1890 with the formation of the Militia of the Territory of Oklahoma. That militia was mobilized in 1898 during the Spanish–American War but never deployed. In 1916 the First Oklahoma Infantry Regiment deployed for border security duty during the Mexican Border Conflict. In 1917, the First Oklahoma Infantry Regiment, reassigned as part of the 142nd Infantry Regiment of the 36th Division fought in the final month of World War I.
On 19 October 1920, the Oklahoma State militia was organized as part of the 45th Infantry Division along with troops from Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico. The division was organized and federally recognized as a US Army unit on 3 August 1923 in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Prior to World War II, the division was called on many times to maintain order in times of disaster and to keep peace during periods of political unrest. Oklahoma Governor John C. Walton used division troops to prevent the State Legislature from meeting when they were preparing to impeach him in 1923. Governor William H. Murray called out the guard several times during the depression to close banks, distribute food and once to force the State of Texas to keep open a free bridge over the Red River which Texas intended to collect tolls for, even after federal courts ordered the bridge not be opened.
The division would go on to see combat in World War II. The division was active for over five years, participating in eight campaigns, four amphibious assaults, for a total of 511 days of combat. Following World War II the division became an all-Oklahoma organization. In 1950, the division was also called into service during the Korean War, as one of four national guard divisions active during the war. The Division participated in four campaigns and sustained continuous combat operations for 429 days.
Cold War years (1968–2001)
In 1968, the division was disbanded and the 45th Infantry Brigade (Separate) was formed in its place. The 45th Brigade assumed all of the 45th Division's lineage and campaign participation credit, including its shoulder sleeve insignia featuring a Thunderbird, a common Native American symbol, as a tribute to the south-western United States region which had a large population of Native Americans. The brigade also assumed the division's nickname, "Thunderbirds". The division's three subordinate brigades were disbanded as a part of the organization, and were not affiliated with the 45th Infantry Brigade (Separate). The brigade's headquarters was subsequently relocated to Edmond, Oklahoma. In 1971 the brigade received its distinctive unit insignia.
The brigade did not participate in any overseas combat operations through the 1970s or 1980s, as the size of the active duty force negated the need for National Guard formations to be deployed during the relatively small contingencies of that period. However, the 45th did participate in REFORGER (Certain Strike) in September 1987. The brigade was primarily used to train active duty units and other general peacetime missions within the United States. In 1991, the brigade became affiliated with the 1st Cavalry Division, providing training services for the division soldiers.
Separate Infantry Brigade (Enhanced) (1994–2006)
In 1994, the brigade was selected as one of fifteen "enhanced" separate brigades of the Army National Guard, featuring authorization to recruit 10% above required manning levels, a requirement to attend one of the Combat Training Centers not less than once every eight years, and ready to deploy within 90 days in case of emergencies. In 1997, the brigade was integrated under the command structure of the 7th Infantry Division (which also included the 39th Infantry Brigade-Arkansas and the 41st Infantry Brigade-Oregon) allowing the 7th Infantry Division to provide training assistance and support for the brigade's activities should it be deployed, and potentially command and control when deployed, but that was never tested. In 1996, the brigade's garrison was relocated back to Oklahoma City.
In 1999, approximately 250 soldiers of the brigade were deployed to Bosnia in support of NATO forces seeking to stabilize the country in the wake of the Bosnian War. Soldiers of the brigade were among the first National Guard units to see front-line patrolling duty in the conflict, a job held exclusively by active duty units until that time.
The brigade trained for a rotation in the Joint Readiness Training Center at Fort Polk, Louisiana throughout 2000 and 2001, before deploying to the center in June 2002. The brigade received praise from the JRTC exercise commander, 7th Infantry Brigade Commander, Major General Edward Soriano, and the United States Army Chief of Staff, General Eric Shinseki, as performing the mission better than many brigades before it. The 45th Infantry Brigade's performance at the Joint Readiness Training Center laid the groundwork for securing the first national guard infantry brigade deployment to a combat zone since the Korean War.
Iraq and Afghanistan (2001–2021)
In January 2003, components of the 45th Infantry Brigade were deployed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Approximately 230 light infantry soldiers from A Company and B Company, 1st Battalion, 179th Infantry Regiment composed Task Force Ironhorse under the United States Army Central Command (ARCENT). Their primary mission leading up to the invasion of Iraq was to provide security for Patriot missile sites defending the respective countries from impending SCUD missile attacks. In March 2003, Company A was ordered from the area in and around Riyadh to the northern border cities of Tabuk and Arar, Saudi Arabia in defense of Iraqi retaliation and security of strategically redeployed Patriot Missile sites. Company B was ordered to advance into Iraq from the Kuwaiti border to provide security for ammo caches and forward operating Patriot missile sites. Task Force Ironhorse was the first deployment of Oklahoma National Guard infantry soldiers to a combat zone since the Korean War (members of the Oklahoma National Guard deployed during Desert Storm as Field Artillery units). Task Force Ironhorse completed their mission and returned in August 2003.
On 19 September 2003, the 45th Infantry Brigade, under the command of Brigadier General Thomas P. Mancino, was mobilized to deploy to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom, assuming command of Task Force Phoenix II from 2nd Brigade, 10th Mountain Division. The initial training for the mission was located at Fort Carson, Colorado. Task Force Phoenix II consisted of the Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC), C/1-179 Infantry Battalion for convoy and base security, HHC/700th Support Battalion for base support and convoy missions, the 136th Regional Training Institute of the Texas National Guard, 3 embedded training teams (ETT's). The 1st ETT was composed of officers, NCO's and soldiers from the 1–179 Infantry Battalion headquartered in Stillwater, Oklahoma. The 2nd ETT was composed of officers, NCO's and soldiers from the Vermont National Guard and the 3rd ETT was composed of officers, NCO's and soldiers from the South Carolina National Guard. In April 2004, 350 soldiers from the brigade's 1st Battalion, 279th Infantry Regiment also deployed to Joint Task Force Phoenix. The mission of Task Force Phoenix II was to 1) Embed training teams into the Afghan National Army to provide training assistance, mission support, and administrative pay support 2) Assume the duties of the Office of Military Cooperation-Afghanistan (OMC-A) 3) Establish the Kabul Military Training Center (KMTC) 4) Mentor the Central Corps Commander and Command Group 5) Establish and maintain postal operations for the eastern sector 6) Conduct convoy resupply missions and 7) Establish the Afghan National Army Supply Depot. During this rotation, the brigade grew the size of the Afghan National Army to over 14,000 as well as fielding a corps-sized force ahead of schedule. In August 2004, the brigade was replaced in this mission by the 76th Infantry Brigade, and subsequently returned home to the United States.
In March 2006, the 1–180th Cavalry (still infantry in '06) deployed as part of Task Force Phoenix V. They were attached to the 41st BCT (Oregon ARNG). They returned in June 2007. In April 2007, the brigade was alerted that it could be deployed to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom by the end of the year. Four months later they were alerted that they would be heading to Iraq in 2008. The brigade mobilized in October of that year and trained in infantry techniques at army posts in Oklahoma and Arkansas. The 39th Infantry Brigade was also alerted for deployment during this time and deployed to Iraq in late 2007. During its rotation, the brigade was charged with turning over military facilities and Forward Operating Bases to the Iraqi Army as well as the Iraqi Police Force. The brigade returned to the United States in October 2008.
In October 2007, the 45th Infantry Brigade Combat Team deployed to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom under the command of Brigadier General General Myles L. Deering for a one-year deployment.
The 45th IBCT deployed to Afghanistan in 2011 and reunited with the 201st Corps of the ANA, as partners this time, in combined combat operations against insurgent forces in Eastern Afghanistan suffering the loss of 14 Soldiers but making significant progress in disrupting and destroying insurgent operations while continuing to mentor the ANA and progressively handing off security missions to them. The full brigade mobilized in April 2011, but a late change in the mission diverted the 180th Cavalry and 160th Field Artillery to separate missions to support Iraq operations from Kuwait. The brigades deployment is covered in the 2016 documentary Citizen Soldier.
Additionally, elements of the 45th Brigade have deployed to Egypt (1–180th Infantry Multinational Force and Observers (MFO)), Kuwait (245th Military Intelligence Co OIF), and for separate rotations to Iraq (245th Engineer Co OIF) and Afghanistan (1–180th Infantry Task Force Phoenix V).
Hurricane Katrina (2005)
On 1 September 2005, the 45th Infantry Brigade, under the command of Brigadier General Myles L. Deering, was mobilized to deploy to New Orleans, Louisiana in support of Hurricane Katrina disaster relief efforts. Within hours, the 45th Infantry Brigade was given the designation "Task Force Oklahoma" and additional units were assigned from the Oklahoma National Guard to the task force. The first units assigned to Task Force Oklahoma (1345 Transportation Company and HHB/1-171 Field Artillery Battalion) arrived in New Orleans within 24 hours of Hurricane Katrina making landfall on 30 August 2005. The rest of the brigade, from Oklahoma, made it to New Orleans, via ground convoy, through Texas on 31 August 2005. Other units arrived via ground convoy or through the air, landing at Belle Chasse Naval Air Station
The 1345th Transportation Company and the 1st Battalion, 171st Field Artillery were among the first military units to arrive in New Orleans and stage out of the Morial Convention Center and the Louisiana Superdome. The task force headquarters was established at the Wal-Mart parking lot at 1901 Tchoupitoulas Street and street by street search and rescue operations began in earnest on 1 September 2005. At the time, this was the largest mobilization and deployment of the 45th since 1950. The 45th Infantry Brigade was eventually relieved of its responsibilities in New Orleans and returned to Oklahoma on 15 October 2005.
Lineage and honors
Lineage
Constituted 19 October 1920 as Headquarters, 45th Division (to be organized with troops from Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Oklahoma).
Organized and federally recognized 3 August 1923 at Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Headquarters Detachment organized and federally. recognized 1 July 1924 at Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.
Headquarters and Headquarters Detachment, 45th Division, inducted into federal service 16 September 1940 at Oklahoma City.
Redesignated 23 February 1942 as the 45th Infantry Division.
Reorganized and redesignated 23 February 1942 as Headquarters, 45th Infantry Division.
Inactivated 7 December 1945 at Camp Bowie, Texas.
Reorganized and federally recognized 5 September 1946 in the Oklahoma National Guard at Oklahoma City.
Ordered into active federal service 1 September 1950 at Oklahoma City.
(Headquarters, 45th Infantry Division [NGUS], organized and federally recognized 15 September 1952 at Oklahoma City).
Released from active federal service 30 April 1954 and reverted to state control; federal recognition concurrently withdrawn from Headquarters, 45th Infantry Division (NGUS).
Reorganized and redesignated 1 February 1968 as Headquarters, 45th Infantry Brigade, and location changed to Edmond (Headquarters Company, 45th Infantry Brigade, concurrently reorganized and redesignated from Headquarters Company, 1st Battalion, 179th Infantry).
Location changed 1 October 1996 to Oklahoma City.
Ordered into active Federal service 19 September 2003 at Oklahoma City; released from active Federal service 17 September 2004 and reverted to state control.
Ordered into active Federal service 19 October 2007 at Oklahoma City.
Reorganized and redesignated 1 September 2008 as Headquarters, 45th Infantry Brigade Combat Team.
Released from active Federal service 21 November 2008 and reverted to state control.
Location changed 1 July 2010 to Norman.
Ordered into active Federal service 27 March 2011 at Norman; released from active Federal service 29 April 2012 and reverted to state control.
Honors
The brigade received all of the honors previously accorded to the 45th Infantry Division, including its campaign streamers, which give credit for participation in combat. Additionally, several of these streamers contain the Arrowhead device, signifying the division's participation in amphibious assaults.
As the 45th Infantry Division:
As 45th Infantry Brigade Combat Team
References
Sources
External links
45th Infantry Brigade homepage
Lineage at the United States Army Center of Military History
History of the 36th Division
Infantry 999 045
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Infantry 999 045
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Military units and formations established in 1968
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I-35W Mississippi River bridge
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The I-35W Mississippi River bridge (officially known as Bridge 9340) was an eight-lane, steel truss arch bridge that carried Interstate 35W across the Mississippi River one-half mile (875 m) downstream from the Saint Anthony Falls in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. The bridge opened in 1967 and was Minnesota's third busiest, carrying 140,000 vehicles daily. It experienced a catastrophic failure during the evening rush hour on August 1, 2007, killing 13 people and injuring 145. The NTSB cited a design flaw as the likely cause of the collapse, noting that an excessively thin gusset plate ripped along a line of rivets, and that additional weight on the bridge at the time contributed to the catastrophic failure.
Help came immediately from mutual aid in the seven-county Minneapolis–Saint Paul metropolitan area and emergency response personnel, charities, and volunteers. Within a few days of the collapse, the Minnesota Department of Transportation (MnDOT) planned its replacement with the I-35W Saint Anthony Falls Bridge. Construction on the replacement bridge was completed quickly, with it opening on September 18, 2008.
Location and site history
The bridge was located in Minneapolis, Minnesota's largest city and connected the neighborhoods of Downtown East and Marcy-Holmes. The south abutment was northeast of the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, and the north abutment was northwest of the University of Minnesota East Bank campus. The bridge was the southeastern boundary of the "Mississippi Mile" downtown riverfront parkland. Downstream is the 10th Avenue Bridge, once known as the Cedar Avenue Bridge. Immediately upstream is the Saint Anthony Falls lower lock and dam. The first bridge upstream is the historic Stone Arch Bridge, built for the Great Northern Railway and now used for bicycle and pedestrian traffic.
The north foundation pier of the bridge was near a hydroelectric plant that was razed in 1988. The south abutment was in an area polluted by a coal gas processing plant and a facility for storing and processing petroleum products. These uses effectively created a toxic waste site under the bridge, leading to a lawsuit and the removal of the contaminated soil. No relationship has been claimed between these previous uses and the bridge failure.
Design and construction
The bridge, officially designated "Bridge 9340", was designed by Sverdrup & Parcel to 1961 AASHTO (American Association of State Highway Officials, now American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) standard specifications. The construction contracts, worth in total more than $5.2 million at the time, were initially offered to HurCon Inc. and Industrial Construction Company. HurCon expressed concern about the project, reporting that one portion of the bridge, Pier 6, could not be built as planned. After failed discussions with MnDOT, HurCon backed out of the project altogether.
Construction on the bridge began in 1964 and the structure was completed and opened to traffic in 1967 during an era of large-scale projects to build the Twin Cities freeway system. When the bridge fell, it was still the most recent river crossing built on a new site in Minneapolis. After the building boom ebbed during the 1970s, infrastructure management shifted toward inspection and maintenance.
The bridge's fourteen spans extended long. The three main spans were of deck truss construction while all but two of the eleven approach spans were steel multi-girder construction, the two exceptions being concrete slab construction. The piers were not built in the navigation channel; instead, the center span of the bridge consisted of a single steel arched truss over the channel. The two support piers for the main trusses, each with two load-bearing concrete pylons at either side of the center main span, were located on opposite banks of the river. The center span was connected to the north and south approaches by shorter spans formed by the same main trusses. Each was in length, and was connected to the approach spans by a cantilever. The two main trusses, one on either side, ranged in depth from above their pier and concrete pylon supports, to at midspan on the central span and deep at the outer ends of the adjoining spans. At the top of the main trusses were the deck trusses, in depth and integral with the main trusses. The transverse deck beams, part of the deck truss, rested on top of the main trusses. These deck beams supported longitudinal deck stringers in depth, and reinforced-concrete pavement. The deck was in breadth and was split longitudinally. It had transverse expansion joints at the centers and ends of each of the three main spans. The roadway deck was approximately above the water level.
Black ice prevention system
On December 19, 1985, the temperature reached . Vehicles coming across the bridge experienced black ice and there was a major pile-up on the bridge on the northbound side.
In February and December 1996, the bridge was identified as the single most treacherous cold-weather spot in the Twin Cities freeway system, because of the almost frictionless thin layer of black ice that regularly formed when temperatures dropped below freezing. The bridge's proximity to Saint Anthony Falls contributed significantly to the icing problem and the site was noted for frequent spinouts and collisions.
By January 1999, Minnesota DOT began testing magnesium chloride solutions and a mixture of magnesium chloride and a corn-processing byproduct to see whether either would reduce the black ice that appeared on the bridge during the winter months. In October 1999, the state embedded temperature-activated nozzles in the bridge deck to spray the bridge with potassium acetate solution to keep the area free of winter black ice. The system came into operation in 2000.
Although there were no additional major multi-vehicle collisions after the automated de-icing system was installed, it has been raised as a possibility that the potassium acetate may have contributed to the collapse of the bridge by corroding the structural supports, though the NTSB's final report found that corrosion was not a contributing factor.
Maintenance and inspection
Since 1993, the bridge was inspected annually by MnDOT, although no inspection report was completed in 2007, due to the construction work. In the years prior to the collapse, several reports cited problems with the bridge structure. In 1990, the federal government gave the I-35W bridge a rating of "structurally deficient", citing significant corrosion in its bearings. Approximately 75,000 other U.S. bridges had this classification in 2007.
According to a 2001 study by the civil engineering department of the University of Minnesota, cracking had been previously discovered in the cross girders at the end of the approach spans. The main trusses connected to these cross girders and resistance to motion at the connection point bearings was leading to unanticipated out-of-plane distortion of the cross girders and subsequent stress cracking. The situation was addressed prior to the study by drilling the cracks to prevent further propagation and adding support struts to the cross girder to prevent further distortion. The report also noted a concern about lack of redundancy in the main truss system, which meant the bridge had a greater risk of collapse in the event of any single structural failure. Although the report concluded that the bridge should not have any problems with fatigue cracking in the foreseeable future, regular inspection, structural health monitoring, and use of strain gauges had been suggested.
In 2005, the bridge was again rated as "structurally deficient" and in possible need of replacement, according to the U.S. Department of Transportation's National Bridge Inventory database. Problems were noted in two subsequent inspection reports. The inspection carried out June 15, 2006 found problems of cracking and fatigue. On August 2, 2007, Governor Tim Pawlenty stated that the bridge had been scheduled to be replaced in 2020.
The I-35W bridge ranked near the bottom of federal inspection ratings nationwide. Bridge inspectors use a sufficiency rating that ranges from the highest score, 100, to the lowest score, zero. In 2005, they rated the bridge at 50, indicating that replacement may have been in order. Out of over 100,000 heavily used bridges, only about 4% scored below 50. On a separate measure, the I-35W bridge was rated "structurally deficient", but was deemed to have met "minimum tolerable limits to be left in place as it is".
In December 2006, a steel reinforcement project was planned for the bridge. However, the project was canceled in January 2007 in favor of periodic safety inspections, after engineers realized that drilling for the retrofitting would, in fact, weaken the bridge. In internal Mn/DOT documents, bridge officials talked about the possibility of the bridge collapsing, and worried that they might have to condemn it.
The construction taking place in the weeks prior to the collapse included joint work and replacing lighting, concrete and guard rails. At the time of the collapse, four of the eight lanes were closed for resurfacing, and there were of construction supplies and equipment on the bridge.
Collapse
At 6:05 p.m. CDT on August 1, 2007, with rush hour bridge traffic moving slowly through the limited number of lanes, the central span of the bridge suddenly gave way, followed by the adjoining spans. The structure and deck collapsed into the river and onto the riverbanks below, the south part toppling eastward in the process. A total of 111 vehicles were involved, sending their occupants and 18 construction workers as far as down to the river or onto its banks. Northern sections fell into a rail yard, landing on three unoccupied and stationary freight cars.
Sequential images of the collapse were taken by an outdoor security camera located at the parking lot entrance of the control facility for the Lower Saint Anthony Falls Lock and Dam. The immediate aftermath of the collapse was also captured by a Mn/DOT traffic camera that was facing away from the bridge during the collapse itself. The federal government immediately launched a National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) investigation. NTSB chairman Mark Rosenker, along with a number of investigators, arrived on scene nine hours after the collapse. Rosenker remained in Minneapolis for nearly one week, serving as the government's designated primary interface with federal, state and local officials as well as briefing the press on the status of the investigation.
Mayor R. T. Rybak and Governor Tim Pawlenty declared a state of emergency for the city of Minneapolis and for the State of Minnesota on August 2. Rybak's declaration was approved and extended indefinitely by the Minneapolis City Council the next day. As of the morning following the collapse, according to White House Press Secretary Tony Snow, Minnesota had not requested a federal disaster declaration. President Bush pledged support during a visit to the site on August 4 with Minnesota elected officials and announced that United States Secretary of Transportation (USDOT) Mary Peters would lead the rebuilding effort. Rybak and Pawlenty gave the president detailed requests for aid during a closed-door meeting. Local authorities were assisted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) evidence team, and by United States Navy divers who began arriving on August 5.
Victims
Thirteen people were killed. Triage centers at the ends of the bridge routed 50 victims to area hospitals, some in trucks, as ambulances were in short supply. Many of the injured had blunt trauma injuries. Those near the south end were taken to Hennepin County Medical Center (HCMC) — those near the north end, to the Fairview University Medical Center and other hospitals. At least 22 children were injured. Thirteen children were treated at Children's Hospitals and Clinics of Minnesota, five at HCMC and four or five at North Memorial Medical Center in Robbinsdale, Minnesota. During the first 40 hours, 11 area hospitals treated 98 victims.
Only a few of the vehicles were submerged, but many people were stranded on the collapsed sections of the bridge. Several vehicles caught fire, including a semi-trailer truck, from which the driver's body was later recovered. When fire crews arrived, they had to route hoses from several blocks away.
A school bus carrying 63 children ended up resting precariously against the guardrail of the collapsed structure, near the burning semi-trailer truck. The children were returning from a field trip to a water park as part of the Waite House Neighborhood Center Day Camp based in the Phillips community. Jeremy Hernandez, a 20-year-old staff member on the bus, assisted many of the children by kicking out the rear emergency exit and escorting or carrying them to safety. One youth worker was severely injured.
Rescue
Civilians immediately took part in the rescue efforts. Minneapolis and Hennepin County received mutual aid from neighboring cities and counties throughout the metropolitan area. The Minneapolis Fire Department (MFD) arrived in six minutes and responded quickly, helping people who were trapped in their vehicles. They took 81 minutes to triage and transport 145 patients with the help of Hennepin County Medical Center (HCMC), North Memorial and Allina paramedics. By the next morning, they had shifted their focus to the recovery of bodies, with several vehicles known to be trapped under the debris and several people still unaccounted for. Twenty divers organized by the Hennepin County Sheriff's Office (HCSO) used side-scan sonar to locate vehicles submerged in the murky water. Their efforts were hampered by debris and challenging currents. The United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) lowered the river level by downriver at Ford Dam to allow easier access to vehicles in the water. Carl Bolander & Sons, a Saint Paul-based earthworks and demolition company, brought in several cranes and other heavy machinery to assist in clearing debris for rescue workers.
The Minneapolis Fire Department (MFD) created the National Incident Management System command center in the parking lot of the American Red Cross and an adjacent printing company on the west bank. The Minneapolis Police Department (MPD), Minnesota State Patrol and the University of Minnesota Police secured the area, MFD managed the ground operations, and HCSO was in charge of the water operation. The city provided 75 firefighters and 75 law enforcement units.
Rescue of victims stranded on the bridge was complete in three hours. "We had a state bridge, in a county river, between two banks of a city. ... But we didn't have one problem with any of these issues, because we knew who was in charge of the assets," said Rocco Forte, city Emergency Preparedness Director. City, metropolitan area, county and state employees at all levels knew their roles and had practiced them since the city received FEMA emergency management training the year following the September 11, 2001 attacks. Their rapid response time is also credited to the Minnesota and United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) investment in 800 MHz mobile radio communications that were operating in Minneapolis and three of the responding counties, the city of Minneapolis collapsed-structures rescue and dive team, and the Emergency Operations Center established at 6:20 p.m. in Minneapolis City Hall.
Recovery
Recovery of deceased victims took over three weeks. At the request of the NTSB Chairman Mark Rosenker, the U.S. Navy sent 17 divers and a five-person command-and-control element from its Mobile Diving and Salvage Unit Two. Divers and Underwater Search Evidence Response Team from the FBI joined the response efforts on August 7, bringing with them truckloads of specialized equipment including FBI-provided side-scan sonar and two submarines.
The Navy Dive team started diving operations in the river at 2 a.m., within hours of arriving, and conducted operations around the clock for the next three weeks, until the recovery portion of the mission was completed. The FBI teams had planned to search with an unmanned submarine, but had to abandon this plan after they found it was too big to maneuver in the debris field and cloudy water. Minneapolis Police Captain Mike Martin stated that, "The public safety divers are trained up to a level where they can kind of pick the low-hanging fruit. They can do the stuff that's easy. The bodies that are in the areas where they can sweep shore to shore, the vehicles that they can get into and search that weren't crushed. They were able to remove some of those. Now what we're looking at is the vehicles that are under the bridge deck and the structural pieces."
Seventy-five local, state and federal agencies were involved in the rescue and recovery including emergency personnel and volunteers from the counties of Anoka, Carver, Dakota, Hennepin, Olmsted, Ramsey, Scott, Washington, Winona, and Wright in Minnesota; and St. Croix County, Wisconsin, St. Croix EMS & Rescue Dive Team, and others standing by. Federal assistance came from the United States Department of Defense, DHS, USACE and the United States Coast Guard. Adventure Divers of Minot, North Dakota, is a private firm who assisted local authorities.
Local businesses donated wireless Internet, ice, drinks and meals for first responders. The Salvation Army canteens served food and water to rescue workers. Teams of officers were sent to hospitals to follow up with the injured, who had been transported to eight different medical facilities.
The Minneapolis Police Chaplain Corps Chaplain Director, Dr. Jeffrey Stewart, arrived and was asked to set up and manage a Family Assistance Center (FAC) for the victims' families. He coordinated site location and staffing arrangements with the city's Department of Health and Family support and relevant Hennepin County offices. When Chaplain Supervisor John LeMay and Lead Chaplain Linda Koelman arrived on the scene, they assisted in setting up the FAC at the Holiday Inn by 8 p.m. As additional Minneapolis Police Chaplains arrived, they began providing services to the victim families, assisting them in locating family members, and providing a calm presence. On August 20, the last victim was recovered from the river.
A Mayo Clinic transport helicopter was standing by at Flying Cloud Airport. The Minnesota National Guard launched a MEDEVAC helicopter and had up to 10,000 guard members ready to help.
As of August 8, 2007, more than 500 Red Cross volunteers and staff persons counseled 2,000 people with grief, trauma, missing persons, and medical issues, and served 7,000 meals to first responders.
Following the initial rescue, Mn/DOT retained Carl Bolander & Sons, an earthworks and demolition contractor of Saint Paul, Minnesota, to remove the collapsed bridge and demolish the remaining spans that did not fall. Divers left the water briefly on August 18 while the company's crew used cranes, excavation drills and cutting torches to remove parts of the bridge deck, beams and girders, hoping to improve access for the divers. After the last person's remains were removed from the wreckage on August 21, the company's crews began dismantling the bridge's remnants. Crews first removed the vehicles stranded on the bridge. By August 18, 80 of the 88 stranded cars and trucks had been moved to the MPD impound lot where owners could claim their vehicles. Then workers shifted to removing the bridge deck using cranes and excavators equipped with hoe rams to break the concrete. Structural steel was then disassembled by cranes, and the concrete piers were removed by excavators. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) officials asked demolition crews to use extreme care in removing the bridge remnants to preserve as much of the bridge materials as possible for later analysis. By the end of October 2007, the demolition operation was substantially complete, enabling construction to begin on the new I-35W bridge on November 1, 2007. Much of the bridge debris was temporarily stored at the nearby Bohemian Flats as part of the ongoing investigation of the collapse; it was removed to a storage facility in Afton, Minnesota, in fall 2010. Federal officials planned to bring some of the bridge steel and concrete to the NTSB Material Laboratory in Washington, D.C., for analysis toward determining the cause of the collapse on behalf of FHWA, Mn/DOT and Progressive Construction, Inc. NTSB also interviewed eyewitnesses.
Peters announced that USDOT had granted Minnesota $5 million the day following the collapse. On August 10, Peters announced an additional $5 million "for Minneapolis", or "the state", "to reimburse Minneapolis for increased transit operations to serve commuters in the wake of last week's bridge collapse". U.S. Congress removed the $100 million per-incident cap on emergency appropriations. The United States House of Representatives and United States Senate each voted unanimously for $250 million in emergency funding for Minnesota that President Bush signed into law on August 6. On August 10, 2007, Peters announced $50 million in immediate emergency relief, a portion of the overall $250 million, which was given to enable "clean-up and recovery work, including clearing debris and re-routing traffic, as well as for design work on a new bridge". "On behalf of Minnesota, we are grateful for all of this help," Pawlenty said.
Investigation
The National Transportation Safety Board immediately began a comprehensive investigation that was expected to take up to eighteen months. Immediately following the collapse, Governor Pawlenty and Mn/DOT announced that the Illinois-based engineering firm of Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. had also been selected to provide essential analysis that would parallel the investigation being conducted by the NTSB. One week after the collapse, workers were just beginning to move debris and vehicles to further the process of recovering victims. Cameras and motion detectors were added to the site around the bridge to ward off intruders who, officials said, were hindering the investigation. Hennepin County Sheriff Richard W. Stanek stated, "We are treating this as a crime scene at this point. There's no indication there was any foul play involved, [but] it's a crime scene until we can determine what was the cause of the collapse."
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) built a computer model of the bridge at the Turner Fairbank Highway Research Center in McLean, Virginia. NTSB investigators were particularly interested in learning why a part of the bridge's southern end shifted eastward as it collapsed, but this particular phenomenon was not germane to the ultimate cause of the collapse.
FHWA advised states to inspect the 700 U.S. bridges of similar construction after identifying a possible design flaw related to large steel sheets called gusset plates, which connect girders in the truss structure. Officials raised questions as to why such a flaw would not have been discovered in over 40 years of inspections. The flaw was first discovered by Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc., an independent consulting firm hired by Mn/DOT to investigate the cause of the collapse.
On January 15, 2008, the NTSB announced it had determined that the bridge's design specified steel gusset plates that were undersized and inadequate to support the intended load of the bridge, a load that had increased over time. This assertion was based on an interim report that calculated the demand-to-capacity ratio for the gusset plates. The NTSB recommended that similar bridge designs be reviewed for this problem. NTSB Chairman Mark Rosenker said:
On March 17, 2008, the NTSB announced an update on the investigation relating to load capacity, design issues, computer analysis and modeling, digital image analysis and analysis of the undersized and corroded gusset plates. The investigation revealed that photos from a June 2003 inspection of the bridge showed gusset-plate bowing.
On November 13, 2008, the NTSB released the findings of its investigation. The primary cause of the collapse was the undersized gusset plates, at thick. Contributing to that design or construction error was the fact that of concrete had been added to the road surface over the years, increasing the static load by 20%. Another factor was the extraordinary weight of construction equipment and material resting on the bridge just above its weakest point at the time of the collapse. That load was estimated at , consisting of sand, water and vehicles. The NTSB determined that corrosion was not a significant contributor, but that inspectors did not routinely check that safety features were functional.
Claims for compensation
Pawlenty and his office, during the last week of November, announced a "$1 million plan" for the victims. State law has limits that may restrict awards to below that amount. No legislative action was needed for this step. "The administration wanted approval from the Joint House–Senate Subcommittee on Claims as a sign of bipartisan support"—which it received.
On May 2, 2008, the state of Minnesota reached a $38 million agreement to compensate victims of the bridge collapse.
In August 2010, the last of the lawsuits against URS Corporation were settled for $52.4 million to avoid prolonged litigation. The cases were handled via a novel consortium of legal entities that worked on a pro-bono basis. URS had performed fatigue analysis consulting on the bridge for the Mn/DOT.
The state of Minnesota brought a lawsuit against Jacobs Engineering Group, the successor of Sverdrup & Parcel, the firm that designed the bridge. Jacobs argued too much time had passed since the 1960s design work, but in May 2012, the United States Supreme Court turned down its appeal, allowing the state of Minnesota suit to proceed. Jacobs paid $8.9 million in November 2012 to settle the suit without admitting wrongdoing.
Impacts on business, traffic, and transportation funding
The collapse of the bridge affected river, rail, road, bicycle and pedestrian, and air transit. Pool 1, created by Ford Dam, was closed to river navigation between mile markers 847 and 854.5. A rail spur switched by the Minnesota Commercial Railway was blocked by the collapse. The Grand Rounds National Scenic Byway bike path was disrupted as well as two roads, West River Parkway and 2nd Street SE. The 10th Avenue Bridge, which parallels this bridge about a block downstream, was closed to both vehicle and pedestrian traffic until August 31. The Federal Aviation Administration restricted pilots in the radius of the rescue and recovery.
Thirty-five people lost their jobs when Aggregate Industries of Leicestershire, UK, a company that delivered construction materials by barge, cut production in the area.
Small businesses in metropolitan area counties that were harmed by the bridge collapse could apply beginning August 27, 2007 for loans of up to $1.5 million, at a 4% interest rate for up to a 30-year length, from the U.S. Small Business Administration. The agency's disaster declaration for Hennepin and contiguous counties came two days after Pawlenty's request to the SBA on August 20, 2007. Open for business and unsure they could repay loans, owners near the collapse in some cases lost 25% or 50% of their income. Large retailers in a mall of chain stores lost about the same. As of early January 2008, at least one business closed, one announced it was closing, seven of eight SBA applications had not been approved and merchants continued to explain how they are unable to shoulder more debt.
Seventy percent of the traffic served by the bridge was downtown-bound. Mn/DOT published detour information, and made real-time traffic information available for callers to 5-1-1. The designated alternate route in the area was Trunk Highway 280, which was converted to a temporary controlled-access highway with all at-grade access points closed. Other traffic was diverted to Interstates 694, 494, and 35E. The number of lanes was increased on several of the highways by repainting traffic lines to eliminate wide shoulders, and by widening various "choke-points".
Extra Metro Transit buses were added from park-and-ride locations in the northern suburbs during the rush hours. Abandoned vehicles on I-35W and 280 were towed immediately. On August 6, I-35W was opened to local traffic at the access ramps on each side of the missing section; some on-ramps remained closed.
In the aftermath, pressure was exerted on the state legislature to increase the state fuel tax to provide adequate maintenance funding for Mn/DOT. Ultimately the tax was increased by $0.055 per gallon via an override of Governor Pawlenty's veto of the legislation.
Public events and media
The Minnesota Twins played their home game as scheduled, against the Kansas City Royals at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome just west of I-35W, on the evening of the accident. Public safety officials told the team that postponing the game could hamper rescue and recovery efforts, since a postponement would send up to 25,000 people back into traffic only blocks from the collapsed bridge. Before the game, a moment of silence was held for the victims of the collapse. The Twins postponed their August 2 game as well as groundbreaking ceremonies for Target Field also located in downtown Minneapolis. The Twins and Minnesota Vikings honored the victims of the collapse by placing a decal of a simulated I-35W shield sign with the date "8-1-07" on the backstop wall within the Metrodome, which was always visible in the typical behind-the-pitcher viewpoint on televised games. The decal remained for the rest of the 2007 season.
The collapse was of interest to national and international news organizations. On the evening of the collapse, CNN, MSNBC, and Fox News Channel stayed live with its coverage during the overnight hours, along with local stations WCCO-AM (830) and KSTP (1500), with most of the coverage in the opening hours coming via satellite from Twin Cities news operations WCCO-TV, KSTP-TV, KMSP-TV, KARE-TV and Minnesota Public Radio. National TV networks sent CBS anchor Katie Couric, NBC's Brian Williams and Matt Lauer, MSNBC's Contessa Brewer, ABC's Charles Gibson, CNN's Soledad O'Brien and Anderson Cooper, and Fox News Channel's Greta Van Susteren and Shepard Smith to broadcast from the Twin Cities.
U.S. news organizations interested in national and local bridge safety made a record number of requests for bridge information from Investigative Reporters and Editors, an organization that maintains several databases of federal information. News media made more inquiries for National Bridge Inventory data in the first 24 hours after the Minneapolis bridge collapse than for any previous day in the past 20 years.
Disaster declarations
The Hennepin County Board of Commissioners voted on August 7, 2007, to request that Governor Pawlenty petition President George W. Bush to declare the city of Minneapolis and Hennepin County a major disaster area. About two weeks later, Pawlenty requested major disaster designation on August 20. In a subsequent press release for a separate disaster declaration that month, he said, "Ordinarily, preliminary damage assessments are completed before the emergency disaster declaration is requested." During a press conference and briefing with Bush at the Minneapolis/St.Paul Air Reserve Station base for the 934th Airlift Wing on Tuesday, August 21, Pawlenty estimated the total cost of emergency response at over $8 million including Hennepin County's cost at $7.3 million for rescue and recovery and $1.2 million for other state agencies. He estimated the cost of the collapse to the state at $400,000 to $1 million per day.
That day, Bush gave an emergency rather than major disaster declaration for the state of Minnesota, allowing local and state agencies to recover costs incurred August 1 to 15 from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). FEMA can provide payment as required for emergency protective measures (part of FEMA Category B) at no less than 75% federal funding to Hennepin County, the designated county, up to the initial limit of $5 million. Pawlenty planned to ask that the date restriction and monetary cap be lifted. FEMA aid can compensate the county for the saving of lives, protection of public safety and health, and lessening damage to improved property, but not for the disaster-related needs of the victims nor for removing debris and restoration of the bridge and riverfront nor many other categories of needs.
Replacement bridge
The replacement of the collapsed I-35W Mississippi River bridge crosses the Mississippi River at the same location as the original bridge, and carries north–south traffic on I-35W. It was constructed on an accelerated schedule, because of the highway's function as a vital link for carrying commuters and truck freight.
Mn/DOT announced on September 19, 2007, that Flatiron Constructors and Manson Construction Co. would build the replacement bridge for $234 million. The I-35W Saint Anthony Falls Bridge was opened to the public on September 18, 2008, at 5 a.m. Using the innovative design-build project delivery method, the replacement bridge opened over three months ahead of schedule, and was awarded the "Best Overall Design-Build Project Award" for 2009 from the Design-Build Institute of America.
Memorials
Memorial services
About 1,400 people gathered for an interfaith service of healing held at St. Mark's Episcopal Cathedral on August 5, 2007, when many of the victims were still missing. Among the presenters were representatives of the Christian, Islamic, Jewish, Hindu, Native American and Hispanic communities, police, fire and emergency responders, the governor, the mayor, a choir and several musicians. Minnesotans held a minute of silence during National Night Out, on August 7, 2007, at 6:05 pm. On August 8, 2007, the Twin Cities chapter of the American Red Cross lowered the flags of the United States, the state of Minnesota and the American Red Cross in remembrance of the victims of the tragedy. Gold Medal Park near the Guthrie Theater was a gathering place for those who wished to leave flowers or remembrances for those who died. During an address to the city council on August 15, 2007, Rybak remembered each of the victims and "the details of their lives".
Memorial garden
The 35W Bridge Remembrance Garden is a memorial commemorating the victims and survivors of the I-35W bridge collapse. The memorial is located off West River Parkway, in Minneapolis. The memorial was revealed to the public on August 1, 2011, the four-year anniversary of the collapse. Minnesota Governor, Mark Dayton and Minneapolis Mayor R. T. Rybak were present, and both spoke at the reveal. The ceremony included reading the names of the 13 victims, followed by a moment of silence held at exactly 6:05 p.m., the time of the collapse four years prior. Afterwards, there was the release of 13 doves in memory of the people who died.
This $900,000 memorial was funded by the Minneapolis Foundation, and the park land was provided by the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board. The design of the remembrance garden was created by Tom Oslund, alongside survivors and relatives of the victims.
The design was meant to incorporate symbolic natural elements, including:
Stone, for stability and immortality
Arborvitae trees, for strength and to live for centuries
Water, able to purify and regenerate
Darkness and Light, the transition between tragedy and new life
A prime feature in the garden includes 13 steel I-beam and opaque glass columns. Each column has a name engraved of someone lost, along with their story, some even written in their native language. These 13 columns' linear length totals , signifying the date of the collapse (08/01/07). Behind the 13 columns is a black granite water wall. On the wall, stainless steel words form the quote, "Our lives are not only defined by what happens, but by how we act in the face of it, not only by what life brings us, but by what we bring to life. Selfless actions and compassion create enduring community out of tragic events." Along with the quote, the names of the 171 survivors are etched into the black stone. Another part of the memorial includes a path leading to the bluff, overlooking the Mississippi River and the new I-35W Bridge. At night, the columns, pathway and water wall are illuminated by LED lights.
Musical homage
In May 2008, an orchestral piece composed by Osmo Vänskä titled "The Bridge" was premiered by the Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra, led by William Schrickel, assistant-principal bassist of the Minnesota Orchestra. Vänskä himself attended the world premiere.
In La Dispute's third studio album, Rooms of The House, several references are made to the disaster, but song "35" describes the event.
2012 memorial
In 2012, installation artist Todd Boss prepared a memorial to the bridge collapse in collaboration with Swedish artist Maja Spasova. The installation was paired with a cycle of 35 poems: "Fragments for the 35W Bridge".
See also
List of bridge disasters
List of crossings of the Upper Mississippi River
References
Footnotes
Works cited
Further reading
studies by civil engineers, geographers, and others on the events and aftermath of the collapse of the bridge
External links
Collapse of I-35W Highway Bridge Minneapolis, Minnesota, Official report by the National Transportation Safety Board
Interstate 35W Bridge in Minneapolis, Minnesota Department of Transportation
Scientific perspectives on the collapse from the Science Museum of Minnesota
Minnesota Historical Society: 35W Bridge Resources
U.S. Bridge InformationNew AASHTO Bridge Information Web Site
NTSB Docket Management System for Bridge Collapse Investigation Documents
Radio breaking news and coverage (airchecks) of the 35W bridge collapse From radiotapes.com.
OxBlue Construction Camera and time-lapse footage of reconstruction
13 Seconds in AugustA project by the Star Tribune (Flash Player required)
2007 disasters in the United States
2007 in Minnesota
2007 road incidents
August 2007 events in the United States
Bridge disasters caused by engineering error
Bridge disasters in the United States
Bridges completed in 1967
Bridges in Minneapolis
Bridges on the Interstate Highway System
Bridges over the Mississippi River
Buildings and structures demolished in 2007
Cantilever bridges in the United States
Continuous truss bridges in the United States
Disasters in Minnesota
History of Minneapolis
Interstate 35
Road bridges in Minnesota
Road incidents in the United States
Steel bridges in the United States
Transportation disasters in Minnesota
Truss arch bridges in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becky%20Lynch
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Becky Lynch
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Rebecca Quin (born 30 January 1987) is an Irish professional wrestler. She is signed to WWE under the ring name Becky Lynch, where she performs on the Raw brand. Lynch is one of WWE's most recognizable and highest-paid wrestlers. Twitter named her sixth on their list of Top Female Athletes Worldwide in 2019.
Quin began training as a professional wrestler in 2002. Initially working in Ireland, and occasionally teaming with her brother using the ring name Rebecca Knox, she soon began wrestling across Europe and North America on the independent circuit for various promotions. She most notably competed in Elite Canadian Championship Wrestling and became the inaugural SuperGirls Champion in 2005. In 2006, Quin had a severe head injury during a match which kept her away from wrestling for several years. She returned in 2012 and signed a contract with WWE in 2013, assigned to the developmental territory at NXT. Following her push to WWE's main roster, she became the inaugural SmackDown Women's Champion at Backlash 2016 and has held the title four times.
In 2018, Lynch transitioned to a more aggressive character starting at SummerSlam, when she attacked Charlotte Flair, presenting herself as an unfairly treated underdog and dubbing herself "The Man", resulting in a large increase in her popularity. In 2019, she won a Royal Rumble match, and at WrestleMania 35 won both the Raw Women's Championship and SmackDown Women's Championship, making her the first woman to hold both titles simultaneously and a four-time WWE women's champion. She lost the SmackDown title the following month but then set the record for the longest reign as Raw Women's Champion at 399 days until going on a hiatus due to pregnancy in May 2020. In August 2021, Lynch returned at SummerSlam to confront SmackDown Women's Champion Bianca Belair, whom she would defeat seconds later to become a four-time SmackDown Women's Champion. With her WWE Women's Tag Team Championship win in early 2023, she became WWE's Sixth Women's Triple Crown Champion, and then after winning the NXT Women's Championship in September 2023, she became WWE's Sixth Women's Grand Slam Champion.
Early life
Rebecca Quin was born in Limerick on 30 January 1987. She grew up in the Dublin suburb of Baldoyle. Her parents separated when she was one year old. She started watching professional wrestling from a young age with her brother, Richy, who later wrestled under the ring name Gonzo de Mondo. She was involved in horse riding, swimming, and basketball. However, she claimed to have failed P.E. in school.
Quin attended University College Dublin to study philosophy, history and politics, but said she 'really hated it' and dropped out. She planned to return to college to study health and exercise studies. Prior to beginning to train as a wrestler, she stated that she had been 'going down a bad path' involving alcohol, but wrestling helped her give it up.
Professional wrestling career
Training and early career (2002–2005)
As a teenager, Quin heard that Fergal Devitt and Paul Tracey were opening a wrestling school in Ireland. She began training there along with her brother in June 2002. She made her professional wrestling debut five months later on 11 November, using the ring name Rebecca Knox. She teamed with her brother in mixed tag team matches during the early part of her career. She also trained at British professional wrestling promotion NWA UK Hammerlock.
Independent circuit (2005–2013)
Knox joined the Canadian promotion SuperGirls Wrestling, an all-female offshoot of Extreme Canadian Championship Wrestling (ECCW) in May 2005. Following her arrival at an ECCW show in Surrey, British Columbia, Knox feuded with Miss Chevius and defeated her, but lost to her in Port Coquitlam a month later. The following night, Knox teamed with Calum Macbeth to defeat Miss Chevius and Tony Tisoy in a mixed tag team match in Vancouver. On 24 June, Knox defeated Miss Chevius at an ECCW show in Surrey to become the inaugural SuperGirls Champion. Knox successfully defended the championship on several occasions before eventually losing it to Lisa Moretti in April 2006.
In late 2005, Knox participated in All Pro Wrestling (APW)'s third ChickFight tournament in Hayward, California; she defeated Morgan in the first round, but was eliminated by eventual winner Mariko Yoshida. Knox then won an eighteen-person battle royal at an event in Tokyo, Japan.
Knox began working for the all-female promotion Shimmer Women Athletes in early 2006. In her debut match for the promotion, she defeated Allison Danger, and established herself as a heel (villain) by faking an injury. Following that, she began feuding with Daizee Haze; Knox lost the first match between them, but won the rematch of two-out-of-three falls.
In June 2006, Knox defeated Sweet Saraya to win the vacated World Queens of Chaos Championship at an event in Chouilly, France. She held the championship for few months before dropping it to Saraya in September.
In September 2006, while wrestling in Germany, Knox sustained a legit head injury, following which she claimed to have been "suffering from extremely painful headaches, loud buzzing in her left ear and vision as a result," and was also diagnosed with possible damage to her eighth cranial nerve. A 60-minute Iron Woman match against Haze at Shimmer's Volume 7 taping was cancelled as a result.
Following her injury, Quin took a six-year hiatus, wrestling only on three occasions for Irish promotion Fight Factory Pro Wrestling (FFPW) in 2008, 2012 and 2013. She also reappeared in Shimmer in 2011, managing Saraya and Britani Knight for four shows.
WWE
NXT (2013–2015)
In April 2013, Quin signed a two-year developmental deal with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and moved to Florida to report to their developmental territory NXT. On 29 August, her new ring name was revealed as Becky Lynch.
Lynch made her televised in-ring debut on 26 June 2014 episode of NXT, defeating Summer Rae. The next week, Lynch teamed up with Bayley in a losing effort to the BFFs: Beautiful Fierce Females (NXT Women's Champion Charlotte and Sasha Banks) in a tag-team match. Lynch spent the next few months competing in non-title matches against Charlotte, losing three in a row. On 23 October episode of NXT, after being told to make herself relevant, Lynch aligned herself with Banks by attacking Bayley, turning heel. Known as Team B.A.E. (Best at Everything), the alliance started to disintegrate when Banks cost Lynch a match against Bayley in February 2015.
At NXT TakeOver: Rival, Lynch participated in a fatal four-way match for the NXT Women's Championship, which was won by Banks. In April, Lynch defeated Bayley and Charlotte in a triple threat match to earn a title match against Sasha, which she lost at NXT TakeOver: Unstoppable. During the match, she debuted a new look resembling Magic: The Gathering character Chandra Nalaar. The match received widespread critical acclaim, with praise going to both performers.
Women's Revolution (2015–2016)
Lynch made her official main roster debut on 13 July episode of Raw, as a fan favourite, along with Charlotte and Sasha Banks, after Stephanie McMahon called for a "revolution" in the WWE Divas division. Lynch and Charlotte began allying with Paige, who was feuding with Team Bella (Alicia Fox and The Bella Twins), while Banks allied with Naomi and Tamina, leading to a brawl between the three teams. The trio of Paige, Lynch and Charlotte, originally dubbed Submission Sorority, was renamed to Team PCB (after the initials of each wrestler) when it was found out the original name was the same as an adult web page. Lynch made her in-ring debut on 20 July episode of Raw, teaming with Paige in a losing effort against Sasha Banks and Naomi. She earned her first singles victory on 28 July episode of Main Event over Brie Bella. The three teams ultimately faced off at SummerSlam in a three-team elimination match, in which Lynch pinned Brie Bella to win the match for PCB.
On 31 August episode of Raw, all members of PCB competed in the inaugural "Divas Beat the Clock Challenge", to determine the number one contender for the Divas Championship. Charlotte won the match and went on to claim the title from Nikki Bella at Night of Champions on 20 September. The following night on Raw, Paige turned on her partners during Charlotte's celebration, claiming that Charlotte was only there because of her father Ric Flair (since he was a former wrestler in WWE) and called Lynch the "least relevant" member of the group. Throughout October, Paige tried to reconcile with Lynch and Charlotte only to attack them, officially disbanding Team PCB in the process. On 2 November episode of Raw, Lynch was pinned by Paige in a fatal four-way to earn a title match for Charlotte's Divas Championship. The following week on Raw, Lynch gained revenge by defeating Paige.
On 30 November episode of Raw, Charlotte started displaying villainous traits after she feigned a leg injury to defeat Lynch, followed by a distraction provided by her father. Throughout December, the two's friendship continued to strain and after Lynch defeated her on 4 January 2016 episode of Raw, Charlotte attacked her and solidified her heel turn. Lynch faced Charlotte for the Divas Championship three days later on SmackDown and at the Royal Rumble pay-per-view event, but lost both matches after interference from Ric Flair.
Throughout February, Lynch began teaming with Banks against Naomi and Tamina. Their feud continued until Lynch and Banks came victorious in a tag team match at Fastlane. The following night on Raw, a number one contender's match for the Divas Championship between Lynch and Banks ended in a double pin (both wrestlers pinning each other simultaneously). A rematch on the following SmackDown ended in a no contest when Diva's Champion Charlotte attacked both contestants. As a result, Charlotte was scheduled to defend her title in a triple threat against both wrestlers at WrestleMania 32. At the event, Lynch failed to win the newly created WWE Women's Championship (which replaced the Diva's Championship). At Money in the Bank in June, Lynch teamed up with Natalya to face Dana Brooke and Charlotte in a losing effort. After their match, Natalya turned on Lynch and attacked her. The two began feuding for a month until Lynch lost to Natalya at Battleground.
SmackDown Women's Champion (2016–2018)
After being the first woman drafted to the SmackDown brand during the 2016 WWE draft, Lynch defeated Natalya in her first match as part of the brand. At SummerSlam, Lynch teamed up with Carmella and Naomi in a six–woman tag team match in a losing effort against Alexa Bliss, Natalya and Nikki Bella.
On 11 September, at Backlash, Lynch won a six-pack elimination challenge, last eliminating Carmella, to become the inaugural SmackDown Women's Champion. Her first title defence against Alexa Bliss was scheduled for No Mercy but due to Lynch experiencing a legitimate injury the match was postponed to 8 November episode of SmackDown, where Lynch retained. At Survivor Series later that month, Lynch made up part of Team SmackDown alongside Bliss, Carmella, Naomi and Natalya in a Survivor Series match in a losing effort to Team Raw. At the TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs pay-per-view in December, Lynch lost the SmackDown Women's Championship to Bliss in a tables match, ending her reign at 84 days. She received her championship rematch on 17 January 2017 episode of SmackDown, in a steel cage match but lost after interference from another La Luchadora (later revealed as the returning Mickie James). This led to a match between Lynch and James at Elimination Chamber in February, which Lynch won. Lynch participated in a six-pack challenge for the title at WrestleMania 33 in April, which was ultimately won by Naomi.
In May, Lynch aligned with Naomi and Charlotte Flair against The Welcoming Committee (Natalya, Carmella and Tamina). The two teams faced off in a six-woman tag team match at Backlash; the Welcoming Committee was victorious when Lynch submitted to Natalya's sharpshooter. Shortly after, Lynch competed at Money in the Bank, as part of the first women's money in the bank ladder match, which was won by Carmella. In October, Lynch won a fatal five-way match against Flair, Naomi, Tamina and Carmella to become the Team SmackDown's captain for Survivor Series. At the event, Lynch was the first competitor eliminated and her team was on the losing side. Throughout the rest of the year, Lynch again aligned with Flair and Naomi to feud with the debuting Riott Squad (Ruby Riott, Liv Morgan and Sarah Logan). In January 2018, at the Royal Rumble, Lynch participated in the first women's Royal Rumble match, entering at number 2 and lasting over 30 minutes before being eliminated by Ruby Riott. A few months later, Lynch also participated in the WrestleMania Women's Battle Royal at WrestleMania 34, but was eliminated from the match by James. In May, she qualified for the women's Money in the Bank ladder match, which was ultimately won by Alexa Bliss.
The Man (2018–2019)
Following the 2018 Money in the Bank event, Lynch began a winning streak, defeating different competitors such as Billie Kay, Sonya Deville, Peyton Royce, Mandy Rose, and SmackDown Women's Champion Carmella in a non-title match. The wins earned Lynch a title match at SummerSlam, with Charlotte Flair being added to the match as well after she also defeated Carmella in a non-title match. Flair went on to win the title by pinning Lynch, who was about to submit Carmella. After the match, Lynch attacked Flair, turning heel for the first time on the main roster. Two days later on SmackDown, Lynch berated the crowd, claiming that they were not really supporting her the whole time, and that she was being denied opportunities which were always handed to Flair. Despite this, audiences increasingly supported Lynch, leading WWE to tweak the storyline and portray both Lynch and Flair as both having valid points, but neither being outright heels. The feud between the two led to a title match at Hell in a Cell, in which Lynch won the SmackDown Women's Championship for a second time. Lynch subsequently retained her title against Flair at both Super Show-Down and Evolution.
Around this time, Lynch started using the nickname "The Man", claiming to be the top wrestler of the company, and was depicted as a face once again. As part of a competition between the Raw and SmackDown brands at Survivor Series, Lynch was scheduled for an interbrand champion vs. champion match against Raw Women's Champion Ronda Rousey. Lynch led an invasion of the Raw roster on 12 November episode of Raw, where she had a legit concussion and broken nose following a punch from Nia Jax; despite the injury, her seemingly unfazed reaction and images of her bloody face turned her into an overnight star – she'd later call the accident "a blessing in disguise". Due to the injury, Lynch was pulled from the match with Rousey and named Flair as her replacement on the following night's episode of SmackDown. After her return, Lynch defended her title at TLC in December against both Flair and Asuka in a Tables, Ladders and Chairs match, in which Asuka won the title after Rousey interfered and pushed both Lynch and Flair off a ladder, ending her second reign at 91 days.
On 27 January 2019, at the Royal Rumble event, Lynch failed to regain the title from Asuka. Later that night, she participated in the women's Royal Rumble match, replacing an injured Lana, who was the 28th entrant. Lynch would go on to win with lastly eliminating Charlotte Flair. The following night on Raw, Lynch continued her feud with Ronda Rousey, choosing to face Rousey for the Raw Women's Championship at WrestleMania 35. As part of a storyline in which she refused to seek medical attention on her knee and attacked Stephanie McMahon and Triple H, Vince McMahon suspended Lynch in February for 60 days and replaced her with Charlotte Flair as Rousey's WrestleMania opponent. Due to pleadings from Rousey, Lynch was reinstated by Stephanie, and at the Fastlane event, she defeated Flair via disqualification after Rousey purposely attacked Lynch to give her the win; due to the stipulation of the match, Lynch was added back into the title match at WrestleMania to make it a triple-threat match for the Raw Women's Championship.
Flair then won the SmackDown Women's Championship from Asuka, making the WrestleMania match a Winner Takes All match for both titles. At the event, in what was the first time women main evented a WrestleMania, Lynch controversially pinned Rousey to win both titles. The commentary and production team commented that Rousey's shoulders were not down for the three-count and many fans and media were left wondering if this was a legitimate botched finish. Nonetheless, with the win, Lynch gave Rousey her first WWE singles and pinfall loss and became a double champion and the only woman to hold both titles simultaneously. With both titles, she was allowed to appear on both the Raw and SmackDown brands and got another nickname, "Becky Two Belts".
Record-breaking Raw Women's Champion (2019–2020)
Shortly after WrestleMania, Lynch was placed in a feud with newcomer Lacey Evans, who was drafted to Raw during the Superstar Shake-up and who continuously attacked Lynch after her promos. Simultaneously on SmackDown, Lynch continued her feud with Flair over the SmackDown Women's Championship. In May, at Money in the Bank, Lynch retained the Raw Women's Championship over Evans, but lost the SmackDown Women's Championship to Charlotte Flair in the following match due to an interference by Evans. After she lost the SmackDown Women's Championship, Lynch became an exclusive member of the Raw brand and continued her feud with Evans. In mid-June, Lynch successfully retained her title over Evans at the Stomping Grounds pay-per-view. Later that night, Lynch helped her real-life boyfriend Seth Rollins retain the WWE Universal Championship over Baron Corbin, after Corbin chose Evans as the special guest referee for their title match. The two feuds between the two pairs came to an end at the Extreme Rules event in July, after Lynch and Rollins retained both of their titles in a winners take all mixed tag team match.
In August, Lynch started a short feud with Natalya. At SummerSlam, Lynch was victorious in a submission match between the two. Upon her return in mid-August, Sasha Banks attacked Lynch and reignited their feud from 2015. At Clash of Champions, on 15 September, Lynch retained her title after inadvertently hitting the referee with a chair, causing a disqualification loss. The feud eventually led to a Hell in a Cell match on 6 October at the namesake pay-per-view. Lynch was victorious once again. At Survivor Series, Lynch faced SmackDown Women's Champion Bayley and NXT Women's Champion Shayna Baszler in a non-title triple threat match to determine the superior women's champion. Baszler emerged victorious by submitting Bayley while Lynch was downed at ringside. Following the match, Lynch attacked Baszler and put her through an announce table. On 26 November, Lynch surpassed Ronda Rousey as the longest-reigning Raw Women's Champion.
Following Survivor Series, Lynch allied herself with Charlotte in a rivalry with Women's Tag Team Champions The Kabuki Warriors (Asuka and Kairi Sane), leading to a Tables, Ladders and Chairs match for the championship between the two teams being arranged for TLC in December, which The Kabuki Warriors won. She then continued her feud with Asuka, which directed to a match for the Raw Women's Championship at the Royal Rumble on 26 January 2020, where Lynch retained to end the feud.
In February, Lynch feuded with Shayna Baszler, who won an Elimination Chamber match to challenge Lynch for the championship at WrestleMania 36. At the event on 4 April, Lynch defeated Baszler to retain the title, with her title reign surpassing the one-year mark shortly after. Following the event, Lynch ceased participating in physical confrontations, often relying on promos to advance her storylines. On 11 May episode of Raw, Lynch announced that she was relinquishing the Raw Women's Championship due to her real-life pregnancy, and that the previous night's Women's Money in the Bank ladder match – which was won by Asuka – was actually for the championship.
Big Time Becks, injury, and return (2021–2023)
On 21 August 2021, following a 15-month hiatus, Lynch made her return at SummerSlam with a heel character, defeating Bianca Belair in less than half a minute to win the SmackDown Women's Championship for the fourth time. At Extreme Rules, Lynch successfully retained her title following interference by a returning Sasha Banks. A triple threat match between the three women for the SmackDown Women's Championship was then scheduled for the Crown Jewel event in October, where Lynch successfully retained her title. On 15 October episode of SmackDown, as part of her feud with Banks and Belair, Lynch would go one-on-one with Banks and Banks would pin her with a Backstabber after interference from Belair, marking her first loss since her return.
As a part of the 2021 Draft, Lynch was drafted to the Raw brand as a SmackDown Women's Champion. On 22 October episode of SmackDown, Lynch and Raw Women's Champion Charlotte Flair exchanged their titles, thus Lynch became the new Raw Women's Champion. As part of the 2021 Draft, Bianca Belair was also drafted to Raw and continued her feud with Lynch. On 1 November episode of Raw, Lynch successfully defended her title against Belair, ending the feud. At Survivor Series, Lynch defeated SmackDown Women's Champion Charlotte Flair in a Champion vs. Champion match. On 31 January 2022 episode of Raw, Lynch would confront Royal Rumble winner Ronda Rousey but was dropped by Rousey as she left the ring. She would then be confronted by Lita and she would challenge Lynch to a title match at Elimination Chamber for the Raw Women's Championship and she would accept, with this being a dream match for Lynch as well as a first time ever match. She was successful in retaining her title, which would set up a title match with the winner of the Elimination Chamber number one contenders match, Bianca Belair, at WrestleMania 38. At night one of the event, Becky Lynch lost her title to Bianca Belair, ending her reign at 162 days.
On 25 April episode of Raw, Lynch was confronted by a returning Asuka, reigniting their feud. On 16 May episode of Raw, Lynch failed to become the #1 contender for the Raw Women's Championship by losing to Asuka. The next week, Lynch defeated Asuka to get added to the match between her and Belair at Hell in a Cell, making it a triple threat match. At the event, Belair retained her title. On 20 June episode of Raw, Lynch failed to qualify for the Women's Money in the Bank ladder match after losing to Asuka. However, Lynch was headed to the event after winning a last chance MITB qualifying six pack elimination match on the following episode of Raw. At Money in the Bank, she was unsuccessful in winning the match. At SummerSlam, Lynch failed to regain the Raw Women's Championship from Belair, but embraced her after the match, turning face in the process. After Belair was confronted by a returning Bayley and new allies Dakota Kai and Iyo Sky (formerly Io Shirai), Lynch aided Belair, cementing her face turn. On 1 August, WWE issued a statement regarding Lynch suffering a separated shoulder in her match at SummerSlam, where she was expected to be out of action for several months. On that night's episode of Raw, she was attacked backstage by Bayley, Kai, and Sky, effectively being written off of television.
On 25 November episode of SmackDown, Lynch made her return as "The Man", being revealed as the fifth and final member of Bianca Belair's team for Survivor Series WarGames. At the event on 26 November, Lynch's team was victorious after Lynch performed a Double Diving Leg Drop from the top of the cage on Kai and Sky through a table and pinned Kai to win the match. At the Royal Rumble on 28 January 2023, Lynch entered the Women's Royal Rumble match at #15. She eliminated Kai and Sky before being eliminated by Bayley.
On 27 February episode of Raw, Lynch and Lita defeated Damage CTRL to win the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship with the help of returning Trish Stratus; Lynch also became the Sixth Women's Triple Crown Champion. At Night 1 of WrestleMania 39, Lynch, Lita, and Stratus defeated Damage CTRL. On 10 April episode of Raw, she and Stratus (replacing an injured Lita) dropped the titles to Liv Morgan and Raquel Rodriguez, ending Lynch and Lita's reign at 43 days. Stratus then turned on Lynch and attacked her afterwards. On 15 May episode of Raw, Lynch challenged Stratus to a singles match at Night of Champions. Lynch lost the match after Zoey Stark interfered and Stratus pinned her. On 5 June episode of Raw, Lynch defeated Sonya Deville to qualify for the titular Money in the Bank on 1 July, which was won by Iyo Sky. Lynch eventually earned a rematch against Stratus by defeating Zoey Stark in singles action on Raw, which was scheduled by WWE Official Adam Pearce for a future episode occurring two weeks later. The match not being included on the card for SummerSlam received backlash from fans on social media, with reports suggesting that both Stratus and Lynch had real-life frustrations with the decision. Further reports claimed that the match was not included due to time constraints, which was seemingly confirmed by Triple H, who defending the decision by stating: "There was a lot of banter I saw this week about matches being cut, which is the word that was used. But nothing was cut. There was no card announced. If we don't have more things in the pocket ready to go for a PLE than can fit in the PLE, I've done a terrible job." On 14 August, Stratus and Lynch's match ended in a double count-out. Adam Pearce declared that the two would have a future rematch inside of a steel cage at Payback, where Lynch defeated Stratus to end their feud.
NXT Women's Champion (2023)
Following Payback, Lynch began a feud with NXT Women's Champion Tiffany Stratton and challenged her to a title match, which Stratton accepted. On 12 September episode of NXT, Lynch defeated Stratton to win the title, becoming the sixth Women's Grand Slam champion in the process. At No Mercy, Lynch defeated Stratton in an Extreme Rules match in the main event to retain the title. On Night 1 of Halloween Havoc, Lynch lost the title to Lyra Valkyria, ending her reign at 42 days.
Professional wrestling style and persona
Lynch uses both a Fujiwara armbar, called the "Dis-arm-her", and a Pumphandle side slam, called the "Manhandle Slam" as finishing maneuvers.
From 2018 to 2020, Lynch used the nickname "The Man". Upon her return and heel turn in 2021, she began to use the nickname "Big Time Becks". After turning face the following year, she reverted back to her "The Man" nickname.
Impact and legacy
Since 2018 Becky Lynch has been cited to be one of the most popular and recognizable wrestlers of her generation. Lynch was the inaugural SmackDown Women's Champion in 2016 and at one point, held both the Raw and Smackdown Women's titles at the same time. At WrestleMania 35 in 2019, Lynch, Charlotte Flair, and Ronda Rousey became the first women to have headlined WWE's flagship annual event, while Lynch was the first to have won a WrestleMania main event match.
Lynch holds the record for most main event matches at pay-per-view events in a single year for a female wrestler (3 in 2019). That same year, she became the first woman to have been named Pro Wrestling Illustrated Most Popular Wrestler of the Year. Lynch was also the first and only female performer in WWE history to have lead the company in merchandise sales in 2019. Her Last Woman Standing match against Charlotte Flair at WWE Evolution was ranked No. 1 by WWE on "The Top 25 Matches of 2018" list. This was the first women's match to accomplish this feat.
Wrestler Toni Storm cited Lynch as her biggest inspiration and said that she is "taking the women's division to a completely different level." In 2019, wrestling commentator Jim Ross called Lynch "the most over talent in WWE".
Lynch is the first WWE wrestler to have appeared on the cover of ESPN The Magazine in 2019. As of April 2020, she was the sixth highest-paid WWE wrestler and the highest-paid woman according to Forbes, with a salary of . In 2022, Glazia Magazine named Lynch as one of the Top Female Game-Changers in the 21st Century.
Other media
Quin performed stunts for a 2013 episode of Vikings. She was written off WWE television for a few months in November 2017 to film The Marine 6: Close Quarters.
Becky Lynch is playable in seven WWE console games: WWE 2K17, WWE 2K18, WWE 2K19, WWE 2K20 (also one of the cover athletes), WWE 2K Battlegrounds, WWE 2K22 and WWE 2K23. Her entrance music is played after every goal scored on home ice by the American Hockey League's San Jose Barracuda.
Lynch is a recurring guest on Xavier Woods' YouTube channel UpUpDownDown, where she goes by the nickname 'Soulless Senpai'. In October 2019, Lynch defeated Seth Rollins in a game of Marvel vs. Capcom: Infinite to win Rollins' UpUpDownDown Championship. Lynch lost the title to Cesaro in Mario Kart 8 Deluxe a month later.
On 1 November 2022, it was confirmed that Quin would make an appearance on the third season premiere of Young Rock, playing Cyndi Lauper.
Other work
During her time away from wrestling, Quin worked as an actress and was cast in numerous plays in 2011 and 2012. She graduated with a degree in acting from the Dublin Institute of Technology, and has attended Columbia College Chicago and the Gaiety School of Acting. She also worked as a flight attendant with Aer Lingus for two and a half years.
Personal life
Quin began dating fellow professional wrestler Colby Lopez, better known as Seth Rollins, in January 2019. Their relationship was made public in April, after months of speculation. The couple got engaged in August 2019. Their daughter was born in December 2020. Quin and Lopez got married on 29 June 2021. Quin's father, Ken, died in March 2021.
Trademark dispute
In September 2019, Ric Flair threatened legal action against WWE and filed a trademark for the term "The Man", which was being used as a nickname by Lynch. The threats of legal action caused a rift between Ric Flair and his daughter Charlotte, who was Lynch's onscreen nemesis at the time. Lynch responded to the actions by asserting that she still liked and respected Ric Flair. Ric Flair transferred the rights to "The Man" nickname and gimmick to WWE in May 2020. The terms of the transfer were undisclosed. Ric Flair began feuding with Lynch in 2021, accusing her of using the term without his explicit permission, but their dispute was resolved when he apologized to her in January 2023.
Filmography
Film
Television
Web series
Video games
Championships and accomplishments
CBS Sports
Best Moment of the Year (2018) –
Wrestler of the Year (2018)
WWE Match of the Year (2018)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Most Popular Wrestler (2019)
Woman of the Year (2018, 2019)
Ranked No. 1 of the top 100 female wrestlers in the PWI Women's 100 in 2019
Queens of Chaos
World Queens of Chaos Championship (1 time)
Sports Illustrated
Women's Wrestler of the Year (2018, 2019)
SuperGirls Wrestling
SuperGirls Championship (1 time)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Worst Feud of the Year (2015)
Women's Wrestling MVP (2018, 2019)
WWE
WWE Raw Women's Championship (2 times)
WWE SmackDown Women's Championship (4 times, inaugural)
WWE Women's Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Lita
NXT Women's Championship (1 time)
Women's Royal Rumble (2019)
Sixth Women's Triple Crown Champion
Sixth Women's Grand Slam Champion
WWE Year-End Awards (3 times)
Female Superstar of the Year (2018, 2019)
Match of the Year (2018)
Footnotes
References
External links
1987 births
Sportspeople from County Limerick
Baldoyle
People educated at Mount Temple Comprehensive School
Alumni of Dublin Institute of Technology
Columbia College Chicago alumni
Irish female professional wrestlers
Irish stunt performers
Expatriate professional wrestlers
21st-century Irish actresses
21st-century female professional wrestlers
Living people
Sportspeople from Dublin (city)
NXT Women's Champions
WWE Grand Slam champions
WWE Women's Champions
Women's World Champions (WWE)
WWE Women's Tag Team Champions
Royal Rumble winners
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20the%20Iron%20Triangle
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Battle of the Iron Triangle
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The Battle of the Iron Triangle took place from 16 May to 20 November 1974, when the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) 9th Division captured Rach Bap and An Dien. The Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) regained the lost towns in a series of costly counterattacks.
Background
The Iron Triangle was an important strategic location, bounded on the north by the jungle and overgrown rubber plantations of the Long Nguyen Secret Zone, on the west by the
Saigon River and on the east by the smaller but unfordable obstacle of the Thi Thinh River. Phú Cường, the capital of Bình Dương Province, was an important industrial and farming center and contained the ARVN Engineer School. It was linked by a major highway with the large ARVN Phu Loi Base Camp and, farther east, with Bien Hoa Air Base. Lying as it did in the center of the Saigon River corridor, at the junction of Highways 13 and 1, and only 16 km from the outskirts of Saigon, Phú Cường was vital to the defense of Saigon.
The terrain within the Iron Triangle was flat, almost featureless, and covered by dense brush and undergrowth. The clearings, especially in the northern part, were thick with elephant grass, higher than a man's head. The surface was scarred by countless bomb and shell craters so that vehicular movement off the narrow, rough dirt roads was nearly impossible; even tracked vehicles had difficulty. A vast network of tunnels and trenches, most of them caved-in and abandoned, laced this ground that had been the scene of battles since the First Indochina War.
A weak string of three ARVN outposts protected the northern edge of the Triangle, from Rach Bap () on the west, close by the Saigon River, along local Route 7 to An Dien () on the Thi Thinh River opposite Bến Cát. Each of these outposts, including Base 82 (), which was midway between Rach Bap and An Dien, was manned by a company of the 321st Regional Force (RF) Battalion. Another country road passed by the Rach Bap outpost, local Route 14, which generally paralleled the Saigon River from Tri Tam, through Rach Bap, and veered to the southeast through the Triangle, crossing the Thi Thinh River before it joined Highway 13 north of Phú Cường. The PAVN had blown the bridge on Route 14 over the Thi Thinh a few weeks earlier, but the stream could be spanned by pontoon sections. About midway between Rach Bap and the Thi Thinh crossing of Route 14, the ARVN had another small firebase.
Frequent sweeps and some semi-fixed defensive positions north of Củ Chi manned by the ARVN 25th Division and Hậu Nghĩa Province RF screened the western flank of the Triangle, but PAVN resistance in the Ho Bo Woods opposite Rach Bap, and the formidable obstacle of the Saigon River, as well as a lack of resources, limited the influence that the 25th could exert on the situation within the Triangle. The ARVN was strong with infantry, armor, and mutually supporting fire bases and outposts in Bến Cát District east of the Thi Thinh boundary of the Triangle, but only one bridge, a weak span, connected the district town and the Triangle hamlet of An Dien.
Battle
PAVN attack
On 16 May the PAVN 9th Division began their attack on with heavy artillery, rocket, and mortar concentrations falling on Rach Bap, Base 82, and An Dien. The RF company at Base 82 abandoned its bunkers, many of which had collapsed under the weight of the bombardment, late that afternoon. Rach Bap held out until about 03:00 on 17 May, its surviving defenders withdrawing in the direction of An Dien. The fighting was fierce in An Dien on the 16th, but by the night of 17 May, PAVN forces held the flattened village and its defenses. Remnants of an RF battalion, however, held the western end of the Thi Thinh bridge in a shallow blocking position, while the eastern end, by Bến Cát, was secured by ARVN forces. The PAVN dug in around An Dien but was unable to dislodge the RF positions at the bridge. Two infantry regiments of the 9th Division, with about 10 T-54 and PT-76 tanks, were employed against the dispersed 321st RF Battalion. The 2nd Regiment overran Rach Bap and continued the attack south into the Triangle along Route 14, while the 95C Regiment attacked Base 82 and An Dien. The 271st Regiment was held in reserve.
Initial ARVN counterattack at An Dien
The ARVN at Ben Cat were unable to counterattack the PAVN immediately at An Dien because the bridgehead held by the RF was too shallow to protect the crossing of any large forces, but III Corps commander Lt. Gen. Phạm Quốc Thuần quickly began reinforcing Bến Cát. Task Force 318 arrived in Bến Cát on the afternoon of the 16th and on the 17th began reinforcing the RF holding the bridge and moving against the PAVN's blocking positions west of the bridgehead. The weakness of the ARVN bridgehead and the strength of the enemy positions in An Dien, which included antitank guns and tanks, made it impractical to send any armor of the 318th across the An Dien bridge at this time.
Meanwhile, the 322nd Task Force moved from Tây Ninh Province to Phú Cường and was ordered to prepare to attack into the Triangle along Route 14 in order to oppose the PAVN 2nd Regiment, which was moving south from Rach Rap. Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) aerial observers and photography on 17 May revealed two T-54 tanks inside Base 82, which RVNAF fighter-bombers destroyed the next day, and four more in the An Dien base. Initial negative reactions at III Corps Headquarters to the seemingly hasty, if not unwarranted, withdrawal of the RF companies from their positions softened somewhat when the size and composition of the PAVN force was revealed.
General Thuần greatly underestimated the strength and tenacity with which the PAVN 9th Division would defend An Dien, although he had accurate intelligence concerning the size, composition, and location of his enemy. His initial plans, which proved unrealistic, called for virtually simultaneous recapture of the three lost bases by about 22 May. Except for the few ARVN infantry and engineers that were thrown across the Thi Thinh River to reinforce the An Dien bridgehead, the first major ARVN unit to move into the Triangle was a battalion of the 43rd Infantry Regiment, 18th Division, which crossed on Route 14 north of Phú Cường. Shortly reinforced by the rest of the regiment, this element, followed by the 322nd Armored Task Force, was to attack Rach Bap and Base 82. Meanwhile, the 318th Task Force would cross the An Dien Bridge, pass through An Dien, and proceed to Base 82. Three Ranger battalions attacking south out of Lai Khê were to strike Base 82 from the north. None of this worked as planned. The 43rd Infantry became stalled after advancing only 4 or 5 km north. Then, the tracked vehicles of the 322nd Task Force found the going extremely slow in the dense brush and cratered terrain. General Thuần, concerned that this armored force might become bogged down and have a bridge blown behind it ordered its withdrawal. He discovered, meanwhile, that the An Dien bridge had been seriously weakened by PAVN artillery (including AT-3 missiles) and would not support the tanks of the 318th Task Force. Under PAVN observation and sporadic heavy mortar and artillery fire, ARVN combat engineers attempted to repair the bridge. Casualties mounted, and the work progressed very slowly. About the same time, the 7th Ranger Group, with three battalions, moved southwest out of Lai Khê, crossed the Thi Thinh River and advanced on Base 82. The Rangers were immediately opposed in the thick jungle and rubber plantation by entrenched PAVN 9th Division troops, and their attack stalled well short of the objective.
While the ARVN was experiencing great difficulty advancing, it was pounding An Dien with heavy artillery fire. The North Vietnamese responded against ARVN batteries and the stalled Ranger and infantry columns and sent sappers into an RF command post just south of Bến Cát, where they destroyed a 105 mm howitzer and routed most of the small garrison. The RVNAF meanwhile, gave only limited support as plentiful PAVN antiaircraft artillery and SA-7s forced RVNAF aircraft to high altitudes. On 24 May an armored cavalry squadron of the 25th Division launched a diversionary attack from Gò Dầu Hạ east toward
the Boi Loi Woods in an attempt to prevent the 9th Division from committing its reserve, the 271st Regiment, against either the 318th or the 322d Task Forces. By the 25th, the armored cavalry squadron had passed Suoi Cau without encountering any resistance, and another supporting maneuver began with two battalions of the 50th Infantry, 25th Division, moving north from Phú Hòa District along the west bank of the Saigon River.
On 25 May, General Thuần met with the commander of the 18th Division, Brig. Gen. Lê Minh Đảo, and the commander of the 3rd Armored Brigade, Brig. Gen. Trần Quang Khôi, to coordinate the following morning's attack. At that time, the 43rd Regiment was about 7 km south of An Dien, about to attack north, while the 3rd Armored Brigade was preparing to send a cavalry squadron and a Ranger battalion across the An
Dien bridge. Although the PAVN's heavy mortar and artillery fire had so weakened the bridge at An Dien that the cavalry could not follow the Rangers, by nightfall the 64th Ranger Battalion was dug in on the eastern edge of An Dien Village. The 43rd Regiment was again ordered to resume the attack north, and the 7th Ranger Group, coming down from Lai Khe was ordered to take Base 82 by night attack on 27 May. Because no progress was made General Thuần on 28 May decided to try a fresh approach. First he turned the operation over to BG Đảo, told him to move his 52nd Regiment over from Phú Giáo District, gave him operational command of the 7th Ranger Group, which was still north of Base 82, and attached to Đảo's 18th Division a reinforced squadron of the 3rd Armored Brigade. Since it would take two days to relieve the 52nd Regiment on the Phú Giáo front and move it into position at Bến Cát, the new operation was scheduled for 30 May. Delays in the relief and movement forced General Đảo to move the date to 1 June.
With the Rangers still holding the shallow bridgehead opposite Bến Cát and the 43rd Regiment making slow progress attacking the dug-in PAVN 272nd Regiment south of An Dien. General Đảo sent the 2nd Battalion, 52nd Regiment across the Thi Thinh River on an assault bridge south of Bến Cát on 1 June. Once across, it turned north to attack the defenses of the PAVN 95C Regiment in An Dien. Meanwhile, the reconnaissance company and an infantry company from the 18th Division crossed the An Dien bridge and advanced toward the village. Casualties on both sides were heavy as the commander of the 52nd Regiment committed his 1st Battalion behind the 2nd. The PAVN responded by assaulting the ARVN infantry that night with infantry and at least 10 tanks. The two battalions of the 52nd held their positions and were reinforced by the 3rd Battalion the next afternoon. Meanwhile, ARVN combat engineers were clearing the road past the An Dien bridge. Working at night with flash lights to avoid PAVN observation and fire, they removed 38 antitank
mines from the route of advance.
Weakened by casualties, the 52nd Infantry made very little progress on 2 and 3 June, and the 43rd Regiment was still being blocked by the PAVN 272nd Regiment. Đảo then ordered his 48th Infantry across the Thi Thinh south of Bến Cát, to pass through the 52nd and take An Dien. While the PAVN artillery continued to pound ARVN positions, two battalions of the 48th crossed into the Iron Triangle on the night of 2/3 June,
The fighting at An Dien wos especially fierce on 3 June as the PAVN used tanks against ARVN infantry. Armed with light antitank weapons, ARVN infantry knocked out at least 4 tanks in the final day of the battle. On 4 June, troops of the 18th ARVN Division finally entered An Dien and on the 5th overran the last position of the 95C Regiment, which had since been reinforced by elements of the 271st Regiment. On the morning of the 5th, two battalions of the 48th and two of the 52nd were holding An Dien bracing for a counterattack. One Ranger battalion was in a blocking position north of the destroyed village, while another secured the An Dien bridge. The 43d Regiment was still stalled by the 272nd Regiment's defenses south of An Dien. The 7th Ranger Group had not been able to advance toward Base 82 from the north, and a new major ARVN attack would be required to advance past the positions held in and around An Dien.
PAVN soldiers captured in An Dien told of horrendous losses in the three battalions - the 7th, 8th, and 9th of the 95C Regiment. Fourteen surviving members of the 9th Battalion were captured when the last strongpoint fell on 5 June. They said that casualties in the 8th and 9th Battalions between 16 May and 4 June were 65 percent, that a company of the 7th Battalion had only one man left, that a company of the 8th Battalion was totally destroyed and that the 9th Battalion lost two complete companies. These accounts were confirmed by the large number or bodies left on the battlefield and by the quantity or weapons and
equipment captured. ARVN losses were substantial, well over 100 ARVN soldiers had been killed.
The expected PAVN counterattack came on the night of 5/6 June as two battalions of the 271st Regiment, supported by up to 14 tanks attacked from two directions. The ARVN held and its infantrymen knocked out
5 tanks and damaged 5 others. The second phase or the Iron Triangle campaign was over with the recapture of An Dien, and General Thuần was anxious to get the attack moving again toward Base 82 and Rach Bap. Although the An Dien bridge would soon be in condition to carry the tanks of the 318th Task Force, one company of armored personnel carriers had already crossed into An Dien, a knocked-out T-54 tank blocked the narrow road from the bridge into An Dien. Swampy ground on each side prevented bypassing the tank and it had to be blown off the road with demolitions. ARVN combat engineers were laboring at this task while infantrymen of the 18th Division were holding the perimeter around An Dien.
Base 82
The first attempt to retake Base 82 began on 7 June 1974 when the 318th Task Force finally brought its tanks across the Thi Thinh River and passed through the 18th Division position in An Dien. While the 52nd Infantry remained in reserve holding the An Dien perimeter, two battalions of the 48th Infantry moved south and west to protect the southern flank of Task Force 318 as it advanced along Route 7 towards Base 82. To the south, the 43rd Regiment maintained contact with the 272nd Regiment. Meanwhile, the PAVN 9th Division had withdrawn the remnants of the 95C Regiment from action and placed its 271st Regiment at Base
82, where it prepared deep, mutually supporting defensive positions. Clearly indicating its resolve to conduct a determined defense along Route 7 in the Iron Triangle, COSVN sent the 141st Regiment, 7th Division south from its position along Highway 13, north of Lai Khê, to reinforce the 9th Division north of Base 82. The 9th Division meanwhile began shifting the 272nd Regiment north from the southern part of the Iron Triangle to assist in the defense of Base 82 and Rach Bap.
The summer monsoon had arrived in Bình Dương Province and rains and low cloud cover further reduced the effectiveness of RVNAF support for the attack. A dense rubber plantation northwest of Base 82 provided excellent concealment for supporting defensive positions and observation of local Route 7, the only avenue of approach available for ARVN armor. Dense brush covered the southern approaches to the base and concealed more PAVN supporting and reserve positions. The only fairly open terrain was on either side or Route 7 where high grass offered no concealment to the ARVN column but reduced visibility to a few meters. Furthermore, this approach was under the observed fire of the 9th Division's supporting artillery.
By the evening of 8 June, Task Force 318 reached its first objective, Hill 25 (), about 1 km short of Base 82. There it fought a battalion of the 271st Regiment, killing 30 and capturing 10 while taking light casualties. The prospects seemed bright for recapturing Base 82 by the following day and General Thuần told BG Đảo that Rach Bap should be taken by 15 June. But on 10 June Task Force 318, advancing very slowly in two columns, one north of Route 7 and one south was struck by a battalion of the 271st Regiment supported by 4 tanks and a heavy concentration of mortar, howitzer and rocket fire. Four of Task Force 318's tanks and one or its personnel carriers were knocked out but personnel losses were light. By nightfall only 200 meters had been gained, the PAVN's minefields and 82-mm. recoilless guns having stopped the task force 800 meters short of Base 82. No progress was made on 11 June, but ARVN artillery and RVNAF pounded the base. Antiaircraft fire was intense and kept the RVNAF fighter-bombers above their most effective attack altitudes. Meanwhile, General Thuần, determined to get the attack moving again, directed BG Khôi to assemble the 315th Task Force at Bến Cát and send it across the Thi Thinh to reinforce the attack. The 315th was to move southwest and attack Base 82 from the south, while the 318th continued its frontal assault. Farther south, another change was taking place, detecting that all but one of the PAVN 2nd Regiment's battalions had moved north toward Route 7, BG Đảo left only one of his 43rd Infantry battalions in the Phu Thu area, placing the balance of the regiment in reserve.
By noon on 12 June the 315th Task Force had reached a position about 1,600 meters southeast of Base 82. At this point, BG Đảo changed the original concept of a two-pronged attack from the east and south. As soon as the 315th was ready to attack, he would withdraw the 318th to defend the eastern approaches to Bến Cát that had been weakened by the commitment of the 315th against Base 82. Thick brush, rough terrain, and accurate PAVN artillery fire prevented the 315th from making any gains on 13 June. In fact, as the 318th withdrew from contact, it left positions much closer to the objective than those reached by the 315th.
In another change in plans. BG Đảo proposed to General Thuần that two battalions each from the 43rd and 52nd Regiments take over the attack role, while the 315th remained in its defensive perimeter southeast of Base 82. The infantry battalions would move into the rubber plantation and attack from the north. General Thuần agreed and left for Joint General Staff headquarters to ask for a new ammunition allocation for the attack. He returned to his headquarters in ill-humor, for General Đổng Văn Khuyên, the Chief of Logistics, was unable to satisfy this request.
By 15 June, the two leading 43rd Infantry battalions, one of which was attempting to swing north of Base 82 from An Dien, had made very little headway against strong resistance and heavy PAVN artillery fire. In contacts south of Route 7 on the 17th, prisoners were taken from the 272nd Regiment, soldiers who had recently arrived in South Vietnam and had been assigned to the 272nd for only three days before their capture. ARVN casualties continued to mount, troops were desperately fatigued, artillery support was too severely rationed, and the weather all but eliminated effective air support. On 21 June, General Thuần ordered a halt in the attempt to take Base 82, while a new approach, better supported by artillery fire, could be devised. Consideration was also given to replacing the 18th Division, whose troops had been
in heavy combat for a month, with the 5th Division. Instead of relieving the 18th, General Thuần decided to try his armor again. Holding the infantry in position, he sent the 318th and 322nd Task Forces back into the Triangle, one north of Route 7, the other generally along the road. The PAVN's antitank defenses, primarily employing the 82-mm. recoilless gun, stopped the attack once again, destroying 13 M113 armored personnel carriers and 11 M48 tanks between 27 June and 1 July, even though ARVN artillery and the RVNAF supported the attack with 43,000 rounds and 250 sorties. The tired infantrymen of the 43rd Regiment tried once again to take Base 82 from the south on 1 July but got nowhere.
On 2 July, General Thuần finally decided to relieve the 18th Division and replace it with the 5th. The armored task forces would be withdrawn for rest and refitting. General Thuần allowed his commanders ten days to complete the relief. In order not to weaken the 5th Division's defenses north of Lai Khê, elements of the 18th Division's 52nd Regiment, which had seen little action, and two battalions of the 25th Division's 50th Infantry were attached to the 5th Division in the Iron Triangle. The relief was accomplished on schedule, and a relative calm settled over the Base 82 battleground. The PAVN 9th Division also made adjustments during the last part of June and the first weeks of July. While the 272nd Regiment retained defensive positions in the southern part of the Iron Triangle, the 95C Regiment, refitted and with fresh replacements, returned to the Base 82 area and assumed responsibility for its defense. The 271st Regiment, held defensive positions in the Base 82 area, primarily to the north and northeast. Meanwhile, the 141st Regiment of the 7th Division returned to its normal area of operations north of Lai Khê, and artillery support for the 9th Division was assigned to the 42nd Artillery Regiment. The 75th Artillery Regiment moved from the Bến Cát area to support the 7th Division east of Route 13.
The 5th Division made no determined effort during July or August to alter the status quo. The PAVN, however, pulled the 95C Regiment out of Base 82 and replaced it with the 141st Regiment in time to meet the next concerted ARVN effort to take Base 82. By autumn the 8th Infantry, 5th Division, had been selected to try to capture Base 82, having replaced its sister regiment, the 7th, in the Iron Triangle. Prior to an attack scheduled for 7 September, ARVN reconnaissance patrols had successfully reached the base's perimeter. The 8th Regiment formed a task force around its 1st and 2nd Battalions, reinforced by the 5th Division Reconnaissance Company and a small armored troop with 3 M41 tanks, 3 M48 tanks and 3 M113s. The 1st Battalion advanced south of Route 7, while the 2nd Battalion, with the reconnaissance company and the armored troops, advanced on an axis north of the road. Unopposed and moving quickly the two battalions reached the outer defenses of Base 82 in the early morning of 7 September but could go no further that day. Faced with barbed wire and mines and under fire from the front and flanks, the 8th Infantry dug in. As the rain of PAVN shells continued, much of it heavy 120 mm mortars, the 8th kept digging and improving fighting positions with logs overhead. On 8 September, the PAVN shelling increased, and at 16:00 it began to rain, ending all RVNAF aerial observation and air support. As the rain increased, so did the PAVN bombardment, 1600 rounds falling in one hour, and the battlefield was obscured in smoke. ARVN infantry could hear the approach of tanks. One column of T-54s came out of the rubber plantation and forest to the north, and another line of six advanced from the south. The three ARVN M48s withdrew, and at 18:00, nearly caught in a double envelopment, the 8th Infantry fell back, first about 300 meters where they attempted to establish a new line, then 300 meters farther back where the troops of the 8th rallied and held on the western slope of Hill 25. With victory seemingly so close, General Thuần was deeply disappointed by the rout of the 8th Regiment, and his disappointment changed to anger when he learned of the relatively light casualties suffered by the 8th: 6 killed, 29 missing, and 67 wounded. But even if the 8th Infantry leaders on the scene could have held their troops in their exposed positions in front of Base 82, the regiment probably could not have survived the PAVN counterattack. In any case, General Thuần ordered an immediate investigation of the circumstances of the 8th Infantry's failure and subsequently dismissed the regimental commander.
On 11 September, the 8th Infantry was replaced by the 9th, and all three battalions of the 9th Infantry moved into position on the west slope of Hill 25. Combat losses since the start of the PAVN offensive in May, combined with the slow flow of the replacements into the regiment, had reduced battalion strength to under 300. Between 12 and 18 September, the 9th concentrated on reconnaissance, planning, and improvement of positions. As the 9th Regiment prepared for the attack, the PAVN was beginning to execute another relief in the Bến Cát battlefield. The 141st Regiment made preparations to leave the Base 82 area and turn over its defense once again to the 95C Regiment. With the 2nd Armored Cavalry Squadron protecting the right (north) flank, and two Ranger battalions protecting the left, the 9th Infantry Regiment began its attack toward Base 82. The two attacking battalions, the 3rd Battalion on the right, north of Route 7, and the 2nd on the left, crossed the line of departure on Hill 25 on 19 September. Moving slowly, with excellent reconnaissance and effective artillery support, the ARVN methodically eliminated, one by one, the PAVN's mutually supporting bunkers that lay in a dense pattern all along the route of advance. Although the PAVN defended tenaciously and their artillery support was heavy and accurate, they gradually gave ground. On 29 September, the 1st Battalion relieved the 3rd Battalion, and the attack continued. On 2 October, the 2nd Battalion, 46th Infantry was committed to reinforce the 2nd Battalion, 9th Infantry. Before midnight on 3 October, as PAVN artillery and mortars were still firing heavy barrages, a 12-man assault team from the 1st Battalion, 9th Infantry, attempted to breach the barbed wire and scale the earthen wall. An antipersonnel mine detonated, disclosing the team's position, and heavy fire from the base pinned it down. Very early the next morning, the PAVN counterattacked, forcing the withdrawal of the assault team. But it became apparent to the ARVN commander on the ground that victory was within grasp. A 100-round concentration of 155-mm. howitzer fire which he requested, had the desired effect: PAVN resistance and return fire was notably diminished by 13:00, and 30 minutes later PAVN infantrymen were seen climbing out of their crumbling fortress and running to the rear. At 15:00 on 4 October the 1st Battalion, 9th Regiment, raised South Vietnam's flag over Base 82, ending a bitter four-month struggle.
Rach Bap
Following the withdrawal from Base 82 COSVN organized a new corps headquarters in the Tay Ninh- Binh Long region and designated it the 301st Corps. This corps would soon direct the combat operations of the 7th
and 9th Divisions, separate regiments, and additional formations already en route from North Vietnam. Meanwhile, General Thuần decided to rest the tired troops of the 5th Division and turned his attention to
sending his 25th Division to clear out the PAVN bases in the Ho Bo area west of the Iron Triangle. The ARVN defenses around An Dien and Base 82 were taken over by Regional Forces and Rangers. III Corps Headquarters worked on plans to resume the attack to retake Rach Bap, the last outpost still remaining in PAVN hands. General Thuần also recognized the need to clean the PAVN out of the southern part of the Iron Triangle around Phu Thu, and a plan encompassing Rach Bap, Phu Thu and the Phú Hòa area west of the Iron Triangle began to take shape. But on 30 October, before the execution of the plan, President Thieu relieved General Thuan of command of III Corps and replaced him with Lt. Gen. Dư Quốc Đống.
General Đống immediately surveyed the situation in the Iron Triangle and reviewed the plan of his predecessor, which as modified became Operation Quyet Thang 18/24 (Will to Victory). Battalions from all three divisions of the Corps were committed; D-Day was 14 November. The 9th Infantry, 5th Division started from An Dien and marched west, along Route 7, past Base 82 toward Rach Bap. The 48th and 52nd Regiments, 18th Division crossed the Thi Thinh River south of Ben Cat and entered the Iron Triangle and attacked west toward the Saigon River. Elements of the 50th Infantry, 25th Division, were already in this area. Meanwhile, the 46th Infantry and one battalion of the 50th moved into the plantations north of Phú Hòa District Town to prevent PAVN infiltration across the Saigon River. Along Route 7, the 9th Infantry advanced without incident until 19 November when sharp fighting west of Base 82 resulted in over 40 ARVN soldiers wounded. The PAVN withdrew leaving 14 dead and many weapons and radios behind. The next morning, Reconnaissance Company, 9th Infantry, entered Rach Bap unopposed. The Iron Triangle campaign was virtually over, although mopping-up operations continued in the south along Route 14 until 24 November. Measured against the costs and violence of the earlier phases of the campaign, this final chapter was anticlimactic. Casualties on both sides were light, and contacts were few and of short duration. The PAVN had given up its last foothold in the Iron Triangle with only token resistance in order to replace losses, reorganize, re-equip and retrain the main forces of the new 301st Corps for the decisive battles to come.
Aftermath
The drawn out fighting over the small battlefield of the Iron Triangle, while ending in South Vietnamese victory, showed that the North Vietnamese had achieved combat parity and were pushing against the ARVN's outer line of defense around Saigon.
References
Battles and operations of the Vietnam War
Conflicts in 1974
1974 in Vietnam
Battles involving Vietnam
Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1974
History of Bình Dương province
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug-eluting%20stent
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Drug-eluting stent
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Drug-eluting stents (DES) are a type of stent and a medical drug delivery device used in the treatment of various medical conditions, with its primary application being the treatment of coronary artery disease (CAD).
Such stents are inserted into narrowed coronary arteries, primarily caused by atherosclerosis.These stents gradually release a drug compound that inhibits cellular growth, preventing the re-blocking of the stent area itself (termed 'In Stent Restenosis - ISR) after being placed in the diseased coronary artery. This in-stent blockage is most often caused by excessive cell proliferation or thrombi (blood clots).Anticoagulation therapy post stenting has become an established practice.
In a modern medical setting the use of DES medical devices is currently (2023) associated with a Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (PCI procedures, formerly known as angioplasty with stent).
PCI is thought of as a 'non-surgical procedure' by medical practitioners though it relies on arterial access using a specialized catheter - a thin tube. Arteries are under pressure and penetration of an artery wall is not a trivial event due to the potential for rapid blood loss due to this pressure.
The catheter/stent system is introduced into the body by penetrating an artery and the catheter is (on/part of the end structure of such catheters) used to place the stent through the arterial system to dilate blocked or narrowed coronary arteries (narrowed by plaque buildup), a condition known as atherosclerosis. Arterial access is usually via the femoral (upper leg) or the radial artery (arm/wrist) and less commonly performed via the brachial or ulnar artery (wrist/arm).
Historically, controlling bleeding at the point of arterial access after the procedure was an issue, modern arterial pressure bands and arterial closure system now exists which have helped control post procedure bleeding, but bleeding after the procedure is still a matter of concern.
The stent is placed within the peripheral or coronary artery by an Interventional Cardiologist using a specialized catheter placement system during a PCI procedure. The stent is initially 'collapsed' so it can be threaded though relatively narrow arteries and then inflated (consider an umbrella metaphor) and compressed against the diseased artery wall, often by air pressure introduced via the catheter.
Drug-eluting stents in current clinical use were approved by the FDA after clinical trials demonstrated they were superior to non-drug eluting systems generally referred to as bare-metal stents.
There is significant clinical data relating to the use and outcomes of DES, general stents, Percutaneous Coronary Intervention and CABG surgery.
Design considerations for Drug-Eluting Stents
Four primary elements factor into the design of DES medical devices:
The device as a structural scaffold - keeping an artery open by physical means.
Drug-delivery mechanism, this medical device is a de factor 'drug delivery' system.
Therapeutic agent - the choice of chemical agents the stent will deliver.
The stent delivery system, catheter design, placement visualization and assessment of artery reperfusion (is the treated artery actually supplying cardiac muscle with sufficient oxygenated blood.
Drugs commonly utilized in Drug-Eluting Stents
Everolimus
Sirolimus
Paclitaxel
Biolimus - also known as umirolimus is a semisynthetic version of sirolimus
Though these compounds have broader usage often associated with suppressing the immune system and in cancer treatments, they all function to inhibit cell growth and are used in DES systems in very localized areas and in low dosages for relatively short time periods.
Indications
Considerations for use
It is crucial to identify patients who are good candidates for procedural intervention. Generally, patients without symptoms of coronary blockage or without evidence of ischemia (oxygen deprivation) on labs and imaging are not subjected to stent procedures, as the complications and risks of such a procedure would outweigh any potential benefit.
Procedural intervention, such as angioplasty or stent placement, is reserved for patients with clinical symptoms of coronary artery flow reduction or observable coronary artery obstruction on imaging. This is otherwise known as a myocardial infarction (heart attack). These symptoms can include, but are not limited to:
Severe, pressure-like chest pain unrelieved by rest
Shortness of breath, fatigue, lightheadedness
Palpitations
Atypical symptoms: nausea, vomiting, indigestion, confusion, back pain
There are two major classifications of myocardial infarction (MI): ST-elevation MI vs. non-ST elevation. The criteria for diagnosis are beyond the scope of this article, but it is important to note that stenting is considered first-line therapy for patients diagnosed with a STEMI.
Contraindications
The only absolute contraindication to stent placement is significant active bleeding. This is due primarily to the need for in-procedure anticoagulation and dual antiplatelet therapy during the recovery period. Other considerations that could prevent the use of stents include a history of in-stent restenosis, bleeding diathesis (high susceptibility to bleed), complex or unsuitable coronary anatomy, and/or a short life expectancy due to other medical conditions.
Off-label use
Drug-eluting stents also have been shown to be superior to bare-metal stents in reducing short-term complications of stenting in saphenous vein grafts; however, use in these bypass grafts is an example of "off-label" use of drug-eluting stents. That is, this application has not been sufficiently examined by the Food and Drug Administration for that agency to recommend the use. For "on-label" applications, the FDA "believes that coronary drug-eluting stents remain safe and effective when used for the FDA-approved indications. These devices have significantly reduced the need for a second surgery to treat restenosis for thousands of patients each year."
Some concern has been expressed about the overzealous use of stents in general. Two studies found about half of patients received stents for unapproved reasons, with worse outcomes for the patients in both studies. More recent data suggest off-label use of both bare-metal stents and drug-eluting stents brings increased risks. However, drug-eluting stents seemed to have similar or improved rates of death or myocardial infarction compared with bare-metal stents, and consistently reduced the need for target vessel revascularization. Overall, the data support the use of drug-eluting stents for off-label indications.
Efficacy
Benefits
Drug-eluting stents (DES) have been extensively studied, and are generally superior to bare-metal stents concerning the occurrence of major adverse cardiac events (generally defined as death, myocardial infarction, or the need for a repeat revascularization procedure). In a 2019 meta-analysis comparing new generation DES to BMS, 26,616 patients spanning 20 randomized clinical trials were evaluated for primary outcomes of myocardial infarction and cardiac death. Those who received DES had a significantly reduced risk of myocardial infarction and cardiac mortality at 1 year. The superiority of newer generation polymer stents, particularly the cobalt chromium everolimus-eluting stents have been well-studied.
One of the major benefits of drug-eluting stents (DES) to bare-metal stents (BMS) is the prevention of in-stent restenosis (ISR). Restenosis is a gradual re-narrowing of the stented segment that occurs most commonly between 3–12 months after stent placement. High rates of restenosis associated with BMS prompted the development of DES, which resulted in a reduction of ISR incidence to around 5-10%. Continued development of newer generation DES have resulted in the near-elimination of BMS from clinical practice.
Long term outcomes
Data on long term effects of DES is limited. This is primarily because the technology has only been around for the last two decades, so many studies investigating long-term outcomes have yet to be concluded. However, there are a number of studies investigating intermediate-term outcomes. One particular meta-analysis looked at 52,158 patients across 51 trials. At a median 3.8 years follow up, all DES demonstrated superior efficacy compared to BMS, resulting in lower rates of revascularization procedures. Among DES, newer-generation devices had substantially improved safety outcomes, specifically in regards to stent thrombosis, recurrent MIs, or death. In another 2016 trial, 9,013 patients who received either DES or BMS to treat coronary artery disease were followed at 6 years in order to determine differences in rates of all-cause mortality (death from any cause) as well as frequency of repeat revascularization, stent thrombosis, and quality of life measures. At 6 years, there were no significant differences in all-cause mortality or quality of life measures. However, rates of repeat revascularization and stent thrombosis were significantly lower in those who received DES as opposed to BMS.
Adverse effects
Risks
Like all invasive medical procedures, stent placement carries certain risks. Risks associated with cardiac catheterization procedures include bleeding, allergic reaction to the X-ray contrast agents used to visualize the coronary arteries, and myocardial infarction. With PCI, the requirement for emergency CABG has markedly decreased since the days of balloon angioplasty, such that in some communities, coronary stenting is permitted in hospitals without on-site cardiac surgery facilities. This remains controversial in the United States because of the rare but unpredictable risk of coronary artery perforation. Rarely, a type of allergic reaction to the drug may occur; episodes of fatality have been reported.
Stent thrombosis
One of the most feared complications of coronary stenting is stent thrombosis. This occurs when a new clot forms within the stent and occludes blood flow, causing another heart attack. Treatment for stent thrombosis is emergent revascularization; however, this is only achieved in two thirds of patients. Accordingly, stent thrombosis carries a 30-day mortality risk of 10-25%. The mechanisms responsible for clot formation are multifactorial, including patient factors (smoking, diabetes, hematologic disorders, etc.), choice of stent, and post-procedural factors (duration of antiplatelet therapy, adherence to follow-up).
Although drug-eluting stents continue to represent a major medical advance for angioplasty, there is no evidence to suggest reduced frequency of thrombosis with DES compared to older BMS. What is more, while thrombosis occurs immediately (<24 hours) with BMS, DES have been associated with stent thrombosis up to 3 years after implantation, a phenomenon not seen prior. Explanations may lie in the very nature that these new stents are designed to function. A stent represents a foreign object in the body, and placement of a stent will inevitably lead to damage of a blood vessel's lining (endothelium). Drug-eluting stents, by their nature, prevents the formation of a new endothelial layer. Endothelialization is a hallmark of vascular healing and is important for the prevention of thrombus formation. Without proper healing, the risk of clot formation persists for a much longer period of time. For drug-eluting stents, the time course of complete healing in humans is unknown. Thus, clotting suppressant agents are routinely given during placement, and anti-clotting agents are continued well after implantation.
In-stent restenosis (ISR)
As stated earlier, DES were designed to specifically combat issues of restenosis that occurred with BMS. Though less frequent with drug-eluting stents, restenosis still occurs with DES. The process of restenosis is attributable to a phenomenon known as neointimal hyperplasia. In brief, the process begins with damage to the arterial wall, which can occur in the form of stretch injury during stent positioning or mechanical injury (tearing of vessel lining) during stent deployment. Following injury, platelets, smooth muscle cells, and inflammatory cells (macrophages) will gather at the damaged site and begin the repair process. This can involve the deposition of collagen, proliferation of smooth muscle, and creation of a new vessel lining. However, this process can lead to thickening of the arterial walls and decreased lumen space, resulting in stenosis.
Since the advent of DES technology, the incidence of ISR has significantly decreased. While rates of ISR ranged from 20-35% with BMS, DES has reduced the incidence to about 5-10%. This improvement has resulted in the near-elimination of BMS from clinical use; however, research efforts continue on newer-generation sirolimus-based stents, as well as pioneering image-guided stent placement procedures.
Alternatives to stents
Pharmacological therapy for coronary artery disease may be indicated instead of or in addition to invasive treatment. For those requiring percutaneous coronary intervention or surgery, medical therapy should be viewed as complementary to revascularization procedures, rather than an opposing strategy.
Coronary artery bypass graft surgery is the best treatment for some patients. Differences between outcomes with stenting and with coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG) are a point of controversy. A recent study comparing the outcomes of all patients in New York state treated with CABG or percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) demonstrated CABG was superior to PCI with DES in multiple-vessel coronary artery disease . Patients treated with CABG had lower rates of death or myocardial infarction than treatment with a drug-eluting stent. Patients undergoing CABG also had lower rates of repeat revascularization.
Two major randomized controlled trials comparing CABG and DES are either completed or ongoing, and have published results - Synergy Between Percutaneous Coronary Intervention With Taxus and Cardiac Surgery (SYNTAX) and Future Revascularization Evaluation in Patients With Diabetes Mellitus—Optimal Management of Multivessel Disease (FREEDOM). The five-year follow-up results of SYNTAX showed, depending on the complexity of coronary vessel disease, PCI was either equally effective or inferior to CABG. Similarly, results from the FREEDOM trial published after five years showed CABG to be superior to PCI in reducing rates of death and myocardial infarction. Both trials found either increased or insignificantly different rates of stroke with CABG as compared to PCI. The registries of the nonrandomized patients screened for these trials may provide as many robust data regarding revascularization outcomes as the randomized analysis.
Other studies, including the ARTS II registry, suggest drug-eluting stenting is not inferior to coronary bypass for the treatment of multiple-vessel coronary disease. The ARTS II registry compared a cohort of patients treated with multiple-vessel stenting with DES, to the historical CABG cohort in the ARTS I trial (itself a randomized comparison between multiple-vessel bare-metal stenting vs. CABG.) At three-year follow-up, major adverse cardiac events were comparable between the ARTS II DES group and the ARTS I CABG group. Reintervention was lower in the ARTS I CABG group.
In all comparison studies of stenting vs. bypass surgery, it is worth noting that only a small minority of patients with multiple-vessel coronary disease have been eligible for inclusion in the studies, and for most patients, clinical judgement by experienced operators suggest one or the other approach is preferred.
Design
Drug-eluting stents generally consist of three parts - the stent platform, a polymer coating that binds the drug to the stent and releases the drug, and the drug itself.
The stent platform itself is an expandable framework, generally with an elaborate mesh-like design to allow expansion, flexibility, and in some cases the ability to make or enlarge side openings for side vessels. The first DES were stainless steel alloys composed of iron, nickel, and chromium and were based on existing bare metal stents. These stents were hard to visualize with medical imaging, posed a risk of causing allergic responses, and were difficult to deliver. Subsequent new alloys were used, namely cobalt-chrome and platinum chrome, with improved performance. Recently, bioresorbable stents have been developed in which the stent itself dissolves over time. As of 2009, materials that had been explored for use included magnesium, polylactic acid, polycarbonate polymers, and salicylic acid polymers. Resorbable stents have held the promise of providing an acute treatment that would eventually allow the vessel to function normally, without leaving a permanent device behind.
One to three or more layers of polymer can be used in the coating, e.g., a base layer for adhesion, a main layer that holds and elutes (releases) the drug into the arterial wall by contact transfer, and sometimes a top coat to slow down the release of the drug and extend its effect. The first few drug-eluting stents to be licensed used durable coatings. The first generation of coatings appear to have caused immunological reactions at times, and some possibly led to thrombosis. This has driven experimentation and development of new coating approaches.
The drug is mainly used to inhibit neointimal growth due to the proliferation of smooth muscle cells that would cause restenosis. Much of the neointimal hyperplasia seems to be caused by inflammation. Hence, immunosuppressive and antiproliferative drugs are used. Sirolimus, paclitaxel, and everolimus were previously used for other medical applications and have been included in licensed DES.
Vascular stents are Class III medical devices that are intended for use as a mechanical radial support to enhance vessel patency over the intended design life of the device. Device properties and the intended use are dependent on results from extensive testing that involve mechanical tests on universal testing machines. Types of mechanical test include bend testing, fatigue testing, radial loading, tensile testing, and torsion testing. Depending on the type of vascular stent, its location and intended use, other tests may include crush resistance, kink resistance, corrosion, coating integrity, and more.
History
The first procedure to treat blocked coronary arteries was coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG), wherein a section of vein or artery from elsewhere in the body is used to bypass the diseased segment of coronary artery. In 1977, Andreas Grüntzig introduced percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA), also called balloon angioplasty, in which a catheter was introduced through a peripheral artery and a balloon expanded to dilate the narrowed segment of artery. As equipment and techniques improved, the use of PTCA rapidly increased, and by the mid-1980s, PTCA and CABG were being performed at equivalent rates. Balloon angioplasty was generally effective and safe, but restenosis was frequent, occurring in about 30–40% of cases, usually within the first year after dilation. In about 3% of balloon angioplasty cases, failure of the dilation and acute or threatened closure of the coronary artery (often because of dissection) prompted emergency CABGs.
Charles Theodore Dotter and Melvin Judkins had proposed using prosthetic devices inside arteries in the leg to maintain blood flow after dilation as early as 1964. In 1986, Puel and Sigwart implanted the first coronary stent in a human patient. Several trials in the 1990s showed the superiority of stent placement over balloon angioplasty. Restenosis was reduced because the stent acted as a scaffold to hold open the dilated segment of artery. Acute closure of the coronary artery (and the requirement for emergency CABG) was reduced, because the stent repaired dissections of the arterial wall. By 1999, stents were used in 84% of percutaneous coronary interventions (i.e., those done via a catheter, and not by open-chest surgery).
Early difficulties with coronary stents included a risk of early thrombosis (clotting) resulting in occlusion of the stent. Coating stainless steel stents with other substances such as platinum or gold did not eliminate this problem. High-pressure balloon expansion of the stent to ensure its full apposition to the arterial wall, combined with drug therapy using aspirin and another inhibitor of platelet aggregation (usually ticlopidine or clopidogrel) nearly eliminated this risk of early stent thrombosis.
Though it occurred less frequently than with balloon angioplasty or other techniques, stents nonetheless remained vulnerable to restenosis, caused almost exclusively by neointimal tissue growth (tissue formation in the inner 'tube' structure of the artery). To address this issue, developers of drug-eluting stents used the devices themselves as a tool for delivering medication directly to the arterial wall. While initial efforts were unsuccessful, the release (elution) of drugs with certain specific physicochemical properties from the stent was shown in 2001 to achieve high concentrations of the drug locally, directly at the target lesion, with minimal systemic side effects. As currently used in clinical practice, "drug-eluting" stents refers to metal stents that elute a drug designed to limit the growth of neointimal scar tissue, thus reducing the likelihood of stent restenosis.
The first successful trials were of sirolimus-eluting stents. A clinical trial in 2002 led to approval of the sirolimus-eluting Cypher stent in Europe in 2002. After a larger pivotal trial (one designed for the purpose of achieving FDA approval), published in 2003, the device received FDA approval and was released in the U.S. in 2003. Soon thereafter, a series of trials of paclitaxel-eluting stents led to FDA approval of the Taxus stent in 2004. Both sirolimus and paclitaxel are natural products, making the drug-eluting stents a specific kind of application totally dominated by drugs directly derived from natural sources.
The first resorbable stent tested in humans was developed by the Igaki Medical Planning Company in Japan and was constructed from poly-L-lactic acid (a form of polylactic acid); they published their initial results in 2000. The German company Biotronik developed a magnesium absorbable stent and published clinical results in 2007. The first company to bring a bioresorbable stent to market was Abbott Vascular which received a European marketing approval in September 2012; the second was Elixir which received its CE mark in May 2013.
In 2017, Abbott pulled its bioabsorbable stent, Absorb, from the European market after negative press regarding the device. Boston Scientific also announced termination of its Renuvia bioresorbable coronary stent program as studies showed higher risk of serious adverse events.
Due to challenges in developing resorbable stents, many manufacturers have focused efforts on targeting or reducing drug-release through bioabsorbable-polymer coatings. Boston Scientific's Synergy bioabsorbable polymer stent has been shown potential to reduce length of dual antiplatelet therapy post-implantation. MicroPort's Firehawk target eluting stent has been shown to be non-inferior to traditional drug-eluting stents while using one-third of the amount of equivalent drug.
Society and culture
In 2012, a meta-analysis of clinical trial data was published, showing that, for people with stable coronary artery disease, DES has no benefit compared to treatment with drugs. The New York Times interviewed the study's main author, who said that more than half of patients with stable coronary artery disease were implanted with stents without even trying drug treatment and that he believed this happened because hospitals and doctors wanted to make more money. In 2013 the Times of India reported that DES were widely overused and that Indian distributors used profits from high markups on DES to bribe doctors to use them. In 2014 an investigation by the Maharashtra Food and Drug Administration found that high markups and bribery related to DES was still widespread.
References
Further reading
(layperson overview, subscription required)
(journal review article, subscription required)
External links
Drug-Eluting Stents — Angioplasty.Org Good overview and detail
CIMIT Center For Integration of Medicine and Innovative Technology
Cypher DES
Image of the experimental CoStar Cobalt chrome stent
Safety Profile of Drug-eluting Stents Similar to Bare-metal Stents (re G.W.Stone's presentation at TCT2006)
TCT: Transcatheter Cardiovascular Therapeutics Meeting Coverage peer-reviewed articles from Medpage Today
Drug delivery devices
Implants (medicine)
Interventional cardiology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable%20city
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Sustainable city
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The sustainable city, eco-city, or green city is a city designed with consideration for social, economic, environmental impact (commonly referred to as the triple bottom line), and resilient habitat for existing populations, without compromising the ability of future generations to experience the same. The UN Sustainable Development Goal 11 defines sustainable cities as those that are dedicated to achieving green sustainability, social sustainability and economic sustainability. They are committed to doing so by enabling opportunities for all through a design focused on inclusivity as well as maintaining a sustainable economic growth. The focus will also includes minimizing required inputs of energy, water, and food, and drastically reducing waste, output of heat, air pollution – , methane, and water pollution. Richard Register, a visual artist, first coined the term ecocity in his 1987 book Ecocity Berkeley: Building Cities for a Healthy Future, where he offers innovative city planning solutions that would work anywhere. Other leading figures who envisioned sustainable cities are architect Paul F Downton, who later founded the company Ecopolis Pty Ltd, as well as authors Timothy Beatley and Steffen Lehmann, who have written extensively on the subject. The field of industrial ecology is sometimes used in planning these cities.
The UN Environment Programme calls out that most cities today are struggling with environmental degradation, traffic congestion, inadequate urban infrastructure, in addition to a lack of basic services, such as water supply, sanitation, and waste management. A sustainable city should promote economic growth and meet the basic needs of its inhabitants, while creating sustainable living conditions for all. Ideally, a sustainable city is one that creates an enduring way of life across the four domains of ecology, economics, politics and culture. The European Investment Bank is assisting cities in the development of long-term strategies in fields including renewable transportation, energy efficiency, sustainable housing, education, and health care. The European Investment Bank has spent more than €150 billion in bettering cities over the last eight years.
Cities occupy just 3 percent of the Earth's land but account for 60 to 80 percent of energy consumption and at least 70 percent of carbon emissions. Thus, creating safe, resilient and sustainable cities is one of the top priorities of the Sustainable Development Goals. The Adelaide City Council states that socially sustainable cities should be equitable, diverse, connected, democratic, and provide a good quality of life. Priorities of a sustainable city include the ability to feed itself with a sustainable reliance on the surrounding natural environment and the ability to power itself with renewable sources of energy, while creating the smallest conceivable ecological footprint and the lowest quantity of pollution achievable. All of this is to be accomplished by efficient land use, composting organic matter, recycling used materials, and/or converting waste-to-energy. The idea is that these contributions will lead to a decrease of the city's impact on climate change.
Today, 55 percent of the world is estimated to be living in urban areas and the United Nations estimates that by the year 2050, that number will rise to 70 percent. By 2050, there may be nearly 2.5 more billion individuals living in urban cities, possibly making it more difficult to create more sustainable communities. These large communities provide both challenges and opportunities for environmentally-conscious developers. There are distinct advantages to further defining and working towards the goals of sustainable cities. Humans thrive in urban spaces that foster social connections. Richard Florida, an urban studies theorist, focuses on the social impact of sustainable cities and states that cities need more than a competitive business climate; they should promote a great people climate that appeals to individuals and families of all types. Because of this, a shift to denser urban living would provide an outlet for social interaction and conditions under which humans can prosper. These types of urban areas would also promote the use of public transit, walkability and biking which would benefit citizens' health as well as benefiting the environment.
Practical methods to create sustainable cities
Different agricultural systems such as agricultural plots within the city (suburbs or centre). This reduces the distance food has to travel from field to fork. This may be done by either small-scale/private farming plots or through larger-scale agriculture (e.g. farmscrapers).
Renewable energy sources, such as wind turbines, solar panels, or bio-gas created from sewage to reduce and manage pollution. Cities provide economies of scale that make such energy sources viable.
Various methods to reduce the need for air conditioning (a massive energy demand), such as passive daytime radiative cooling applications, planting trees and lightening surface colors, natural ventilation systems, an increase in water features, and green spaces equaling at least 20% of the city's surface. These measures counter the "heat island effect" caused by an abundance of tarmac and asphalt, which can make urban areas several degrees warmer than surrounding rural areas—as much as six degrees Celsius during the evening.
Improved public transport and an increase in pedestrianization to reduce car emissions. This requires a radically different approach to city planning, with integrated business, industrial, and residential zones. Roads may be designed to make driving difficult.
Optimal building density to make public transport viable but avoid the creation of urban heat islands.
Green roofs alter the surface energy balance and can help mitigate the urban heat island effect. Incorporating eco roofs or green roofs in your design will help with air quality, climate and water runoff.
Zero-emission transport
Zero-energy building to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions using renewable energy sources.
Sustainable urban drainage systems or SUDS in addition to other systems to reduce and manage waste.
Energy conservation systems/devices
Xeriscaping – garden and landscape design for water conservation
Sustainable transport, incorporates five elements: fuel economy, occupancy, electrification, pedal power, and urbanization.
Circular economy to combat inefficient resource patterns and ensure a sustainable production and consumption roadmap.
Increase of cycling infrastructure would increase cycling within cities and reduce the number of cars being driven and in turn reduce car emissions. This would also benefit the health of citizens as they would be able to get more exercise through cycling.
Key performance indicators – development and operational management tool providing guidance and M&V for city administrators currently monitor and evaluate energy savings in various facilities.
Sustainable Sites Initiative or SSI – voluntary national guidelines and performance benchmarks for sustainable land design, construction and maintenance practices. Key areas of focus are soil, vegetation, hydrology, materials, and human health and well-being.
Sustainable cities are creating safe spaces for its inhabitants through various means, such as:
Solutions to decrease urban sprawl, by seeking new ways of allowing people to live closer to the workspace. Since the workplace tends to be in the city, downtown, or urban center, they are seeking a way to increase density by changing the antiquated attitudes many suburbanites have towards inner-city areas. One of the new ways to achieve this is by solutions worked out by the Smart Growth Movement.
Educating residents of cities about the importance and positive impacts of living in a more sustainable city. This is to boost the initiative to have sustainable developments and push people to live in a more sustainable and environmentally-friendly way.
Policy and planning changes to meet the unmet demands for urban services (water, energy, transport).
With regard to methods of emissions counting cities can be challenging as production of goods and services within their territory can be related either to domestic consumption or exports. Conversely the citizens also consume imported goods and services. To avoid double counting in any emissions calculation it should be made clear where the emissions are to be counted: at the site of production or consumption. This may be complicated given long production chains in a globalized economy. Moreover, the embodied energy and consequences of large-scale raw material extraction required for renewable energy systems and electric vehicle batteries is likely to represent its own complications – local emissions at the site of utilization are likely to be very small but life-cycle emissions can still be significant.
Architecture
Buildings provide the infrastructure for a functioning city and allow for many opportunities to demonstrate a commitment to sustainability. A commitment to sustainable architecture encompasses all phases of building including the planning, building, and restructuring. Sustainable Site Initiative is used by landscape architects, designers, engineers, architects, developers, policy-makers and others to align land development and management with innovative sustainable design.
Eco-industrial park
The UNIDO (United Nation's Industrial Development Organization) defines eco-industrial park as a community of businesses located on a common property in which businesses seek to achieve enhanced environmental, economic and social performance through collaboration in managing environmental and resource issues. This is an industrial symbiosis where companies gain an added benefit by physically exchanging materials, energy, water and by-products, thus enabling sustainable development. This collaboration reduces environmental impact while simultaneously improves economic performance of the area.
The components for building an eco-industrial park include natural systems, more efficient use of energy, and more efficient material and water flows. Industrial parks should be built to fit into their natural settings in order to reduce environmental impacts, which can be accomplished through plant design, landscaping, and choice of materials. For instance, there is an industrial park in Michigan built by Phoenix Designs that is made almost entirely from recycled materials. The landscaping of the building will include native trees, grasses, and flowers, and the landscaping design will also act as climate shelter for the facility. In choosing the materials for building an eco-industrial park, designers must consider the life-cycle analysis of each medium that goes into the building to assess their true impact on the environment and to ensure that they are using it from one plant to another, steam connections from firms to provide heating for homes in the area, and using renewable energy such as wind and solar power. In terms of material flows, the companies in an eco-industrial park may have common waste treatment facilities, a means for transporting by-products from one plant to another, or anchoring the park around resource recovery companies that are recruited to the location or started from scratch. To create more efficient water flows in industrial parks, the processed water from one plant can be reused by another plant and the park's infrastructure can include a way to collect and reuse stormwater runoff.
Examples
Recycled Park in Rotterdam, the Netherlands
The Recycled Park in Rotterdam, the second-largest city in the Netherlands, is an initiative introduced by Recycled Island Foundation, a Netherlands-based organization focused on recycling littered waste via creating their iconic island-parks, among other sustainable projects. Rotterdam's Recycled Park is a cluster of floating, green hexagonal "islands" composed of reused litter. The group has utilized a system of passive litter traps to collect this litter from the Maas River. The park's location upon the Maas River reflects a circular process aimed at creating a more sustainable city.
On the underside of the recycled park are materials that will support the growth of plants and wildlife indigenous to the area. This interest in growing the biodiversity of Rotterdam's natural elements is also reflected in other cities. Chicago's Urban Rivers organization is similarly trying to solve this issue by building and growing the Wild Mile of floating parks and forests along the Chicago River with the goal of revegetation. Both Urban Rivers' and Recycled Island Foundation's interest in improving the area's biodiversity reflects an interest in greening the built urbanism of the surrounding city.
Rotterdam's Recycled Park may suggest a greater trend in creating floating structures in response to greater climate-change-motivated impacts. The Floating Farm in Rotterdam sustainably approaches food production and transport. Other floating structures include renewable energy-powered houseboats and luxury residences some 800 meters from the coast. The Dutch city of Amsterdam likewise boasts a neighbourhood of artificial, floating islands in the suburb of IJburg.
The idea of expanding both commercial enterprise and residential developments onto the water is oftentimes reflective of the demand to limit land-usage in urban areas. This has various, wide-reaching environmental impacts: reducing the aggregation of the urban heat-island effect, the zoning efforts expended on engineering and regulating the floodplain (and potentially, the capacity of waste-water reservoirs), and reduce the demands of the automobility state.
The Recycled Park is a holistic approach to limiting the expense of waste. The employment of greenery has air-purifying effects, to reduce pollution. Additionally, the modular, hexagonal design allows reconstruction of each "island"; this space thus also offers environmental sustainability, as well as an open space for community-growing and other social opportunities.
Urban farming
Urban farming is the process of growing and distributing food, as well as raising animals, in and around a city or in urban areas. According to the RUAF Foundation, urban farming is different from rural agriculture because it is integrated into the urban economic and ecological system: urban agriculture is embedded in and interacting with the urban ecosystem. Such linkages include the use of urban residents as the key workers, use of typical urban resources (such as utilizing organic waste as compost or urban wastewater for irrigation), direct links with urban consumers, direct impacts on urban ecology (positive and negative), being part of the urban food system, competing for land with other urban functions, being influenced by urban policies and plans. One motivation for urban agriculture in sustainable cities includes saving energy that would be used in food transportation. Urban farming infrastructure can include common areas for community gardens or farms, as well as common areas for farmers markets in which the food items grown within the city can be sold to the residents of the urban system.
Tiny forests or miniature forests is a new concept where many trees are grown on a small patch of land. These forests are said to grow 10x faster and 30x denser with 100x biodiversity than larger forests. Additionally, they are 100% organic. The ratio of shrub layer, sub-tree layer, tree layer and canopy layer of the miniature forest along with the percentage of each tree species are planned and fixed before planting so as to promote biodiversity.
New Urbanism
The most clearly defined form of walkable urbanism is known as the Charter of New Urbanism. It is an approach for successfully reducing environmental impacts by altering the built environment to create and preserve smart cities that support sustainable transport. Residents in compact urban neighbourhoods drive fewer miles and have significantly lower environmental impacts across a range of measures, compared with those living in sprawling suburbs. The concept of circular flow land use management has also been introduced in Europe to promote sustainable land use patterns that strive for compact cities and a reduction of greenfield land taken by urban sprawl.
Sustainable architecture, a recent movement of New Classical Architecture, promotes a sustainable approach towards construction that appreciates and develops smart growth, walkability, vernacular tradition, and classical design. This in contrast to modernist and globally uniform architecture and opposes solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl. Both trends started in the 1980s.
Individual buildings (LEED)
The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System encourages and accelerates global adoption of sustainable green building and development practices through the creation and implementation of universally understood and accepted tools and performance criteria.
LEED, or Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, is an internationally recognized green building certification system. LEED recognizes whole building sustainable design by identifying key areas of excellence including: Sustainable Sites, Water Efficiency, Energy and Atmosphere, Materials and Resources, Indoor Environmental Quality, Locations & Linkages, Awareness and Education, Innovation in Design, Regional Priority. In order for a building to become LEED certified sustainability needs to be prioritized in design, construction, and use. One example of sustainable design would be including a certified wood like bamboo. Bamboo is fast growing and has an incredible replacement rate after being harvested. By far the most credits are rewarded for optimizing energy performance. This promotes innovative thinking about alternative forms of energy and encourages increased efficiency.
A new district in Helsinki, Finland is being made almost entirely using timber. This timber is a form of a Laminated Veneer Lumbar (LVL) that has high standards of fire resistance. The idea is that wood construction has a much smaller footprint than concrete and steel construction and thus, this project is going to take Finland's timber architecture to new heights of sustainability.
Sustainable Sites Initiative (SSI)
Sustainable Sites Initiative, a combined effort of the American Society of Landscape Architects, The Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center at The University of Texas at Austin, and the United States Botanic Garden, is a voluntary national guideline and performance benchmark for sustainable land design, construction and maintenance practices. The building principles of SSI are to design with nature and culture, use a decision-making hierarchy of preservation, conservation, and regeneration, use a system thinking approach, provide regenerative systems, support a living process, use a collaborative and ethical approach, maintain integrity in leadership and research, and finally foster environmental stewardship. All of these help promote solutions to common environmental issues such as greenhouse gases, urban climate issues, water pollution and waste, energy consumption, and health and wellbeing of site users. The main focus is hydrology, soils, vegetation, materials, and human health and well-being.
In SSI, the main goal for hydrology in sites is to protect and restore existing hydrologic functions. To design storm water features to be accessible to site users, and manage and clean water on site. For site design of soil and vegetation many steps can be done during the construction process to help minimize the urban heat island effects, and minimize the building heating requirements by using plants.
Regenerative architecture
Regenerative architecture includes repurposing abandoned spaces to increase green space by using cost-effective design techniques. An old railway line in Bangkok has been recently converted in the Phra Pok Klao Sky Park, a green park in the congested city of Bangkok. The New York High Line project is one of the oldest examples of regenerative architecture where an abandoned railway line is repurposed into an elevated park and social gathering space for its citizens.
Eco-cities
Eco-cities are rooted in various urban planning traditions, including the early garden city movement initiated by Ebenezer Howard. These early efforts sought self-contained, green, and interconnected communities. In the latter 20th century, a broader understanding of ecological systems prompted the need for cities to address their ecological impact both locally and globally. Concepts like "urban metabolism" and McHarg's ecological site planning emerged. The term "ecocity" was coined by Richard Register in the 1980s during the rise of sustainability concerns, as outlined in the Brundtland Commission Report. Sustainability in urban planning focuses on inter-generational equity, environmental protection, and more. In the 2000s, resilience became a key perspective, highlighting the importance of ecological and social resilience in cities facing climate change challenges.
Transportation
As major focus of the sustainable cities, sustainable transportation attempts to reduce a city's reliance and use of greenhouse emitting gases by utilizing eco-friendly urban planning, low environmental impact vehicles, and residential proximity to create an urban center that has greater environmental responsibility and social equity.
Poor transportation systems lead to traffic jams and high levels of pollution. Due to the significant impact that transportation services have on a city's energy consumption, the last decade has seen an increasing emphasis on sustainable transportation by developmental experts. Currently, transportation systems account for nearly a quarter of the world's energy consumption and carbon dioxide emission. In order to reduce the environmental impact caused by transportation in metropolitan areas, sustainable transportation has three widely agreed-upon pillars that it utilizes to create more healthy and productive urban centers.
The Carbon Trust states that there are three main ways cities can innovate to make transport more sustainable without increasing journey times – better land use planning, modal shift to encourage people to choose more efficient forms of transport, and making existing transport modes more efficient.
Car free city
The concept of car free cities or a city with large pedestrian areas is often part of the design of a sustainable city. A large part of the carbon footprint of a city is generated by cars so the car free concept is often considered an integral part of the design of a sustainable city. Large parts of London city are to be made car-free to allow people to walk and cycle safely following the COVID-19 lockdown. Similarly, 47 miles of bike lanes are planned to be opened in Bogotá, Colombia in addition to the existing 75-mile network of streets that was recently made to be traffic-free all week. New urbanism frees residents of Masdar City, UAE from automobiles and makes possible walkable and sustainable communities by integrating daily facilities such as plazas and sidewalks into the neighborhoods. Public transit systems like the Group Rapid Transit and the Metro provide direct access to wide areas of Masdar, as well as Abu Dhabi’s CBD, and other parts of the city. The COVID-19 pandemic gave birth to proposals for radical change in the organisation of the city, such as the Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the city after COVID19, published in Barcelona and signed by 160 academics and 300 architects, being the elimination of the car one of the key elements.
Emphasis on proximity
Created by eco-friendly urban planning, the concept of urban proximity is an essential element of current and future sustainable transportation systems. This requires that cities be built and added onto with appropriate population and landmark density so that destinations are reached with reduced time in transit. This reduced time in transit allows for reduced fuel expenditure and also opens the door to alternative means of transportation such as bike riding and walking. Furthermore, close proximity of residents and major landmarks allows for the creation of efficient public transportation by eliminating long sprawled out routes and reducing commute time. This in turn decreases the social cost to residents who choose to live in these cities by allowing them more time with families and friends instead by eliminating part of their commute time.
Melbourne is leading the way in creating the 20-minute neighbourhood where biking, walking or using public transport can get you to work, shops or a government agency within 20 minutes. Paris is experimenting with a similar concept in the Rue de Rivoli area where travel time for any destination is capped at 15 minutes.
Diversity in modes of transportation
Sustainable transportation emphasizes the use of a diversity of fuel-efficient transportation vehicles in order to reduce greenhouse emissions and diversity fuel demand. Due to the increasingly expensive and volatile cost of energy, this strategy has become very important because it allows a way for city residents to be less susceptible to varying highs and lows in various energy prices.
Among the different modes of transportation, the use alternative energy cars and widespread installation of refueling stations has gained increasing importance, while the creation of centralized bike and walking paths remains a staple of the sustainable transportation movement.
Tesla is one of the pioneers in creating electric vehicles, which is said to reduce footprints of cars. More companies globally are developing their own versions of electric cars and public transport to promote sustainable transportation.
Access to transportation
In order to maintain the aspect of social responsibility inherent within the concept of sustainable cities, implementing sustainable transportation must include access to transportation by all levels of society. Due to the fact that car and fuel cost are often too expensive for lower-income urban residents, completing this aspect often revolves around efficient and accessible public transportation. Social inclusion is a key goal of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 11 – Sustainable Cities and Communities.
In order to make public transportation more accessible, the cost of rides must be affordable and stations must be located no more than walking distance in each part of the city. As studies have shown, this accessibility creates a great increase in social and productive opportunity for city residents. By allowing lower-income residents cheap and available transportation, it allows for individuals to seek employment opportunities all over the urban center rather than simply the area in which they live. This in turn reduces unemployment and a number of associated social problems such as crime, drug use, and violence.
Smart transportation
In this age of smart cities, many smart solutions are being experimented with to regulate transportation and make public transport more efficient. Israel is reinventing commute by engaging in a public-private partnership that uses algorithms to route public transport according to needs. Using the concept of mobility as a service (MaaS), the people of Israel are encouraged to put in their destination on a mobile application; this data is then processed by the application to reroute transportation according to demands and options of different modes of transportation are suggested to the commuters to choose from. This decreases futile trips and helps the government regulate the number of people in a train or a bus at a time, especially useful in times of a pandemic like the COVID-19 pandemic.
Urban strategic planning
Although there is not an international policy regarding sustainable cities and there are not established international standards, the organization United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) is working to establish universal urban strategic guidelines. The UCLG is a democratic and decentralized structure that operates in Africa , Eurasia , Latin America, North America, Middle East, West Asian and a Metropolitan section work to promote a more sustainable society. The 60 members of the UCLG committee evaluate urban development strategies and debate these experiences to make the best recommendations. Additionally, the UCLG accounts for differences in regional and national context. All the organizations are making a great effort to promote this concept by media and Internet, and in conferences and workshops. An International conference was held in Italy at Università del Salento and Università degli Studi della Basilicata, called 'Green Urbanism', from 12 to 14 October 2016.
Development
Recently, local and national governments and regional bodies such as the European Union have recognized the need for a holistic understanding of urban planning. This is instrumental to establishing an international policy that focuses on cities challenges and the role of the local authorities responses. The sustainable development of urban areas is crucial since more than 56% of the world's population lives in cities. Cities are in the lead of climate action, while being responsible for an estimated 75% of the world's carbon emissions.
Generally, in terms of urban planning, the responsibility of local governments are limited to land use and infrastructure provision excluding inclusive urban development strategies. The advantages of urban strategic planning include an increase in governance and cooperation that aids local governments in establishing performance based-management, clearly identifying the challenges facing local community and more effectively responding on a local level rather than national level, and improves institutional responses and local decision making. Additionally, it increases dialogue between stakeholders and develops consensus-based solutions, establishing continuity between sustainability plans and change in local government; it places environmental issues as the priority for the sustainable development of cities and serves as a platform to develop concepts and new models of housing, energy and mobility.
Obstacles
The City Development Strategies (CDS) addresses new challenges and provides space for innovative policies that involves all stakeholders. The inequality in spatial development and socio-economic classes paired with concerns of poverty reduction and climate change are factors in achieving global sustainable cities, as highlighted by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 11. According to the UCLG there are differences between regional and national conditions, framework and practice that are overcome in the international commitment to communication and negotiation with other governments, communities and the private sector to continue to develop through innovative and participatory approaches in strategic decisions, building consensus and monitoring performance management and raising investment.
Social factors of sustainable cities
According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), over half of the world's population is concentrated in cities, a proportion which is expected to rise to two-thirds by 2050. United Cities and Local Governments has specifically identified 13 global challenges to establishing sustainable cities: demographic change and migration, globalisation of the job market, poverty and unmet Millennium Development Goals, segregation, spatial patterns and urban growth, metropolisation and the rise of urban regions, more political power for local authorities, new actors for developing a city and providing services, decline in public funding for development, the environment and climate change, new and accessible building technologies, preparing for uncertainty and limits of growth and global communications and partnerships.
Social equity
Gender
Gender associates an individual with a set of traits and behaviors that are construed to be female and/or male by society. Gender is a key part of a person's identity, which can influence their experiences and opportunities as they navigate through life. This is no different for how gender impacts how they navigate through the built environment.
Men and women experience the built environment differently. For over two decades, professionals in urban planning have called for the routine consideration of gender relations and gendered experiences in the urban design process. Specifically, city planners emphasize the need to account for systemic differences in people's lived experiences by gender, when designing built environments that are safe and equitable. This applies to the development of climate resilient cities.
Women represent 80% of people who've been displaced by the climate crisis. Women are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change because of the roles they are socially assigned by gender. For instance, women are primarily responsible for food provision in the household. Unprecedented patterns in the frequency and magnitude of floods and droughts – due to climate change – directly impact the caregiving responsibilities of many women, causing them to disproportionately suffer from the consequences of these natural disasters.
The inequitable distribution of the burden of climate change by gender is unjust and must be addressed in the design of sustainable cities. Achieving gender equality is not only ethically important but economically smart, since supporting female development benefits economic growth. Moreover, it's socially and economically relevant to design sustainable cities not only for women, but by women.
Notable women spearheading the sustainable city movement include mayors Anne Hidalgo, Ada Colau Ballano, Claudia Lopez, Yvonne Aki-Sawyerr, Muriel Bowser, Patricia de Lille, Helen Fernandez, and Clover Moore. Other female leaders include Christina Figueres, Patricia Espinosa, Laurence Tubiana, and Hakima El Haite.
Race and Income
Mobility or the ability to move/go places is essential to daily life. Our mobility is primarily determined by the transportation infrastructure that surrounds us. Throughout US history, mobility and right to place have been regulated through codified social rules of who can go where, and how. Many of these rules were drawn along racial/ethnic and nationalistic lines.
Discriminatory housing and transit policies, like red lining, have compounded the oppressive living conditions marginalized racial groups have been subjected to centuries, and have limited the socioeconomic opportunities of future generations. The legacies of these discriminatory policies are responsible for many environmental injustices we see today.
Environmental injustice refers to the unequal distribution of risk to environmental threats, with vulnerable populations – e.g., people of low- and middle-income (LMI) and people of color (POC) – experiencing the greatest exposure and least protection. Environmental injustice is pervasive and manifests in many ways, from contaminated drinking water to mold-infested housing stock. One example of environmental injustice is the varying burden of heat exposure on different racial and socioeconomic groups.
Urban areas often experience higher surface temperatures than less developed regions because the concentrated impermeable surfaces are good at absorbing heat, creating the “heat-island” effect mentioned earlier. The risk of adverse health effects caused by the heat island effect is and will be compounded by the increasing frequency in heat waves due to the climate crisis. This threat is quite dangerous for vulnerable populations – including infants and the elderly – who lack access to air conditioning and/or tree coverage to cool down. This limited adaptive capacity to urban heat is concentrated in LMI and historically segregated neighborhoods.
Specifically, neighborhoods in cities that were historically targeted by redlining and divestment experience higher average land surface temperatures than surrounding areas. These differences in surface temperatures embody the legacy of discriminatory housing policies in the US, and highlight how historic urban planning practices will interact with the effects of the climate crisis. We must create the sustainable cities of the future with these historic practices in mind. The heat island effect also exacerbates the impacts of another form of environmental injustice that disproportionately affects minority and low-income groups: air pollution.
Urban infrastructure projects that produce environmental toxins – like industrial plants and highways – are frequently built near or in LMI and POC communities because of favorable zoning codes, cheaper land prices, and less political backlash. This is not because residents don't care, but because they often lack the time, resources, and connections necessary to prevent such construction. In turn, pollutant-producing operations disproportionately impact LMI and POC communities, harming the health outcomes of these groups.
A study by the University of Minnesota found that if nitrogen dioxide levels (NO2 – a product of the combustion of fossil fuels) in non-white communities were reduced to equal those in white communities, there would be around 7,000 fewer deaths from heart disease per year. This mortality disparity highlights the health impacts of discriminatory zoning and urban planning policies, which disproportionately expose LIM and POC communities to air pollution. The disparity also shows how much we have to gain from sustainable transportation reform which eliminates combustion-engine vehicles.
The inequitable breakdown of exposure to environmental risks by race and income reinforces the understanding that the climate crisis is a social issue, and that environmental justice depends upon racial justice. There is no one right way to address these issues. Proposed solutions include eliminating single-family zoning, pricing a minimum proportions of housing units for LMI households, and requiring community engagement in future urban planning projects. To select the best combination of solutions to create sustainable cities tailored to their environments, each city must be designed for all community members, by all community members.
Leaders in the environmental justice movement include Robert Bullard, Benjamin Chavis, Peggy Shepard, Kandi Moseett-White, Mustafa Santiago Ali, Jamie Margolin, Elizabeth Yeampierre, LeeAnne Walters, and Dana Johnson.
Examples
Australia
Adelaide
Urban forests
In Adelaide, South Australia (a city of 1.3 million people) Premier Mike Rann (2002 to 2011) launched an urban forest initiative in 2003 to plant 3 million native trees and shrubs by 2014 on 300 project sites across the metro area. The projects range from large habitat restoration projects to local biodiversity projects. Thousands of Adelaide citizens have participated in community planting days. Sites include parks, reserves, transport corridors, schools, water courses and coastline. Only trees native to the local area are planted to ensure genetic integrity. Premier Rann said the project aimed to beautify and cool the city and make it more liveable; improve air and water quality and reduce Adelaide's greenhouse gas emissions by 600,000 tonnes of a year. He said it was also about creating and conserving habitat for wildlife and preventing species loss.
Solar power
The Rann government also launched an initiative for Adelaide to lead Australia in the take-up of solar power. In addition to Australia's first 'feed-in' tariff to stimulate the purchase of solar panels for domestic roofs, the government committed millions of dollars to place arrays of solar panels on the roofs of public buildings such as the museum, art gallery, Parliament, Adelaide Airport, 200 schools and Australia's biggest rooftop array on the roof of Adelaide Showgrounds' convention hall which was registered as a power station.
Wind power
South Australia went from zero wind power in 2002 to wind power making up 26% of its electricity generation by October 2011. In the five years preceding 2011 there was a 15% drop in emissions, despite strong economic growth.
Waste recycling
For Adelaide the South Australian government also embraced a Zero Waste recycling strategy, achieving a recycling rate of nearly 80% by 2011 with 4.3 million tonnes of materials diverted from landfill to recycling. On a per capita basis, this was the best result in Australia, the equivalent of preventing more than a million tonnes of entering the atmosphere. In the 1970s container-deposit legislation was introduced. Consumers are paid a 10 cent rebate on each bottle, can, or container they return to recycling. In 2009 non-reusable plastic bags used in supermarket checkouts were banned by the Rann Government, preventing 400 million plastic bags per year entering the litter stream. In 2010 Zero Waste SA was commended by a UN Habitat Report entitled 'Solid Waste Management in the World Cities'.
Melbourne
City of Merri-bek. The City of Merri-bek in Melbourne's north, has programs for becoming carbon neutral, one of which is 'Zero Carbon Merri-bek', amongst other existing sustainable implementations and proposals.
City of Melbourne. Over the past 10 years, various methods of improving public transport have been implemented, car free zones and entire streets have also been implemented.
Sydney
Sydney was ranked the most sustainable city in Australia by the 2018 Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index. While most cities in Australia ranked low in the green sustainability categories, a lot of them have made a remarkable shift to improve social sustainability by being more inclusive, supporting culture and general happiness among its people.
City of Greater Taree, New South Wales
The City of Greater Taree north of Sydney has developed a masterplan for Australia's first low-to-no carbon urban development.
Austria
Vienna is aiming for only 20% of trips to be made by automobile.
Brazil
Belo Horizonte, Brazil was created in 1897 and is the third-largest metropolis in Brazil, with 2.4 million inhabitants. The Strategic Plan for Belo Horizonte (2010–2030) is being prepared by external consultants based on similar cities' infrastructure, incorporating the role of local government, state government, city leaders and encouraging citizen participation. The need for environmentally sustainable development is led by the initiative of new government following planning processes from the state government. Overall, the development of the metropolis is dependent on the land regularization and infrastructure improvement that will better support the cultural technology and economic landscape. Despite being a developing or newly industrialized nation, it is home to two sustainable cities. The southern cities of Porto Alegre and Curitiba are often cited as examples of urban sustainability.
Cameroon
Bafut, is a town and traditional kingdom which is working towards becoming an eco-city by 2020, through the Bafut Council Eco-city Project.
Canada
Since 2016 the Green Score City Index has been studying the urban footprints of Canadian cities. It uses recognized governmental and institutional data to calculate the urban footprints of 50 cities.
Vancouver had 2018's highest green score for large cities.
Burlington had 2018's highest green score for medium cities.
Victoria had 2018's highest green score for small cities.
Most cities in Canada have sustainability action plans which are easily searched and downloaded from city websites.
In 2010, Calgary ranked as the top eco-city in the planet for its, "excellent level of service on waste removal, sewage systems, and water drinkability and availability, coupled with relatively low air pollution." The survey was performed in conjunction with the reputable Mercer Quality of Living Survey.
China
The Chinese government has launched three sustainable city programs to promote pilot projects and foster innovation. Beginning in the early 2000s, China acknowledged the importance of sustainable development in addressing the challenges brought about by rapid urbanization and industrialization. As a result, hundreds of eco-city projects have been initiated throughout the country, making China home to the world's largest eco-city program.
Tianjin: Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-city is a large and one of the very first ecocity collaboration project created with the cooperation between China and Singapore, in November 2007, covering an area of 31.23 km². Locating at Binhai, Tianjin, it has been rated as the Eco-city with the most living experience in 2018.
Dongtan Eco-city, Shanghai: The project, located in the east of Chongming Island developed by Arup and Parthers, was scheduled to accommodate 50,000 residents by 2010, but its developer has currently put construction on hold. An additional project was made in 2007 in this area: an Eco-Village based on the concept made by an Italian professor from the School of Architecture of Tianjin University.
Huangbaiyu, Benxi, Liaoning is a small village of 42 homes that has come under great criticism: most of the homes are unoccupied by villagers.
Nanjing: As of April 2008, an ecocity collaboration project is being proposed here.
Rizhao, Shandong mandates solar water heaters for households, and has been designated the Environmental Model City by China's SEPA.
Chengdu Tianfu District Great City is a planned city located just outside Chengdu that is planned to be sustainable and has the goal of being a self-sustaining city that discourages the use of cars.
Dalian, Liaoning: The 100 MW Dalian Flow Battery Energy Storage Peak-shaving Power Station, with the largest power and capacity in the world so far, was connected to the grid in Dalian, China, on September 29, and it was put into operation in mid-October.
Denmark
Two comprehensive studies were carried out for the whole of Denmark in 2010 (The IDA Climate Plan 2050) and 2011 (The Danish Commission on Climate Change Policy). The studies analysed the benefits and obstacles of running Denmark on 100% renewable energy from the year 2050. There is also a larger, ambitious plan in action: the Copenhagen 2025 Climate Plan.
On a more local level, the industrial park in Kalundborg is often cited as a model for industrial ecology. However, projects have been carried out in several Danish cities promoting 100% renewable energy. Examples include Aalborg, Ballerup and Frederikshavn. Aalborg University has launched a master education program on sustainable cities (Sustainable Cities @ Aalborg University Copenhagen). See also the Danish Wikipedia.
Copenhagen: Cycling in Copenhagen: One of the most bicycle-friendly city's in the world where over 50% of the population get around on bikes. The city has infrastructure that caters to cycling with hundreds of kilometres of curb segregated bike lanes to separate cyclists and car traffic. A notable feature is The Cycle Super Highways which feature elevated bike lanes which ensure fast, unhindered travel between destinations. The city is aiming for just 25% of trips to be made by automobile.
Ecuador
Loja, Ecuador won three international prizes for the sustainability efforts begun by its mayor Dr. Jose Bolivar Castillo.
Estonia
Oxford Residences for four seasons in Estonia, winning a prize for Sustainable Company of the Year, is arguably one of the most advanced sustainable developments, not only trying to be carbon neutral, but already carbon negative.
Finland
The Finnish city of Turku has adopted a "Carbon Neutral Turku by 2040" strategy to achieve carbon neutrality via combining the goal with circular economy.
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland has formulated an EcoCity concept tailored to address the unique requirements of developing countries and emerging economies. Prominent reference examples include EcoCity Miaofeng in China, EcoNBC in Egypt, EcoGrad in St. Petersburg, Russia, UN Gigiri in Kenya, and MUF2013 in Tanzania.
France
In Paris, bike lanes are being doubled, while electric car incentives are being created. The French capital is banning the most polluting automobiles from key districts.
Germany
Freiburg im Breisgau often refers to itself as a green city. It is one of the few cities with a Green mayor and is known for its strong solar energy industry. Vauban, Freiburg is a sustainable model district. All houses are built to a low energy consumption standard and the whole district is designed to be car-free.
Another green district in Freiburg is Rieselfeld, where houses generate more energy than they consume. There are several other green sustainable city projects such as Kronsberg in Hannover and current developments around Munich, Hamburg and Frankfurt.
Berlin: The Tiergarten (park) is a large park that takes up 520 acres and is an example of social sustainability where it is a green space but also used for transportation. The Tiergarten has inter paths where people can safely bike and walk without the disturbance of cars. Paths connect to notable areas within the city, such as government buildings, shopping areas and monuments. Berlin is mimicking London's "superhighways" for cyclists.
Hong Kong
The government portrays the proposed Hung Shui Kiu New Town as an eco-city. The same happened with the urban development plan on the site of the former Kai Tak Airport.
Iran
Isfahan dedicated smart city office began buildings architectures sustaintability programs in May 2022.
Ireland
South Dublin County Council announced plans in late 2007 to develop Clonburris, a new suburb of Dublin to include up to 15,000 new homes, to be designed to achieve the highest of international standards. The plans for Clonburris include countless green innovations such as high levels of energy efficiency, mandatory renewable energy for heating and electricity, the use of recycled and sustainable building materials, a district heating system for distributing heat, the provision of allotments for growing food, and even the banning of tumble driers, with natural drying areas being provided instead.
In 2012 an energy plan was carried out by the Danish Aalborg University for the municipalities of Limerick and County Clare. The project was a short-term 2020 renewable energy strategy giving a 20% reduction in CO2 emissions, while ensuring that short-term actions are beneficial to the long-term goal of 100% renewable energy.
India
India is working on Gujarat International Finance Tec-City or GIFT which is an under-construction world-class city in the Indian state of Gujarat. It will come up on 500 acres (2.0 km2) land. It will also be first of its kind fully Sustainable City.
Auroville was founded in 1968 with the intention of realizing human unity, and is now home to approximately 2,000 individuals from over 45 nations around the world. Its focus is its vibrant community culture and its expertise in renewable energy systems, habitat restoration, ecology skills, mindfulness practices, and holistic education.
The new capital of Andhra Pradesh is also planned to be a sustainable city in the future. As a part of the UN Global Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) cities initiative, Noida in Uttar Pradesh was selected in 2018 to become one of 25 cities in the world to become models of SDGs by 2025.
Indonesia
The cities of Bandung, Cimahi, and Soreang in Indonesia become world leaders in zero waste cities program after significantly reducing the amount of waste and improving its management.
Korea
Songdo IBD is a planned city in Incheon which has incorporated a number of eco-friendly features. These include a central park irrigated with seawater, a subway line, bicycle lanes, rainwater catchment systems, and pneumatic waste collection system. 75% of the waste generated by the construction of the city will be recycled.
Gwanggyo City Centre is another planned sustainable city.
Malaysia
As of 2014 a Low Carbon Cities programme is being piloted in Malaysia by KeTTHA, the Malaysian Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water, Malaysian Green Technology Corporation (GreenTech Malaysia) and the Carbon Trust.
Malacca has a stated ambition to become a carbon-free city, taking steps towards creating a smart electricity grid. This is being done as part of an initiative to create a Green Special Economic Zone, where it is intended that as many as 20 research and development centers will be built focusing on renewable energy and clean technology, creating up to 300,000 new green jobs.
The Federal Department of Town and Country Planning (FDTCP) in peninsular Malaysia is a focal point for the implementation of the Malaysian Urban Rural National Indicators Network for Sustainable Development (MURNInets), which includes 36 sets of compulsory indicators grouped under 21 themes under six dimensions. Most of the targets and standards for the selected indicators were adjusted according to hierarchy of local authorities. In MURNInets at least three main new features are introduced. These include the Happiness Index, an indicator under the quality of life theme to meet the current development trend that emphasizes on the well-being of the community. Another feature introduced is the customer or people satisfaction level towards local authorities' services. Through the introduction of these indicators the bottom-up approach in measuring sustainability is adopted.
Morocco
Planned for 2023, Zenata is the first African city to be awarded the Eco-City Label. It will include a total of 470 hectares of green spaces. It will also have water retention basins and promotes groundwater recharge and afforestation of the site. The naturally irrigated parks leading to the sea are designed as ecological corridors.
New Zealand
Waitakere City, a local body that formerly existed in West Auckland, was New Zealand's first eco-city, working from the Greenprint, a guiding document that the City Council developed in the early 1990s.
Norway
Oslo city was ranked first in the 2019 SDG Index and Dashboards Report for European Cities with a high score of 74.8. In order to achieve its ambitious targets for reducing carbon emissions in the European Green City index, Oslo plans to convert cities to biofuels and has considerably reduced traffic by 4–7% by introducing a congestion charge. Its aim is to cut-down emissions by 50 per cent since 1990 and it has taken a number of transportation, waste recycling, energy consumption and green space measures among others to meet its target.
Philippines
Clark Freeport Zone is a former United States Air Force base in the Philippines. It is located on the northwest side of Angeles City and on the west side of Mabalacat City in the province of Pampanga, about 40 miles (60 km) northwest of Metro Manila. A multi-billion project will convert the former Clark Air Force Base into a mix of industrial, commercial and institutional areas of green environment. The heart of the project is a 9,450-hectare metropolis dubbed as the "Clark Green City". Builders will use the green building system for environmentally-friendly structures. Its facilities will tap renewable energy such as solar and hydro power.
Portugal
The organization Living PlanIT is currently constructing a city from scratch near Porto, Portugal. Buildings will be electronically connected to vehicles giving the user a sense of personal eco-friendliness.
Pakistan
Islamabad The capital of Pakistan is full of green spaces and is an eco friendly city.
Spain
Bilbao: The city faced economic turmoil following the decline of the steel and port industries but through communication between stakeholders and authorities to create inner-city transformation, the local government benefited from the increase in land value in old port areas. The Strategic Plan for the Revitalisation of Metropolitan Bilbao was launched in 1992 and have flourished regenerating old steel and port industries. The conversion from depleted steel and port industries to one of Europe's most flourishing markets is a prime example of a sustainable project in action.
Barcelona: The city is planning an urban redesign of civic super blocks, they plan to convert nine-block areas into unified mega block neighbourhoods. The aim is to decrease car-related traffic, noise and pollution by over 20% and to free up to 60% of road areas for reuse as citizen spaces. This is being done because they realized that people in Barcelona die prematurely due to poor air quality and everyday noise levels are deemed harmful. By converting roads to spaces for festivals, farmer markets, bikes, and walkability it promotes a healthier lifestyle and potentially a happier one. In 2020, the European Investment Bank approved a €95 million loan to assist Barcelona in the completion of approximately 40 projects, with an emphasis on climate change and social inequity. The city plans to redevelop streets to create more space for pedestrians and bicyclists, enhance building energy efficiency, and expand social, cultural, and recreational opportunities.
Madrid: In 2018, Madrid banned all non-resident vehicles from its downtown areas.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia recently unveiled a proposed one of the most ambitious eco-city projects; Neom. Development is planned in the northwest region of the country along the Red Sea and would cover over 26,500 sq-km (10,230 sq-miles). Some of the most notable aspects of this development are The Line and Oxagon. The Line is advertised as a smart city that will stretch for 170 km with easily accessible amenities throughout. Oxagon is a planned floating city off the coast. If built, it will be the largest city.
Sweden
Norra Älvstranden (Swedish), in Gothenburg by the river Göta älv, is an example of a sustainable city in Sweden. It has low environmental impact, and contains passive houses, recycling system for waste, etc.
Hammarby Sjöstad
Västra Hamnen or Bo01, Malmö
Stockholm Royal Seaport
United Arab Emirates
Masdar City, Abu Dhabi is a planned city that relies entirely on solar energy and other renewable energy sources, with a sustainable, zero-carbon, zero-waste ecology.
Dubai The Sustainable City, Dubai
United Kingdom
London has committed to reaching net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. To do so, it aims to drastically reduce the proportion of trips made by cars and also ban all new petrol and diesel cars by 2035. Similarly, according to the UK Green Building Council, 40 per cent of UK's total carbon footprint comes from the built environment. Steel, which is used to make skyscrapers, is responsible for 7 per cent of the global emissions. Timber, especially CLT is a being considered as a great alternative to reduce construction-based emissions.
The built environment is responsible for around 40% of the UK's total carbon footprint, according to the UK Green Building Council
London Borough of Sutton is the first One Planet Region in the United Kingdom, with significant targets for reducing the ecological footprint of residents and creating the UK's greenest borough.
Middlesbrough is another One Planet Region in the United Kingdom.
Milton Keynes' original design concept aimed for a "forest city" and the foresters of the designers planted millions of trees from its own nursery in Newlands in the following years. Parks, lakes and green spaces cover about 25% of Milton Keynes; , there are 22 million trees and shrubs in public open spaces.
St Davids, the smallest city in the United Kingdom, aims to be the first carbon-neutral city in the world.
Leicester is the United Kingdom's first environment city.
United States
Arcosanti, Arizona
Coyote Springs Nevada largest planned city in the United States.
Babcock Ranch Florida a proposed solar-powered city.
Douglass Ranch in Buckeye Arizona
Mesa del Sol in Albuquerque, New Mexico
San Francisco, California is ranked the most sustainable city in the United States according to the 2019 US Cities Sustainable Development Report. Treasure Island, San Francisco: is a project that aims to create a small eco city.
Sonoma Mountain Village in Rohnert Park, California*
See also
See also the Sustainability navigational box at the bottom of the page.
2000-watt society
BedZED
Carfree city
Circles of Sustainability
Covenant of Mayors
Cyclability
Eco hotel
Eco-cities
Ecodistrict
Ecological engineering
Environmental economics
Freeway removal
Floating ecopolis
Global Ecovillage Network
Green infrastructure
Green retrofit
Green urbanism
Land recycling
Pedestrian village
Street reclamation
Sustainable design
Sustainable urbanism
Transition town
Urban design
Urban forestry
Urban green space
Urban reforestation
Urban vitality
Walking audit
Zero-carbon city
Notes
Further reading
Helmut Bott, Gregor Grassl, Stephan Anders (2019) Sustainable Urban Planning: Vibrant Neighbourhoods – Smart Cities – Resilience, DETAIL Publishers, Volume 1,
Stanislav E. Shmelev and Irina A. Shmeleva (2009) "Sustainable cities: problems of integrated interdisciplinary research", International Journal of Sustainable Development, Volume 12, Number 1, 2009, pp. 4 – 23
Richard Register (2006) Ecocities: building cities in balance with nature, New Society Publishers. .
Shannon May (2008) "Ecological citizenship and a plan for sustainable development", City,12:2,237 — 244
Timothy Beatley (1997) Eco-city dimensions : healthy communities, healthy planet, New Society Publishers. , .
Richard Register (1987) Ecocity Berkeley: building cities for a healthy future, North Atlantic Books. .
Sim Van der Ryn and Peter Calthorpe (1986) Sustainable communities: a new design synthesis for cities, suburbs, and towns, Sierra Club Books. .
Paolo Soleri (1973) Arcology : the city in the image of man, MIT Press. .
Ian L. McHarg (1969) Design with nature, Published for the American Museum of Natural History [by] the Natural History Press.
Federico Caprotti (2014) Eco-urbanism and the Eco-city, or, Denying the Right to the City?, Antipode, Volume 46, Issue 1, pp. 1285-1303
Simon Joss (2015) Eco-cities and Sustainable Urbanism, International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition).
External links
Eco Cities in China Publications by Anthropologist Shannon May on the transformation of Huangbaiyu, China into an Eco Village
Ecocity Summit 2009 ISTANBUL – TURKIYE
ECOPOLIS
Green Score City Index, GreenScore.eco
Ecotopia 2121. An Atlas of 100 "Visionary Super-Green" cities of the future from around the world.
Los Angeles: A History of the Future
Resource Guide on Sprawl and the New Urbanism edited by Deborah Sommer, Environmental Design Library, University of California, Berkeley.
Vattenfall Sustainable Cities
Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the City after COVID19 | author: Massimo Paolini [20 April 2020]
Sustainable Cities, Terrain.org
Which way China? Herbert Girardet, 2006 October 42, chinadialogue. Discusses the emergence of ecocities in China.
Working Group for Sustainable Cities at Harvard University
Landscape
Urban planning
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Types of cities
Environment by city
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable%20landscape%20architecture
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Sustainable landscape architecture
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Sustainable landscape architecture is a category of sustainable design concerned with the planning and design of the built and natural environments.
The design of a sustainable landscape encompasses the three pillars of sustainable development: economic well-being, social equity and environmental protections. The United Cities and Local Governments, UNESCO, and the World Summit on Sustainable Development further recommend including a fourth pillar of cultural preservation to create successful sustainable landscape designs. Creating a sustainable landscape requires consideration of ecology, history, cultural associations, sociopolitical dynamics, geology, topography, soils, land use, and architecture. Methods used to create sustainable landscapes include recycling, restoration, species reintroduction, and many more.
Goals of sustainable landscape architecture include a reduction of pollution, heightened water management and thoughtful vegetation choices.
An example of sustainable landscape architecture is the design of a sustainable urban drainage system, which can protect wildlife habitats, improve recreational facilities and save money through flood control. Another example is the design of a green roof or a roof garden that also contributes to the sustainability of a landscape architecture project. The roof will help manage surface water, decrease environmental impacts and provide space for recreation.
History
The first documented concern of the destruction of the modern landscape was in the 1981 Wildlife and Countryside Act.
Historic Cultural Influences
Perspectives on what entails a sustainable landscape design vary in different cultural lenses. Historically, Eastern and Western civilizations have had opposing philosophies of how to interact with nature within the built environment.
Western Civilization
United States
In the United States, Frederick Law Olmsted (1822-1903) acted as a pioneer in American landscape architecture. Olmsted began his career as an agricultural correspondent, before visiting England where he experienced and brought back ideas of English landscape design to the United States. He used landscape design to transform societal dynamics. His projects encouraged the mingling of community members from different strata by creating communal passageways through the city. This fostered an emphasis on creating socially sustainable communal urban spaces. His legacy is still lived in projects such as New York City’s Central Park, Boston’s Emerald Necklace and the U.S. Capitol Grounds. The cultural and philosophical doctrine that Olmsted introduced to North American landscape architecture created a basis of socially sustainable landscape designs. This idea falls under the old paradigm (1905-1940s) of scientific ecology, fathered by Frederic Clements, which excludes humans from being a part of natural ecology. This school of thought sees nature as a venue for humans to mingle and interact, rather than including humans as part of the natural world and ecosystem. The next scientific ecology paradigm in American culture was the thermodynamic paradigm (1930s-1980s), most famously documented by Eugene Odum. Rather than seeing humans dominating and existing separate from ecology, this school of thought focused on the relationship between humanity and nature. This era was characterized by the New Deal in the United States, and projects such as the Tennessee Valley Authority and large-scale highway projects. Within this paradigm, the United States government began to foster support of natural conservation, inviting the public to travel and admire the conserved landscapes of the country. However, efforts of conservatism within this age are criticized for emphasizing the human component of landscapes. The TVA, for example, championed the creation of dams and the production of energy. This created a space for admiration of a landscape altered solely for human benefit. Although there is a clear connection between humanity and nature, the emphasis on human accomplishment continued the anthropocentric culture of landscape architecture in North America. Within this same era, Ian McHarg was a leading landscape architect, and is seen as one of the first to challenge traditional ideas of landscape architecture towards a more sustainable lens. McHarg emphasized the idea of designing with nature, instead of against it. He encouraged thorough analysis and observation of a landscape before designing. His ideas were revolutionary as he put the environmental restrictions at the forefront of landscape architecture, reasoning that a healthy living environment fosters occupant respect for their surroundings. Instead of seeing man and nature as forces against one another, McHarg sought to bring them together. Aldo Leopold was another influential figure during this time, who pushed for the symbiotic relationship between man and nature. In addition to Olmsted’s emphasis on societal equality within the space of designed landscape, Leopold urged society to view the landscapes as part of the community. The widespread government support of natural conservation in American culture began to shatter once economic growth and political unrest began to overwhelm the country. These tensions gave way to the modern-day paradigm of scientific ecology: the evolutionary paradigm. This perspective views humans as a piece within nature’s dynamics, emphasizing the consequences of human impact on the environment.
Europe
European culture offers similar influences to the practice of sustainable landscape architecture. Western European countries would historically use landscaping to separate and organize natural habitats. Like North American practices, conservation of nature was routinely seen as “management” of wildlife by containing it in a space that is admired from a distance. Furthermore, landscapes have been designed to optimize the use of natural resources and economic gain of the land. Research into landscapes of ancient Eastern European civilizations showed similar ideals. In the Aegean, coaxial field and terraces were frequently used to cultivate the land for food. This connects to the root of all artificial landscape manipulation; a method of survival. Agriculture and resource allocation are an instinctual way which humans approach landscape architecture, demonstrating human dependence on continued and sustainable use of such landscapes.
Eastern Civilization
East Asian countries had a different cultural history in connection to sustainable landscape architecture. Whereas Western civilization focused on a human-centered built environment, Eastern countries used traditional philosophies that encourage the “unity of man and nature” to design landscapes. This idea is centered around the Chinese philosophy of Taoism, claiming that humans must be in tune with nature’s rhythms.
Instead of altering the environment to benefit humanity, this philosophy states that humans should create the build environment by taking advantage of natural patterns and tendencies (4). Furthermore, this school of thought considers The Peach Blossom Spring ideal, which expresses the cultural desire for nature to be a healing oasis for humans. In Eastern culture, nature is the overpowering entity that can care for humanity. This key difference from Western culture influenced a different trajectory of sustainable landscape architecture in Eastern civilization. The first instances of preservation and respect of nature was seen up to 2,000 years ago, via Chinese “gardens of literati”, or scholar gardens. Landscapes like these emphasized controlled borders of landscape design, rather than growth and expansion. Furthermore, ideas of Yin-yang and Feng shui inspired sustainable landscape practices. Yin-yang emphasizes balance, and within the built environment, dictates that natural and manmade components of landscape architecture must be in harmony. Feng shui originates from traditional burial design, and represents the “wind-water” balance. This relationship represents a fluidity of ecological processes and Feng shui aims to protect these natural cycles. Additionally, Feng shui focuses on “Qi” energy of design components, and how this energy can be influenced to inspire the ideal symbiosis between human and nature. Qi can include any resource, such as clean air, water, and suitable soil. Finding a location with Qi and maintaining the integrity of the Qi serves both the environment and the occupants. The principles defining Feng shui divide land into categories of which direction they face, their size, shape, and other parameters that dictate their “qi”, or energy potential. If the balance of a landscape does not cultivate optimal energy, to benefit both the ecosystem and humanity, then sustainable landscape architecture permits “bibo” or “apseung” - an addition or deletion, respectively - of materials. Human intervention therefore, is only used when necessary to increase the symbiosis of a landscape, rather than used simply to benefit human occupants of the area. The most influential aspect of Feng shui is its assessment of the built environment. Instead of quantitatively measuring the well-being of a community’s environment, the environment is assessed based on how it serves the culture, and if processes are in balance. This integrates the ecological well-being with cultural well-being, raising the stakes of the landscape health and connecting it directly to the people. Although Eastern culture emphasizes a harmonious and mutual benefit in humanity’s relationship with nature, critics point out that Eastern culture tends to emphasize landscape design on beauty, rather than function.
Main Differences Between Western and Eastern Civilizations
The cultural backgrounds that give way to sustainable landscape architecture in the Western and Eastern hemisphere differ on several grounds. Western culture aimed to domesticate and tame nature. Humans and nature were considered separate entities, and humans would design for ways to overcome the ‘obstacle’ of nature. Eastern culture, conversely, strived to be in harmony with nature. Humans and nature were thought to be a part of the same cycle, and designs were created to be in sync with natural processes for maximum benefits. A specific phenomenon that exemplifies these two cultures is looking at building materials from the two contrasting cultures. In England and New England, whenever possible, brick and mortar were used, symbolic of the dominance that humans would exert in their built environment. These materials are strong, but energy intensive to make, and not in sync with the natural world. In China and other Asian countries, wood was the preferred building material, as it was readily available and renewable. Design of buildings and landscape were purposefully done in a way that enhances the flow of “Qi”, or energy, rather than stifling it.
Challenges to Sustainable Landscape Architecture
History and cultural norms have defined how landscape designs have been approached in the past, largely when interpreting how mankind can design untouched land. However, following the industrial revolution and along with a booming population rise, urbanization has become the main spotlight surrounding landscape architecture. Some European countries have witnessed up to 80% of their population moving to urban centers. Along with these mass migrations comes a tremendous loss of biodiversity, as forest land is cleared for timber and residential land use. Due to urbanization and increased transportation, neighboring rural landscapes and even remote villages have been delegated to functional urban regions (FURs) and are slowly losing their cultural and heritage value. These patterns influence landscape architecture to be catered solely to urban spaces, and to serve the metropolitan needs of economic meccas. Whereas once culture was the driving force behind how sustainable landscape designs are, financial worth now governs the design of landscapes in a largely urban world. Instead of designing untouched land and choosing how to interact with nature, landscape architects face the challenge of how to design and renovate an environment or city to be as sustainable as possible.
Western colonization of Eastern Asian countries has overwhelmed traditional cultural perspectives of landscape architecture with Western ideals. Urbanization leads to environmental degradation such as fragmentation, a lack of green spaces and poor water quality. All these side-effects hinder the practice of Fengshui. For example, in Seoul, 20% of forests disappeared during urbanization in 1988-1999, due to an unplanned influx of population coupled with disorganization following the Korean War. To avoid the environmental downfalls of urbanization, methods such as planned spacing, sustainable transport systems and purposeful vegetation implementation (on roofs, roads, riversides) is recommended.
Due to a strong human presence and impact, sustainable landscape architecture is more important now than it has ever been. Tools within the built environment, such as natural filters, climate control tactics and reconciliation ecology are recommended to sustain the planet. This requires a combination of both Eastern and Western cultural drivers. In Southern Europe, domestic species are being re-introduced to urbanized areas to help with cultural identity, food production, and a lack of vegetation in the city. Athens is an example of this tactic. In the 1980s, Athens, Greece was a compact city. It slowly began to spread out into periphery farming land, consuming the landscapes bordering the urban space. The government has begun to plant olive trees in such areas, therefore benefitting from small green urban spaces in several categories. Olive trees offer cultural and traditional sustainability, due to their importance in Greek culture and history. They offer local food production and a source of income. Furthermore, the trees increase shade in heat island, and decrease the risk of fire. They are a low-maintenance crop which emphasizes sustainable landscape design within multiple realms, making their implementation a favorable way to design challenging urban landscapes in a sustainable fashion. The emphasis on the cultural identity of the olive trees ensures cultural sustainability, the suggested fourth pillar in sustainable development.
With urbanization and industrialization discouraging the participation in rural landscapes and communities, the United Nations has sought ways to restore culture sustainability with these spaces through touristic potential. In 1990, UNESCO emphasized the creation of GeoParks to instill geotourism and restore historical and cultural integrity to a site. By rooting these projects in cultural incentives, landscape designs can focus on rural community ideals, rather than metropolitan restrictions. Ţara Haţegului in Romania is an ideal example of such a project which achieves sustainable landscape architecture by using cultural emphasis. Combining landscape architecture with cultural identity ensures that the land becomes a part of a community's heritage. The Council of Europe has created a framework convention on the value of cultural heritage, and they have concluded that cultural integrity correlates with social responsibility of a landscape. They emphasize approaching landscape architecture in a conscious matter that protects people’s surrounding. By connecting people to their environment, it becomes part of their identity, and it gives motive to protect the ecosystem. The council concludes that such multidisciplinary policies are essential to cultivate sustainable landscape architecture.
Certifications
Green Business Certification Inc. has partnered with the U.S. Green Building Council to create the Sustainable SITES Initiative certification program. This program has adopted LEED strategies in promoting the sustainability of landscapes within the built environment.
See also
Built environment
Carbon cycle re-balancing
Climate-friendly gardening
Context theory
Cultural sustainability
Energy-efficient landscaping
Feng shui
Frederick Law Olmsted
Green roof
Green transport
GeoParks
Ian McHarg
Landscape planning
Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable gardening
Sustainable landscaping
Sustainable planting
Sustainable urban drainage
Urban agriculture
Urban forestry
Urbanization
Taoism
References
Landscape and sustainability John F. Benson, Maggie H. Roe (2007)
Sustainable Site Design: Criteria, Process, and Case Studies Claudia Dinep, Kristin Schwab (2009)
Sustainable urban design: perspectives and examples Work Group for Sustainable Urban Development (2005)
External links
The Sustainable Landscapes Conference at Utah State University
Information on designing a sustainable urban landscape
Resource guides from the American society of landscape artists.
Sustainable design
Sustainable gardening
Garden design
Landscape architecture
Sustainable architecture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny%20Hollands
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Danny Hollands
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Daniel Timothy Hollands (born 6 November 1985) is an English professional footballer who plays for Gosport Borough.
Career
Chelsea
Born in Ashford, England, Hollands played for Hampton & Richmond at a young age before being offered a trial at Chelsea, where it was successful and subsequently signed for them. There, as a trainee, Hollands began his professional football career and signed a three–year scholarships with the club in July 2002. Having progressed through the ranks at the academy, Hollands turned professional in November 2003.
He captained the Chelsea Youth Team and had been captain of their reserve side until joining Torquay United on loan in March 2006. He made his league debut in a 1–0 home victory against Peterborough United and played ten times, scoring once in the crucial 4–0 win at home to Stockport County as Torquay turned their season around and eventually survived relegation on the last day of the season.
In the close season, he was released by Chelsea, without making a first team appearance.
AFC Bournemouth
After being released by Chelsea, Hollands signed for AFC Bournemouth on a two-year deal, becoming the club's fourth signings this season. Prior to the move, Hollands was linked with a move to Millwall and Brentford.
Hollands made his Bournemouth debut on 8 August 2006, where he made his first start and played the whole game, in a 0–0 draw against Yeovil Town. After suffering from a groin injury, he scored his first Bournemouth goal of the season on 3 November 2006, in a 4–2 win over Swansea City. He scored again on 11 November 2006, in the first round of FA Cup, in a 4–0 win over Boston United. From that moment on, Hollands had a run in of first team football under management of Kevin Bond as the 2006–07 season progressed. In his first season, Hollands went on to make thirty–eight appearances and scoring two times in all competitions. For his performance, he was the club's goal of the season, as well as, PFA supporters' player of the month.
In the 2007–08 season, Hollands said his aim this season was to "improve as a player" in order to get first team football. However, he missed out the start of the season, due to a hamstring injury. After returning to the first team in early–September, he scored his first goal of the season, in a 4–1 loss against Swindon Town on 22 September 2007. It wasn't until on 20 November 2007 when he scored again, but was sent–off for a second bookable offence, in a 3–2 win over Barrow in the second round replay of the FA Cup. However, during the match against Barrow, he suffered a hernia injury in the process. After an eventual recovery from the injury and served two match suspension, he returned to the first team and then scored again on 26 January 2008, in a 3–1 win over Port Vale. A week later, on 2 February 2008 against Nottingham Forest, Hollands captained the side for the first time in his career, which saw them win 2–0. Despite being sidelined twice, due to "dead leg" injury and suspension, he scored again on 15 March 2008, in a 2–0 win over Yeovil Town. Hollands also scored his fifth goal on 19 April 2008, in a 3–1 win over Walsall. However, despite good performances and effort as the season progressed, the club were relegated to League Two, due to the club entered administration along the way. At the end of 2007–08 season, Hollands went on to make forty–three appearances and scoring five times in all competitions. For his performance, Hollands was awarded the Daily Echo/Micky Cave's Player of the Year.
Ahead of the 2008–09 season, Hollands was keen on signing a new contract with the club despite their relegation to League Two. As a result, he was linked a move away from Bournemouth, as Colchester United was keen on signing him. In the end, Hollands agreed to stay at the club this season, eventually signing a new contract, keeping him until 2010. However, he missed the start of the season, due to suffering a knee injury. Despite aiming to return to the first team in September, he returned to the first team and scored his first goal of the season, a week later on 2 September 2008, in a 3–0 win over Bristol Rovers in the first round of the Football League Trophy. Following an end to the game against Accrington Stanley on 15 November 2008, which saw them lose 3–0, Hollands was involved in alteration with the club's supporters in the final whistle, prompting to apologise afterwards. By the end of 2008, Hollands went on to score two more goals against Bradford City and Wycombe Wanderers. On 3 January 2009, Hollands scored again, in a 2–1 loss against Darlington, followed up his sending off in the next game, in a 1–0 loss against Rotherham United. After serving a one match suspension, Hollands scored in the next game, on 17 January 2009, in a 1–1 draw against Luton Town. As the 2008–09 season progressed, he went on to score two more goals against Aldershot Town and Exeter City. At the end of the 2008–09 season, he helped the club survive relegation, having started the season with deducted points. He also went on to make forty–eight appearances and scoring seven times in all competitions.
Ahead of the 2009–10 season, Hollands was appointed as a new captain. He also agreed on staying after being paid by 12 June 2009 following a 14-day notice from the Football League. However, at the start of the season, Hollands missed out, due to suffering a knee injury. It wasn't until on 5 September 2009 when he returned to the first team, coming on as a late substitute, in a 2–1 win over Torquay United. Between 6 October 2009 and 17 October 2009, Hollands scored three times in three matches against Northampton Town, Chesterfield and Accrington Stanley. By January 2010, Hollands was replaced by Jason Pearce as captain. Manager Eddie Howe went on to explain on removing as a captain, stating that he wanted to concentrate on football and Hollands, himself, agreed on being removed as captain. Despite this, Hollands scored a brace twice later in the season against Rotherham United and Notts County. Despite being sidelined once again, Having helped the club's promotion to the League One for next season, Hollands went on to make forty–two appearances and scoring seven times in all competitions. At the end of the 2009–10 season, Hollands signed a contract extension with the club, keeping him until 2011.
In the 2010–11 season, Hollands continued to help the club with a winning start for the side in League One. Having started the season, appearing coming on from the bench, he regained his first team place in the midfield position throughout the season. He then scored his first goal of the season on 16 October 2010, in a 3–2 win over MK Dons. By the end of 2010, he went on to score two more goals against Brentford and Yeovil Town. Hollands also went on to score four goals later in the season against Plymouth Argyle, Swindon Town, Oldham Athletic and Charlton Athletic. However, he was then sent–off in the first half for a second bookable offence on 25 April 2011, in a 2–1 win over Bristol Rovers. But he appeared twice in the play–offs and started in both legs, which they lost in the penalty shootout and turned out to be his last appearance for the club. He went on to make forty–eight appearances and scoring seven times in all competitions in the 2010–11 season.
At the end of the 2010–11 season, Hollands was offered a new contract by the club. Though he wanted to stay at the club, Hollands, however, rejected a new contract from the club, leading him to expect leaving the club.
Charlton Athletic
Hollands chose not to renew his contract upon its expiry at the end of the 2010–11 season and subsequently signed for Charlton Athletic on 24 May 2011. Hollands later reflected that he left for Charlton Athletic for both professional and family reasons. Upon joining the club, he signed a three–year contract.
Hollands made his Charlton Athletic debut, in the opening game of the season, where he started and played the whole game, against his former club Bournemouth. He scored his first two goals for Charlton in a 2–3 away win at Rochdale on 17 September. Between 22 October 2011 and 13 November 2011, Hollands scored four goals in five appearances in all competitions against Carlisle United, Hartlepool United, Preston North End and Halifax Town. Hollands was able to score one more goal by the end of 2011, which was against Yeovil Town on 26 December 2011. However, Hollands was then sent–off in the first half of the match against Oldham Athletic on 7 April 2012, which saw them win 1–0. For that, he served a three–match suspension; up until his sending off, he was an ever–present player at the club since the start of the season. After returning to the first team from the suspension, Hollands then scored in the last game of the season, in a 3–2 win over Hartlepool United. At the end of the 2011–12, in which saw Charlton Athletic were promoted to the Championship, Hollands made forty–six appearances and scoring eight times in all competitions.
In the 2012–13 season, Hollands continued to be a first team regular at the start of the season and provided an assist for Yann Kermorgant to score the second goal in the game, in a 2–1 win over Leicester City on 21 August 2012. Hollands did so again when he set up a goal for Johnnie Jackson to score an equaliser, in a 1–1 draw against Blackburn Rovers on 29 September 2012. By the following month in October, Hollands began to struggle in the first team, due to performances from Dorian Dervite, Bradley Pritchard and Jackson. After his loan spell at Swindon Town came to an end, Hollands continued to recover from stress fracture to his metatarsal in his left foot. It wasn't until on 27 April 2013 when he made his return to the first team, making his first start in months for the side, in a 2–2 draw against Middlesbrough. At the end of the 2012–13 season, Hollands finished the season, making fifteen appearances for the side.
In the 2013–14 season, Hollands' only appearance for the side came on in the first round of the League Cup, in a 4–0 loss against Oxford United. At the end of the 2013–14 season Hollands was released by Charlton. During his time at Charlton, he became the club's fan favourite.
Loan spells at Swindon Town and Gillingham
On 15 November 2012, Hollands joined League One side Swindon Town on loan until 5 March 2013. He made his Swindon Town debut two day later, on 17 November 2012, where he set up one of the goals, in a 4–1 win over Yeovil Town. Hollands then scored his first goal for the club on 21 December 2012, in a 5–0 win over Tranmere Rovers, followed up by scoring in a 5–0 win over Peterborough United on 1 January 2013. Because of this, Hollands had his loan spell at Swindon Town extended for another twenty–eight days. It came after when Manager Paulo Di Canio offered to pay £30,000 of his own money to keep Hollands, along with John Bostock and Chris Martin, whilst Swindon under a transfer embargo and in financial difficulty. However, during a 2–0 win over Shrewsbury Town on 19 January 2013, Hollands suffered a stress fracture to his metatarsal in his left foot and was substituted as a result. On 1 February 2013, he returned to his parent club, with his loan spell expired, as well as, his own injury concern.
On 29 August 2013, Hollands joined Gillingham on a three-month loan. Two days later, on 31 August 2013, he made his Gillingham debut, where he came on as a second-half substitute and played 38 minutes, in a 1–1 draw against Bristol City. He scored his first goal for Gillingham in a 3–2 win over Milton Keynes Dons on 5 October. From that moment on, Hollands quickly became a first team regular at Gillingham in the midfield position for the club and since his debut, he started every match until he suffered an injury during a 2–2 draw against Peterborough United on 14 December 2013, resulting him being substituted. Following this, he never played again and returned to his parent club in early–January.
Portsmouth
On 27 March 2014, Hollands joined Portsmouth on loan for the remainder of the campaign.
Hollands made his Portsmouth debut two days later on 29 March 2014, where he started the whole game, in a 2–1 win over Newport County. Hollands scored his first goal on 12 April 2014, in a 4–1 win over Dagenham & Redbridge; followed up by scoring in the next game on 19 April 2014, in a 3–2 win over Bristol Rovers. After adding his third goal, in a 4–4 draw against Bury on 26 April 2014, He scored a hat-trick on the last day of the season against Plymouth Argyle, and contributed with six goals in seven appearances for "Pompey" during his loan spell.
On 22 May 2014, Hollands joined Portsmouth in a permanent basis, signing a two-year deal. Upon joining the club, he was given a number 29 shirt, a shirt he wore whilst on loan. He made his second Portsmouth debut in the opening game of the season, in a 1–1 draw against Newport County. But following Ben Chorley's injury, he captained the side for the first time on 16 September 2014, in a 3–0 win over Dagenham & Redbridge. Hollands scored his first Portsmouth goal since joining them on a permanent basis, in a 3–0 win over Carlisle United on 1 November 2014, followed up by scoring in a 2–2 draw against Aldershot Town in the first round of FA Cup. Hollands then captained the side once again on 17 March 2015, in a 2–2 draw against Cheltenham Town. Despite appearing as an unused substitute on two occasions and being once left out of the squad in late–December, Hollands finished the 2014–15 season, making forty–eight appearances and scoring two times in all competitions.
In the 2015–16 season, Hollands was often used in first team ins and out since the start of the season and appeared on the substitute bench on numerous occasion, but regained his first team place by the end of September. He continued to be in the first team until he suffered a broken leg during a 2–2 draw against Ipswich Town in the FA Cup match. After being sidelined for six weeks, he returned to the first team on 27 February 2016, in a 2–1 win over Cambridge United and was named Man of the Match. On 26 April 2016, Hollands provided an assist for Michael Smith to score the only goal in the game, with a win against AFC Wimbledon. Although he suffered an injury towards the end of the 2015–16 season, Hollands went on to make thirty–nine appearances and scored none in all competitions.
With his contract expiring, talks between the club and Hollands proceeded. Hollands expressed desire to stay at the club. Local newspaper, Portsmouth News, called on the club to keep him. Despite this, Hollands continued to remain at the club throughout pre–season tour ahead of the new season. Though it looked like Hollands' future at Portsmouth was secured, it was reported on 18 August 2016 that he might leave the club after failing to agree new terms.
Crewe Alexandra
On 19 August 2016, Hollands joined Crewe Alexandra on a five-month contract to January 2017, later extended to the end of the season.
Hollands made his Crewe Alexandra the next day, where he came on as a second-half substitute, in a 1–1 draw against Newport County. He scored his first Crewe goal in a 2–0 win over Exeter City at Gresty Road on 10 September 2016. On 18 February 2017, playing against Wycombe Wanderers at Gresty Road, Hollands suffered a hamstring injury that ruled him out of the rest of the season. On 9 May 2017, Crewe announced that Hollands had been released by the club, but manager David Artell was set to hold new contract talks with Hollands once he had proved his fitness.
Eastleigh
In May, Hollands signed for Eastleigh, which was close to his Portsmouth home. His first goal for Eastleigh was in a 3–1 win against Hampshire rivals Aldershot Town. He scored a vital goal for the Spitfires when he scored in extra time against Wrexham in the 2018–19 play-off eliminator. Hollands was released at the end of the 2021–22 season.
Gosport Borough
In June 2022, Hollands signed for Gosport Borough.
Career statistics
Personal life
Growing up in Ashford, Middlesex, Hollands attended Felpham Community College until he left at 16, doing well at school. During his teenage years, he also lived on the south coast. He supported Tottenham Hotspur and was a season-ticket holder.
Hollands' father, Tim, was also a footballer and holds the all-time record of appearances for Hampton and Richmond.
Hollands has been married to his wife Natalie since he was 21. They first met when they were both 15, and have three daughters, Sofia, Annabella and Mia.
Honours
Charlton Athletic
Football League One: 2011–12
References
External links
Danny Hollands player profile at afcb.co.uk
1985 births
People from Ashford, Surrey
Living people
Men's association football midfielders
English men's footballers
Chelsea F.C. players
Torquay United F.C. players
AFC Bournemouth players
Charlton Athletic F.C. players
Swindon Town F.C. players
Gillingham F.C. players
Portsmouth F.C. players
Crewe Alexandra F.C. players
Eastleigh F.C. players
Gosport Borough F.C. players
English Football League players
Footballers from Surrey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac%20Pro
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Mac Pro
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Mac Pro is a series of workstations and servers for professionals made by Apple Inc. since 2006. The Mac Pro, by some performance benchmarks, is the most powerful computer that Apple offers. It is one of four desktop computers in the current Mac lineup, sitting above the Mac Mini, iMac and Mac Studio.
Introduced in August 2006, the Mac Pro was an Intel-based replacement for the Power Mac line and had two dual-core Xeon Woodcrest processors and a rectangular tower case carried over from the Power Mac G5. It was updated on April 4, 2007, by a dual quad-core Xeon Clovertown model, then on January 8, 2008, by a dual quad-core Xeon Harpertown model. Revisions in 2010 and 2012 revisions had Nehalem/Westmere architecture Intel Xeon processors.
In December 2013, Apple released a new cylindrical Mac Pro (colloquially called the "trash can Mac Pro"). Apple said it offered twice the overall performance of the first generation while taking up less than one-eighth the volume. It had up to a 12-core Xeon E5 processor, dual AMD FirePro D series GPUs, PCIe-based flash storage and an HDMI port, but lacked PCIe expansion slots. Thunderbolt 2 ports brought updated wired connectivity and support for six Thunderbolt Displays. Reviews initially were generally positive, with caveats. Limitations of the cylindrical design prevented Apple from upgrading the cylindrical Mac Pro with more powerful hardware.
The 2019 Mac Pro returned to a tower form factor reminiscent of the first-generation model, but with larger air cooling holes. It has up to a 28-core Xeon-W processor, eight PCIe slots, AMD Radeon Pro Vega GPUs, and replaces most data ports with USB-C and Thunderbolt 3.
The 2023 Mac Pro carried over the design of the 2019 model and is based on the Apple M2 Ultra chip. It is the first model with an Apple silicon chip. Its introduction completed the Mac transition from Intel to Apple processors, first announced in June 2020 and started in November that year.
Tower (2006–2012)
Apple said that an Intel-based replacement for the 2003's PowerPC-based Power Mac G5 machines had been expected for some time before the Mac Pro was formally announced on August 7, 2006, at the annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC). In June 2005, Apple released the Developer Transition Kit, a prototype Intel Pentium 4–based Mac housed in a Power Mac G5 case, that was temporarily available to developers. The iMac, Mac Mini, MacBook, and MacBook Pro had moved to an Intel-based architecture starting in January 2006, leaving the Power Mac G5 as the only machine in the Mac lineup still based on the PowerPC processor architecture Apple had used since 1994. Apple had dropped the term "Power" from the other machines in their lineup and started using "Pro" on their higher-end laptop offerings. As such, the name "Mac Pro" was widely used before the machine was announced. The Mac Pro is in the Unix workstation market. Although the high-end technical market has not traditionally been an area of strength for Apple, the company has been positioning itself as a leader in non-linear digital editing for high-definition video, which demands storage and memory far in excess of a general desktop machine. Additionally, the codecs used in these applications are generally processor intensive and highly threadable, which Apple's ProRes white paper describes as scaling almost linearly with additional processor cores. Apple's previous machine aimed at this market, the Power Mac G5, has up to two dual-core processors (marketed as "Quad-Core"), but lacks the storage expansion capabilities of the newer design.
Original marketing materials for the Mac Pro generally referred to the middle-of-the-line model with 2 × dual-core 2.66 GHz processors. Previously, Apple featured the base model with the words "starting at" or "from" when describing the pricing, but the online US Apple Store listed the "Mac Pro at $2499", the price for the mid-range model. The system could be configured at US$2299, much more comparable with the former base-model dual-core G5 at US$1999, although offering considerably more processing power. Post revision, the default configurations for the Mac Pro includes one quad-core Xeon 3500 at 2.66 GHz or two quad-core Xeon 5500s at 2.26 GHz each. Like its predecessor, the Power Mac G5, the pre-2013 Mac Pro was Apple's only desktop with standard expansion slots for graphics adapters and other expansion cards.
Apple received criticism after an incremental upgrade to the Mac Pro line following the 2012 WWDC conference. The line received more default memory and increased processor speed but still used Intel's older Westmere-EP processors instead of the newer E5 series. The line also lacked then-current technologies like SATA III, USB 3, and Thunderbolt, the last of which had been added to every other Macintosh at that point. An email from Apple CEO Tim Cook promised a more significant update to the line in 2013.
Apple stopped shipping the first-generation Mac Pro in Europe on March 1, 2013 after an amendment to a safety regulation left the professional Mac non-compliant. The last day to order was February 18, 2013. The first-generation Mac Pro was removed from Apple's online store following the unveiling of the redesigned cylindrical Mac Pro at a media event on October 22, 2013.
CPU
All original tower Mac Pro systems were available with one or two central processing units (CPU). As of 2012, there had been models sold with 2, 4, 6, 8, or 12 cores. As an example, the 8-core standard configuration Mac Pro 2010 uses two 4-core Intel E5620 Xeon CPUs at 2.4 GHz, but could be configured with two 6-core Intel Xeon X5670 CPUs at 2.93 GHz. The 2006–2008 models use the LGA 771 socket, while the Early 2009 and later use the LGA 1366 socket, meaning either can be removed and replaced with compatible 64-bit Intel Xeon CPUs. A 64-bit EFI firmware was not introduced until the MacPro3,1, earlier models can only operate as 32-bit despite having 64-bit Xeon processors, however this only applies to the EFI side of the System, as the Mac boots everything else in BIOS Compatibility mode, and operating systems can take advantage of full 64 bit support. The newer LGA 1366 sockets utilize Intel's QuickPath Interconnect (QPI) integrated into the CPU in lieu of an independent system bus; this means the "bus" frequency is relative to the CPU chipset, and upgrading a CPU is not bottlenecked by the computer's existing architecture.
Memory
The original Mac Pro's main memory uses 667 MHz DDR2 ECC FB-DIMMs; the early 2008 model uses 800 MHz ECC DDR2 FB-DIMMS, the 2009 and onward Mac Pro use 1066 MHz DDR3 ECC DIMMs for the standard models, and 1333 MHz DDR3 ECC DIMMs for systems configured with 2.66 GHz or faster CPUs. In the original and 2008 models, these modules are installed in pairs, one each on two riser cards. The cards have 4 DIMM slots each, allowing a total of 32 GB (1 GB = 10243 B) of memory (8 × 4 GB) to be installed. Notably, due to its FB-DIMM architecture, installing more RAM in the Mac Pro will improve its memory bandwidth, but may also increase its memory latency. With a simple installation of a single FB-DIMM, the peak bandwidth is 8000 MB/s (1 MB = 10002 B), but this can increase to 16000 MB/s by installing two FB-DIMMs, one on each of the two buses, which is the default configuration from Apple. While electrically the FB-DIMMs are standard, for pre-2009 Mac Pro models Apple specifies larger-than-normal heatsinks on the memory modules. Problems have been reported by users who have used third party RAM with normal size FB-DIMM heatsinks. (see notes below). 2009 and later Mac Pro computers do not require memory modules with heatsinks.
Hard drives
The Mac Pro had room for four internal 3.5" SATA-300 hard drives in four internal "bays". The hard drives were mounted on individual trays (also known as "sleds") by captive screws. A set of four drive trays was supplied with each machine. Adding hard drives to the system did not require cables to be attached as the drive was connected to the system simply by being inserted into the corresponding drive slot. A case lock on the back of the system locked the disks trays into their positions.
The Mac Pro also supported Serial ATA solid-state drives (SSD) in the 4 hard drive bays via an SSD-to-hard drive sled adapter (mid-2010 models and later), and by third-party solutions for earlier models (e.g., by an adapter/bracket which plugged into an unused PCIe slot). Various 2.5-inch SSD drive capacities and configurations were available as options.
The Mac Pro was also available with an optional hardware RAID card. With the addition of a SAS controller card or SAS RAID controller card, SAS drives could be directly connected to the system's SATA ports.
Two optical drive bays were provided, each with a corresponding SATA port and an Ultra ATA/100 port.
The Mac Pro had one PATA port and could support two PATA devices in the optical drive bays. It had a total of six SATA ports – four were connected to the system's drive bays, and two were not connected. The extra SATA ports could be put into service through the use of after-market extender cables to connect internal optical drives, or to provide eSATA ports with the use of an eSATA bulkhead connector. However, the two extra SATA ports were unsupported and disabled under Boot Camp.
Expansion cards
The 2008 model had two PCI Express (PCIe) 2.0 expansion slots and two PCI Express 1.1 slots, providing them with up to 300 W of power in total. The first slot was double wide and intended to hold the main video card, arranged with an empty area the width of a normal card beside it to leave room for the large coolers modern cards often use. In most machines, one slot would be blocked by the cooler. Instead of the tiny screws typically used to fasten the cards to the case, in the Mac Pro a single "bar" held the cards in place, which is itself held in place by two "captive" thumbscrews that can be loosened by hand without tools and will not fall out of the case.
On the original Mac Pro introduced in August 2006, the PCIe slots can be configured individually to give more bandwidth to devices that require it, with a total of 40 "lanes", or 13 GB/s total throughput. When running Mac OS X, the Mac Pro did not support SLI or ATI CrossFire, limiting its ability to use the latest "high-end gaming" video card products; however, individuals have reported success with both CrossFire and SLI installations when running Windows XP, as SLI and CrossFire compatibility is largely a function of software.
The bandwidth allocation of the PCIe slots can be configured via the Expansion Slot Utility included with Mac OS X only on the August 2006 Mac Pro. The Early-2008 and later Mac Pros had PCIe slots hardwired as in the accompanying table.
External connectivity
For external connectivity, the Mac Pro included five USB 2.0 ports, two FireWire 400 and two FireWire 800 (Late 2006 until Early 2008), respectively four FireWire 800 (Early 2009 until Mid 2012) ports. Networking was supported with two built-in Gigabit Ethernet ports. 802.11 a/b/g/n Wi-Fi support (AirPort Extreme) required an optional module in the Mid 2006, Early 2008 and Early 2009 models, whereas in the 2010 model and later Wi-Fi was standard. Bluetooth also required an optional module in the Mid 2006 model, but was standard in the Early 2008 and newer models. Displays were supported by one or (optionally) more PCIe graphics cards. More recent cards featured two Mini DisplayPort connectors and one dual-link Digital Visual Interface (DVI) port, with various configurations of on-card graphics memory available.
Digital (TOSlink optical) audio and analog 3.5 mm stereo mini jacks for sound in and out were included, the latter becoming available on both the front and back of the case.
Unlike other Mac computers, the Mac Pro did not include an infrared receiver (required to use the Apple Remote). In Mac OS X Leopard, Front Row could be accessed on the Mac Pro (and other Macs) using the Command (⌘)-Escape keystroke.
Case
From 2006 through 2012, the exterior of the Mac Pro's aluminum case was very similar to that of the Power Mac G5, with the exception of an additional optical drive bay, a new arrangement of I/O ports on both the front and the back, and one less exhaust vent on the back.
The case could be opened by operating a single lever on the back, which unlocked one of the two sides of the machine, as well as the drive bays. All of the expansion slots for memory, PCIe cards and drives could be accessed with the side panel removed and no tools were required for installation.
The Mac Pro's Xeon processors generated much less heat than the previous 2-core G5s, so the size of the internal cooling devices were reduced significantly.
This allowed the interior to be re-arranged, leaving more room at the top of the case and doubling the number of internal drive bays. This also allowed the elimination of the large clear plastic air deflector used as part of the cooling system in the Power Mac G5. Less heat also meant less air to move out of the case for cooling during normal operations; the Mac Pro was very quiet in normal operation, quieter than the much noisier Power Mac G5, and proved difficult to measure using common sound pressure level meters. The front of the case, which has small perforated holes across its entire surface area, has caused Macintosh enthusiasts to refer to the first generation as the "cheese grater" Mac Pro.
Operating systems
The Mac Pro comes with EFI 1.1, a successor to Apple's use of Open Firmware and the wider industry's use of BIOS.
Apple's Boot Camp provides BIOS backwards compatibility, allowing dual and triple boot configurations. These operating systems are installable on Intel x86–based Apple computers:
Mac OS X 10.4.7 and later
Microsoft Windows XP, Vista, and Windows 7 32-bit & 64-bit (hardware drivers are included in Boot Camp)
Other x86 operating systems such as Linux x86, Solaris, and BSD
This is made possible by the presence of an x86 Intel architecture as provided by the CPU and the BIOS emulation which Apple has provided on top of EFI. Installing any additional operating system other than Windows is not supported directly by Apple. Though Apple's Boot Camp drivers are only for Windows, it is often possible to achieve full or nearly full compatibility with another OS by using third-party drivers.
Specifications
Reception
Ars Technica reviewed the 2006 Mac Pro, calling it a solid "multiplatform device" and rating it 9 out of 10. CNET praised the design and value, although did not think it provided the flexibility of other systems. They gave it an 8 out of 10.
Sound on Sound, an audio recording technology magazine, thought it was a "great machine" for musicians and audio engineers. Architosh, an online architectural design magazine focused on mac technology, would have scored it a perfect five except for a few issues with software compatibility and the high price for FB-DIMM memory.
Cylinder (2013)
Apple senior vice president of marketing Phil Schiller presented a "sneak peek" of the completely redesigned Mac Pro during the 2013 Worldwide Developers Conference keynote. The video revealed an overhauled case design, a polished reflective aluminum cylinder built around a central thermal dissipation core and vented by a single fan, which pulls air from under the case, through the core, and out the top of the case. The only finish available is black, though a single red-finished unit was produced with Product Red. Apple states that the cylindrical Mac Pro achieves twice the performance of the last model. The model was assembled in Austin, Texas, by Apple's supplier Flextronics on a highly automated line. The announcement six months prior to release was unusual for Apple, which typically announces products when they are ready for market. It was released on December 19, 2013.
The cylindrical thermal core was unable to adapt to changing hardware trends and left the Mac Pro without updates for over three years, leading Apple to make a rare admission of a product's failure in April 2017 when it detailed the issues surrounding the design and promised a totally redesigned Mac Pro. The design of the cylindrical Mac Pro has received mixed reviews, and has been compared to a trash can, rice cooker, R2-D2, or Darth Vader's helmet. On September 18, 2018, the Mac Pro surpassed the Macintosh Plus's production life record for an unchanged Mac model, with the Plus having remained on sale unchanged for 1,734 days. It was discontinued on December 10, 2019, after being on sale unchanged for a record 2,182 days.
Hardware
The redesigned Mac Pro takes up less than one-eighth the volume of the immediately previous model, being shorter at , thinner at and lighter at . It supports one central processing unit (CPU) (up to a 12-core Xeon E5 CPU), four 1866 MHz DDR3 slots, dual AMD FirePro D series GPUs (up to D700 with 6 GB VRAM each), and PCIe-based flash storage. There is a 3× MIMO antenna system for the unit's 802.11ac WiFi networking interface, Bluetooth 4.0 to facilitate close-range wireless functions such as music transfer, keyboards, mice, tablets, speakers, security, cameras, and printers. The system can simultaneously support six Apple Thunderbolt Displays, or three 4K resolution computer monitors.
The cylindrical Mac Pro has a redesigned configuration of ports. It has a HDMI 1.4 port, dual Gigabit Ethernet ports, six Thunderbolt 2 ports, four USB 3 ports, and combined digital Mini-TOSlink optical / analog 3.5 mm stereo mini jack for audio output. It also has a headphones mini jack (the two are distinctly selectable within the Sound System Preference panel, Output tab). There is no dedicated port for inputting audio. The system has a low-fidelity internal mono speaker. The Thunderbolt 2 ports support up to thirty-six Thunderbolt devices (six per port) and can concurrently support up to three 4K displays. This design requires two GPUs to support the seven display outputs (HDMI and six Thunderbolt). The I/O panel illuminates itself when the unit senses it has been moved to make it easier for the user to see the ports. Unlike the previous model, it has no FireWire 800 ports, dedicated digital audio in/out ports, a SuperDrive, DVI port, 3.5-inch drive bays for replaceable storage drives, or changeable internal PCIe slots. Instead, there are six Thunderbolt 2 ports to connect high-speed external peripherals, including enclosures for internal PCIe cards.
Apple's website mentions only RAM and flash storage as user-serviceable, though third party tear-downs show nearly all components can be removed and replaced. However, special tools only available from Apple are necessary for proper dismantling and reassembly. Apple has also specified mandatory and recommended tightening torque values for nearly every screw, with the most important being those securing the GPUs and CPU riser card to the thermal core. According to Apple, not tightening screws to the mandatory torque values may result in damage or malfunction. A lock switch on the aluminum housing allows for easy access to the internals, as well as fitting a security lock with its own cable, and components are secured with Torx screws. The flash storage and GPUs use proprietary connectors and are specially sized to fit into the enclosure. The CPU is not soldered to the riser card and can be replaced with another LGA 2011 socket processor, including processor options not offered by Apple. The type of RAM modules that Apple supplies with the late-2013 Mac Pro in the default configuration are ECC (UDIMM) on the up to 8 GB modules (shown on each module as PC3-14900E). Apple offers as an optional upgrade 16 GB modules are ECC (RDIMM) modules (shown on each module as PC3-14900R). The higher-capacity 32 GB modules that some third-party vendors offer are also RDIMM. The UDIMM and RDIMM module types cannot be mixed. Apple publishes recommended configurations to use.
Operating systems
Apple's Boot Camp provides BIOS backwards compatibility, allowing dual and triple boot configurations. These operating systems are installable on Intel x64-based Apple computers:
OS X Mavericks and later
Windows 7, 8.1 and 10 64-bit (hardware drivers are included in Boot Camp)
Linux via Linux installers (Boot Camp does not provide Linux support in the same way it does with Windows)
Specifications
Reception
Reception of the new design was mixed, initially receiving positive reviews, but more negative in the long term, due to Apple's failure to upgrade the hardware specs. The performance had been widely lauded, especially handling video tasks on the dual GPU units, with some reviewers noting the ability to apply dozens of filters to realtime 4K resolution video in Final Cut Pro X. Drive performance, connected via PCIe, was also widely mentioned as a strong point. Technical reviewers praised the OpenCL API under which the machine's powerful twin GPUs and its multi-core CPU can be treated as a single pool of computing power. However, in late 2013 through early 2014, some reviewers had noted the lack of internal expandability, second CPU, serviceability, and questioned the then-limited offerings via Thunderbolt 2 ports. By 2016, reviewers started to agree that the Mac Pro was now lacking in functionality and power, it having not been updated since 2013, and it was past time for Apple to update it. Apple later revealed in 2017 that the thermal core design had limited the ability to upgrade the Mac Pro's GPUs and that a new design was under development, to be released sometime after 2017.
Problems
On February 5, 2016, Apple identified problems with FirePro D500 and D700 GPUs manufactured between February 8, 2015 and April 11, 2015. Issues included "distorted video, no video, system instability, freezing, restarts, shut downs, or may prevent system start up." Customers who owned a Mac Pro exhibiting those issues could take their affected machine to Apple or an authorized service provider to have both GPUs replaced for free. The repair program ended on May 30, 2018. Customers who owned Mac Pros with FirePro D300 GPUs also complained about problems, but those GPUs were not included in the repair program until July 2018. Customers with FirePro GPUs not manufactured between those dates have complained of issues including overheating and thermal throttling. It is believed Apple has not enabled a satisfactory cooling fan profile in order to properly remove heat from the system. Users have had to resort to using third-party apps to manually increase the fan speed to prevent the GPUs from overheating.
Lattice tower or rack (2019)
In April 2018, Apple confirmed that a redesigned Mac Pro would be released in 2019 to replace the 2013 model. Apple announced this new Mac Pro on June 3, 2019 at the World Wide Developers Conference. It returns to a tower design similar to the Power Mac G5 in 2003 and the first-generation model in 2006. The design also includes a new thermal architecture with three impeller fans, which promises to prevent the computer from having to throttle the processor so that it can always run at its peak performance level. The RAM is expandable to 1.5 TB using twelve 128 GB DIMMs. It can be configured with up to two AMD Radeon Pro GPUs, based on RDNA architecture, which come in a custom MPX module, which are fanless and use the chassis's cooling system. Apple's Afterburner card is a custom add-on, which adds hardware acceleration for ProRes codecs. Similar to the second generation, the cover can be removed to access the internals, which features eight PCIe 3.0 slots for expansion, making this the first Mac with six or more expansion slots since the Power Macintosh 9600 in 1997. It can also be purchased with wheels and in a rack mount configuration. Feet and wheels are not stated by Apple to be user-replaceable and require sending the machine to an Apple Store or authorized service provider, though tear-downs show the feet are simply screwed on. It was announced alongside the Pro Display XDR, a 6K display with the same finish and lattice pattern.
The 2019 Mac Pro is capable of Lights Out Management. It is also the first Macintosh computer to feature 10 Gigabit Ethernet ports equipped as standard in all configurations.
After initial reports that the Mac Pro would be assembled in China, Apple confirmed in September 2019 it would be assembled in Austin, Texas, at the same facility as the previous-generation Mac Pro, making it the sole Apple product assembled in the United States. The production was the subject of a tariff dispute with US President Donald Trump in late 2019. Trump toured the Mac Pro assembly line in November 2019.
Radeon Pro W5700X and W5500X graphics cards were added as options in April and July 2020, respectively. In August 2021, options for RDNA 2–based Radeon Pro cards (W6800X, W6800X Duo and W6900X) were added. In March 2022, Apple upgraded the base model configuration with the Radeon Pro W5500X and 512 GB SSD, replacing the Radeon Pro 580X graphics and 256 GB SSD previously offered.
The 2019 Mac Pro was discontinued in June 2023 following the announcement of the M2 Ultra Mac Pro, the first with an Apple silicon chip. The 2019 Mac Pro was the last Intel-based Mac sold by Apple.
Design
The 2019 Mac Pro returns to a tower form factor and features a prominent lattice pattern on its front and rear. The lattice design was purportedly originally developed by Jony Ive for the Power Mac G4 Cube in 2000. It comes bundled with a new Magic Keyboard with black keys in a silver chassis, and a black Magic Mouse 2 or Magic Trackpad 2 with a silver underside.
Reception
Initial reviews were generally positive. The only pre-release review models of the Mac Pro and Pro Display XDR were provided to YouTube tech vloggers Justine Ezarik, Marques Brownlee, and Jonathan Morrison, rather than reviewers from traditional news outlets.
iFixit gave it a repairability score of 9/10, noting that every part of the machine is user-replaceable. The SSD can also be replaced via Apple official parts, but require an Apple Configurator restore to re-pair it with the T2 chip.
Specifications
Apple silicon (2023)
On June 5, 2023, Apple announced a Mac Pro based on the Apple M2 Ultra chip, the first model with an Apple silicon chip. Externally, the M2 Ultra Mac Pro uses the same chassis as the 2019 Intel model. Internally, it features a redesigned Apple silicon logic board that includes six internal PCIe 4.0 slots for expansion. It does not support GPUs over PCIe. The internal SSD is upgradeable, but the GPU and memory are not. According to Bloomberg's Mark Gurman, Apple developed a chip for the Mac Pro combining two M2 Ultra chips into one package but cancelled it because of cost and manufacturing concerns.
Reception
The Verge's review of the Mac Pro praised its performance, saying it "vastly outperforms Intel models from 2019," but criticized the inability to upgrade memory and graphics cards. It also criticized the Mac Pro's $3,000 price premium over a similarly configured Mac Studio with the same performance, with the Mac Pro's only advantage being the addition of PCIe slots.
YouTuber Marques Brownlee headlined, "Why Does the M2 Mac Pro Exist?", and found the Mac Pro and Mac Studio performed almost identically in testing despite the Mac Pro's much larger cooling system.
Specifications
Supported operating systems
Mac Pro Server
On November 5, 2010, Apple introduced the Mac Pro Server, which officially replaced the Xserve line of Apple servers as of January 31, 2011. The Mac Pro Server includes an unlimited Mac OS X Server license and an Intel Xeon 2.8 GHz quad-core processor, with 8 GB of DDR3 RAM. In mid-2012, the Mac Pro Server was upgraded to an Intel Xeon 3.2 GHz quad-core processor. The Mac Pro Server was discontinued on October 22, 2013, with the introduction of the cylindrical Mac Pro. However, the OS X Server software package can be purchased from the Mac App Store. The redesigned Mac Pro released on December 10, 2019 has a rack-mount version, available in the same configurations as the standard Mac Pro for a $500 premium. The rack-mounted Mac Pro comes with mounting rails to mount it in a server rack, and fits in a 5 Rack Unit (or "U") space. The Apple silicon Mac Pro also comes in a rack version.
See also
Dell Precision
Fujitsu Celsius
HP Z
Lenovo ThinkStation
Explanatory notes
References
External links
– official site
Computer workstations
Computer-related introductions in 2006
Macintosh computers by product line
Macintosh towers
X86 Macintosh computers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSMS%20Medan
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PSMS Medan
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Persatuan Sepakbola Medan dan Sekitarnya, commonly known as PSMS, is an Indonesian football club based in Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia. It is one of Indonesia's most successful clubs. They currently compete in Liga 2, the second level in Indonesian football tier.
History
Early years (1907–1950)
PSMS history starts with DVB. Explicitly, the football stakeholders in Medan began the first general meeting to form the union on 7 July 1907 (see De Sumatra post, 08-07-1907). Then later, with the establishment of OSVB in 1915, DVB openly stated that it was willing to integrate with OSVB (the fusion process). In accordance with the development of the situation and conditions, the OSVB coverage area was no longer effective. In September 1949, soccer stakeholders in Medan formed VBMO (fission process). In order to adjust the VUVSI (NIVU succession) policy in 1948 to translate VUVSI as ISNIS, the VBMO was also translated as PSMS and then the Medan soccer union was called VBMO / PSMS.
In March 1950, the Dutch military left Medan. Football organizations of the State of East Sumatra during the Dutch population, Rumah Susun Football Club (RSFC) and Oost Sumatra Voettbal Bond (OSVB), which had been founded since the early 1930s and then in 1950 changed their name to the Persatuan Sepakbola Medan dan Sekitarnya or were shortened to PSMS. However, there is no clear evidence that MVC, DVB, OSVB, VBMO, RSFC and other football clubs that were founded during the Dutch colonial period were PSMS embryos.
The initiators of the birth of PSMS Medan are 6 figures who represent the 6 Amateur Clubs in Medan in 1950. The 6 figures are Adinegoro (Al Wathan), Madja Purba (Sahata), Sulaiman Siregar (PO Police), TM Harris (Medan Sport), dr Pierngadi (Deli Matschapij) and Tedja Singh (India Football Team). They were the ones who coordinated 23 clubs in Medan at that time to establish PSMS Medan on 21 April 1950.
The city of Medan has long been known to the world because of its Deli tobacco plantations. It's no wonder that the PSMS logo is in the form of "leaves" and "deli tobacco flowers". Deli tobacco is also the symbol of PSMS Medan until now. 1950 means the birth of PSMS on April 21, 1950. Green Colours means plantation. White Colours means Holy which in a broad sense means Sportive.
The green color is maintained as the main costume color for PSMS Medan. The green color in the PSMS costume can also be interpreted as coolness, freshness and calm.
PSMS Medan is known for its typical type of rap-rap game, namely football which is hard, fast and insistent but still plays clean and upholds sportsmanship. This is what is often shown by the team nicknamed "The Killer" and is now nicknamed "Ayam Kinantan".
PSMS are a football club which originated and based in Kebun Bunga Stadium Jl. Candi Borobudur No.2, Medan North Sumatra.
The Killer era (1954–1967)
PSMS glories eras occurred since 1954. At that time, PSMS were often invited by teams from overseas such as Grazer AK, Kowloon Motorbus (Hong Kong), Grasshopper, Star Soccerites (Singapore) and others. Thanks to the victories often tasted by PSMS against foreign teams, PSMS earned the nicknames the "Killers" or "Executioners" of the teams from abroad.
The existence of PSMS in the early days of their appearance were no doubt. PSMS often won against every domestic and foreign clubs matches. At that time PSMS was dubbed the nickname The Killer because they always beat his opponent on the field. At that time PSMS also consisted of the phenomenal players like Ramlan Yatim, Ramli Yatim, Buyung Bahrum, Kliwon, Cornelius Siahaan, Yusuf Siregar, M.Rasijd, Arnold Van Der Vin and others. Their dribble expertise made PSMS and North Sumatra often won several tournaments and sports leagues. In 1953 and 1957 PSMS players who defended the North Sumatra Team at the Pekan Olahraga Nasional successfully presented the Gold Medal. In Perserikatan 1954 and 1957 PSMS won the Runner Up title.At the 1956 Olympics in Melbourne 3 PSMS Medan players, namely Ramlan Yatim, Ramli Yatim and M.Rasijd appeared to defend the National Football Team that appeared at the Olympics.
Perserikatan era (1967–1990)
Entering the 1960s, PSMS became a frightening specter for the clubs in Indonesia. In April 1967, the Suratin Cup Final took place at the Menteng Stadium, Jakarta. In this final round, PSMS Jr who was coached by PSMS Legend Ramli Yatim managed to show off as the main force of football at that time.
Ramli Yatim managed to polish the figures of Ronny Pasla, Sarman Panggabean, Wibisono, Tumsila, Nobon etc. as future stars of Medan and Indonesia. In the final which took place on 26 April 1967, PSMS faced the host who was also their mortal enemy, Persija. Ronny Pasla became the star in this duel with his brilliant action under the bar. Because it was getting dark and Menteng Stadium did not have proper lighting, it was finally decided that PSMS and Persija would become Joint Champions with the provision that the first 6 months of the trophy was brought to Medan and the next 6 months the trophy was brought to Jakarta.
The success of the PSMS Jr squad prompted PSMS coach Jusuf Siregar who was accompanied by Ramli Yatim to promote several PSMS Jr players to the PSMS Senior Team that competed in the 1967 PSSI National Championship, including Ronny Pasla, Tumsila, Sarman Panggabean and Wibisono. The combination of these young players with senior players including Yuswardi, Zulham Yahya, Sukiman, Ipong Silalahi, Muslim, A.Rahim, Syamsuddin, Sunarto, Aziz Siregar, Zulkarnaen Pasaribu etc. turned out to be a great success, making PSMS more solid and finally succeeded in becoming champions. West Region and qualified for the semifinals which took place in Jakarta accompanied by Persib. In the semifinals which took place at the Senayan Jakarta Main Stadium, PSMS faced Persebaya and Persib faced PSM. In this semi-final, the match took place twice, namely on 6 and 7 September 1967. In this first semi-final, PSMS lost 0–1 to Persebaya. In the duel that took place tonight PSMS did not have its star Zulham Yahya who was suspended due to a red card in the group stage and his position was occupied by young star Sarman Panggabean. While Persib won 1–0 over PSM. In the second match on 7 September 1967 PSMS successfully beat Persebaya 3–1 and Persib drew 1–1 with PSM. Be Final brought together PSMS with Persib in the Final on 10 September 1967.
In this Final PSMS got a tough test because one of its stars, Djamal was injured and finally the position was occupied by the young star of PSMS, Sarman Panggabean. And Zulham Yahya can appear again. In addition to Sarman and Ronny Pasla in the Final, the young striker Tumsila also started as a starter. It turned out that in this Final PSMS performed well and finally managed to beat Persib 2–0 through goals scored by A.Rahim and Zulkarnaen Pasaribu against Persib's goal, which was escorted by Jus Etek. This is the first time PSMS Medan has won the National Championship/Main Division of the Perserikatan PSSI since its establishment in 1950 and was greeted with great fanfare by the supporters of PSMS Medan in Jakarta and in North Sumatra.
The success of PSMS made PSMS Medan represent Indonesia in the 1967 Aga Khan Gold Cup which took place in Bangladesh. And finally in this Tournament PSMS succeeded in becoming the Champion after in the Final defeated the home team Mohammaden 2–0 through 2 goals from Tumsila's heading. When returning to Medan, the group was greeted by Pangdam II/Bukit Barisan Maj. Gen. Sarwo Edhie Wibowo and this is where Sarwo Edhie gave the nickname "Golden Head" to Tumsila because of his capable ability to score goals with headers and since then the nickname "Golden Head" has stuck with Tumsila both in PSMS and the national team. That was the time when 1967 PSMS became the "King" of Indonesian Football
After the national team won the 1968 King's Cup, the national team players were contracted professionally by T.D Pardede at his club, Pardedetex. The contracted players include Soetjipto Soentoro, Sinyo Aliandoe, Iswadi Idris, Judo Hadianto, Muliyadi (Persija), M. Basri (PSM), Abdul Kadir, Jacob Sihasale (Persebaya), Anwar Ujang (Persika), Max Timisela (Persib), plus there are 3 stars of PSMS Medan, namely Sarman Panggabean, Sunarto and Aziz Siregar. Because at that time Pardedetex even though contracted players professionally but in the competition took shelter in the PSMS Main Class / Main Division so that automatically the Pardedetex squad strengthened PSMS in the 1969 PSSI National Championship/Main Division.This Pardedetex squad strengthens PSMS plus and is supported by Medan Football Player Non Pardedetex, among others, Ronny Pasla, Yuswardi, Tumsila, Zulham Yahya, Ipong Silalahi, Syamsuddin and in certain moments Sukiman and Nobon are added. This squad was trained by Ramli Yatim and E A Mangindaan.
It was this squad that successfully brought PSMS Medan to the 1969 PSSI National Championship on 6 July 1969 with a terrible goal record in the Finals which was participated by 7 teams, which included 29 goals and only conceded 2 goals and was unbeaten. The 7 teams that competed in the final round of the PSSI National Championship were PSMS Medan, Persija Jakarta, Persebaya Surabaya, PSM Makassar, Persib Bandung, PSKB Binjai and Persipura Jayapura. This success made PSMS Medan for the second time win the PSSI National Championship after previously successfully becoming the PSSI National Championship Champion in 1967.
In September 1969 the PSMS squad, which succeeded in becoming the PSSI National Championship Champion, defended the banner of North Sumatra (Sumut) in PON VII which took place in Surabaya. In this PON, the North Sumatran squad, which was managed by Ramli Yatim and EA Mangindaan, successfully performed brilliantly and brought North Sumatra to win the Gold Medal after the final which was marked by scuffles between players, defeated DKI Jakarta 2–1 through goals scored by Iswadi Idris and Soetjipto Soentoro. This is the third Gold Medal for North Sumatra in the PON football branch after previously successfully winning Gold in PON 1953 and 1957. At the 1969 PON, Soetjipto Soentoro became the top scorer with 16 goals and broke the record previously held by senior PSMS star and North Sumatran Yusuf Siregar in the 1953 PON with 15 goals. Tjipto's record itself still stands and has not been broken. Ramli Yatim also succeeded in becoming the first person to win the PON Gold Medal as a Player and Coach. As a player, Ramli Yatim successfully won Gold in PON 1953 and 1957.
PSMS retained the title 1969–1971 season after beating Persebaya again in the final. And with Persija Jakarta, they became joint champions in the 1973–1975 season due to excessive protests to the referee in the 40th minute that caused the match had to be stopped.
PSMS are the Indonesian first club who have competed in the Asian Champion Club Tournament (now the AFC Champions League) in 1970. PSMS won fourth place in the semi-finals after defeated by Taj Club 2–0 and in the third place match was defeated by Homenetmen 1–0.
After 8 years without a title, finally PSMS ended their title drought in 1983 after in the final, they defeated Persib Bandung 3–2 in a penalty shootout (a.e.t. 0–0). They returned to defend the title in the 1985 season when they defeated Persib 2–1 in a penalty shootout (a.e.t. 2–2). The match was played at Gelora Bung Karno Stadium, and was witnessed by 150.000 spectators of 110.000 seating capacity, which made a highest attendance record in the history of Indonesian football. According to the Asian Football Confederation book that published in 1987, this match was the biggest match in the history of amateur football in the world.
During this glories eras, PSMS were strengthened by many quality players such as Yuswardi, Muslim, Sunarto, Sukiman, Ipong Silalahi, Wibisono, Tumsila, Sarman Panggabean, Suwarno, Tumpak Sihite, Nobon Kayamuddin, Zulkarnaen Pasaribu, Ismail Ruslan, Parlin Siagian, Sunardi B, Marzuki Nyakmad, Zulham Effendi Harahap, Sunardi A., Bambang Usmanto, Musimin, Sakum Nugroho M. Siddik, Ricky Yacobi, Abdul Kadir, Jacob Sihasale, Ronny Pasla, Yudo Hadianto, M.Basri, Taufik Lubis, Pariman, Iswadi Idris, Abdul Rahman Gurning, Anwar Ujang, Ponirin Meka, Jaya Hartono, Zulkarnaen Lubis, Sakum Nugroho, Soetjipto Soentoro and others.
The end of glories eras; Liga Indonesia era (1990–2001)
PSMS glories eras ended in the early 1990s. In the 1991–92 season, they became the runner-up when they lost to PSM Makassar 2–1 in the final. When the era of Perserikatan ended and turned into the Liga Indonesia, PSMS achievement was up and down. In the Liga Indonesia 1994-95 and 1995–96, they became the mid-table club. Even in the 1996–97 season, PSMS almost relegated to First Division. The situation improved when in 1997–98 season, they ranked 1st at the west division. But the competition was stopped due to the May 1998 riots which made the security condition in Indonesia was not conducive.
After the riots, Liga Indonesia was held again in the season 1998–99. In this season, PSMS managed to qualify for the semi-finals. In the semi-final, they lost against Persebaya 4–2 in a penalty shootout (a.e.t. 1–1). In that game, PSMS wore their away costume. In the next season, they qualified for the last 8 and ranked 4th in Group A along with PSM, Pupuk Kaltim, and Persijatim. In the season 2001, they qualified to the semi-finals and would play against PSM. They lost 3–2 in a penalty shootout (a.e.t. 2–2).
Relegation and promotion (2002–2003)
Although they became semi-finalist in the Liga Indonesia 2001, it did not guarantee the success of PSMS in the next season. After starting two games poorly, their poor form finally stopped when they played against Arema FC. They won 1–0, thanks to Suharyono goal in the 87th minute. After the game, poor form still haunted PSMS. Finally at the end of the season, they ranked 11th, which meant that they were relegated to First Division. This was the worst achievement in the history of the club.
PSMS rose above adversity. Playing in 2003 First Division, PSMS were in Group A along with Persiraja Banda Aceh, PSSB Bireun, Persikad Depok, PSBL Langsa, Perserang Serang, and PSBL Bandar Lampung. PSMS ranked 1st and made sure to qualify for the last eight. PSMS started the game in the last eight very well. Won 2–1 against Persela Lamongan in the first game, PSMS was losing 1–2 against Persiraja in the second game. The fierce competition ensued at the top of the league, and finally PSMS ranked 2nd and ensured their promotion to the Liga Indonesia along with Persebaya.
Ups and downs (2004–2008)
Upon returning to the Liga Indonesia 2004, PSMS performance was not very bad. They started the season poorly, PSMS finished the season by being in 7th position with 47 points, the result of 14 wins, 5 draws and 15 defeats.
Before entering the new season, they won the second edition of Bang Yos Gold Cup, a pre-season competition initiated by Sutiyoso, the governor of Jakarta at that time. In the final, they beat Geylang United 5–1 at Gelora Bung Karno Stadium. Entering the 2005 season, Liga Indonesia format changed from the format of one region into two regions (west and east). PSMS located in the western region along with their rivals, Persija and Persib. They started the season dramatically, by defeating PSPS Pekanbaru 3–2 in Teladan Stadium. Erratic performance made the competition with Persib to qualify for the round of eight. With the very fierce competition, PSMS finally qualified to the round of eight after being in 4th position, 4-point difference with Persib in 5th position. In the round of eight, PSMS were in Group B along with Persipura Jayapura, Persik Kediri, and Arema. In the first game, they played a goalless draw against Arema. Their hope to qualify for the finals came when they won 2–1 against Persik, but their hope vanished when they lost 1–0 to Persipura. They only qualified for the third place playoff against PSIS Semarang. In that game, they conceded first by Muhammad Ridwan goal in the 12th minute. Alcidio Fleitas equalized in the 21st minute. PSIS ensured their victory by Harri Salisburi goal in the 78th minute. PSIS won third place, while PSMS won fourth place.
Like the previous season, PSMS competed in the third edition of Bang Yos Gold Cup before entering the new season. They managed to retain the title they have won the previous edition, after their 2–1 win against Persik in the final. In 2006 season, their performance declined slightly than last season, because they were just in 5th position, 3-point difference with Persekabpas Pasuruan, which made them fail to qualify for the last 8. The competition of the fourth position in the western region between PSMS and Persekabpas was very dramatic. In the last game in the western region, PSMS lost against Persijap Jepara 0–1 at home, while Persekabpas won 3–2 against Sriwijaya FC. Persekabpas qualified for the last 8 as they were in 4th position in the western region.
PSMS tried to improve their performance in the 2007–08 season. With their successful to retain their title in the fourth edition of Bang Yos Gold Cup that made them the immortal owner of Bang Yos Gold Cup, they believed they could won their first title in Liga Indonesia since the era of Perserikatan ended. Their ambition was almost achieved after they were in 3rd position in the western region under Sriwijaya FC and Persija, who made them qualify for the last 8. In the last 8, they were in Group A along with Sriwijaya FC, Arema, and Persiwa Wamena. They managed to qualify for the semi-finals after they were in second place under Sriwijaya FC. They met Persipura in the semi-finals, and they qualified for the final as they won 4–5 in a penalty shootout (a.e.t. 0–0). This was the PSMS first final match in the era of Liga Indonesia. In the final, they had to admit defeat on Sriwijaya FC 3–1.
Super League era (2008–2009)
Because the Football Association of Indonesia wanted to introduce the professionalism of Indonesian football competition by making Indonesia Super League as the highest competition, PSMS had to relocate to Gelora Bung Karno Stadium as their home since Teladan Stadium did not fulfill the criteria of professionalism which were created by the League Board of Indonesia. By the start of the 2008–09 season, PSMS were still haunted by internal polemics between the management team with the manager who raised the PSMS resignation news of Indonesian Super League 2008–09. Finally on 10 July 2008, the League Board of Indonesia decided to continue to include PSMS Medan to Indonesia Super League.
Entering the first season of the Indonesia Super League, PSMS were hit a lot of problems. Starting from the massive exodus of star players who came out because of unresolved salary issues, then Teladan Stadium did not pass the stratification of Indonesia Super League which makes PSMS must move their home base, until the problem of disunity in the body of the club. PSMS started the league very badly. Under the coaching of Iwan Setiawan, PSMS were struggling in the relegation zone along the half of the first round. Looking at these achievements, Iwan Setiawan eventually sacked and replaced by New Zealander coach Eric Williams. Conditions were never changed. Eric Williams could not lift PSMS into a better position, so that he also sacked at the end of the first round and was replaced by Brazilian coach Luciano Leandro. He was only able to be in PSMS for less than three months before he was sacked on 5 February 2009 following the poor results of the last two games.
Entering the second round of the league, major improvements were done. Among these are made the assistant coach Liestiadi as head coach in place of Luciano Leandro, and to move their home base from Siliwangi Stadium to Gelora Sriwijaya Stadium. PSMS gradually climbed out of the relegation zone. Even in the AFC Cup 2009, PSMS made a record as the first Indonesian football club who reached the last 16 after being the runner-up of Group F under South China, although they were later defeated by Chonburi FC 4–0 in the last 16. But unfortunately at the end of the league, PSMS were in 15th position which forced PSMS to play the promotion/relegation play-off against the fourth place of 2008–09 Liga Indonesia Premier Division, Persebaya Surabaya.
PSMS were eventually relegated for the second time after 5–4 defeat in a penalty shootout (a.e.t. 1–1) at Siliwangi Stadium. For the second time, PSMS had to accept the reality of relegation after finishing the previous season as a runner-up of league.
Dualism Era (2009–2015)
In 2011, PSMS are divided into two teams, one team led by Idris SE plays in the Indonesia Super League and the other team led by Freddy Hutabarat plays in the Indonesian Premier League.
Current (2015–present)
In 2015, PSMS ended their dualism and started their campaign by winning Kemerdekaan Cup and also participated in the Indonesia Soccer Championship B. In 2017, PSMS placed 2nd in Liga 2 and got promoted to Liga 1 2018 season, but they were relegated again in just 1 season after finishing at the 18th place.
Head coaches
Club officials
Club staff
Coaching staff
Players
Current squad
Honours
AFC (Asian competitions)
Asian Champion Club Tournament/AFC Champions League
1970 – Fourth place
2009 – Play-off round
AFC Cup
2009 – Round of 16
Performance in AFC club competitions
References
External links
Club profile on Indonesia Super League's official website
Club profile on Indonesian Premier League's official website
Club Profile on Eyesoccer Football Database
Medan
Football clubs in Indonesia
Football clubs in North Sumatra
Association football clubs established in 1950
1950 establishments in Indonesia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20and%20Penelope%20Seidler%20House
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Harry and Penelope Seidler House
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The Harry and Penelope Seidler House is a heritage-listed modernist house located at 13 Kalang Avenue in the Sydney suburb of Killara in the Ku-ring-gai Council local government area of New South Wales, Australia. It was designed by architects Penelope and Harry Seidler and Harry Seidler & Associates, and built from 1966 to 1967 by Peter Cussel. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 20 June 2008.
History
Harry Seidler
Harry Seidler (25/06/1923 - 9/03/2006) was born in Vienna in 1923 into a middle-class Jewish family. The Anschluss terminated Seidler's schooling and influenced Seidler's parents Max Seidler and Rose Seidler (née Schwarz) to send their youngest son on a student visa to England where he joined his brother Marcell. On 12 May 1940, he and his older brother were interned as "enemy aliens" - first at Bury St Edmonds, then Liverpool, the Isle of Man (where he turned 17), and Quebec in Canada. Seidler's diaries record the humiliation and discomfort of internment and the fact that he and his brother were interned alongside Nazi prisoners of war.
Seidler's parents managed to follow their sons to England thus escaping the destruction of European Jewry by the Nazis. They eventually migrated to Australia where the family's only known relatives outside Austria, the Hermans had moved in the 1920s and established Herman Plastic Mouldings. In 1938 Mr Herman sponsored Seidler's uncle Marcus to move to Australia where he set up a clothing manufacturing business in Sydney. This business established the Seidler family in Sydney.
In 1941 Seidler was released to study at the University of Manitoba where he obtained a Bachelor of Architecture degree with first class honours. After a year of architectural work in Canada he won a scholarship to the Harvard School of Design where he studied under Walter Gropius, former head of Bauhaus. During this time Seidler (and his classmate Peter Oberander) worked with Alvo Aalto, in Cambridge Massachusetts, drawing up plans for Aalto's Baker Dormitory at MIT. He left Harvard's "electrifying atmosphere" with the "feeling that we were destined to play our part in transforming the visual man made world." Seidler's commitment to Modernism was reinforced by his attendance at the 1946 summer school at Black Mountain College where he studied with Josef Albers, former design teacher at the Bauhaus.
In 1946-48 Seidler was chief assistant to Marcel Breuer in his New York office. It was at this point in 1948 that he was enticed to Australia by his mother Rose Seidler to design and build a house for his parents. He came to Australia via Brazil and contact with the Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer, for whom he worked for several months.
Philip Drew has written that "the dominant influences on Seidler were Gropius, Breuer and Albers; Gropius revealed the ethical basis of Modern architecture and demonstrated the importance of method, Breuer, in a real sense showed Seidler how buildings are made, and developed his architectonic skills as well as influencing his appreciation of space and feeling for materials, but it was from Josef Albers that Seidler learned about the perceptual basis of visual form."
Rose Seidler House at Wahroonga on Sydney's North Shore was Seidler's first commission, for his mother. He was 25 at the time. It was built in 1948-50 as part of a family estate of three houses (including Julian Rose House c.1950 and the Marcus Seidler House c.1949-51). Located on 2.6 hectares of natural bushland overlooking the Ku-ring-gai National Park, it was a watershed in Australian culture. As possibly the purest example of mid-century modern domestic architecture in Australia, it was enormously controversial when built, stimulating much social comment and intellectual debate. Rose Seidler House is listed on the State Heritage Register and is run as a house museum by the Historic Houses Trust.
Seidler's American take on Modernism contrasted with the European modernism of early Australian adopters such as Syd Ancher and Robin Boyd. Seidler was lauded by an older generation of modernists in Australia such as Boyd, Baldwinson and Ancher. Seidler stood his ground and refused to compromise his architectural vision in the face of restrictive building regulations in New South Wales during the 1940s and 1950s, leading to several landmark court cases.
Seidler's early houses from 1949 to 1954 established an authentic version of modern architecture embracing Gropius' modernist principles (which stemmed from the Bauhaus). He designed many houses in either the box-like form of Le Corbusier or the "H" plan of Marcel Breuer. Seidler was busy throughout the 1950s largely designing houses for private clients.
In the early 1960s Seidler began to receive commissions for apartments and office buildings such as Ithaca Gardens Apartments in Elizabeth Bay (1960), Blues Point Tower apartments in McMahons Point (1961); Lend Lease House in Sydney (1961) [Demolished 19??] and Arlington apartments at Edgecliff (1965-66). Only four significant small projects were undertaken between 1962 and 1969: a ski lodge in Thredbo (1962), a holiday house in Port Hacking (1963), the Seidlers' own home (1966-67) and the memorial to victims of the Holocaust, at Rookwood Cemetery (1969).
In the mid-1960s Seidler began experimenting with circular, elliptical and curvilinear geometrics. The choice of a circular plan for the ground breaking Australia Square Building (1963-67) marked an important departure from the established rectilinear order of Seidler's earlier work [Philip Drew].
In the 1970s Seidler's practice was largely devoted to major commercial projects in Australia and abroad. This period saw the design and construction of Seidler's own offices at Glen Street, Milsons Point, Sydney; the MLC Centre in Sydney (1972); the Edmund Barton Building, Canberra; the Australian Embassy in Paris; and commissions in Singapore (not realised) and Hong Kong.
The 1980s saw the construction of major commercial buildings such as Grosvenor Place in Sydney (1988); the Waverley Civic Centre (now called Monash City Council) at Waverley in Victoria (1982); Capita Centre in Sydney (1984); Shell Headquarters in Melbourne (1985); the QV1 Office Tower in Perth (1987) and the Riverside Centre in Brisbane (1987).
In 1990s Harry Seidler and Associates designed celebrated and iconic residences and apartments such as Berman House at Joadja in the Southern Highlands (1996) and Horizon Apartments in Darlinghurst (1999).
The new century was notable for works such as the Cove Apartments at the Rocks (2004) and the Ian Thorpe Aquatic Centre at Ultimo.
Internationally Seidler is known for the Australian Embassy in Paris, the Hong Kong Club and Offices, a community for 2500 people in Vienna, as well as buildings in Acapulco.
Harry and Penelope Seidler House
After more than twenty five years designing houses for other people, Seidler and his wife Penelope determined to design a house for their own family. The site selected after much searching was located by Penelope Seidler in Killara, an established suburb of Sydney. Surrounded by a natural bush reserve, the site's rocky sandstone ledges slope steeply down toward a creek and a waterfall.
The rugged sloped land was turned to advantage by providing the rationale for a vertical dimension to the design. The Seidlers described their house as "essentially a simple rectangular outline." The four half-storey levels of the house follow the slope of the land and create between them open vertical spaces which strengthen the design's horizontal openness within and extension outward onto sunny terraces.
Seidler described the construction of the house as "solid, with muscle; everlasting." The construction of the house is of maintenance free materials, off formed concrete (inside and out) and basalt rubble stone. Three rows of vertical reinforced white concrete block piers support suspended and cantilevered concrete floors, and roof. The very long horizontal and sloping projections are stiffened by rail height parapets.
The rough textured off form concrete contrasts with the rough textured blue grey basalt walling. The floors of the living areas are surfaced with split slabs of Norwegian quartzite stone and ceiling lined with Tasmanian oak boarding. Seidler plays off textures against each other, cool is juxtaposed with warm, smooth with rough, white with primary colours.
The concrete masonry and glass of the house contrasted the precise geometry of its evident man made forms with the rugged complexity of its stony, sloping site. This house broke with the past in favouring board formed concrete and concrete block, permanent masonry in lieu of the Harvard timber idiom he pursued in the 1950s. Philip Drew has described this house as "a Brutalist "Falling Water", more American, more late Breuer in its strong forms, and Viennese in its will to permanence, in its hard Norwegian quartzite floors and determination to impose an aesthetic on the Australian bush."
Instead of building a road on to the site, the Seidlers placed the garage and visitors' car park area at the top of the hill, directly off the street dramatically suspended over a large rock ledge which was left exposed.
The house is set within a native landscape designed by the pioneering landscape architect, Bruce Mackenzie (b.1932) who provided the landscape design for a number of Seidler's projects. A swimming pool designed by Seidler was built below the house in the 1970s.
The house is widely regarded as the most outstanding example in Australia of a house in the Brutalist style. It should however, be noted that Seidler strongly rejected this label and distanced himself from the Brutalists [Refer to Seidler's 1987 essay "Architecture and Planning at the end of our Century" published in "Four Decades of Architecture"]. The Royal Australian Institute of Architects awarded the house the coveted Wilkinson Award, the third won by Seidler in his then nineteen years of Australian practice.
In a 1994 interview for Australian Broadcasting Corporation television "Harry Seidler: A Life" Seidler said of his home "I don't think I want to live anywhere else, ever - marvellous house. We love our environment and we've never changed anything, it is as exactly as it was. The only thing that might have changed is some of the artworks...But the house itself, I think will long outlast us."
Harry Seidler resided at this house until his death at the age of 82, at home on 9 March 2006, after fifty-seven years of practice as an architect in NSW.
Harry Seidler was awarded the RAIA Gold Medal in 1977 the Institute's highest honour, for outstanding achievement in architectural design and the promotion of architecture and the profession. The RAIA Citation states:
Bruce Mackenzie, landscape architect
Bruce Mackenzie was born in Sydney in 1932. He studied art at East Sydney Technical College before working in the graphic arts industry. He came to consider the study of landscape architecture his life's commitment and began working in the field in 1959. After ten years of landscape and design construction, though without formal training, he was admitted into the Australian Institute of Landscape Architects in 1969 and became National president in 1981.
Bruce Mackenzie pioneered the use and conservation of indigenous Australian planting that made use of natural structural materials and native plants, combining a romantic attachment to landscape aesthetics with a pragmatic approach to conservation. He is considered one of the foremost practitioners of the 1970s and 1980s in the promotion of landscape design that respected and harmonized with natural environments. Significantly his first article extolling the use of native plants was published in "Architecture in Australia" in November 1966.
In the late 1960s Mackenzie founded the firm Bruce Mackenzie and Associates. His office was located in Ridge Street, North Sydney, in a building housing client architects such as Harry Seidler, Bruce Rickard and Harry Howard.
Bruce Mackenzie in reflecting on his involvement with the landscape design for Harry and Penelope Seidler House advised "they were early days in my career path and I would not want to add unwarranted emphasis on my contribution to the success of the building and its landscape setting. The main ingredients were already there in the form of remnant mature native trees and the landform of the small stream that the house overlooked. I merely reinforced these elements while the house itself stood proud." Mackenzie, who has had a long association with the Seidlers, has further reflected that "I may have to a small degree helped introduce Harry Seidler to a new consideration of landscape and its relationship to buildings and in particular to his house. The simple play for instance, of shadowed leaf patterns dancing on crisply defined facades, gained his attention and raised the image of landscape as a dynamic participant."
Penelope Seidler, nee Evatt
Penelope Alice Marjorie Seidler (née Evatt) BArch, BBus, FRAIA, ASA was born in 1938. An architect and Seidler's professional partner, Penelope Seidler is the daughter of the Hon. Clive Raleigh Evatt QC (b.1900 d.1984); a prominent NSW Labor politician, Member for Hurstville 1939–59, and his wife Marjorie Hanna Evatt (née Andreas), (b.1903 d.1984).
The Hon. Clive Raleigh Evatt QC, the younger brother of the famous Labor Party leader and international jurist, Herbert Vere Evatt (also known as H. V. Evatt or Doc Evatt) was representative of a new generation of non-union, liberally minded men who stressed the need for the Labor Party to appeal to a broad electorate. A man of progressive views, as NSW Minister for Planning in the McGirr Labor NSW Government, Evatt overturned Willoughby Council's rejection of Harry Seidler's design for Meller House in Castlecrag, authorising its construction as a "demonstration home" in 1950. Several years later Seidler would marry Penelope Evatt on 15 December 1958.
Harry Seidler has described his first visit to the Evatt family home at 69 Junction Road, Wahroonga, in 1950 as "momentous" and cites the Hon. Clive Evatt's support as persuasive in his decision to remain and work in Australia. The Evatt family home, now known as Parklands, is also listed on the State Heritage Register.
The marriage to Penelope Evatt provided an entree into Australian political life. The pair attracted a good deal of publicity epitomising the up-to-the-minute modern couple.
Description
Architects: Harry and Penelope Seidler, Harry Seidler & Associates
Structural Engineers: Miller, Milston & Ferris
Lighting: Edison Price (New York)
Landscape Architect: Bruce Mackenzie
Covering , the house is constructed with reinforced masonry walls, concrete floors and roof, with rubble-stone retaining walls and fireplace. It won the Royal Australian Institute of Architects (NSW Chapter)'s Wilkinson Award in 1967.
A concrete bridge leads from the entrance over a drop to the front door where the Wilkinson Award plaque is located. The site is steeply sloping and challenging for a concrete home, the sandstone and base concrete slab do not touch each other, and the house sits on piers dug into the sandstone ground.
The house has three upper levels that are only partially open to each other, and a fourth lower level. On the top level is the kitchen and dining room, a small gallery and a balcony. The second level has the living area with balcony and master bedroom. Both these (upper) levels share the same ceiling which is under the roof—and is lined with Tasmanian oak. A large pool and outdoor area was added in 1976. The home is surrounded by natural Australian bush in a suburb which is only 15 km from Sydney's central business district. The home is furnished with 1960s and 1970s modernist art works and modern furniture by Breuer and Eames.
The building occupies a steep bushland site, sloping westwards to a creek. The building is approached from the road at the top and steps down from a cantilevered garage through four half levels which follow the slope of the land. The structure consist of four suspended concrete trays supported by reinforced concrete block traverse blades which divide the building into north facing daytime/active spaces, a central circulation spine and night time/passive spaces. The top level consists of kitchen, dining and study, the next living room and main bedroom, the third children's room and bathroom, with studio, laundry and guest bedroom at the bottom having access to the garden.
The house embodies both a vertical and horizontal extension of space. The level changes and central open well provide a visual link from top to bottom. Large areas of glass and projecting terraces draw the eye out from each level to the natural landscape setting. Materials include board formed reinforced concrete, rubble stonework, white concrete block work and Tasmanian Oak boarded ceilings. The integrated artworks include K Nolan, Frank Stella, H Frankenthaler, work by Sam Frances, a Charles Perry sculpture, Max Bill, several "Positive-Negative" sculptures by Norman Carlberg and two Calder stabiles. The garden contains a sculpture by the Los Angeles sculptor Eric Orr.
Occupancy
Harry and Penelope Seidler moved into the building on Harry Seidler's birthday in 1967 and lived there for the remaining years of his life. Harry Seidler suffered a paralytic stroke on late 24 April 2005 and died of sepsis on 9 March 2006. , Penelope Seidler continued to reside at the house, and to work as an architect.
Condition
As at 6 January 2005, Physical condition is excellent. Archaeological potential is not known.
The building and associated art works have a high degree of integrity as a result of its having remained the Seidlers' principal residence since 25 June 1967.
Modifications and dates
1976 - A swimming pool designed by Harry Seidler was added in 1976.
1997 - A garage door was installed for privacy reasons. The electrical wiring for such a door had actually been installed when the house was constructed in 1967, in case he ever changed his mind about installing a garage door.
See also
Australian residential architectural styles
Rose Seidler House
References
Bibliography
Attribution
External links
Pictures of the house taken in 2006; Twentieth Century Heritage Society of NSW.
More information about the works of Harry Seidler.
Harry Seidler buildings
Houses completed in 1967
1967 establishments in Australia
Modernist architecture in Australia
New South Wales State Heritage Register
Houses in Killara, New South Wales
Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physique%20magazine
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Physique magazine
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Physique magazines or beefcake magazines were magazines devoted to physique photography — that is, photographs of muscular "beefcake" men – typically young and attractive – in athletic poses, usually in revealing, minimal clothing. During their heyday in North America in the 1950s to 1960s, they were presented as magazines dedicated to fitness, health, and bodybuilding, with the models often shown demonstrating exercises or the results of their regimens, or as artistic reference material. However, their unstated primary purpose was erotic imagery, primarily created by and for gay men at a time when homosexuality was the subject of cultural taboos and government censorship.
Physique magazines were sold by newspaper stands, bookstores, and pharmacies. They were available in cities and even towns across the United States and by subscription, and popular titles such as Physique Pictorial served as an early nationwide cultural nexus for bisexual and gay men. Scholar Thomas Waugh described physique magazines as the "richest documentation of gay culture of the period".
The genre was popular from approximately the early 1950s until the mid 1960s. With the legalization and increased availability of gay pornographic magazines and videos in the late 1960s and 1970s, most physique magazines either evolved to include more explicit material or went out of business.
Background
The early 20th century brought an increased interest in weightlifting and bodybuilding, led by figures such as strongman Eugen Sandow. An early driver of this change was the "physical culture" movement, a social movement spanning Europe and North America which emphasized the development of the body via exercise and weightlifting. Magazines devoted to physical culture began to appear in the 1890s, starting in Germany. The first such English publications were Eugen Sandow's Physical Culture and Bernarr Macfadden's Physical Development, both appearing in 1898.
At the same time, depictions of the bodies of muscular athletes and weightlifters, including stars such as Sandow and George Hackenschmidt, became increasingly common in the popular press and as fodder for postcards (which experienced a boom between 1900 and 1920).
Thomas Waugh also identifies the late-19th century German Freikörperkultur (literally "free body culture") movement, a nudist social reform movement, as influencing the subsequent development of physique magazines in Germany and beyond.
By the 1920s, demand for photos of musclemen was sufficient to support photographers who dedicated themselves entirely to physique photography, such as John Hernic. Waugh dates the first appearance of a "systematic crypto-gay subculture" working behind the scenes of the bodybuilding sphere to the 1930s. Gay physique photographers working during this era included Edwin F. Townsend, Earle Forbes, Robert Gebhart, Al Urban, Lon Hanagan, Lou Melan, Barton Horvath, and Dick Falcon (all but the last operating in New York City). During this period, many of these photographers shot primarily in the nude; if it was necessary to obscure genitalia for publication, they would do so after the fact by modifying the negatives or prints.
A new generation of bodybuilding magazines began to appear in the 1930s, most notably Bob Hoffman's Strength & Health in 1932, and various publications from the Montreal-based Weider brothers, Joe and Ben, such as Muscle & Fitness. Gay photographers such as Al Urban and Bob Mizer used the back pages of Strength and Health, which, by the time of World War II, was the leading fitness magazine, to advertise "undraped" (i.e. nude) photographs for sale. Further evidence for gay readership has been seen in pen-pal letters printed in the magazine's "Leaguers" column, which seem to carry a gay subtext.
Another early nexus for gay men's involvement in the physique world were bodybuilding competitions. The first of the modern bodybuilding competitions, Mr. America, began in 1939. According to Bob Mizer, it was an "open secret" that gay men comprised a large portion of the audience for these competitions, in which men would display their muscled bodies on stage in skimpy costumes. Gay men also became involved behind-the-scenes in the bodybuilding community, organizing competitions, and working as event photographers.
When the new generation of physique magazines targeted at gay men began to appear in the 1950s, they faced opposition from traditional bodybuilding publications. Strength & Health ran an editorial warning of "trashy magazines" which contributed to juvenile delinquency, and Iron Man magazine called for a cleanup of the "homosexual element" which had "infiltrated" bodybuilding magazines and events.
Content
The characteristic uniting all physique magazines was a focus on physique photography—homoerotic photographs of nearly (or sometimes entirely) nude, attractive young men. Many physique magazines also included reproductions of homoerotic artwork, and editorial content, such as exercise tips or book reviews.
Photographs
Physique photographs typically depicted young men in posing straps (a thong-style undergarment with a pouch for the genitalia) or another minimal covering such as swim briefs, short shorts, or a towel or piece of cloth. Full-frontal nudity was generally not depicted until the late 1960s when obscenity enforcement was loosened and physique magazines began to give way to overt pornography. Beginning in the early 1960s, some magazines began to push the envelope with outlines of genitalia becoming increasingly visible through posing straps.
The first appearance of frontal male nudity on American newsstands were imported European publications which bore the alibi of promoting the nudist lifestyle, which began to appear as early as 1965. The first American magazines to feature frontal nudity were Drum and the San Francisco-based Butch, both in 1966, though these led to legal challenges.
Photographs were sourced from a variety of photographers and studios, such as Bob Mizer's Athletic Model Guild. Some magazines included amateur photography sent in by readers.
Compared to mainstream fitness and bodybuilding magazines, which focused on highly muscular physiques, physique magazines included models with a wider variety of body types, including men with more lean, "natural" builds. Models were mostly white men, a fact which has been attributed to weak demand for photos of racially diverse men among consumers of the magazines.
Models were typically young adult men in their late teens or twenties, but underage models were occasionally featured openly. For example, in 1955, Physique Pictorial used a 16-year-old cover model for its summer issue, and ran a 2-page spread of a 14-year-old model in its spring issue.
Captions typically featured the name, age, and measurements of the model, along with varying amounts of biographical detail. However, these details were often fabricated to appeal to readers' appetites, and most studios allowed models to use pseudonyms.
Centerfold spreads began to appear in physique magazines shortly after being popularized in corresponding heterosexual ("cheesecake") publications such as Playboy.
Artwork
Physique magazines often featured reproductions of homoerotic paintings and drawings by gay artists such as George Quaintance and Etienne. Famed gay artist Tom of Finland came to notice in America after submitting his drawings to Physique Pictorial in 1956, and it was editor Bob Mizer who coined the credit Tom of Finland for the artist (whose real name was Touko Laaksonen).
A sub-genre of physique magazines devoted themselves entirely to physique art, such as Fizeek Art Quarterly. These magazines experienced a boom around 1963–1964.
Commercial content
Many physique magazines doubled as a sort of mail order catalogue. Physique Pictorial began as a venue for selling Athletic Model Guild photo sets by mail, as had previously been done through the back pages of Strength & Health. Though editors were careful to deny it, the photos sold by mail were often more explicit than those featured in the magazine, including frontal nudity or posing straps which were merely "inked on" and could be rubbed away by the consumer.
Later, magazines expanded their offerings to include other items such as slides, calendars, and posing straps.
Connection to homosexuality
Though largely created by and for gay men, physique magazines initially avoided overt references to homosexuality, using a number of pretenses to explain their content. Magazines became more relaxed in their adherence to these pretenses over time, occasionally incorporating coy sexual allusions into editorial and photographic content.
Alibis
Thomas Waugh identifies three main "alibis" which physique magazines used to mask their true purpose and audience. Some, such as Tomorrow's Man, relied on the pretense of promoting health and fitness, including short articles on diet and weightlifting, reporting on bodybuilding competitions, and commentary on models' muscular development. Others claimed to be providing reference photographs for artists. For example, a 1954 issue of Physique Pictorial claimed that the magazine was "planned primarily as an art reference book and is widely used in colleges and private schools throughout the country." A third alibi, mostly limited to European publications, was a claimed affiliation with the nudist movement.
Waugh considers it likely that the true nature of physique magazines was an "open secret", with these alibis existing mostly as a polite fiction. An example of contemporary skepticism is a 1959 exposé in Sports Illustrated, which noted:
...and all the magazines, they keep saying, operate under principles that are almost embarrassingly respectable. When accused, as some of them have been, of catering only to homosexuals, they act shocked; editorially they protest that they are eminently "cultural," devoted to "esthetic appreciation of the male physique," no naughtier than The Atlantic Monthly...
Adherence to these alibis became more relaxed over time. By the 1960s, most magazines had moved away from the rigid poses associated with bodybuilding and toward more relaxed poses and naturalistic settings such as the bachelor pad.
References to homosexuality
A subtle early signal to gay audiences was physique magazines' ubiquitous use of classical Greco-Roman imagery and language. This connection was embodied in the names of several publications, including Grecian Guild Pictorial, Apollo, Vulcan, and Young Adonis, as well as the frequent use of Grecian columns and props in photographs.
Even covert textual references to homosexuality were rare in the early years of physique magazines. One early example cited by Kenneth Krauss is a 1956 announcement of the marriage of famed physique model Glenn Bishop in Body Beautiful, which joked that "The Broken Hearts chapter of the GLENN BISHOP FAN CLUB will sponsor a mass drowning at Fire Island"—many gay men in the 1950s would have understood this as an inside joke, given the status of Fire Island as a gay hotspot.
As time went on, some magazines became more daring in their willingness to discuss homosexuality directly. The July 1959 issue of VIM included an article titled "Males, Morals & Mores" which offered a measured defense of homosexuality as merely "different", and quoted Alfred Kinsey's study of male sexuality. The article warned that homosexuals and readers of physique magazines were being unfairly scapegoated as causes of juvenile delinquency.
Drum, published by Clark Polak from 1964 was an example of a hybrid format combining physique photography with editorial content devoted to the homophile movement. The circulation of overtly gay magazines increased tenfold between 1965 and 1969. The increased acceptability of such publications contributed to the extinction of the physique magazine.
Format
Early physique magazines were digest size. Eventually large-format titles would appear, some with full color. Among the earliest were the Joe Weider magazines Young Physique and Demi-Gods, debuting in 1958 and 1961, respectively.
Circulation and scale
At their height of popularity, physique magazines were a major industry. It has been estimated that their circulation exceeded the serious political magazines dedicated to the homophile movement (what would now be called the gay rights movement) such as ONE magazine and the Mattachine Review, by a factor of ten, or even one hundred. One factor affecting this discrepancy was that homophile publications faced greater barriers to being carried by newsstands. In 1964, a large newsstand in Dayton, Ohio was found to be selling about twenty different physique magazines, each of which would likely have sold around twenty to forty thousand copies per issue. One publisher estimated a total annual circulation, across all physique magazines, of nine million in the United States.
The United States led the world in physique photography, and American physique magazines were consumed internationally, but other countries also developed their own local titles such as: Male Model Monthly in the UK; Muscle Builder in Australia; Sciences culturistes, La culture physique, and Apollon-Venus in France. Several Canadian titles had wide international circulation, including those of Joe Weider and of photographer Alan B. Stone (operating under the name "Mark-One Studio").
Notable publishers
Bob Mizer's Physique Pictorial, founded in 1951, is widely regarded as the first in the tradition of physique magazines targeted to a gay audience, and also the first magazine of any kind in the US to target gay men. Mizer's photography, distributed via his Athletic Model Guild, also appeared in other magazines, including overseas.
Canadian bodybuilder and entrepreneur Joe Weider published the bodybuilding magazine Your Physique starting in 1940, but later branched out into publishing several physique magazines in the 1950s and 60s, including Adonis, Body Beautiful, and The Young Physique. Unlike other prominent publishers, Weider was heterosexual. He employed Hal Warner, a gay man, to edit several of his physique publications. Weider would go on to found several major American fitness magazines in the 1980s, including Men's Fitness.
Lynn Womack, founder of Guild Press, created a number of original physique magazines, and acquired several other existing publications including Grecian Guild Pictorial, Vim, and MANual. He fought the landmark Supreme Court obscenity case Manual Enterprises, Inc. v. Day.
The studios which provided photographs for physique magazines received little in the way of direct compensation from publishers; instead, the magazines served to advertise their mail order sales of photographs directly to readers. Many of the most prominent physique studios, such as those of Bruce Bellas and Lon of New York, started their own magazines, which essentially served as advertising catalogues.
Legal challenges
Both producers and consumers of physique magazines in the US faced frequent legal challenges, particularly from the US Post Office, which, at the time, took an active role in preventing the circulation through the mail of what it deemed obscene materials, under the Comstock laws of 1873. The determination of obscenity in the United States originally followed the Hicklin test, which applied to any material which had the tendency to "deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences" (typically taken to be children). The Hicklin test was replaced following the Supreme Court case Roth v. United States, which established a narrower standard of being "utterly without redeeming social value".
According to David K. Johnson, "almost all" photographers and publishers associated with the physique magazine industry faced arrest and trial at some point, with many, including Bob Mizer, Lynn Womack, and John Barrington, being jailed as a result. In the 1940s, before the first physique magazines, physique photographers like Bob Mizer and Al Urban were the subject of investigations by postal inspectors for distributing their photos through the mail. A pattern which continued through the era of the physique magazine was that the photographer or publisher would usually ultimately succeed at trial (sometimes after one or more appeals), but bore a significant financial burden in fighting the case.
In addition to producers, consumers of physique magazines were also sometimes subject to prosecution. Among the best known examples was a 1959 case in Massachusetts involving seven "physique enthusiasts" found to be in the possession of "obscene photographs and literature" which included physique magazines like Grecian Guild Pictorial, MANual, and Gym. As a result of the scandal, one of the seven, Newton Arvin, an esteemed professor of literature at Smith College, was forced out of his teaching position and subsequently hospitalized for suicidal depression.
List of magazines
According to Thomas Waugh, there were "well over one hundred" pre-Stonewall physique magazines in the English-speaking world, and many more non-English publications originating from northern Europe. However, many of these were of a "fly-by-night" character, and are therefore poorly documented.
Legacy
Scholar David K. Johnson identifies the years from 1951 (the debut of Physique Pictorial) to 1967 as the "physique era". Thomas Waugh describes the magazines as peaking between 1955 and 1965. Physique magazines had largely disappeared by the end of the 1960s, as new legal precedent allowed full-frontal nudity and frank discussion of homosexuality. Some titles transitioned to more explicit content in order to remain viable. Physique Pictorial transitioned from physique photos to full nudes in 1969, and remained in print until 1990.
See also
Beefcake (film)
Physique photography
List of gay pornographic magazines
Gay pulp fiction
Bara (genre)
Notes
Citations
References
Further reading
Barron, Jerome A. and Dienes, C. Thomas, First Amendment Law, St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing Co., 1993,
Streitmatter, Rodger and Watson, John C., "Herman Lynn Womack: Pornographer as First Amendment Pioneer," Journalism History, 28:56 (Summer 2002)
LGBT-related magazines published in the United States
Defunct magazines published in the United States
Magazine genres
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Astute
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Operation Astute
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Operation Astute was an Australian-led military deployment to East Timor to quell unrest and return stability in the 2006 East Timor crisis. It was headed by Brigadier Bill Sowry, and commenced on 25 May 2006 under the command of Brigadier Michael Slater. The operation was established at the request of East Timor's government, and continued under an understanding reached between Australia, East Timor, and the United Nations, with the United Nations Integrated Mission in East Timor supporting and helping to develop East Timor's police force. Other countries deploying soldiers to East Timor include Malaysia, New Zealand and East Timor's former colonial power Portugal, operating under independent command.
Initial tasks
The initial tasks of the operation were to:
Allow for the evacuation of foreigners.
Restore stability and confine conflict to secured areas.
Assess and locate the weapons possessed by conflicting groups.
Establish a safe environment for dialogue to resolve the crisis.
Deployment
A forward deployment of approximately 200, including a commando company from the 4th Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment & C Coy, 2nd Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment, secured an entry point for follow-on forces centred on Dili Airport. The full deployment consisted of a battalion group of about 1,800 personnel drawn from the 2nd Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment & 3rd Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment and other Australian and New Zealand Army units. Evacuations were carried out by C-130 Hercules aircraft from the Royal Australian Air Force, using RAAF Base Darwin as a Forward Operating Base.
Initial assets deployed included the guided-missile frigate HMAS Adelaide, the replenishment vessel HMAS Success and the amphibious landing/hospital ship HMAS Kanimbla. Landing ships HMAS Tobruk and HMAS Manoora were also sent to East Timor with follow-on forces.Operation Astute was established at the request of East Timor's government. Troops from former INTERFET nations including mostly from Malaysia, New Zealand and Portugal have augmented the Australian force. Prior to sending troops, each participating government negotiated a Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) with the government of East Timor.
Besides Australia, New Zealand and, for a time, the Malaysian Army forces began arriving on 26 May by air and Portugal had also sent troops to East Timor. Initially, over 3,000 soldiers were deployed, but after the United Nations sent an international police mission (UNMIT) at the end of August 2006 and the situation calmed down, troop numbers were reduced. The ISF and UNMIT now jointly maintained law and order and helped rebuild the East Timorese security forces. An important task of both was also to ensure that the presidential and parliamentary elections in 2007 proceeded reasonably peacefully. Australia, however, insisted that the ISF remain under its leadership and not under UN leadership.
The ISF's attempt to capture the fugitive leader of the 2006 rebel soldiers, Alfredo Reinado, was unsuccessful. An attempted seizure in Same failed despite the deployment of an Australian special force and helicopters. Reinado was later killed in an assassination attempt on the East Timorese leadership on 11 February 2008.
In February 2008, following the attack, Australia initially increased its troops from 800 to 1000. By the end of October 2008, the ISF still consisted of a total of about 1000 men. Australia provided soldiers from the ANZAC Battle Group of the 1st Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment from Townsville. In addition, there were units from the Army Aviation, Logistics, Military Police and Pioneers. In October 2009, the Australian contingent was down to 650 men. New Zealand still provided 155 soldiers in December 2009. These included an Infantry Rifle Company attached to the ANZAC Battle Group and two Iroquois helicopters with 32 members of No 3 Squadron of the Royal New Zealand Air Force.
In 2010, the force was reduced to 400 Australian and 75 New Zealand soldiers. The rebel movement subsequently collapsed in the following weeks. Troops were gradually reduced due to the progress made in stabilising the country, and it was decided to withdraw foreign security forces after the 2012 presidential and parliamentary elections.
Timeline
May 2006
24 May
21:59 (Canberra) Acting Prime Minister of Australia, Peter Costello, announced in a press conference that East Timor had requested Australia "send defence forces to East Timor to help in maintaining and re-establishing public order". Australia would send an advance party including the Vice Chief of Defence force to negotiate conditions of the deployment the following morning.
25 May
07:00 (Canberra) Prime Minister of Australia John Howard arrives back in Canberra from Dublin early, though not officially because of the East Timor crisis.
12:30 (Darwin) A RAAF 34SQN Challenger 604 (VIP jet) was tasked to fly the Australian Vice Chief of Defence Force from Canberra to Dili via Darwin, to negotiate the rules of engagement of the Australian operation, and other conditions of deployment. However, on arrival in Darwin the Chief of the Defence Force ordered the aircraft to remain in Darwin, due to a dramatic increase in violence in Dili.
(Dili) RAAF 37SQN C130J Hercules aircraft arrive at Dili from Darwin with 130 commandos on board, together with 4 Australian Army Black Hawk helicopters. The Vice Chief of Defence Force was also on board the C130, after being unable to fly to Dili on the RAAF VIP jet. Dili Airport is now under Australian military control. However the VCDF is unable to leave the airport due to security concerns.
(Dili) HMAS Adelaide arrives in Dili Harbour.
18:43 (Canberra) Prime Minister John Howard announces in a press conference that the deployment will "go ahead without any conditionality" and that 1300 troops would be in place "in a very short order", despite a failure to negotiate conditions of the deployment with the East Timorese Government. He explains waiting for signatures could lead to significant further bloodshed and the East Timorese Government is desperate for Australian troops to arrive.
(Darwin) The Royal Australian Air Force commence transporting troops to Dili. A 33SQN Boeing 707 ferries troops between Townsville and Darwin, whilst 36SQN C-130Hs and 37SQN C-130Js transport troops and supplies between Darwin and Dili. The flights also commence evacuations of civilians on the return legs. The flights continue throughout the night and the following day to form an air bridge between Darwin and Dili.
26 May
(Dili) Malaysian Army soldiers begin arrive in Dili. RAAF aircraft continue to transport troops and equipment.
United States Fleet Antiterrorism Security Team platoon arrives in Dili to protect the US Embassy.
27 May
13:30 (Darwin) A Royal New Zealand Air Force C-130H arrives in Darwin from Townsville, ready to deploy New Zealand soldiers to East Timor.
29 May
The initial deployment of Australian soldiers is completed.
A platoon of 42 New Zealand soldiers arrives in Dili to secure the New Zealand embassy.
31 May
Delta Company, 2/1 Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment of 123 New Zealand soldiers arrives in Dili.
June 2006
2 June
8 New Zealand military police arrive in Dili.
3 June
USAF C-17 Globemaster III aircraft complete their task of ferrying Australian troops and equipment between Townsville and Darwin.
7 June
Australian Defence Minister Brendan Nelson and New Zealand Defence Minister Phil Goff and Defence Secretary Graham Fortune visit Dili.
16 June
Rebel Timorese soldiers begin handing their weapons over to Australian troops.
27 June
It is announced that a New Zealand soldier fired a warning shot during the week of 18–24 June. This is apparently the first shot fired during the intervention.
July 2006
1 July
50 soldiers from 2/1 RNZIR and other units fly to Timor Leste to replace members of the initial New Zealand force.
18 July
Australian Prime Minister John Howard visits Timor Leste. During his visit he announced that the Australian force in the country will be gradually reduced.
19 July
HMAS Kanimbla departs Timor Leste for Australia carrying 250 soldiers and four S-70A Blackhawk helicopters.
August 2006
3 August
The Australian Government announces that the ADF has commenced a gradual drawdown of forces in Timor Leste due to the improving security situation. An infantry company, 23 armoured personnel carriers and support personnel are scheduled to depart Timor Leste over the next few weeks.
7 August
A Company, 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment returns to Townsville after 71 days in Timor Leste as part of Battle Group Faithful.
14 August
G Company, 4th Field Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery returns to Townsville after being deployed since 26 May 2006.
27 August
D Company, 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment returns to Townsville after being deployed to Timor Leste. Further soldiers from the 3rd Combat Signal Regiment are scheduled to return later in the week.
28 August
It is announced that 44 New Zealand military personnel will return home from Timor Leste on 31 August.
September 2006
7 September
It is announced that a rifle company from 1 RAR will be deployed to Timor Leste by 9 September to reinforce the Australian-led force following Alfredo Reinado's escape from prison on 30 August.
19 September
The final elements of the Australian Army Battle Group Faithful return to Australia having been replaced by the ANZAC Battle Group led by the 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment.
October 2006
26 October
Brigadier Mal Rerden takes command of Joint Task Force 631, replacing Brigadier Mick Slater.
December 2006
17 December
Protests against UN troops intensify after they are accused of being responsible for the killing of a rebel gang member during factional clashes.
January 2007
26 January
Australia, East Timor, and the United Nations sign a memorandum of understanding under which Operation Astute continues and the United Nations Integrated Mission in East Timor supports and helps to develop East Timor's police force.
March 2007
4 March
After cornering Reinado at a compound in Same, Australian Special Forces enter the town and conduct an assault. Reinado evades capture but five of his men are killed in the Battle of Same. The Timor Leste government subsequently called off the manhunt, preferring to pursue a dialogue with the rebels instead.
May 2007
9 May
Australian forces successfully supervise round two elections, with no reports of violence.
10 May
An unmanned Australian spy plane on operations over East Timor crashes into a house in the densely populated eastern suburb of Becora in Dili. Military helicopters were quickly sent to locate the wreckage, and an investigation was scheduled to begin the next day into whether the crash was due to technical failure or operator error.
August 2007
2 August
Brigadier John Hutcheson takes over command from Brigadier Mal Rerden.
January 2008
31 January
Brigadier James Baker takes over command from Brigadier John Hutcheson.
July 2008
31 July
Brigadier Mark Holmes takes over command.
January 2009
16 January
Brigadier Bill Sowry takes over command from Brigadier Mark Holmes.
Military units involved
Operation Astute is an Australian military operation. While the Malaysian and New Zealand contingents operate under overall Australian command, the Portuguese contingent operates under Portuguese national command. The initial Australian units deployed as part of the operation fell under the operational command of Brigadier Michael Slater, the commander of the Australian 3rd Brigade. The major unit involved in land operations was the 3rd Battalion under its commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Mick Mumford. This force was replaced in early September 2006 by a battalion group based around the 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment designated the ANZAC Battle Group.
Australia
Australian Army
Australia currently has approximately 404 personnel deployed to Timor-Leste, the majority of whom are formed into the ANZAC Battle Group, named due to the presence of a rifle company from the New Zealand Army integrated in its structure.
Headquarters Joint Task Force 631
Elements, 1st Military Police Battalion
ANZAC Battle Group: This battle group includes elements of other units:
Headquarters, 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment
B Company, 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment
C Company, 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment
Victor Company, 1st Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment
Battery, 16th Air Defence Regiment (operating as infantry)
Elements, 4th Field Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery
Elements, 17 Construction Squadron, Royal Australian Engineers
Elements, B Squadron, 3rd/4th Cavalry Regiment
Elements, B Squadron, 5th Aviation Regiment
Troop, 1st Aviation Regiment
The initial Australian Army force consisted of:
Headquarters elements, 3rd Brigade
3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR) battle group ('Battle Group Faithful'). This battle group included the following elements of other units:
Airborne Combat Team Bravo, 3 RAR
A Company, 1 RAR
C and D Companies, 2 RAR
G (108 Field Battery) Company, 4th Field Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery (operating as infantry)
B Squadron, 3rd/4th Cavalry Regiment (originally equipped with 33 x M113 armoured personnel carriers)
16 Combat Engineer Squadron, 3rd Combat Engineer Regiment
Commando Company Group, 4th Battalion (Commando), Royal Australian Regiment
Troop, Australian Special Air Service Regiment
3rd Combat Service Support Group (based around the 3rd Combat Service Support Battalion)
Aviation element ('Combat Team Vigilance')
Eight S-70A Blackhawk transport helicopters, drawn from B Squadron, 5th Aviation Regiment and the 171st Aviation Squadron (four helicopters since 19 July)
Four Kiowa light observation helicopters, 1st Aviation Regiment
Detachment, Emergency Response Squadron, Incident Response Regiment
Detachment, 9th Petroleum Platoon, [providing bulk fuel support to aircraft and land vehicles to ensure the mission was achieved.]
Royal Australian Navy
HMAS Adelaide (until 28 May)
One S-70B-2 Seahawk helicopter, 816 Squadron RAN (until 28 May)
HMAS Kanimbla
HMAS Manoora
HMAS Tobruk (until approximately 8 June)
HMAS Balikpapan
HMAS Tarakan
HMAS Success (until 28 May)
Two Sea King helicopters, 817 Squadron RAN
The Royal Australian Navy force committed to Operation Astute is apparently the largest amphibious task force in the Navy's history.
Royal Australian Air Force
Elements, No. 33 Squadron RAAF (Boeing 707) – Domestic support only
Elements, No. 36 Squadron RAAF (C-130H)
Elements, No. 37 Squadron RAAF (C-130J)
AP-3C Orion aircraft, No. 92 Wing RAAF
Detachment, No. 2 Airfield Defence Squadron RAAF at Dili airport.
No. 382 Expeditionary Combat Support Squadron
RAAF Airload Team at Dili airport.
33SQN are assisting the operation by transporting troops from RAAF Base Townsville to RAAF Base Darwin, however only 36SQN and 37SQN have been flying from Darwin to Dili.
Malaysia
Malaysian Army
209 parachute soldiers from the 10th Paratrooper Brigade
Transport aircraft
Elements, 19th Battalion, Royal Malay Regt (Mechanised)
Elements from Grup Gerak Khas (Army Special Forces)
Royal Malaysian Navy
Elements from PASKAL (Naval Special Forces)
Two warships; KD Mahawangsa and KD Indera Sakti
Royal Malaysia Police
The Malaysian Government currently anticipates replacing the Malaysian military force with Pasukan Gerakan Khas and General Operations Force operators of the Royal Malaysia Police at the end of July.
New Zealand
New Zealand Army
Delta Company (reinforced), 2/1st Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment (Integrated into ANZAC Battle Group)
Military police section, 2nd Military Police Platoon
Royal New Zealand Air Force
One Boeing 757-200, No. 40 Squadron RNZAF
One C-130H, No. 40 Squadron RNZAF
Royal New Zealand Navy
HMNZS Endeavour
HMNZS Canterbury
HMNZS Te Kaha
Portugal
While the Portuguese forces deployed to East Timor are not operating under Australian command, they are acting in co-operation with the Australian, Malaysian and New Zealand forces which are under Australian command.
Bravo Detachment of the Republican National Guard (GNR), initially with 120 soldiers and now with about 200
16 officers from the Special Operations Group (GOE) of the Public Security Police
United States
Two C-17 Globemaster III transport aircraft from the 15th Airlift Wing
6 person Combat Mobility Element from the 15th Logistics Readiness Squadron
The two United States aircraft flew transport flights between Australian air bases (mainly RAAF Base Townsville and RAAF Base Darwin) and were not deployed to East Timor. The aircraft did, however, visit the Solomon Islands in order pick up Australian equipment and personnel. The USAF force completed its mission on 3 June.
In addition, a platoon of the United States Marine Corps Fleet Antiterrorism Security Team was flown into Dili by a United States Navy C-40 Clipper on 26 May to secure the US embassy in Dili. This platoon does not appear to have fallen under Australian command as part of Operation Astute.
Cost
The cost of Operation Astute has represented the third largest operation expenditure between 2006 and 2008, and the second largest from 2009. Below is the yearly expenditure on Operation Astute of the Australian Defence Force.
See also
ANZAC Battle Group
INTERFET
Battle of Timor (1942–43)
References
External links
Operation Astute
United Nations operations in East Timor
Military history of East Timor
Astute
Astute
2006 in East Timor
Australia–East Timor relations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004%20Stanley%20Cup%20playoffs
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2004 Stanley Cup playoffs
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The 2004 Stanley Cup playoffs for the National Hockey League began on April 7, 2004, following the 2003–04 regular season. The playoffs ended with the Tampa Bay Lightning winning the Stanley Cup with a seven-game series win over the Calgary Flames on June 7. It was Tampa Bay's first Stanley Cup championship. It was the Flames' third final appearance, losing to the Montreal Canadiens in and beating the Canadiens in the rematch. These playoffs ended up being the last playoff tournament until 2006 due to the 2004–05 NHL lockout that resulted in the cancellation of the following season. The 16 qualified teams, eight from each conference, played best-of-seven games for conference quarterfinals, semifinals and finals. The winner of each conference proceeded to the Stanley Cup Finals. The format was identical to the one introduced for the 1999 playoffs.
These playoffs marked the first time the Nashville Predators qualified, being in their sixth season in the NHL. This would be the last time that all eastern Canadian teams would make the playoffs together until 2013. This was the last time until 2019 that both Southern California teams, the Los Angeles Kings and Anaheim Ducks, missed the playoffs.
The Flames tied the 1987 Philadelphia Flyers for the most games played (26) in one playoff year (later matched by the 2014 Los Angeles Kings, 2015 Tampa Bay Lightning, and 2019 St. Louis Blues). The record was subsequently broken by the Dallas Stars during the 2020 Stanley Cup playoffs, albeit due to a change in the playoff format.
Playoff seeds
Eastern Conference
Tampa Bay Lightning, Southeast Division champions, Eastern Conference regular season champions – 106 points
Boston Bruins, Northeast Division champions – 104 points
Philadelphia Flyers, Atlantic Division champions – 101 points
Toronto Maple Leafs – 103 points
Ottawa Senators – 102 points
New Jersey Devils – 100 points
Montreal Canadiens – 93 points
New York Islanders – 91 points
Western Conference
Detroit Red Wings, Central Division champions, Western Conference regular season champions, Presidents' Trophy winners – 109 points
San Jose Sharks, Pacific Division champions – 104 points
Vancouver Canucks, Northwest Division champions – 101 points
Colorado Avalanche – 100 points
Dallas Stars – 97 points
Calgary Flames – 94 points
St. Louis Blues – 91 points (39 wins)
Nashville Predators – 91 points (38 wins)
Playoff bracket
Conference quarterfinals
Eastern Conference quarterfinals
(1) Tampa Bay Lightning vs. (8) New York Islanders
The Tampa Bay Lightning entered the playoffs as the Eastern Conference regular season and Southeast Division champions with 106 points. New York qualified as the eighth seed earning 91 points during the regular season. This was the first playoff series between these two teams. The Islanders won three of the four games in this year's regular season series.
Tampa Bay defeated the Islanders in five games. Games one and two saw goaltenders Nikolai Khabibulin of the Lightning and Rick DiPietro of the Islanders trade 3–0 shutouts, with Tampa Bay winning game one and New York winning game two. In games three and four, Khabibulin shut-out the Islanders winning both games by a score of 3–0. In game five, Martin St. Louis scored the game-winner four minutes into overtime.
(2) Boston Bruins vs. (7) Montreal Canadiens
The Boston Bruins entered the playoffs as the Northeast Division champions, earning the second seed in the Eastern Conference with 104 points. Montreal qualified as the seventh seed, earning 93 points during the regular season. This was the thirtieth playoff series between these two rivals, with Montreal winning twenty-two of the twenty-nine previous series. They last met in the 2002 Eastern Conference quarterfinals, where Montreal won in six games. Boston won the season series earning seven of ten points during this year's five game regular season series.
The Canadiens overcame a 3–1 series deficit to eliminate the Bruins in seven games. In game one, the Bruins won a low scoring game 3–0, behind a 31-save shutout from goaltender Andrew Raycroft. In game two, Raycroft allowed one goal and Boston won the game 2–1. Montreal won game three, 3–2. The Canadiens were pushed to the brink of elimination with a 4–3 double-overtime loss in game four. Montreal won game five by a score of 5–1, scoring three third period goals to break open a close game. Montreal forced a seventh game with a 5–2 victory in game six. Montreal completed the comeback with a 2–0 victory in game seven, Richard Zednik scored both goals. Goaltender Jose Theodore shut-out the Bruins making 32 saves.
(3) Philadelphia Flyers vs. (6) New Jersey Devils
The Philadelphia Flyers entered the playoffs as the Atlantic Division champions, earning the third seed in the Eastern Conference with 101 points. New Jersey qualified as the sixth seed earning 100 points during the regular season. This was the fourth playoff meeting between these two teams with New Jersey winning two of the three previous series. They last met in the 2000 Eastern Conference Final where New Jersey won in seven games. Philadelphia won the season series earning seven of twelve points during this year's six game regular season series.
Philadelphia defeated New Jersey in five games. Keith Primeau scored the game-winning goal in game one as the Flyers hung on to win by a score of 3–2. In game two Mark Recchi gave the Flyers the lead on a power-play goal in the first period, the teams traded goals in the final two periods as Philadelphia won again 3–2. New Jersey scored three times on the power-play in game three as they won the game 4–2. Goaltender Robert Esche stopped 35 shots in game four to earn a 3–0 shutout victory for the Flyers. Danny Markov scored the series winning goal at 14:37 of the third period in game five as the Flyers defeated the Devils with a 3–1 victory.
(4) Toronto Maple Leafs vs. (5) Ottawa Senators
The Toronto Maple Leafs entered the playoffs as the fourth seed in the Eastern Conference with 103 points. Ottawa qualified as the fifth seed earning 102 points during the regular season. This was the fourth playoff series in five years between these two teams, and the fourth series overall, Toronto won all three previous meetings. They last met in the 2002 Eastern Conference semifinals where Toronto won in seven games. Toronto won this year's six game regular season series earning nine of twelve points during the season.
The Maple Leafs eliminated the Senators in seven games. In game one Ottawa scored two power-play goals 38 seconds apart in the second period to pull out a 4–2 victory. The Maple Leafs came through with 2–0 win on the strength of a 31-save shutout by Ed Belfour in game two. Toronto won game three 2–0 as Ed Belfour shutout Ottawa again. Ottawa finally scored late in the first period of game four and they would add three more goals to win the game 4–1. Tie Domi scored the game-winning goal in game five and Ed Belfour posted his third shutout of the series in yet another 2–0 Toronto victory. Ottawa won game six 2–1 in double-overtime as Mike Fisher scored at 1:47. In game seven, Ottawa goaltender Patrick Lalime gave up two goals to Joe Nieuwendyk before being pulled after the first period and replaced by backup Martin Prusek, as Toronto earned a series-clinching 4–1 win. This was the Maple Leafs' last postseason series win until 2023.
Western Conference quarterfinals
(1) Detroit Red Wings vs. (8) Nashville Predators
This was the first playoff meeting between the Red Wings and Predators. The Red Wings entered the playoffs as the Presidents' Trophy winners, the Western Conference regular season and Central Division champions, with 109 points. The Predators qualified as the eighth seed earning 91 points (losing the tiebreaker to St. Louis by having fewer wins) during the regular season. This was the first playoff meeting between these two teams. The Predators qualified for the playoffs for the first time since entering the league in the 1998–99 season. Nashville won the season series earning seven of twelve points during this year's six game regular season series.
Detroit defeated Nashville in six games. In Game 1, the Red Wings scored three times in the third period and posted a 3–1 victory. Mathieu Schneider scored the game-winning goal late in third period on the power-play in game two. Nashville struck twice in the first period of game three and Tomas Vokoun made 41 saves in the Predators first playoff victory in franchise history. Detroit heavily out-shot Nashville in game four as Predators' goaltender Tomas Vokoun posted a 41 save shutout in a 3–0 Nashville win. In game five, Curtis Joseph started in goal for the Red Wings, and Henrik Zetterberg scored a goal and an assist in the first six minutes of the game as the Red Wings dominated the Predators, winning 4–1. Detroit scored two goals 30 seconds apart in game six and Curtis Joseph posted a shutout as the Red Wings closed out the series with a 2–0 win.
(2) San Jose Sharks vs. (7) St. Louis Blues
San Jose entered the playoffs as the Pacific Division champions, earning the second seed in the Western Conference with 104 points. St. Louis qualified as the seventh seed earning 91 points (winning the tiebreaker over Nashville by having more wins) during the regular season. This was the third playoff series between these two teams; they split the two previous meetings. They last met in the 2001 Western Conference quarterfinals where St. Louis won in six games. San Jose won this year's four game regular season series earning five of eight points during the season.
San Jose defeated the Blues in five games. Game one saw a defensive battle with San Jose winning the game 1–0, on the strength of a 26-save shutout from Evgeni Nabokov. Chris Osgood was equally strong in net for the Blues, but allowed a goal to Niko Dimitrakos in the first overtime. Nabokov gave up only one goal in game two, a 3–1 Sharks victory highlighted by Patrick Marleau's hat-trick. In game three the Blues used home-ice advantage to post a 4–1 victory getting a hat-trick from Mike Sillinger. The next night, in game four, saw a back-and-forth game that ultimately went to San Jose 4–3. With a chance to knock out the Blues at home in game five the Sharks did just that, winning 3–1.
Shortly after the series, St. Louis left winger Mike Danton, was arrested, charged and convicted in a conspiracy to murder his agent, David Frost. It was later revealed the hitman he hired was meant for his father.
(3) Vancouver Canucks vs. (6) Calgary Flames
The Vancouver Canucks entered the playoffs as the Northwest Division champions, earning the third seed in the Western Conference with 101 points. Calgary qualified as the sixth seed earning 94 points during the regular season. This was the sixth playoff meeting between these two rivals with Calgary winning three of the five previous series, they last met in the 1994 Western Conference quarterfinals, with the Canucks winning in seven games. The Flames qualified for the playoffs for the first time since 1996. Vancouver won the season series earning seven of twelve points during this year's six game regular season series.
The Flames eliminated the Canucks in seven games and won their first playoff series since winning the Stanley Cup in 1989. Vancouver scored four times on the power-play in game one as they took the opening game 5–3. Calgary scored two goals 50 seconds apart in the first period of game two in a 2–1 victory. In game three Dan Cloutier was injured in the first period and backup Johan Hedberg replaced him, Matt Cooke scored early in the third period as Vancouver won the game 2–1. Calgary goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff recorded a shutout in game four as the Flames won 4–0. In game five Alexander Auld became the third goaltender to play for Vancouver in the series, the Canucks lost the game 2–1. Vancouver stormed out to a 4–0 lead only to see the Flames come back to tie the game in the third period, Brendan Morrison scored 2:28 into the third overtime period in a 5–4 Vancouver victory. Jarome Iginla and Matt Cooke each scored twice in regulation in game seven, Martin Gelinas scored 1:25 into overtime as Calgary won the game 3–2.
(4) Colorado Avalanche vs. (5) Dallas Stars
The Colorado Avalanche entered the playoffs as the fourth seed in the Western Conference with 100 points. Dallas qualified as the fifth seed earning 97 points during the regular season. This was the third playoff meeting between these two teams, with Dallas having won both previous series. They last met in the 2000 Western Conference Final where Dallas won in seven games. Colorado won three of the four games during this year's regular season series.
The Avalanche defeated Dallas in five games. David Aebischer made 37 saves in a 3–1 Colorado victory in game one. The Avalanche scored three times on the power-play in game two winning the game by a score of 5–2. Dallas came back from a two-goal deficit in game three and won the game 4–3 in overtime on a goal by Steve Ott to climb back into the series. Dallas heavily out-shot the Avalanche in game four, but Marek Svatos won the game for Colorado 5:18 into the second overtime. After allowing the first goal in game five Colorado scored five unanswered goals to eliminate the Stars with a 5–1 victory.
Conference semifinals
Eastern Conference semifinals
(1) Tampa Bay Lightning vs. (7) Montreal Canadiens
This was the first playoff meeting between these two teams. The teams split this year's four game regular season series.
The Lightning swept the Canadiens in four games. Lightning goaltender Nikolai Khabibulin recorded his fourth shutout of the post-season in a 4–0 game one victory. Vincent Lecavalier scored twice in game two as Tampa Bay won the game by a score of 3–1. Montreal was unable to hang on to a late lead in game three as Vincent Lecavalier tied the game in the final minute of regulation and Brad Richards scored 65 seconds into overtime as the Lightning won 4–3. Brad Richards scored his second game-winning goal of the series in the second period of game four as the Lightning closed out the Canadiens with a 3–1 victory.
(3) Philadelphia Flyers vs. (4) Toronto Maple Leafs
This was the sixth playoff meeting between these two teams with Philadelphia winning four of the five previous series. They last met in the previous year's Eastern Conference quarterfinals where Philadelphia won in seven games. Philadelphia won three of the four games in this year's regular season series.
The Flyers defeated Toronto in six games. Marcus Ragnarsson broke the tie in the second period of game one as the Flyers eventually won the game 3–1. Philadelphia scored twice with the man advantage in game two as the Flyers held on for a 2–1 victory. Toronto used three second period goals to earn a 4–1 victory in game three. Maple Leafs captain Mats Sundin scored twice in game four as Toronto won 3–1. Keith Primeau recorded a hat trick and added an assist in a dominating 7–2 Flyers victory in game five. Philadelphia goaltender Robert Esche made just one save in the game while earning the victory, he was replaced by Sean Burke at the start of the second period due to injury. Toronto overcame a 2–0 third period deficit to force overtime in game six, however the comeback came up short as Jeremy Roenick scored the series-winning goal at 7:39 of the first overtime period.
Western Conference semifinals
(1) Detroit Red Wings vs. (6) Calgary Flames
This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams with Detroit winning the only previous series. They last met in the 1978 Preliminary Round where Detroit won in two games against the Atlanta Flames. Detroit won three of the four games during this year's regular season series.
The Flames defeated the Red Wings in six games. Miikka Kiprusoff made 28 saves and Marcus Nilson scored the game-winning goal 2:39 into overtime as the Flames took the opening game of the series 2–1. The Red Wings bounced back with a 5–2 victory in game two led by Steve Yzerman's two goals in the second period. Jiri Fischer tied the game halfway through the second period of game three, however Flames forward Shean Donovan scored just 40 seconds later and put the Flames up for good as Calgary registered a 3–2 victory. Mathieu Dandenault broke the tie in the third period of game four as Detroit bounced back with a 4–2 victory. During the second period of game five a shot by Red Wings defenceman Mathieu Schneider deflected off a stick and struck Red Wings captain Steve Yzerman in the left eye. Yzerman was attended to for several minutes and then helped off the ice holding a towel to his face, Yzerman did not return to the series. Calgary goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff shutout the Red Wings with a 31-save performance in a 1–0 victory. In game six, Miikka Kiprusoff continued his shutout streak against the Red Wings. With just 47 seconds left in the first overtime Flames forward Martin Gelinas scored on Curtis Joseph and Calgary won their second-straight 1–0 game. This was the Flames' second-straight overtime victory to clinch a series in this playoff year.
(2) San Jose Sharks vs. (4) Colorado Avalanche
This was the third playoff meeting between these two teams with Colorado winning both previous series. They last met in the 2002 Western Conference semifinals where Colorado won in seven games. Colorado won the season series earning five of eight points during this year's four game regular season series.
San Jose defeated Colorado in six games as the Sharks advanced to the conference finals for the first time in franchise history. Patrick Marleau scored a hat-trick in a 5–2 Sharks victory in game one. In game two, Marleau scored late in the second period to put the Sharks up for good as they defeated the Avalanche in a 4–1 victory. San Jose goaltender Evgeni Nabokov posted a 33-save shutout in game three and Vincent Damphousse scored the only goal in a 1–0 San Jose victory. Joe Sakic scored the lone goal of the game 5:15 into the first overtime period in game four as Colorado extended the series with a 1–0 victory. For the second consecutive game overtime was required in game five and Joe Sakic scored the game-winning goal 1:54 into the first overtime, giving Colorado a 2–1 victory. With his second goal in game five, Joe Sakic equaled Maurice Richard for the most career playoff overtime goals with six. San Jose scored three times in just over ten minutes in the second period of game six to eliminate the Avalanche in a 3–1 win.
Conference finals
Eastern Conference Final
(1) Tampa Bay Lightning vs. (3) Philadelphia Flyers
This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams with Philadelphia winning the only previous series. They last met in the 1996 Eastern Conference quarterfinals where Philadelphia won in six games. Tampa Bay made their first appearance in a Conference Final since entering the league in the 1992–93 season, while the Flyers last made it to the conference finals in 2000, losing in seven games to the New Jersey Devils. Tampa Bay won all four games in this year's regular season series.
Tampa Bay won their first conference championship defeating the Flyers in seven games. Lightning goaltender Nikolai Khabibulin made 19 saves in a 3–1 Lightning win in game one. The Flyers scored the first six goals in game two as they won easily 6–2. Tampa Bay jumped out to an early two-goal lead in game three and eventually won by a score of 4–1. Keith Primeau scored the game-winning goal shorthanded in game four as the Flyers claimed a 3–2 victory that tied the series. The Lightning scored three times on the power-play in game five as won the game 4–2. The Flyers tied the game in the dying minutes of game six on a goal by Keith Primeau that forced overtime. Simon Gagne scored at 18:18 of the first overtime period as the Flyers gained a 5–4 victory. Fredrik Modin gave the Lightning a two-goal lead in game seven and they hung on to win the game 2–1.
Western Conference Final
(2) San Jose Sharks vs. (6) Calgary Flames
This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams with San Jose winning the only previous series. They last met in the 1995 Western Conference quarterfinals where San Jose won in seven games. San Jose made their first appearance in a Conference Final since entering the league in the 1991–92 season, while the Flames last made it to the conference finals in 1989, defeating the Chicago Blackhawks in five games. The teams split this year's four game regular season series.
The Flames eliminated the Sharks in six games and they became the first Canadian team to qualify for the Stanley Cup Finals in a decade. Calgary goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff made 49 saves and Steve Montador won game one for the Flames with a goal at 18:43 of the first overtime period, giving them a 4–3 victory. In game two Calgary scored two first-period goals and never looked back in a 4–1 victory. Sharks goaltender Evgeni Nabokov posted a 34 save shutout and Alex Korolyuk scored two goals late in third period in a 3–0 win in game three. The Sharks exploded for four goals in the second period of game four as they evened the series at two games apiece with a 4–2 victory. Miikka Kiprusoff shutout the Sharks in game five as the Flames won 3–0. Martin Gelinas scored his third consecutive series-winning goal for the Flames in game six giving Calgary a 3–1 victory.
Stanley Cup Finals
This was the first playoff series between these two teams. Tampa Bay made their first Finals appearance, in their twelfth season, while Calgary made their third Finals appearance. The Flames won their last appearance in the Finals defeating Montreal in six games in 1989. Tampa Bay won the only game of this year's regular season series.
Player statistics
Skaters
These are the top ten skaters based on points, following the conclusion of games played on June 7.
GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; +/– = Plus/minus; PIM = Penalty minutes
Goaltending
These are the top five goaltenders based on either goals against average or save percentage with at least four games played.
GP = Games played; W = Wins; L = Losses; SA = Shots against; GA = Goals against; GAA = Goals against average; TOI = Time On Ice (minutes:seconds); Sv% = Save percentage; SO = Shutouts
See also
2003–04 NHL season
List of NHL seasons
References
playoffs
Stanley Cup playoffs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keurig
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Keurig
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Keurig is a beverage brewing system for home and commercial use. The American company Keurig Dr Pepper manufactures the machines. The main Keurig products are K-Cup pods, which are single-serve coffee containers; other beverage pods; and the proprietary machines that use these pods to make beverages.
Keurig beverage varieties include hot and cold coffees, teas, cocoas, dairy-based beverages, lemonades, cider, and fruit-based drinks. Keurig has over 400 varieties and over 60 brands of coffee and other beverages through its own and partnership-licensed brands. In addition to K-Cup pods, it includes Vue, K-Carafe, and K-Mug pods.
The original single-serve brewer and coffee-pod manufacturing company, Keurig, Inc., was founded in Massachusetts in 1992. It launched its first brewers and K-Cup pods in 1998, targeting the office market. As the single-cup brewing system gained popularity, brewers for home use were added in 2004. In 2006, the publicly traded Vermont-based specialty coffee company Green Mountain Coffee Roasters acquired Keurig, sparking rapid growth for both companies. In 2012, Keurig's main patent on its K-Cup pods expired, leading to new product launches, including brewer models that only accept pods from Keurig brands.
From 2006 to 2014, Keurig, Inc. was a wholly owned subsidiary of Green Mountain Coffee Roasters. When Green Mountain Coffee Roasters changed its name to Keurig Green Mountain in March 2014, Keurig ceased to be a separate business unit and subsidiary and instead became Keurig Green Mountain's main brand. In 2016, Keurig Green Mountain was acquired by an investor group led by private-equity firm JAB Holding Company for nearly $14 billion. In July 2018, Keurig Green Mountain merged with Dr Pepper Snapple Group in a deal worth $18.7 billion, creating Keurig Dr Pepper, a publicly traded conglomerate which is the third largest beverage company in North America.
History
Inception and development
Keurig founders John Sylvan and Peter Dragone had been college roommates at Colby College in Maine in the late 1970s. In the early 1990s, Sylvan, a tinkerer, had quit his tech job in Massachusetts and wanted to solve the commonplace problem of office coffee – a full pot of brewed coffee that sits and grows bitter, dense, and stale – by creating a single-serving pod of coffee grounds and a machine that would brew it. Living in Greater Boston, he went through extensive trial and error trying to create a pod and a brewing machine. By 1992, to help create a business plan, he brought in Dragone, then working as director of finance for Chiquita, as a partner. They founded the company in 1992, calling it Keurig; Sylvan later said that the name came from his having "looked up the word excellence in Dutch".
The prototype brewing machines were also a work in progress and unreliable, and the company needed funds for development. That year, they approached what was then Green Mountain Coffee Roasters, and the specialty coffee company first invested in Keurig at that time. Keurig needed sizeable venture capital; and after pitching to numerous potential investors, the three partners finally obtained $50,000 from Minneapolis-based investor Food Fund in 1994, and later the Cambridge-based fund MDT Advisers contributed $1,000,000. In 1995, Larry Kernan, a principal at MDT Advisers, became Chairman of Keurig, a position he retained through 2002. Sylvan did not work well with the new investors, and in 1997, he was forced out, selling his stake in the company for $50,000. Dragone left a few months later but decided to retain his stake.
Launch
In 1997, Green Mountain Coffee Roasters became the first roaster to offer its coffee in the Keurig "K-Cup" pod for the newly market-ready Keurig Single-Cup Brewing System, and in 1998, Keurig delivered its first brewing system, the B2000, designed for offices. Distribution began in New York and New England. The target market at that time was still office use, and Keurig hoped to capture some of Starbucks' market. To satisfy brand loyalty and individual tastes, Keurig found and enlisted a variety of regionally known coffee brands that catered to various flavor preferences. The first of these was Green Mountain Coffee Roasters, and additional licensees for the K-Cup line included Tully's Coffee, Timothy's World Coffee, Diedrich Coffee, and Van Houtte, although Green Mountain was the dominant brand. Keurig also partnered with a variety of established national U.S. coffee brands for K-Cup varieties, and in 2000, the company also branched out the beverage offerings in its K-Cup pods to include hot chocolate and a variety of teas. The brewing machines were large and hooked up to an office's water supply; Keurig sold them to local coffee distributors, who installed them in offices for little or no money, relying on the K-Cups for profits.
Keurig is credited with creating a new category with their cup-at-a-time pod-style brewing, a breakthrough product and a breakthrough business model.
In 2002, Keurig sold 10,000 commercial brewers. Consumer demand for a home-use brewer version increased, but manufacturing a model small enough to fit on a kitchen counter and making them inexpensively enough to be affordable to consumers, took time. Office models were profitable because the profits came from the high-margin K-Cups, and one office might go through up to hundreds of those a day.
By 2004, Keurig had a prototype ready for home use, but so did large corporate competitors like Salton, Sara Lee, and Procter & Gamble, which introduced their single-serve brewers and pods. Keurig capitalized on the increased awareness of the concept and sent representatives into stores to do live demonstrations of its B100 home brewer and give out free samples. Keurig and K-Cups quickly became the dominant brand of home brewers and single-serve pods.
Acquisition by Green Mountain Coffee Roasters
In 2006, the publicly traded Vermont-based specialty-coffee company Green Mountain Coffee Roasters (GMCR) – which had successively invested in and acquired increasing percentage ownership of Keurig in 1993, 1996, and 2003, by which time it had a 43% ownership – completed its full acquisition of Keurig. Green Mountain also acquired the four additional Keurig licensees, Tully's Coffee, Timothy's World Coffee, Diedrich Coffee, and Van Houtte, in 2009 and 2010.
The joining of Keurig and Green Mountain combined a highly technological brewing-machine manufacturer and a nationwide high-end coffee provider into one company and created an effective "razor/razorblade" model that allowed for explosive growth and high profits. By 2008, K-Cup pods became available for sale in supermarkets across the U.S. Coffee pod machine sales overall multiplied more than six-fold over the six years from 2008 to 2014. In 2010, Keurig and K-Cup sales topped $1.2billion. The high-margin profits from K-Cup pods are the bulk of the company's income; for the fiscal year 2014, Keurig generated $822.3 million in sales from brewers and accessories, while the pods had $3.6 billion in sales.
In February 2011, Green Mountain announced an agreement with Dunkin' Donuts to make Dunkin’ Donuts coffee available in single-serve K-Cup pods for use with Keurig Single-Cup Brewers. In addition, participating Dunkin’ Donuts restaurants occasionally offer Keurig Single-Cup Brewers for sale. In March 2011, Green Mountain Coffee and Starbucks announced a similar deal whereby Starbucks would sell its coffee and tea in Keurig single-serve pods and would, in return sell Keurig machines in their stores as part of the deal.
Additional products and developments
The company introduced the Keurig Vue brewer, paired with new Vue pods, in February 2012, seven months before the key patent on the K-Cup expired in September 2012. The Vue system was announced as having customizable features so consumers had control over the strength, size, and temperature of their beverages, and the Vue pod is made of recyclable #5 plastic. The Vue brewer was discontinued in 2014, although Keurig still sells the Vue pods.
In November 2012, GMCR released its espresso, cappuccino, and latte brewer, the Rivo, co-developed with the Italian coffee company Lavazza; it was discontinued in December 2016. In the fall of 2013, the company released a full-pot brewer, the Keurig Bolt, mainly used in offices; it was discontinued in December 2016.
In November 2013, Keurig opened a retail store inside the Burlington Mall in Burlington, Massachusetts. The store features the full line of Keurig machines and accessories and nearly 200 varieties of K-Cups for creating individualized 3-, 6-, or 12-pod boxes.
In February 2014, The Coca-Cola Company purchased a 10% stake in Green Mountain Coffee Roasters, valued at $1.25 billion, with an option to increase their stake to 16%, which was exercised in May 2014. The partnership was part of Coca-Cola's support of a cold beverage system developed by Keurig to allow customers to make Coca-Cola and other brand beverages at home. In January 2015, the company made a similar deal with Dr Pepper Snapple Group, but without a stockholder stake. The cold beverage system Keurig Kold, launched in September 2015.
Keurig Green Mountain
In early March 2014, shareholders of Keurig's parent company, Green Mountain Coffee Roasters, voted to change its name to Keurig Green Mountain to reflect its business of selling Keurig coffee makers. Keurig Green Mountain's stock-market symbol remained "GMCR".
In the fall of 2014, Keurig Green Mountain introduced the Keurig 2.0 brewer, with technology to prevent old or unlicensed pods from being used in the brewer. The digital lock-out sparked hacking attempts and anti-trust lawsuits. The Keurig 2.0 K-Cup pods come in 400 varieties from 60 brands, and as of 2015, the 2.0 K-Cup, K-Carafe, and K-Mug pods encompass 500 varieties from 75 brands. The 2.0 brewer also has the capacity to brew full carafes in three settings, from 2 to 5 cups, via the use of the new K-Carafe pod.
In March 2015, Keurig launched the K-Mug pod, a recyclable pod that brews large travel mug–sized portions. The K-Mug pods, for use in the Keurig 2.0 brewing system, brew 12-, 14-, and 16-ounce cups, and the plastic is recyclable #5 polypropylene plastic.
In mid-2015, Keurig debuted the K200, a smaller Keurig 2.0 model that can brew single cups or four-cup carafes and comes in various colors. General Electric announced that its new Café French Door refrigerator, due out in late 2015, will have a Keurig coffee machine built into the door.
In September 2015, Keurig launched a line of Campbell's Soup available in K-Cups. The Campbell's Fresh-Brewed Soup Kits come with a packet of noodles and a K-Cup soup pod. The product is available in two varieties: Homestyle Chicken Broth & Noodle, and Southwest Style Chicken Broth & Noodle.
Also in September 2015, Keurig launched Keurig Kold, a brewer that creates a variety of cold beverages including soft drinks, functional beverages, and sparkling waters. The machine brews beverages from The Coca-Cola Company (e.g. Coca-Cola, Diet Coke, Coke Zero, Sprite, Fanta) and the Dr Pepper Snapple Group (e.g. Dr Pepper, Canada Dry) and Keurig's line of flavored sparkling and non-sparkling waters and teas, sports drinks, and soda-fountain drinks.
In December 2015, it was announced that Keurig Green Mountain would be sold to an investor group led by private-equity firm JAB Holding Company for nearly $14 billion. The acquisition was completed in March 2016.
Keurig Dr Pepper
In July 2018, Keurig Green Mountain merged with Dr Pepper Snapple Group in a deal worth $18.7 billion, creating a publicly traded conglomerate that is the third largest beverage company in North America.
Keurig launched Drinkworks Home Bar in late 2018, developed by Keurig Dr Pepper and AB InBev. The machine creates cocktails, beers and ciders through 24 different pods. The device launched to the general public in 2019. In December 2021 Keurig announced it was discontinuing the platform and offered refunds for the machines to purchasers.
Products
Keurig K-Cup brewing systems
The company's flagship products, Keurig K-Cup brewing systems, are designed to brew a single cup of coffee, tea, hot chocolate, or other hot beverage. The grounds are in a single-serve coffee container, called a "K-Cup" pod, consisting of a plastic cup, a foil lid, optional filter paper, and an optional shim. Each K-Cup pod is filled with coffee grounds, tea leaves, cocoa mix, fruit powder, or other contents, and is nitrogen flushed, sealed for freshness, and impermeable to oxygen, light, and moisture.
The machines brew the K-Cup beverage by piercing the aluminum foil seal with a spray nozzle, while piercing the bottom of the plastic pod with a discharge nozzle. Grounds contained inside the K-Cup pod are in a paper filter. Hot water is forced under pressure through the K-Cup pod, passing through the grounds and through the filter. A brewing temperature of is the default setting, with some models permitting users to adjust the temperature downward by five degrees.
The key original patent on the K-Cup expired in 2012. Keurig has later patents, including on the filtration cartridge used in K-Cups, and has also launched a number of new pods since the beginning of 2012.
Brewing system models
Keurig sells many brewing system models, for household and commercial use. Licensed models from Breville, Cuisinart, and Mr. Coffee, were introduced in 2010.
Its brewing systems for home use include single-cup brewers, and brewers that brew both single-cups and carafes. Keurig also sells commercial brewing models for offices and commercial venues.
Beverage varieties and brands
Through its owned brands and through its partnerships and licensing, as of 2015 Keurig's K-Cups and other pods offer more than 400 beverage varieties from 60 brands, including the top ten best-selling coffee brands in the U.S. The beverages include coffees, teas, hot chocolates and cocoas, dairy-based beverages, lemonades, cider, and fruit-based drinks. Keurig also offers Brew Over Ice pods for cold versions of teas, fruit drinks, and coffees.
Keurig-owned brands
As of 2023, brands owned by Keurig Dr Pepper for use in its K-Cups and sometimes other coffee products include the following:
Barista Prima Coffeehouse
Café Escapes
Cinnabon
Gloria Jean's Coffees
Green Mountain Coffee Roasters
Kahlúa
Krispy Kreme
McCafé
Newman's Own Organics
Panera Bread at Home
The Original Donut Shop Coffee
Revv
Swiss Miss
Tully's Coffee
Keurig partner brands
As of 2023, brands that Keurig Dr Pepper has a partnership with for selling K-cups include the following:
Bigelow Tea Company
Café Bustelo
Caribou Coffee
Celestial Seasonings
Dunkin' Donuts
Eight O'Clock Coffee
Folgers
French Market Coffee
Gevalia
Illy
Lavazza
Lipton
Maxwell House
New England Coffee
Peet's Coffee
Seattle's Best Coffee
Starbucks
Tazo
Tim Hortons
Twinings
Awards
Keurig was named Single Serve Coffee Maker Brand of the Year for four consecutive years from 2012 to 2015 by the Harris Poll EquiTrend Study.
Some of Keurig's additional awards since 2012 have included:
2013 "Best All Around" in Best Single-Serve Coffeemakers – Keurig Vue (Good Housekeeping Research Institute)
2013 Edison Awards Gold Award for Consumer Packaged Goods, Beverage Preparation – Keurig Vue
2014 Top 10 Breakaway Brands (Landor Associates)
2014 Food and Beverage Innovators Award – Bolt Packs (National Restaurant Association)
Most Recommended Single Serve Pod Coffee Maker 2014 (Women's Choice Award)
50 Best U.S. Manufacturers 2014 (IndustryWeek)
Corporate affairs
Environmental impact
In the 2010s, beginning primarily with a 2010 article in The New York Times, Keurig has been publicly criticized by environmental advocates and journalists for the billions of non-recyclable and non-biodegradable K-Cups consumers purchase and dispose of every year, which end up in landfills. Some competing single-cup brands have single-serve pods that are recyclable, reusable, compostable, or biodegradable.
The cup portion of the K-Cup is made of #7 plastic, and although according to the company it is BPA-free, safe, and meets or exceeds applicable FDA standards, it cannot be recycled in most places. Even in the few locations in Canada where #7 plastic is recycled, the small size of the pods means they can fall through sorting grates.
In late 2005, Green Mountain and Keurig launched the My K-Cup reusable and refillable pod, which could be filled with any brand of coffee. The product was discontinued in August 2014 with the launch of the Keurig 2.0 brewing system, and the 2.0 did not accept the My K-Cup pods. Consumer backlash prompted the company to announce in May 2015 that it was bringing back the My K-Cup and making it compatible with the 2.0 brewers.
In 2011, GMCR launched the Grounds to Grow On program, in which office customers purchase recovery bins for used K-Cups, which are shipped to Keurig's disposal partner, which composts the coffee grounds and sends the pods to be incinerated in a waste-to-energy power plant. Critics point out that incineration produces airborne pollutants.
Regarding potential recyclability, GMCR's vice president of sustainability stated in 2013 that "The system has a lot of pretty demanding technical requirements in terms of being able to withstand certain amount of temperature and to have a certain kind of rigidity, and provide the right kinds of moisture barriers and oxygen barriers and the like. So it isn't the simplest challenge." In 2015, Keurig Green Mountain's chief sustainability officer stated that every new K-Cup spin-off product introduced since 2006 – including the Vue, Bolt, K-Carafe, and K-Mug pods – is recyclable if disassembled into paper, plastic, and metal components. James Hamblin, writing in The Atlantic, argues that the level of conscientiousness required to disassemble the cups is somewhat of a paradox to expect from people using a push-button brewing process. In its 2014 Sustainability Report, released in February 2015, Keurig Green Mountain re-affirmed that a priority for the company is ensuring that 100% of K-Cup pods are recyclable by 2020.
In August 2014, the Canadian chain OfficeMax Grand & Toy partnered with the New Jersey company TerraCycle to launch a K-Cup recycling program for businesses in Canada, using a recycling box purchased by the businesses and shipped to TerraCycle for recycling when full. In February 2015, TerraCycle launched a similar program for residential use in the U.S.: consumers purchase a Zero Waste Box which can hold 600 capsules, and when full the box, which has a pre-paid UPS label, is shipped to TerraCycle for recycling.
In 2015, Egg Production created a Cloverfield-like short video on YouTube entitled "Kill The K Cup" to promote awareness of the waste impact of K Cup, starting the hashtag #KillTheKCup, and reporting that there were enough K pods sold in 2014 to circle the earth 10.5 times.
Legal and media issues
In early 2014, following the announcement of its Keurig 2.0 machines engineered to lock out unlicensed pods, seven competitors and a number of purchasers filed lawsuits in Canada and in various United States federal courts. The complaints contain numerous allegations of anti-competitive actions designed to drive competitors out of Keurig's market.
To handle the U.S. anti-competitive lawsuits, in June 2014 the United States Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation consolidated the litigation into one docket in the Southern District of New York, where Judge Vernon S. Broderick heard the consolidated case. The case had 46 plaintiffs, consisting of indirect purchasers, direct purchasers, and two competitors. Common allegations of the multidistrict litigation include claims that Keurig improperly acquired competitors, entered into exclusionary agreements with suppliers and distributors to prevent competitors from entering the market, engaged in unwarranted patent-infringement litigation, and unfairly introduced a product redesign that locks out non–Keurig branded cups.
The introduction of the Keurig 2.0 brewer also sparked a number of hacks and workarounds by competitors and consumers in 2014. Rogers Family Coffee, one of the plaintiffs in the anti-trust lawsuits, created a "Freedom Clip" allowing unauthorized pods to work in the brewer. Another plaintiff, TreeHouse Foods, claimed to be able to produce its own pods that would work in the 2.0 system. A Canadian company, Mother Parkers Tea & Coffee, announced a capsule which would be compatible with the Keurig 2.0.
In December 2014, the company recalled about 7 million of its Keurig Mini Plus Brewing Systems manufactured between December 2009 and July 2014 and sold in the U.S. and Canada. The recall was due to burn injuries reported from water overheating and spewing out of some of the machines, particularly if used to brew more than two cups in quick succession.
By the first quarter of 2015, Keurig sales had dropped 23 percent year over year partly due to unease over Keurig 2.0. In response, Keurig announced they would revive the reusable My K-Cup product by the end of the year.
In November 2017, Keurig posted on its Twitter account that it had ended its advertisements with Sean Hannity's program on Fox News, in reaction to Hannity's defense of Senate candidate Roy Moore, who had been accused of sexual misconduct against teenage girls. In response, videos of Hannity's fans destroying their Keurig machines proliferated on the Internet, with automated Russian accounts supporting Hannity's position on Twitter. In an internal email, Keurig CEO Bob Gamgort wrote that the way Keurig handled the situation was "highly unusual" and gave the unintended impression that the company had taken sides. Gamgort also announced an overhaul of Keurig's communications policies.
In October 2020, Keurig agreed to settle for $31 million an antitrust lawsuit alleging they cornered the single-serve brewer market by making their machines only accept K-Cup coffee pods. Affected consumers had until July 15, 2021, to file a claim for the class action settlement.
Corporate governance
John Sylvan and Peter Dragone founded Keurig, Inc. in 1992, In 1995, Larry Kernan, a principal at MDT Advisers – an investment fund which had contributed $1,000,000 to the company – became Chairman of Keurig; he retained the position through 2002. Sylvan was forced out of the company in 1997, and Dragone left a few months later. Sweeney stayed on as the company's vice president of engineering; he later became Vice President of Contract Manufacturing and Quality Assurance.
Nick Lazaris was president and CEO of Keurig, Inc. from 1997 to 2006. Keurig, Inc. was fully acquired by Green Mountain Coffee Roasters in 2006; at the time, GMCR's founder Bob Stiller was its president and CEO. Stiller stepped down in 2007, but remained chairman until May 2012. Lawrence J. Blanford became Green Mountain Coffee Roasters' President and CEO in 2007. Brian Kelley, previously chief product supply officer of Coca-Cola Refreshments, became the President and CEO of Green Mountain Coffee Roasters (later Keurig Green Mountain) in December 2012.
Robert Gamgort, who had been CEO of Pinnacle Foods, replaced Brian Kelley as Keurig Green Mountain's CEO in May 2016 after KGM was acquired by an investor group led by JAB Holding Company,
and he remains CEO of the newly merged, publicly traded conglomerate Keurig Dr Pepper.
References
External links
Official website
Coffee appliance vendors
Coffee brands
American companies established in 1992
1992 establishments in Massachusetts
Food packaging
Single-serving coffee containers
Single-serving coffee makers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Binh%20Gia
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Battle of Binh Gia
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The Battle of Bình Giã () was conducted by the Viet Cong (VC) and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) from December 28, 1964, to January 1, 1965, during the Vietnam War in Bình Giã, Phước Tuy province (now part of Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu province), South Vietnam.
The year of 1964 marked a decisive turning point in the Vietnam War. Following the ousting of President Ngô Đình Diệm in 1963, South Vietnam's top army generals continued to vie with each other for control of the country's military-dominated government instead of combating the emerging forces of the VC. The fragility of the South Vietnamese government was reflected on the battlefield, where its military experienced great setbacks against the VC. Taking advantage of Saigon's political instability, leaders in Hanoi began preparing for war. Even though key members of North Vietnam's Politburo disagreed on the best strategy to reunite their country, they ultimately went ahead to prepare for armed struggle against the South Vietnam government and the American occupation.
Towards the end of 1964, the VC commenced a series of large-scale military operations against the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN). As part of their Winter-Spring Offensive, two VC Regiments attacked ARVN forces at Bình Giã, fighting a large set-piece battle for the first time. Over a period of four days, the VC held their ground and mauled the best units the ARVN could send against them, only breaking after intense attack by U.S. bombers.
Background
In 1964, the political establishment in South Vietnam was still in turmoil. Following the coup that ousted Ngô Đình Diệm, the military situation quickly worsened as the Viet Cong gained significant ground in the countryside because the Military Revolutionary Council which governed South Vietnam, lacked direction both in terms of policy and planning, and lacked political support from the population. Furthermore, General Dương Văn Minh, as the Chairman of the Military Revolutionary Council, and his civilian Prime Minister Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ favoured a political resolution instead of using military force, which brought them into conflict with the United States over the best strategy to fight the VC in South Vietnam. As a result, both men became increasingly unpopular among the military generals who held real political power in Saigon. On January 30, 1964, General Nguyễn Khánh successfully ousted Dương Văn Minh from the Military Revolutionary Council without firing a single shot. For much of the year, Khánh spent most of his efforts on consolidating political power, instead of fighting the VC.
In contrast to the political unrest in Saigon, the Communist leadership in North Vietnam and in the VC were far more concerned about the best strategy to fight the South Vietnamese government and the Americans. While all leaders in Hanoi and in the VC shared the same goal of eventual reunification of their homeland, different factions within the Communist Party disagreed on the best method to achieve their desired goal. Members of North Vietnam's Politburo were divided by the issues surrounding the Soviet strategy of peaceful co-existence versus the Chinese strategy of supporting national liberation movements in emerging countries. Despite their differences of opinion, the Communist Party leadership ultimately made preparations for armed struggle in South Vietnam. From Hanoi's perspective, the military regime in Saigon was able to hold out because the Communist main forces were still not ready to fight a conventional war, so North Vietnam must focus on the development of its military force in the shortest period of time. In the meantime, however, the war must be kept at its current level in order to prevent the full involvement of the United States military.
On October 11, 1964, the VC was ordered to carry out a series of military operations as part of the Communist winter-spring offensive. The VC Nam Bo (B-2 Front in Mekong Delta) Regional Command established a sub-command under the leadership of Trần Đình Xu, with Nguyễn Hòa as the deputy commander, and Lê Trọng Tấn as the political commissar. Their mission was to inflict damage on the regular units of the ARVN and destroy the strategic hamlets constructed by the former Ngô Đình Diệm regime. The VC identified the regions of Bình Long-Phước Long and Bà Rịa-Long Khánh, along Route 14, as the main targets for their offensive. Meanwhile, the Central Military Commission in Hanoi appointed General Nguyễn Chí Thanh as the commander of North Vietnamese military operations in southern Vietnam. Other high-ranking officers such as Major Generals Lê Trọng Tấn and Trần Độ, and Colonel Hoàng Cầm were sent to South Vietnam to supervise the military build-up that would commence in November 1964.
Prelude
In July 1964, the VC 271st Regiment and 272nd Regiment began moving into the provinces of Bình Dương, Bình Long and Phước Long to carry out their mission. During the first phase of their campaign, the VC regiments overran several strategic hamlets at Xan Sang, Cam Xe, Dong Xa, and Thai Khai. Between August and September 1964, VC regiments executed deep thrusts into Bình Dương and Châu Thành to apply additional pressure on South Vietnamese outposts situated on Route 14. During the second phase of their campaign, the VC ambushed two ARVN infantry companies and destroyed five armoured vehicles, which consisted of M24 Chaffee light tanks and M113 armored personnel carriers. The VC defeated regular ARVN units at the strategic hamlets of Bình Mỹ and Bình Co.
Following the completion of the initial stages in their campaign, the VC forces were ordered to regroup and prepare for the next offensive in the Long Khánh region. VC soldiers from the two regiments were assembled in War Zone D, where they were trained to attack well-fortified enemy strongholds. On November 20, 1964, the VC reached the Long Khánh battlefield, having completed a 200 kilometres march from War Zone D. On the battlefield the VC 186th Battalion (from Military Region 6), the 500th and 800th Battalions (from Military Region 7), and the 445th Company also joined the offensive. To kick-start their offensive in the Ba Ria-Long Khánh region, the VC selected Bình Giã as their next target. Bình Giã was a small village located in Phước Tuy Province, about 67 kilometres away from Saigon.
During the war about 6,000 people lived in Bình Giã, most of whom were staunchly anti-communist. The inhabitants of Bình Giã were Roman Catholic refugees who had fled from North Vietnam in 1954 during Operation Passage to Freedom because of fears of Communist persecution. To prepare for their main battle, the VC 272nd Regiment was ordered to block Inter-provincial Road No. 2 and 15, and destroy any South Vietnamese units attempting to reach Bình Giã from the south-western flank of the battlefield. In the days leading up to the battle, the VC often came out to harass the local militia forces. On December 9, 1964, the 272nd Regiment destroyed an entire ARVN mechanised rifle company along Inter-provincial Road No. 2, destroying 16 M-113 APCs. On December 17, the 272nd Regiment destroyed another six armoured vehicles on Inter-provincial Road No. 15.
Battle
During the early hours of December 28, 1964, elements of the VC 271st Regiment and the 445th Company signaled their main attack on Bình Giã by penetrating the village's eastern perimeter. There, they clashed with members of the South Vietnamese Popular Force militiamen, which numbered about 65 personnel. The militia fighters proved no match for the VC and their overwhelming firepower, so they quickly retreated into underground bunkers, and called for help. Once the village was captured, Colonel Ta Minh Kham, the VC regimental commander, established his command post in the main village church and waited for fresh reinforcements, which came in the form of heavy mortars, machine guns and recoilless rifles. To counter South Vietnamese helicopter assaults, Colonel Kham's troops set up a network of defensive fortifications around the village, with trenches and bunkers protected by land mines and barbed wire. The local Catholic priest, who was also the village chief, sent a bicycle messenger out to the Bà Rịa district headquarters to ask for a relief force. In response, the Bà Rịa district chief sent out elements of two Ranger battalions to retake Bình Giã. On December 29, two companies of the ARVN 33rd Ranger Battalion and a company from the 30th Ranger Battalion were airlifted into area located west of Bình Giã, by helicopters from the U.S. 118th Aviation Company to face an enemy force of unknown size.
As soon as the soldiers from the 30th and 33rd Ranger Battalions arrived at the landing zone, they were quickly overwhelmed by the VC in a deadly ambush. The entire 30th Ranger Battalion was then committed to join the attack, but they too did not initially succeed in penetrating the strong VC defensive lines. Several more companies of the Rangers then arrived for an attack from multiple directions. Two companies of the 33rd Ranger Battalion advanced from the northeast. One of them came to the outskirts of the village, but was unable to break through the VC defenses. The other one, trying to outflank the enemy, had been lured into a kill zone in open terrain and were quickly obliterated in an ambush by the three VC battalions using heavy weapons. The two companies suffered a 70 percent casualty rate, and survivors were forced to retreat to the nearby Catholic church. The 30th Rangers had more success by assaulting from the western direction and succeeded in fighting their way into the village, aided by local residents. It however also suffered heavy losses, with the battalion commander and his American adviser severely wounded. The local civilians in Bình Giã retrieved weapons and ammunition from the dead Rangers, and hid the wounded government soldiers from the VC. The 38th Ranger Battalion, on the other hand, landed on the battlefield unopposed by the VC, and they immediately advanced on Bình Giã from the south. Soldiers from the 38th Rangers spent the whole day fighting, but they could not break through the VC defences to link up with the survivors hiding in the church, and fell back after calling in mortar fire to decimate VC fighters moving to encircle them.
The morning of December 30, the 4th South Vietnamese Marine Battalion moved out to Bien Hoa Air Base, waiting to be airlifted into the battlefield. The 1/4th Marine Battalion was the first unit to arrive on the outskirts of Bình Giã, but the 1st Company commander decided to secure the landing zone, to wait for the rest of the battalion to arrive instead of moving on to their objective. After the rest of the 4th Marine Battalion had arrived, they marched towards the Catholic church to relieve the besieged Rangers. About one and a half hours later, the 4th Marine Battalion linked up with the 30th, 33rd and 38th Ranger Battalions, as the VC began withdrawing to the northeast. That afternoon the 4th Marine Battalion recaptured the village, but the VC was nowhere to be seen, as all their units had withdrawn from the village during the previous night, linking with other VC elements in the forest to attack the government relief forces. On the evening of December 30, the VC returned to Bình Giã and attacked from the south-eastern perimeter of the village. The local villagers, who discovered the approaching VC, immediately sounded the alarm to alert the ARVN soldiers defending the village. The South Vietnamese were able to repel the VC, with support from U.S. Army helicopter gunships flown out from Vung Tau airbase.
While pursuing the VC, a helicopter gunship from the U.S. 68th Assault Helicopter Company was shot down and crashed in the Quảng Giao rubber plantation, about four kilometres away from Bình Giã, killing four of its crewmen. On December 31, the U.S. Marines Advisory Group sent a team of four personnel, led by Captain Donald Cook, to Bình Giã to observe conditions on the battlefield. At the same time, the 4th Marine Battalion was ordered to locate the crashed helicopter and recover the bodies of the dead American crewmen. Acting against the advice of his American advisor, Major Nguyễn Văn Nho, commander of the 4th Marine Battalion, sent his 2/4th Marine Battalion company out to the Quảng Giao rubber plantation. Unknown to the 4th Marine Battalion, the VC 271st Regiment had assembled in the plantation. About one hour after they had departed from the village of Bình Giã, the commander of the 2/4th Marine Battalion reported via radio that his troops had found the helicopter wreckage, and the bodies of four American crewmen. Shortly afterwards, the VC opened fire and the 2/4th Marine Battalion was forced to pull back. In an attempt to save the 2nd Company, the entire 4th Marine Battalion was sent out to confront the VC. As the lead element of the 4th Marine Battalion closed in on the Quảng Giao plantation, they were hit by accurate VC artillery fire, which was soon followed by repeated human wave attacks. Having absorbed heavy casualties from the VC's ambush, the 2/4th Marine Battalion had to fight their way out of the plantation with their bayonets fixed. During the entire ordeal, the company did not receive artillery support because the plantation was beyond the range of 105mm artillery guns based in Phước Tuy and Bà Rịa. They however escaped with the crucial support of the U.S. aircraft and helicopters whose rocket attacks forced the enemy to pull back and halted their attempt at pursuit.
In the morning of December 31, the 4th Marine Battalion returned to the crash site with the entire force and the American graves were located and their corpses were dug up. At about 3 pm, a single U.S. helicopter arrived on the battlefield to evacuate the casualties, but they only picked up the bodies of the four American crewmen, while South Vietnamese casualties were forced to wait for another helicopter to arrive. At 4 pm, Major Nguyễn Văn Nho ordered the 4th Marine Battalion to carry their casualties back to the village, instead of continuing to wait for the helicopters. As the 4th Marine Battalion began their return march, three VC battalions, with artillery support, suddenly attacked them from three directions. The battalion's commanding and executive officers were immediately killed and air support was not available. Two Marine companies managed to fight their way out of the ambush and back to Bình Giã, but the third was overrun and almost completely wiped out. The fourth company desperately held out at a hilltop against VC artillery barrages and large infantry charges, before slipping out through the enemy positions at dawn. The 4th Marine Battalion of 426 men lost a total of 117 soldiers killed, 71 wounded and 13 missing. Among the casualties were 35 officers of the 4th Marine Battalion killed in action, and the four American advisers attached to the unit were also wounded. Backed by U.S. Air Force bombers, on January 1 three battalions of ARVN Airborne reinforcements arrived, they were too late as most of the VC had already withdrawn from the battlefield.
Aftermath
The battle of Bình Giã reflected the VC's growing military strength and influence, especially in the Mekong Delta region. It was the first time the VC launched a large-scale operation, holding its ground and fighting for four days against government troops equipped with armor, artillery and helicopters, and aided by U.S. air support and military advisers. The VC demonstrated that, when well-supplied with military supplies from North Vietnam, they had the ability to fight and inflict damage even on the best ARVN units.
The VC apparently suffered light casualties with only 32 soldiers officially confirmed killed, and they did not leave a single casualty on the battlefield. In recognition of the 271st Regiment's performance during the Bình Giã campaign, the VC High Command bestowed the title 'Bình Giã Regiment' on the unit to honour their achievement. Following the Bình Giã campaign, the VC went on to occupy Hoài Đức District and the strategic hamlets of Đất Đỏ, Long Thành and Nhơn Trạch along Inter-provincial Road No. 2 and 15. They also expanded the Hát Dịch base area, which was located in Bà Rịa and Bình Thuận Provinces, to protect the important sea transportation routes used by the Vietnam People's Navy to supply VC units around the regions of the Mekong River.
Unlike their adversaries, the South Vietnamese military suffered heavily in their attempts to recapture the village of Bình Giã and secure the surrounding areas. The South Vietnamese and their American allies lost the total of about 201 personnel killed in action, 192 wounded and 68 missing. In just four days of fighting, two of South Vietnam's elite Ranger companies were destroyed and several others suffered heavy losses, while the 4th Marine Battalion was rendered ineffective as a fighting force. At that stage of the war, Bình Giã was the worst defeat experienced by the South Vietnamese. Despite their losses, the ARVN considered the battle as their victory and erected a monument at the site of the battle to acknowledge the sacrifices of the soldiers who had fallen to retake Bình Giã.
Order of battle (ground forces)
Viet Cong
Main forces of B-2 Front: 271st Regiment, 272nd Regiment (renamed to the 1st Regiment, 2nd Regiment respectively and became part of the 9th Division on 2 Sep 1965), 80th Artillery Detachment
Main forces of Military Region 6, 7, 8: 186th Battalion, 500th Battalion, 800th Battalion, 514th Battalion
Local forces of Military Region 7: 440th Company, 445th Company
Army of the Republic of Vietnam
Airborne Division: 1st Airborne Battalion, 3rd Airborne Battalion, 7th Airborne Battalion
Marine Division: 4th Marine Battalion
ARVN Rangers: 30th Ranger Battalion, 33rd Ranger Battalion, 38th Ranger Battalion, 35th Ranger Battalion
ARVN Artillery and Armored Cavalry support: two artillery platoons, and one section of M-24 tanks.
U.S.Army Aerial support: 68th Assault Helicopter Company
Notes
References
External links
Binh Gia – The battle P.1 by Michael Martin Retrieved on 03/10/2010
Binh Gia – The battle P.2 by Michael Martin Retrieved on 03/10/2010
The Binh Gia Front by Tran Ngoc Toan Retrieved on 03/10/2010
Battle of Binh Gia by Hieu Dinh Vu Retrieved on 03/10/2010
I Still Recall Binh Gia... Retrieved on 03/10/2010
Conflicts in 1964
Conflicts in 1965
1964 in Vietnam
1965 in Vietnam
Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1964
Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1965
Battles involving the United States
Battles involving Vietnam
December 1964 events in Asia
January 1965 events in Asia
History of Bà Rịa-Vũng Tàu Province
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional%20Eurostar
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Regional Eurostar
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Regional Eurostar was a planned Eurostar train service from Paris and Brussels to locations in the United Kingdom to the north and west of London.
While the Channel Tunnel was being planned and constructed in the 1980s, the operation of Eurostar services across Britain was included in the plans. To this end, roughly £320 million was invested into railway infrastructure, including new railway interconnections, depots, and other facilities, as well as the procurement of a dedicated fleet of seven North of London, 14-coach British Rail Class 373/3 trainsets. regional daytime services to Glasgow Central via the East Coast Main Line and Manchester Piccadilly via the West Coast Main Line, and Nightstar sleeper services to the same cities as well as Plymouth and Cardiff via the Great Western Main Line. Trial runs were undertaken using Class 373/2 sets on both the East and West Coast Main Lines in preparation for full-scale services being launched during the late 1990s.
However, various factors dampened the prospects for running such services. During the mid 1990s, British Rail was undergoing the complicated process of privatisation; the British Rail subsidiary European Passenger Services (EPS) was originally intended to operate the regional Eurostar. Responsibility was transferred to the private entity London and Continental Railways (LCR) yet the operator soon found that the inter-capital Eurostar services had achieved lower than forecast passenger numbers and promptly needed financial support. Whilst officially regional Eurostar services have not been cancelled but are on hold or under review, this status has been maintained for several decades. Both LCR and Virgin Rail Group had their proposals for regional Eurostar services reviewed by the Department for Transport and independent organisations. Ministers have objected to the failure to run such services.
LCR has posited that further development of the British high speed rail network improves the economics of prospective regional Eurostar services; thus, the completion of schemes such as High Speed 2 may bring about such services finally.
Beginnings
While the Channel Tunnel was being proposed and authorised during the 1980s, it was often promoted as being a key element to wider proposals for the operation of numerous high-speed rail services through it on both sides of the English Channel, forming a substantial network. The provision of these envisaged regional services to the wider population of Britain has been alleged to have been a crucial factor in the passing of the Channel Tunnel Act 1987 by Parliament and, thereby, the construction of the Channel Tunnel to begin with.
Over time, the scope for the regional Eurostar services was gradually reduced in scale to a core service that was envisaged to run along dedicated TGV-style high-speed lines between the three capital cities of Great Britain; these included regional daytime services to Glasgow Central via the East Coast Main Line and Manchester Piccadilly via the West Coast Main Line, and Nightstar sleeper services to the same cities as well as Plymouth and Cardiff via the Great Western Main Line.
In preparation for the running of these regional services, roughly £140 million was invested into railway infrastructure, such as new connections between existing lines so that the trains could be routed through effectively. As the high-speed rail line between London and the Channel Tunnel, High Speed 1, was not under construction Eurostar services within the UK were forced to use existing rail lines and connecting junctions were built to allow Regional Eurostars access via the congested West and North London Lines. Perhaps the most prominent single asset built was Manchester International Depot, which was intended to service the regional Eurostar fleet, based at Longsight in Manchester by London and Continental Railways. A large Eurostar-branded sign was attached to the outside of the depot with the slogan "le Eurostar habite ici" (French for "the Eurostar lives here"), although the depot was empty and unused for many years; the sign remained in place despite the regional Eurostar service never actualling launching.
Further investment was made in the Class 373/3 North of London sets, essentially a shortened variant of the typical Eurostar sets; the combined rolling stock and infrastructure investment into the regional Eurostar service reportedly cost £320 million. Trial runs were undertaken using Class 373/2 sets on both the East and West Coast Main Lines and passenger information signs and Eurostar lounges were installed at stations along the route.
Privatisation
At the same time as the Channel Tunnel was nearing completion, British Rail was undergoing the long process of privatisation and regional Eurostar can be seen as a victim of it. Many had seen regional services as more a political than economic cause, a means of gaining support for the Channel Tunnel from areas of the UK outside the South-East. A parliamentary select committee in 1999 said "The regions have been cheated". The economic case for merely the inter-capital services had been questioned from the outset but by the time the Channel Tunnel was opened in 1994, backing for regional services had already started to dry up. The British Rail subsidiary European Passenger Services (EPS), which was to undertake Eurostar operations jointly with SNCF of France and NMBS/SNCB of Belgium, took ownership of the 373/2s in 1996 at the same time as it was under the process of being privatised and transferred to London and Continental Railways (LCR) who won the contract to build the CTRL and run Eurostar services.
Due to lower than forecast passenger numbers on the inter-capital services, by 1998, LCR was in financial trouble. As part of a new deal with the UK government, in 1998 LCR subcontracted its share of Eurostar operations, via Eurostar (UK), to InterCapital and Regional Rail (ICRR). As part of its bid, ICRR stated that regional Eurostar services could not run without government subsidy, which the Department for Transport was unwilling to provide. The only other bidder to operate the UK share of the Eurostar operation for LCR, Richard Branson's Virgin Rail Group, claimed it was willing to run regional Eurostar services at its own risk, however the company subsequently informed the UK government that it too saw them as economically unviable. As part of its contract LCR was not legally required to start regional Eurostar services and, by 1999, it was clear that they would not operate.
British Rail, via EPS, ran a token domestic service from certain locations around the UK into Waterloo station using HSTs allowing connection with onward Eurostar service between May 1995 and January 1997 but these were ended at the time of privatisation.
Reasons given and criticism
Whilst officially regional Eurostar services have not been cancelled but are on hold or under review, there are no longer many people who expect them to operate on current lines, although this may be reconsidered if the proposed High Speed 2 line comes to fruition. The most often cited reason given why they have not run is that they are economically unviable in the current climate. The 1990s saw a huge expansion in air travel across Europe with low-cost airlines – a business that had not existed in Europe when the Channel Tunnel was planned – flying from most major cities in the UK to locations on the continent, against which regional Eurostar services, with predicted journey times of almost nine hours for Glasgow to Paris, could not compete.
Unlike other international train services within the European Union where border controls have either had a long history of operation or are no longer enforced, the UK maintains concerns about customs and immigration. The inter-capital services still operate separately from the rest of the British railway network with passport checks carried out at St Pancras, Ebbsfleet International and Ashford International stations. There was concern that similar tight control would not be possible upon regional Eurostar services where separate check-in facilities at stations did not exist. Nevertheless, the Commons Transport Committee reported that they had determined that to be no meaningful technical obstacles to running such services.
To stop regional Eurostar services competing with domestic services in the envisioned competitive market that it was hoped the privatisation of British Rail would create, they were not to stop in London and only allowed to pick up at regional stations whilst going south and set down passengers going north. This was cited as another negative reason for their economic non-viability. Political factors related to the prospective regional Eurostar service, along with many other Channel Tunnel-related projects, have proved to be both complicated and protracted. During 1999, the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions commissioned Arthur D. Little Ltd to write an independent report into regional Eurostar service; this report, which was published in February 2000, examined various options, including the proposed operations by both Virgin Group and ICRR.
Future
The opening of High Speed 1 (HS1) in November 2007 brought connections to both the East Coast Main Line and North London Line (for the West Coast Main Line) at St Pancras. In the late 1990s, LCRR had publicly stated that the opening of HS1 would be a necessary prerequisite for the economic operation of regional Eurostar services. Furthermore, the maximum speed on the West Coast Main Line was increased from 110 to 125 mph in the mid-2000s (though Class 373s were limited by kinematic gauging constraints to 110 mph).
Eurostar (UK) still owns several track access rights and the rights to paths on both the East Coast and West Coast Main Lines, which allowed for the possibility of such services.
The proposed route of HS2 into London will bring the line very close to the existing HS1 line which terminates at St Pancras station; at their closest points, the two high-speed lines will be only apart, and the Department for Transport (DfT) examined various proposals for connecting HS1 and HS2. A governmental "command paper" published in March 2010 proposed either a rapid transit link between HS1 and HS2 terminals, or a direct railway connection. Later announcements on 10 January 2012 suggested that the first phase of the HS2 project was to include the construction of a single track link across North London between HS2 and HS1, partially in tunnels and partially over the existing North London Line, allowing for three trains per hour in both directions. DfT proposals in 2013 stated that this link would allow HS2 trains from the North of England to bypass London Euston and connect straight to HS1, enabling direct rail services to be run from Manchester, Leeds and Birmingham to Paris, Brussels and other continental European destinations.
The proposed HS1–HS2 link was subject to some criticism and concerns were raised by Camden London Borough Council about the impact on housing, Camden Market and other local businesses from construction work of the link. Sir David Higgins, chairman of HS2 Ltd, recommended that the Camden railway link should be omitted from the parliamentary bill, stating that HS2 passengers from the North of England would easily be able to transfer from the HS2 terminal at Euston to St Pancras by London Underground, to continue their journey on HS1 to continental Europe. He also recommended that alternative plans should be drawn up to link the high-speed lines. At the second reading of the High Speed Rail Bill in April 2014, the link was omitted from the final proposals. Following this decision, London mayor Boris Johnson expressed the opinion that an HS1–HS2 link should instead be provided by boring a tunnel under Camden.
Since 2014 there have been no confirmed plans to connect HS2 to HS1, meaning that Regional Eurostar services are no longer being considered. The prospect of an HS1–HS2 link was revived in 2018 when a proposal was put forward by engineering consultancy Expedition Engineering for HS4Air, a high-speed railway line that would create a link between the two lines across southern England; by running south of Greater London, it would also connect Heathrow and Gatwick Airports. However, this scheme was rejected by the government in the same year.
Routes
Due to track arrangements, customs and competition concerns and that the Eurostar terminal was located at Waterloo station on the south side of London regional Eurostar services were not to call at London. The Summer 1999 National Rail Timetable indicates the trains would have called at the following stations, with one train per day on the ECML Glasgow route, and two running to Manchester, one via the Trent Valley line and one via the Birmingham line. The faster train would not have called at stations between Stafford and Milton Keynes.
East Coast Main Line
Glasgow Central
Edinburgh Waverley
Newcastle
Darlington
York
Leeds
Doncaster
Newark North Gate
Peterborough
West Coast Main Line
Manchester Piccadilly
Stockport
Crewe
Stafford
Wolverhampton
Birmingham New Street
Birmingham International
Coventry
Rugby
Milton Keynes Central
Slots in British Rail/Railtrack's timetables for regional Eurostar services were included for many years even though the services did not run. This factor was objected to by some train operating companies who were informed they could not run additional domestic services along the congested mainlines. The dropping of these slots around 1999/2000 was seen by many as the final admission that regional Eurostar services would not ever operate. However Eurostar still owns the rights to reinstate several paths in the future if desired.
Rolling stock
The trains to operate all these services were built at the same time as the Channel Tunnel was under construction in the late 1980s to early 1990s. The London–Paris–Brussels ("Three Capital" Class 373/1) trains are owned in groups by Eurostar International (subsidiary of LCR), SNCF and NMBS/SNCB but have been operated as a common pool. They consist of 18 coaches in a fixed formation. Seven shorter 14-coach North of London 373/3 were also constructed for the regional services at a cost of £180 million. All seven are owned by Eurostar International having been transferred from British Rail. Following the non-start of regional services, the trains were stored at North Pole depot in west London. Six of the seven trains have seen use at various times since.
Between 2000 and 2005, British East Coast Main Line operator Great North Eastern Railway used three train sets to provide additional domestic capacity. Branded White Rose after the White Rose of Yorkshire, sets 3301–3306 received a deep-blue livery using vinyl wraps, with 3307–3314 being stripped of their Eurostar logos to fulfill the roster when the GNER-branded sets were unavailable. On occasions a GNER vinyled half set would operate with an unvinyled half set. Initially the GNER White Rose services ran between London King's Cross and York, then, after clearance was given, between London and Leeds. The units were not permitted to be used on services north of York due to loading gauge restrictions in the Newcastle area. The sets continued to be maintained with the other Eurostar units at North Pole depot, where they returned to storage in 2005 following the end of the GNER lease.
During the last 2000s, numerous train sets were leased to SNCF, who used them on its regular high speed services in France.
Set 3313/14 was used during acceptance testing on section 1 of High Speed 1 and in the process of over-speed testing, set a new UK rail speed record of in 2003. The set was named Entente Cordiale and has seen use as a VIP charter train, having transported the Queen on a state visit to France and to the Entente Cordiale anniversary celebrations during 2004. On 12 June 2007, the unit was used to carry International Olympic Committee inspectors from Stratford International to London St Pancras, as a demonstration for Olympic Javelin services in 2012.
References
External links
Official report into Regional Eurostar by the Department for Transport.
High Speed Rail to the North.
Abandoned rail transport projects in the United Kingdom
Channel Tunnel
Eurostar
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious%20views%20of%20Adolf%20Hitler
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Religious views of Adolf Hitler
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The religious beliefs of Adolf Hitler, dictator of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945, have been a matter of debate. His opinions regarding religious matters changed considerably over time. During the beginning of his political life, Hitler publicly expressed favorable opinions towards Christianity. Most historians describe his later posture as adversarial to organized Christianity and established Christian denominations. He also criticized atheism.
Hitler was born to a practicing Catholic mother, Klara Hitler, and was baptized in the Roman Catholic Church; his father, Alois Hitler, was a free-thinker and skeptical of the Catholic Church. In 1904, he was confirmed at the Roman Catholic Cathedral in Linz, Austria, where the family lived. According to John Willard Toland, witnesses indicate that Hitler's confirmation sponsor had to "drag the words out of him ... almost as though the whole confirmation was repugnant to him". Hitler biographer John Toland offers the opinion that Hitler "carried within him its teaching that the Jew was the killer of God. The extermination, therefore, could be done without a twinge of conscience since he was merely acting as the avenging hand of God ..." Rissmann notes that, according to several witnesses who lived with Hitler in a men's home in Vienna, he never again attended Mass or received the sacraments after leaving home at 18 years old. Krieger claims that Hitler had abandoned the Catholic Church while Hitler's last secretary asserted that he was not a member of any church. Otto Strasser stated critically of the dictator, "Hitler is an atheist" for his unsettling sympathy to "Rosenberg's paganism." Hitler privately assured General Gerhard Engel in 1938 that "I am now as before a Catholic and will always remain so."
In a speech in the early years of his rule, Hitler declared himself "not a Catholic, but a German Christian". The German Christians were a Protestant group that supported Nazi Ideology. Hitler and the Nazi Party also promoted "nondenominational" positive Christianity, a movement which rejected most traditional Christian doctrines such as the divinity of Jesus, as well as Jewish elements such as the Old Testament. In one widely quoted remark, he described Jesus as an "Aryan fighter" who struggled against "the power and pretensions of the corrupt Pharisees" and Jewish materialism. Hitler spoke often of Protestantism and Lutheranism, stating, "Through me the Evangelical Protestant Church could become the established church, as in England" and that the "great reformer" Martin Luther "has the merit of rising against the Pope and the Catholic Church".
Hitler's regime launched an effort toward coordination of German Protestants into a joint Protestant Reich Church (but this was resisted by the Confessing Church), and moved early to eliminate political Catholicism. Even though Nazi leadership was excommunicated from the Catholic Church, Hitler agreed to the Reich concordat with the Vatican, but then routinely ignored it, and permitted persecutions of the Catholic Church. Several historians have insisted that Hitler and his inner circle were influenced by other religions. In a eulogy for a friend, Hitler called on him to enter Valhalla but he later stated that it would be foolish to the worship of Odin (or Wotan) within Germanic paganism. Some historians argue he was prepared to delay conflicts for political reasons and that his intentions were to eventually eliminate Christianity in Germany, or at least reform it to suit a Nazi outlook.
Historiography
Alan Bullock wrote that Hitler had been raised Catholic, but, though impressed by its organizational powers, repudiated Christianity on what he considered to be rational and moral grounds. Bullock wrote that Hitler believed neither in "God nor conscience", but found both "justification and absolution" in a view of himself echoing Hegel's view that heroes were above conventional morality, and that the role of "world-historical individuals" as the agents by which the "Will of the World Spirit", the plan of Providence is carried out. Following his early military successes, Hitler "abandoned himself entirely to megalomania" and the "sin of hubris", an exaggerated self-pride, believing himself to be more than a man. Once the war was over, wrote Bullock, Hitler wanted to root out and destroy the influence of the churches, though until then he would be circumspect for political reasons:
At the turn of the century, leading Hitler expert Ian Kershaw wrote an influential biography of Hitler which used new sources to expound on Hitler's religious views. He concluded that Hitler was spiritual, but nevertheless critical of the churches:
British historian Richard J. Evans, who writes primarily on Nazi Germany and World War II, noted Hitler claiming that Nazism is founded on science: "Science, he declared, would easily destroy the last remaining vestiges of superstition' Germany could not tolerate the intervention of foreign influences such as the Pope and 'Priests', he said, were 'black bugs', 'abortions in black cassocks'."
British historian Richard Overy, biographer of Hitler, sees Hitler as having been a skeptic of religion: "Both Stalin and Hitler wanted a neutered religion, subservient to the state, while the slow programme of scientific revelation destroyed the foundation of religious myth." Overy writes of Hitler as skeptical of all religious belief, but politically prudent enough not to "trumpet his scientific views publicly", partly in order to maintain the distinction between his own movement and the godlessness of Soviet Communism. In 2004, he wrote:
Historian Percy Ernst Schramm describes Hitler's personal religious creed, after his rejection of the Christian beliefs of his youth, as "a variant of the monism so common before the First World War". According to Schramm, these views were indirectly influenced by the work of Ernst Haeckel and his disciple, Wilhelm Bölsche. Schramm quotes Dr. Hanskarl von Hasselbach, one of Hitler's personal physicians, as saying that Hitler was a "religious person, or at least one who was struggling with religious clarity". According to von Hasselbach, Hitler did not share Martin Bormann's conception that Nazi ceremonies could become a substitute for church ceremonies, and was aware of the religious needs of the masses. "He went on for hours discussing the possibility of bridging the confessional division of the German people and helping them find a religion appropriate to their character and modern man's understanding of the world."
Hitler's personal conception of God was as "Providence". For instance, when he survived the assassination attempt of July 20, 1944, he ascribed it to Providence saving him to pursue his tasks. In fact, as time went on, Hitler's conception of Providence became more and more intertwined with his belief in his own inability to make an error of judgment. Alfred Jodl stated at Nuremberg that Hitler had "an almost mystical conviction of his infallibility as leader of the nation and of the war". Another of his physicians, Dr. Karl Brandt, said that Hitler saw himself as a "tool of Providence. He was ... consumed by the desire to give the German people everything and to help them out of their distress. He was possessed by the thought that this was his task and that only he could fulfill it."
BBC historian Laurence Rees characterises Hitler's relationship to religion as one of opportunism and pragmatism: "his relationship in public to Christianityindeed his relationship to religion in generalwas opportunistic. There is no evidence that Hitler himself, in his personal life, ever expressed any individual belief in the basic tenets of the Christian church". Considering the religious allusions found in Mein Kampf, Rees writes that "the most coherent reading" of the book is that Hitler was prepared to believe in an initial creator God, but did "not accept the conventional Christian vision of heaven and hell, nor the survival of an individual 'soul'."
Max Domarus has written that Hitler replaced belief in the Judeo-Christian God with belief in a peculiarly German "god". He promoted the idea of this god as the creator of Germany, but Hitler "was not a Christian in any accepted meaning of that word." Domarus writes that Hitler neither believed in organized religion nor saw himself as a religious reformer. Hitler had fully discarded belief in the Judeo-Christian conception of God by 1937, writes Domarus, but continued to use the word "God" in speeches – but it was not the God "who has been worshiped for millennia", but a new and peculiarly German "god" who "let iron grow". Thus Hitler told the British journalist Ward Price in 1937: "I believe in God, and I am convinced that He will not desert 67 million Germans who have worked so hard to regain their rightful position in the world." Although Hitler did not "abide by its commandments", Domarus believed that he retained elements of the Catholic thinking of his upbringing even into the initial years of his rule: "As late as 1933, he still described himself publicly as a Catholic. Only the spreading poison of his lust for power and self idolatry finally crowded out the memories of childhood beliefs and in 1937 he jettisoned the last of his personal religious convictions, declaring to comrades, 'Now I feel as fresh as a colt in the pasture'".
Author Konrad Heiden has quoted Hitler as stating, "We do not want any other god than Germany itself. It is essential to have fanatical faith and hope and love in and for Germany." Derek Hastings considers it "eminently plausible" that Hitler was a believing Catholic as late as his trial in 1924, but writes that "there is little doubt that Hitler was a staunch opponent of Christianity throughout the duration of the Third Reich".
The biographer John Toland, recounts that in the aftermath of an attempted assassination in 1939, Hitler told dinner guests that Pope Pius XII would rather have seen the "plot succeed" and "was no friend of mine", but also writes that in 1941 Hitler was still "a member in good standing of the Church of Rome despite his detestation of its hierarchy" According to Guenter Lewy, Hitler was not excommunicated from the Catholic Church prior to his death. In contrast, Klaus Scholder writes that Hitler was in fact excommunicated, along with all other Nazi leaders, in 1931. Although he had received the Catholic sacraments of Baptism as an infant, and Confirmation later in his youth, there is little evidence he considered himself subject to the teaching of the Church from adolescence onward, whatever cultural affiliation he claimed, and the excommunication would have meant nothing to him.
Samuel Koehne of Deakin University wrote in 2012: "Was Hitler an atheist? Probably not. But it remains very difficult to ascertain his personal religious beliefs, and the debate rages on." While Hitler was emphatically not "Christian" by the traditional or orthodox notion of the term, he did speak of a deity whose work was nature and natural laws, "conflating God and nature to the extent that they became one and the same thing" and that "For this reason, some recent works have argued Hitler was a Deist". In his writings on Hitler's recurrent religious images and symbols, Kenneth Burke concluded that "Hitler's modes of thought are nothing more than perverted or caricatured forms of religious thought".
Richard Steigmann-Gall finds Hitler a Christian. He wrote in 2003 that even after Hitler's rupture with institutional Christianity (which he dated to around 1937), he sees evidence that he continued to hold Jesus in high esteem, and never directed his attacks on Jesus himself. Use of the term "positive Christianity" in the Nazi Party Program of the 1920s is commonly regarded as a tactical measure, but Steigmann-Gall believes it may have had an "inner logic" and been "more than a political ploy". He considers that Hitler was Christian at least until the early 1930s, and that he saw Jesus as an Aryan opponent of the Jews.
Hitler's contemporaries on his religious beliefs
Albert Speer on Hitler's religious beliefs
In his memoirs, Hitler's confidant, personal architect, and Minister of Armaments Albert Speer, wrote: "Amid his political associates in Berlin, Hitler made harsh pronouncements against the church", yet "he conceived of the church as an instrument that could be useful to him":
The Goebbels Diaries also remark on this policy. Goebbels wrote on 29 April 1941 that though Hitler was "a fierce opponent" of the Vatican and Christianity, "he forbids me to leave the church. For tactical reasons."
According to Speer, Hitler's private secretary, Martin Bormann, relished recording any harsh pronouncements by Hitler against the church. Speer considered Bormann to be the driving force behind the regime's campaign against the churches. Speer thought that Hitler approved of Bormann's aims, but was more pragmatic and wanted to "postpone this problem to a more favourable time":
Hitler, wrote Speer, viewed Christianity as the wrong religion for the "Germanic temperament": Speer wrote that Hitler would say: "You see, it's been our misfortune to have the wrong religion. Why didn't we have the religion of the Japanese, who regard sacrifice for the fatherland as the highest good? The Mohameddan religion too would have been much more compatible to us than Christianity. Why did it have to be Christianity with its meekness and flabbiness?" Speer also wrote of observing in Hitler "quite a few examples", and that he held a negative view toward Himmler and Rosenberg's mystical notions.
Martin Bormann on Hitler's religious beliefs
Martin Bormann, who was serving as Hitler's private secretary, persuaded Hitler to allow a team of specially picked officers to record in shorthand his private conversations for posterity. Between 1941 and 1944, Hitler's words were recorded in transcripts now known as Hitler's Table Talk. The transcripts concern not only Hitler's views on war and foreign affairs, but also his characteristic attitudes on religion, culture, philosophy, personal aspirations, and his feelings towards his enemies and friends. Speer noted in his memoirs that Bormann relished recording any harsh pronouncements made by Hitler against the church: "there was hardly anything he wrote down more eagerly than deprecating comments on the church". Within the transcripts, Hitler speaks of Christianity as "absurdity" and "humbug" founded on "lies" with which he could "never come personally to terms."
The widespread consensus among historians is that the views expressed in Hugh Trevor-Roper's translation of Table Talk, are credible and reliable, although as with all historical sources, a high level of critical awareness about its origins and purpose are advisable. The remarks from Table Talk accepted as genuine include such quotes as "Christianity is the prototype of Bolshevism: the mobilization by the Jew of the masses of slaves with the object of undermining society." Alan Bullock's seminal biography Hitler: A Study in Tyranny quotes Hitler as saying, "Taken to its logical extreme, Christianity would mean the systematic cultivation of the human failure"; found also in Table Talk, and repeats other views appearing in Table Talk such as: the teachings of Christianity are a rebellion against the natural law of selection by struggle and survival of the fittest.
Michael Burleigh contrasted Hitler's public pronouncements on Christianity with those in Table Talk, suggesting that Hitler's real religious views were "a mixture of materialist biology, a faux-Nietzschean contempt for core, as distinct from secondary, Christian values, and a visceral anti-clericalism." Richard Evans also reiterated the view that Nazism was secular, scientific and anti-religious in outlook in the last volume of his trilogy on Nazi Germany: "Hitler's hostility to Christianity reached new heights, or depths, during the war;" his source for this was the 1953 English translation of Table Talk. Table Talk has the dictator often voicing stridently negative views of Christianity, such as: "The heaviest blow that ever struck humanity was the coming of Christianity. Bolshevism is Christianity's illegitimate child. Both are inventions of the Jew. The deliberate lie in the matter of religion was introduced into the world by Christianity."
Transcripts contained in Table Talk have Hitler expressing favor towards science over Christianity. On 14 October 1941, in an entry concerning the fate of Christianity, Hitler says: "Science cannot lie, for it's always striving, according to the momentary state of knowledge, to deduce what is true. When it makes a mistake, it does so in good faith. It's Christianity that's the liar. It's in perpetual conflict with itself." Religion will crumble before scientific advances, says Hitler: "The dogma of Christianity gets worn away before the advances of science. Religion will have to make more and more concessions. Gradually the myths crumble. All that's left is to prove that in nature there is no frontier between the organic and the inorganic. When understanding of the universe has become widespread, when the majority of men know that the stars are not sources of light but worlds, perhaps inhabited worlds like ours, then the Christian doctrine will be convicted of absurdity."
Hitler feared the collapse of the pact with churches, leading to conversion to atheism, which he equates to "the state of the animal": "I'm convinced that any pact with the Church can offer only a provisional benefit, for sooner or later the scientific spirit will disclose the harmful character of such a compromise. Thus the State will have based its existence on a foundation that one day will collapse. An educated man retains the sense of the mysteries of nature and bows before the unknowable. An uneducated man, on the other hand, runs the risk of going over to atheism (which is a return to the state of the animal) as soon as he perceives that the State, in sheer opportunism, is making use of false ideas in the matter of religion, whilst in other fields it bases everything on pure science. That's why I've always kept the Party aloof from religious questions."
According to Table Talk, Hitler believed that Jesus' true Christian teachings had been corrupted by the apostle St Paul, who had transformed them into a kind of Jewish Bolshevism, which Hitler believed preached "the equality of all men amongst themselves, and their obedience to an only god. This is what caused the death of the Roman Empire."
In Table Talk, Hitler praised Julian the Apostate's Against the Galileans, an anti-Christian tract from AD 362, in the entry dated 21 October 1941, stating: "When one thinks of the opinions held concerning Christianity by our best minds a hundred, two hundred years ago, one is ashamed to realise how little we have since evolved. I didn't know that Julian the Apostate had passed judgment with such clear-sightedness on Christianity and Christians. ... Originally, Christianity was merely an incarnation of Bolshevism the destroyer. Nevertheless, the Galilean, who later was called the Christ, intended something quite different. He must be regarded as a popular leader who took up His position against Jewry.... and it's certain that Jesus was not a Jew. The Jews, by the way, regarded Him as the son of a whore—of a whore and a Roman soldier. The decisive falsification of Jesus's doctrine was the work of St. Paul. He gave himself to this work with subtlety and for purposes of personal exploitation. For the Galilean's object was to liberate His country from Jewish oppression. He set Himself against Jewish capitalism, and that's why the Jews liquidated Him. Paul of Tarsus (his name was Saul, before the road to Damascus) was one of those who persecuted Jesus most savagely."
Richard Carrier made some isolated comparisons of passages from the German, French and English editions of Table Talk, and found in each case that the English edition by Trevor-Roper was a translation of the French edition by Francois Genoud, rather than from the German editions; and also that the French translation contained significant distortions, which generally heightened the impression of Hitler's hatred for Christianity. Carrier concluded that "the Trevor-Roper edition is to be discarded as worthless." However, Carrier found that three German versions "have a common ancestor, which must be the actual bunker notes themselves", and recommended that scholars needed to work directly with the German editions. In his introduction to a 2013 edition of Trevor-Roper's Table Talk, Gerhard Reinberg agreed that the Trevor-Roper edition "derives from Genoud's French edition and not from either of the German texts." After examining Trevor-Roper's personal correspondence and papers, Mikael Nilsson concluded that Trevor-Roper was fully aware of the fact that his edition was based on the French text, but failed to reveal the problems in public.
Joseph Goebbels on Hitler's religious beliefs
The Goebbels Diaries, written by Hitler's Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels, provide important insights into Hitler's thinking and actions. In a diary entry of 28 December 1939, Goebbels wrote that "the Fuhrer passionately rejects any thought of founding a religion. He has no intention of becoming a priest. His sole exclusive role is that of a politician." In an 8 April 1941 entry, Goebbels wrote "He hates Christianity, because it has crippled all that is noble in humanity."
In 1937, Goebbels noted that Hitler's impatience with the churches "prompted frequent outbursts of hostility. In early 1937 he was declaring that 'Christianity was ripe for destruction', and that the Churches must yield to the "primacy of the state", railing against any compromise with "the most horrible institution imaginable". In his entry for 29 April 1941, Goebbels noted long discussions about the Vatican and Christianity, and wrote: "The Fuhrer is a fierce opponent of all that humbug".
In 1939, Goebbels wrote that the Führer knew that he would "have to get around to a conflict between church and state" but that in the meantime "The best way to deal with the churches is to claim to be a 'positive Christian'."
In another entry, Goebbels wrote that Hitler was "deeply religious but entirely anti-Christian". Goebbels wrote on 29 December 1939:
Goebbels notes in a diary entry in 1939 a conversation in which Hitler had "expressed his revulsion against Christianity. He wished that the time were ripe for him to be able to openly express that. Christianity had corrupted and infected the entire world of antiquity." Hitler, wrote Goebbels, saw the pre-Christian Augustan Age as the high point of history, and could not relate to the Gothic mind nor to "brooding mysticism".
The diaries also report that Hitler believed Jesus "also wanted to act against the Jewish world domination. Jewry had him crucified. But Paul falsified his doctrine and undermined ancient Rome."
Ernst Hanfstaengl and Otto Strasser on Hitler's religious beliefs
Otto Strasser was a German politician and an early member of the Nazi Party, he together with his brother Gregor Strasser, was a leading member of the party's left-wing faction. "Despite the fact that Hitler never renounced his membership in the Catholic Church, before he seized power in 1933 and for about two months thereafter", wrote Weikart, during the conversation with his brother in 1920, Strasser stated that he was disappointed with Hitler because:
Ernst Hanfstaengl was a German-American businessman and intimate friend of Hitler. He eventually fell out of favour with Hitler, however, and defected from Nazi Germany to the United States. He later described Hitler to be an atheist to all intents and purposes by the time I got to know him:
Other sources
The Anschluss saw the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in early 1938. The Austrian chancellor, Kurt Schuschnigg, had traveled to Germany to meet Hitler, who, according to Schuschnigg's later testimony, went into a threatening rage against the role of Austria in German history, saying, "Every national idea was sabotaged by Austria throughout history; and indeed all this sabotage was the chief activity of the Habsburgs and the Catholic Church." This ended in Hitler's ultimatum to end Austrian independence and hand the nation to the Nazis.
Following the 1944 assassination attempt in the "20 July plot", Hitler credited his survival to fate in a radio broadcast the following day. German deputy press chief Helmut Suendermann declared, "The German people must consider the failure of the attempt on Hitler's life as a sign that Hitler will complete his tasks under the protection of a divine power".
Following a meeting with Hitler, Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber, a man who had "courageously criticized the Nazi attacks on the Catholic Church—went away convinced that Hitler was deeply religious", noted Kershaw. In November 1936 the Roman Catholic prelate met Hitler at Berghof for a three-hour meeting. He left the meeting and wrote "The Reich Chancellor undoubtedly lives in belief in God. He recognises Christianity as the builder of Western culture".
Kershaw cites Faulhaber's case as an example of Hitler's ability to "pull the wool over the eyes of even hardened critics", demonstrating Hitler's "evident ability to simulate, even to potentially critical church leaders, an image of a leader keen to uphold and protect Christianity".
Public and private evolution of Hitler's beliefs
Hitler's youth
Adolf Hitler was raised in a Roman Catholic family in Habsburg Austria. However, reliable historical details on his childhood are scarce. According to Hitler historian Ian Kershaw, the reflections Hitler provided on his own life in Mein Kampf are "inaccurate in detail and coloured in interpretation", while information that was given during the Nazi period is "dubious", as can be the postwar recollections of family and acquaintances.
Hitler was baptised as a Catholic in the same year he was born, 1889. Hitler's father Alois, though nominally a Catholic, was somewhat religiously skeptical and anticlerical, while his mother Klara was a devout practising Catholic. A. N. Wilson wrote: "Much is sometimes made of the Catholic upbringing of Hitler ... it was something to which Hitler himself often made allusion, and he was nearly always violently hostile. 'The biretta! The mere sight of these abortions in cassocks makes me wild! Hitler boasted of expressing skepticism to clergyman-teachers when taught religious instruction school. He attended several primary schools. For six months, the family lived opposite a Benedictine Monastery at Lambach, and on some afternoons, Hitler attended the choir school there. Hitler later wrote in Mein Kampf that at this time he dreamed of one day taking holy orders.
Hitler was confirmed on 22 May 1904. According to Rissmann, as a youth Hitler was influenced by Pan-Germanism and began to reject the Catholic Church, receiving confirmation only unwillingly. Biographer John Toland wrote of the 1904 ceremony at Linz Cathedral that Hitler's confirmation sponsor said he nearly had to "drag the words out of him... almost as though the whole confirmation was repugnant to him". Rissmann notes that, according to several witnesses who lived with Hitler in a men's home in Vienna, Hitler never again attended Mass or received the sacraments after leaving home.
In 1909, Hitler moved to Vienna and according to Alan Bullock his intellectual interests there vacillated and his reading included "Ancient Rome, Eastern religions, Yoga, Occultism, Hypnotism, Astrology, Protestantism, each in turn excited his interest for a moment ... He struck people as unbalanced. He gave rein to his hatredsagainst the Jews, the priests, the Social Democrats, the Habsburgswithout restraint".
In Percy Ernst Schramm's "The Anatomy of a Dictator", which was based on an analysis of the transcripts of the "Table Talk" recordings, Hitler is quoted as saying that "after a hard inner struggle" he had freed himself from the religious beliefs of his youth, so that he felt "as fresh as a foal in the pasture".
Adulthood and political career
Hitler's public rhetoric and writings about religion
Although personally skeptical, Hitler's public relationship to religion was one of opportunistic pragmatism. In religious affairs he readily adopted a strategy "that suited his immediate political purposes." He typically tailored his message to his audience's perceived sensibilities and Kershaw considers that few people could really claim to "know" Hitler, who was "a very private, even secretive individual", able to deceive "even hardened critics" as to his true beliefs. In private, he scorned Christianity, but when out campaigning for power in Germany, he made statements in favour of the religion.
Hitler's public utterances were peppered with references to "God" and "Spirit". In Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives, Bullock wrote that Hitler, like Napoleon before him, frequently employed the language of "divine providence" in defence of his own personal myth, but ultimately shared with the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin "the same materialist outlook, based on the nineteenth century rationalists' certainty that the progress of science would destroy all myths and had already proved Christian doctrine to be an absurdity":
Hitler had an "ability to simulate, even to potentially critical Church leaders, an image of a leader keen to uphold and protect Christianity [from Bolshevism]" wrote Kershaw, which served to deflect direct criticism of him from Church leaders, who instead focused their condemnations on the known "anti-Christian party radicals".
Religion in Mein Kampf
Mein Kampf (1924–25), written while Hitler was in prison after his failed 1923 putsch, contains numerous references to "God", "the Creator", "Providence" and "the Lord".
Laurence Rees described the thrust of the work as "bleak nihilism" revealing a cold universe with no moral structure other than the fight between different people for supremacy: "What's missing from Mein Kampf", wrote Rees"and this is a fact that has not received the acknowledgement it shouldis any emphasis on Christianity"though Germany, Rees noted, had been Christian for a thousand years. So, concluded Rees, "the most coherent reading of Mein Kampf is that whilst Hitler was prepared to believe in an initial creator God, he did not accept the conventional Christian vision of heaven and hell, nor the survival of an individual "soul" ... we are animals and just like animals we face the choice of destroying or being destroyed."
Paul Berben wrote that insofar as the Christian denominations were concerned, Hitler declared himself to be neutral in Mein Kampfbut argued for clear separation of church and state, and for the church not to concern itself with the earthly life of the people, which must be the domain of the state. According to William Shirer, Hitler "inveighed against political Catholicism in Mein Kampf and attacked the two main Christian churches for their failure to recognise the racial problem", while also warning that no political party could succeed in "producing a religious reformation".
In Mein Kampf Hitler wrote that Jesus "made no secret of his attitude toward the Jewish people, and when necessary he even took the whip to drive from the temple of the Lord this adversary of all humanity, who then as always saw in religion nothing but an instrument for his business existence. In return, Christ was nailed to the cross."
Hitler wrote of the importance of a definite and uniformly accepted Weltanschauung (world view), and noted that the diminished position of religion in Europe had led to a decline in necessary certainties"yet this human world of ours would be inconceivable without the practical existence of religious belief". The various substitutes hitherto offered could not "usefully replace the existing denominations".
Examining how to establish a new order, Hitler argued that the greatness of powerful organizations was reliant on intolerance of all others, so that the greatness of Christianity arose from the "unrelenting and fanatical proclamation and defence of its own teaching". Hitler rejected a view that Christianity brought civilization to the Germanic peoples, however: "It is therefore outrageously unjust to speak of the pre-Christian Germans as barbarians who had no civilization. They never have been such." Foreshadowing his conflict with the Catholic Church over euthanasia in Nazi Germany, Hitler wrote that the churches should give up missionary work in Africa, and concentrate on convincing Europeans that is more pleasing to God if they adopt orphans rather than "give life to a sickly child that will be a cause of suffering and unhappiness to all". The churches should forget about their own differences and focus on the issue of "racial contamination", he declared.
When he arrived in Vienna as a young man, Hitler claimed, he was not yet anti-Semitic: "In the Jew I still saw only a man who was of a different religion, and therefore, on grounds of human tolerance, I was against the idea that he should be attacked because he had a different faith." He thought that anti-Semitism based on religious, rather than racial grounds, was a mistake: "The anti-Semitism of the Christian-Socialists was based on religious instead of racial principles." Instead, Hitler argued that Jews should be deplored on the basis of their "race".
In an attempt to justify Nazi aggression, Hitler drew a parallel between militantism and Christianity's rise to power as the Roman Empire's official state religion:
Elsewhere in Mein Kampf, Hitler speaks of the "creator of the universe" and "eternal Providence". He also states that the Aryan race was created by God, and that it would be a sin to dilute it through racial intermixing:
In Mein Kampf, Hitler saw Jesus as against the Jews rather than one of them: "And the founder of Christianity made no secret indeed of his estimation of the Jewish people. When He found it necessary, He drove those enemies of the human race out of the Temple of God."
Derek Hastings writes that, according to Hitler's personal photographer Heinrich Hoffmann, the strongly anti-Semitic Hieronymite Catholic priest Bernhard Stempfle was a member of Hitler's inner circle in the early 1920s and frequently advised him on religious issues. He helped Hitler in the writing of Mein Kampf. He was killed by the SS in the 1934 purge.
Hitler on Christianity and "positive Christianity"
Article 24 of Hitler's National Socialist Programme of 1920 had endorsed what it termed "positive Christianity", but placed religion below party ideology by adding the caveat that it must not offend "the moral sense of the German race". Nondenominational, the term could be variously interpreted, but allayed fears among Germany's Christian majority as to the oft-expressed anti-Christian convictions of large sections of the Nazi movement. It further proposed a definition of a "positive Christianity" which could combat the "Jewish-materialistic spirit".
In 1922, a decade before Hitler took power, former prime minister of Bavaria Count von Lerchenfeld-Köfering stated in a speech before the Landtag of Bavaria that his beliefs "as a man and a Christian" prevented him from being an anti-Semite or from pursuing anti-Semitic public policies. Hitler turned Lerchenfeld's perspective of Jesus on its head, telling a crowd in Munich:
In a 1928 speech, he said: "We tolerate no one in our ranks who attacks the ideas of Christianity ... in fact our movement is Christian."
In light of later developments, Rees notes, "The most persuasive explanation of [Hitler's] statements is that Hitler, as a politician, simply recognised the practical reality of the world he inhabited ... Had Hitler distanced himself or his movement too much from Christianity it is all but impossible to see how he could ever have been successful in a free election. Thus his relationship in public to Christianityindeed his relationship to religion in generalwas opportunistic. There is no evidence that Hitler himself, in his personal life, ever expressed any individual belief in the basic tenets of the Christian church". Richard Evans considers that the gap between Hitler's public and private pronouncements was due to a desire not to cause a quarrel with the churches that might undermine national unity.
In 1932, Hitler came up with the name German Christians (Deutsche Christen) for a pro-Nazi group within Protestantism. "Hitler saw the relationship in political terms. He was not a practicing Christian, but had somehow succeeded in masking his own religious skepticism from millions of German voters", wrote Overy, who considered that Hitler found the arrangement useful for a time, but ultimately expected Christianity to wilt and die before "the advances of science". In this early period, the "German Christian" movement sought to make the Protestant churches in Germany an instrument of Nazi policy. Adherents promoted notions of racial superiority and race destiny. Hitler backed the formal establishment of the "German Christians" in 1932. It was nationalistic and anti-Semitic and some of its radicals called for repudiation of the Old Testament (the Hebrew Scriptures) and the Pauline epistles of the New Testamentbecause of their Jewish authorship.
Hitler's movement was not united on questions of religion. The consensus among historians is that Nazism as a whole was either unrelated to Christianity or actively opposed to it. Use of the term "positive Christianity" in the Nazi Party Program of the 1920s is generally regarded as a tactical measure, rooted in politics rather than religious conviction. Author Steigmann-Gall has put forward a minority interpretation, that positive Christianity had an "inner logic" and been "more than a political ploy". He believes Hitler saw Jesus as an Aryan opponent of the Jews. Though anti-Christians later fought to "expunge Christian influence from Nazism" and the movement became "increasingly hostile to the churches", Steigmann-Gall wrote that even in the end, it was not "uniformly anti-Christian".
Samuel Koehne, a Research Fellow at the Alfred Deakin Research Institute, working on the official Nazi views on religion, answers the question Was Hitler a Christian? thus: "Emphatically not, if we consider Christianity in its traditional or orthodox form: Jesus as the son of God, dying for the redemption of the sins of all humankind. It is nonsense to state that Hitler (or any of the Nazis) adhered to Christianity of this form. ... However, it is equally true that there were leading Nazis who adhered to a form of Christianity that had been 'aryanised.'" and "Was Hitler an atheist? Probably not."
Nazi seizure of power
Prior to the Reichstag vote for the Enabling Act of 1933, under which Hitler gained the "temporary" dictatorial powers with which he went on to permanently dismantle the Weimar Republic, Hitler promised the German Parliament that he would not interfere with the rights of the churches. However, with power secured in Germany, Hitler quickly broke this promise.
Through 1933 and into 1934, the Nazi leader required a level of support from groups like the German conservatives and the Catholic Centre Party in the Reichstag, and of the conservative President von Hindenburg, in order to achieve his takeover of power with the "appearance of legality". In a proclamation on February 1, 1933, Hitler stated, "The National Government will regard it as its first and foremost duty to revive in the nation the spirit of unity and co-operation. It will preserve and defend those basic principles on which our nation has been built. It regards Christianity as the foundation of our national morality, and the family as the basis of national life."
On 21 March 1933, the Reichstag assembled in the Potsdam Garrison Church, to show the "unity" of Nazism with the old conservative Germany of President von Hindenburg. Two days later, the Nazis secured passage of the Enabling Act, granting Hitler dictatorial powers. Less than three months later all non-Nazi parties and organizations, including the Catholic Centre Party, had ceased to exist.
Hitler sought to gain the votes of the Catholic Centre Party and German conservatives for the Enabling Act with a mix of intimidation, negotiation and conciliation. On 23 March 1933, just prior to the vote for the Enabling Act, he described the Christian faiths as "essential elements for safeguarding the soul of the German people" and "We hold the spiritual forces of Christianity to be indispensable elements in the moral uplift of most of the German people." "With an eye to the votes of the Catholic Centre Party", wrote Shirer, he added that he hoped to improve relations with the Holy See.
The Centre Party asked for guarantees of the rights of the churches. Hitler promised that the institutions of the Weimar Republic and churches would be protected, and said his government saw the churches as "the most important factors for upholding our nationhood". Amid threats and talk of civil war, the Centre Party voted for the Act. Hitler's false promises of protection for the churches and institutions of the republic were never kept.
In January 1934, Hitler angered the churches by appointing the neo-pagan Alfred Rosenberg as official Nazi ideologist. The Fuhrer launched an effort toward coordination of German Protestants under a unified Protestant Reich Church under the Deutsche Christen Movement, but the attempt failedresisted by the Confessing Church. In The Aryan Jesus: Christian Theologians and the Bible in Nazi Germany, Susannah Heschel noted that the Deutsche Christen differed from traditional Christians by rejecting the Hebrew origins of Christianity. In public statements made during his rule, Hitler continued to speak positively about a Nazi vision of Christian German culture, and his belief in an Aryan Christ. Hitler added that Saint Paul, as a Jew, had falsified Jesus' messagea theme Hitler repeated in private conversations, including, in October 1941, when he made the decision to murder the Jews.
Ian Kershaw said that Hitler had lost interest in supporting the Deutsche Christen from around 1934. However, in a speech 26 June 1934, Hitler stated:
In 1937, Hanns Kerrl, Hitler's Minister for Church Affairs, explained "positive Christianity" as not "dependent upon the Apostles' Creed", nor in "faith in Christ as the son of God", upon which Christianity relied, but rather, as being represented by the Nazi Party: "The Fuehrer is the herald of a new revelation", he said.
During negotiations leading to the Reichskonkordat with the Vatican, Hitler said, "Secular schools can never be tolerated because such schools have no religious instruction, and a general moral instruction without a religious foundation is built on air; consequently, all character training and religion must be derived from faith." However, as Hitler consolidated his power, schools became a major battleground in the Nazi campaign against the churches. In 1937, the Nazis banned any member of the Hitler Youth from simultaneously belonging to a religious youth movement. Religious education was not permitted in the Hitler Youth and by 1939, clergymen teachers had been removed from virtually all state schools. Hitler sometimes allowed pressure to be placed on German parents to remove children from religious classes to be given ideological instruction in its place, while in elite Nazi schools, Christian prayers were replaced with Teutonic rituals and sun-worship. By 1939 all Catholic denominational schools had been disbanded or converted to public facilities.
The propaganda of the Nazi party actively promoted Hitler as a saviour of Christianity and Nazi propaganda supported the German Christians in their formation of a single national church that could be controlled and manipulated.
Hitler on mysticism and occultism
According to Bullock, as an adolescent in Vienna, Hitler read widely, including books on occultism, hypnotism, and astrology. However, his interest in these subjects was fleeting, and there is no evidence that he ever subscribed to any of these schools of thought. Bullock found "no evidence to support the once popular belief that Hitler resorted to astrology" and wrote that Hitler ridiculed those like Himmler in his own party who wanted to re-establish pagan mythology, and Hess who believed in Astrology. Albert Speer wrote that Hitler had a negative view toward Himmler and Rosenberg's mystical notions. Speer quotes Hitler as having said of Himmler's attempt to mythologize the SS:
In a speech he made in Nuremberg on September 6, 1938, Hitler said that Christian mysticism creates dark forces, that there are no places of worship - but places of national anthem - that there are no cult places, there are national places, besides, he rejected mysticism and occultism:
Corroborating to the Nuremberg speech on September 6, 1938, about Hitler's view on Church's architecture which according to Hitler was inspired from Christian mysticism, which produced "dark forces", we find a similar thought, Hitler expressed to Goebbels, about the "gloomy Cathedral", where he prefers the ancient Greek and Roman temples which according to Hiler was "light, airy" in contrast to the "gloomy" Gothic Cathedrals. It is also important to note Hitler forbade bombing Athens when Greece was invaded, due to his love for the ancient Greek temples/architecture, while the Coventry Cathedral was specifically targeted by Luftwaffe during the Coventry Blitz:
According to Ron Rosenbaum, some scholars believe the young Hitler was strongly influenced, particularly in his racial views, by an abundance of occult works on the mystical superiority of the Germans, like the occult and anti-Semitic magazine Ostara, and give credence to the claim of its publisher Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels that Hitler visited him in 1909 and praised his work. John Toland wrote that evidence indicates Hitler was a regular reader of Ostara. Toland also included a poem that Hitler allegedly wrote while serving in the German Army on the Western Front in 1915.
The seminal work on Ariosophy, The Occult Roots of Nazism by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, devotes its last chapter the topic of Ariosophy and Adolf Hitler. Not at least due to the difficulty of sources, historians disagree about the importance of Ariosophy for Hitler's religious views. As noted in the foreword of The Occult Roots of Nazism by Rohan Butler, Goodrick-Clarke is more cautious in assessing the influence of Lanz von Liebenfels on Hitler than Joachim Fest in his biography of Hitler.
Comparing him to Erich Ludendorff, Fest writes: "Hitler had detached himself from such affections, in which he encountered the obscurantism of his early years, Lanz v. Liebenfels and the Thule Society, again, long ago and had, in Mein Kampf, formulated his scathing contempt for that völkisch romanticism, which however his own cosmos of imagination preserved rudimentarily."
Fest refers to the following passage from Mein Kampf:
Hitler said in a speech on 7 August 1934 that a martyred commander would go to Valhalla:
It is not clear if this statement is an attack at anyone specific. It could have been aimed at Karl Harrer or at the Strasser group. According to Goodrick-Clarke, "In any case, the outburst clearly implies Hitler's contempt for conspiratorial circles and occult-racist studies and his preference for direct activism." Hitler also said something similar in public speeches.
Older literature states that Hitler had no intention of instituting worship of the ancient Germanic gods in contrast to the beliefs of some other Nazi officials. In Hitler's Table Talk one can find this quote:
In an article published by the Simon Wiesenthal Center, Jackson J. Spielvogel and David Redles assert alleged influences of various portions of the teachings of H. P. Blavatsky, the founder of the Theosophical Society with doctrines as expounded by her book The Secret Doctrine, and the adaptations of her ideas by her followers, through Ariosophy, the Germanenorden and the Thule Society, constituted a popularly unacknowledged but decisive influence over the developing mind of Hitler. The scholars state that Hitler himself may be responsible for turning historians from investigating his occult influences. While he publicly condemned and even persecuted occultists, Freemasons, and astrologers, his nightly private talks disclosed his belief in the ideas of these competing occult groupsdemonstrated by his discussion of reincarnation, Atlantis, world ice theory, and his belief that esoteric myths and legends of cataclysm and battles between gods and titans were a vague collective memory of monumental early events.
In his childhood, Hitler had admired the pomp of Catholic ritual and the hierarchical organization of the clergy. Later he drew on these elements, organizing his party along hierarchical lines and including liturgical forms into events or using phraseology taken from hymns. Because of these liturgical elements, Daim's claim of Hitler's messiah-like status and the ideology's totalitarian nature, the Nazi movement, like other fascist movements and communism, is sometimes termed a "political religion" that is anti-ecclesiastical and anti-religious.
Although Hitler expressed negative views towards the mystical notions of some of his senior Nazi underlings in private, he nevertheless appointed Heinrich Himmler and Alfred Rosenberg to senior positions in the Nazi movement. William L. Shirer wrote that, "under the leadership of Rosenberg, Bormann and Himmlerbacked by Hitlerthe Nazi regime intended to destroy Christianity in Germany, if it could, and substitute the old paganism of the early tribal Germanic gods with the new paganism of the Nazi extremists". The regime launched an effort toward coordination of German Protestants under a unified Protestant Reich Church (but this was resisted by the Confessing Church), and moved early to eliminate political Catholicism. Blainey wrote: "Nazism itself was a religion, a pagan religion, and Hitler was its high priest ... Its high altar [was] Germany itself and the German people, their soil and forests and language and traditions".
In 1924, during his imprisonment, Hitler had chosen Alfred Rosenberg to lead the Nazi movement in his absence. In his seminal 1930 work The Myth of the Twentieth Century, Rosenberg wrote: "We now realize that the central supreme values of the Roman and the Protestant Churches ... hinder the organic powers of the peoples determined by their Nordic race, ... they will have to be remodeled". Hitler had called his book "derivative, pastiche, illogical rubbish!" But in January 1934, Hitler appointed Rosenberg as the cultural and educational leader of the Reich – the official Nazi philosopher and ideologist. Rosenberg was notoriously anti-Christian. Church officials were perturbed by Hitler's appointment of Rosenberg as Nazi philosopher as it apparently endorsed Rosenberg's anti-church and neo-pagan philosophy. The Vatican banned The Myth of the Twentieth Century in February 1934. During the war, Rosenberg outlined the future he envisioned for religion in Germany. Among its articles: the National Reich Church of Germany was to claim exclusive control over all churches; publication of the Bible was to cease; crucifixes, Bibles and saints were to be removed from altars; and Mein Kampf was to be placed on altars as "to the German nation and therefore to God the most sacred book"; and the Christian Cross was to be removed from all churches and replaced with the swastika. But Rosenberg was, in the end, a marginalised figure in the Hitler regime.
Hitler selected Heinrich Himmler to head the Nazi Schutzstaffel (SS) security forces. Himmler saw the main task of the SS to be that of "acting as the vanguard in overcoming Christianity and restoring a 'Germanic' way of living" in order to prepare for the coming conflict between "humans and subhumans": He set about making his SS the focus of a "cult of the Teutons". In 1937 he wrote that it was "the mission of the SS to give the German people in the next half century the non-Christian ideological foundations on which to lead and shape their lives. This task does not consist solely in overcoming an ideological opponent but must be accompanied at every step by a positive impetus: in this case that means the reconstruction of the German heritage in the widest and most comprehensive sense."
Hitler on atheism
Hitler viewed atheists as uneducated, and atheism as the state of the animals. He associated atheism with Bolshevism, communism, and "Jewish materialism". Richard Overy cited Hitler's belief in racial biology as evidence of scientific views and atheism, but stated that Hitler was not a thorough atheist in that sense because of his theistic and spiritual ideologies:
The historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote that Hitler courted and benefited from fear among German Christians of militant Communist atheism. "The aggressive spread of atheism in the Soviet Union alarmed many German Christians", wrote Blainey, and with the National Socialists becoming the main opponent of Communism in Germany: "[Hitler] himself saw Christianity as a temporary ally, for in his opinion 'one is either a Christian or a German'. To be both was impossible." In early 1933, Hitler publicly defended National Socialism against charges that it was anti-Christian. Responding to accusations by Eugen Bolz, the Catholic Centre Party Staatspräsident of Württemberg, that the National Socialist movement threatened the Christian faith, he said:
In a radio address October 14, 1933 Hitler stated, "For eight months we have been waging a heroic battle against the Communist threat to our Volk, the decomposition of our culture, the subversion of our art, and the poisoning of our public morality. We have put an end to denial of God and abuse of religion. We owe Providence humble gratitude for not allowing us to lose our battle against the misery of unemployment and for the salvation of the German peasant."
In a speech delivered in Berlin, October 24, 1933, Hitler stated: "We were convinced that the people needs and requires this faith. We have therefore undertaken the fight against the atheistic movement, and that not merely with a few theoretical declarations: we have stamped it out." In a speech delivered at Koblenz, August 26, 1934 Hitler said: "There may have been a time when even parties founded on the ecclesiastical basis were a necessity. At that time Liberalism was opposed to the Church, while Marxism was anti-religious. But that time is past. National Socialism neither opposes the Church nor is it anti-religious, but on the contrary, it stands on the ground of a real Christianity. The Church's interests cannot fail to coincide with ours alike in our fight against the symptoms of degeneracy in the world of today, in our fight against the Bolshevist culture, against an atheistic movement, against criminality, and in our struggle for the consciousness of a community in our national life, for the conquest of hatred and disunion between the classes, for the conquest of civil war and unrest, of strife and discord. These are not anti-Christian, these are Christian principles."
Hitler on Hinduism
Hitler's choice of the swastika as the Nazis' main and official symbol was linked to the belief in the Aryan cultural descent of the German people. They considered the early Aryans to be the prototypical white invaders and the sign of the swastika to be a symbol of the Aryan master race. The theory was inspired by the German archaeologist Gustaf Kossinna, who argued that the ancient Aryans were a superior Nordic race from northern Germany who expanded into the steppes of Eurasia, and from there into India, where they established the Vedic religion.
Hitler on Islam
Hitler's views on Islam are a matter of controversy. On the one hand, Hitler privately demeaned ethnic groups he associated with Islam, notably Arabs, as racially inferior. On the other hand, he also made private and public statements expressing admiration for what he perceived to be the militaristic nature of Islam and the political sharpness of the Prophet Muhammad.
Among Eastern religions, Hitler described religious leaders such as "Confucius, Buddha, and Muhammad" as providers of "spiritual sustenance". In this context, Hitler's connection to Amin al-Husseini, who served as the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem until 1937– which included his asylum in 1941 – has been interpreted by some as a sign of respect, while others characterize it as a relationship born out of political expediency. Starting in 1933, al-Husseini, who had launched a campaign to both expel the British from the Middle East and Jews from both Egypt and Palestine, became impressed by the Jewish boycott policies which the Nazis were enforcing in Germany, and hoped that he could use the anti-semitic views which many in the Arab region shared with Hitler's regime in order to forge a strategic military alliance that would help him eliminate the Jews from Palestine. Despite al-Husseini's attempts to reach out to Germany, Hitler refused to form such an alliance with al-Husseini, fearing that it would weaken relations with Britain.
During the unsuccessful 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, Husseini and his allies took the opportunity to strengthen relations with Germany and enforced the spread of Nazi customs and propaganda throughout their strongholds in Palestine as a gesture of respect. In Egypt, the Muslim Brotherhood would follow al-Husseini's lead. Hitler's influence soon spread throughout the region, but it was not until 1937 that the Nazi government agreed to grant al-Husseini and the Muslim Brotherhood's request for financial and military assistance.
During a meeting with a delegation of distinguished Arab figures, Hitler learned of how Islam motivated the Umayyad Caliphate during the invasion of Gaul. According to Albert Speer, Hitler wished that the Caliphate had won the Battle of Tours against the Franks in 732: "The Mohammedan religion would have been much more compatible to us than Christianity. Why did it have to be Christianity with its meekness and flabbiness?" "Had Charles Martel not been victorious at Poitiersalready, you see, the world had fallen into the hands of the Jews, so gutless a thing was Christianity!then we should in all probability have been converted to Mohammedanism, that cult which glorifies heroism and which opens the seventh Heaven to the bold warrior alone. Then the Germanic races would have conquered the world. Christianity alone prevented them from doing so." According to Speer, Hitler was convinced that had Islam taken root in central Europe at this time, the Germanic people would have become the "heirs of that religion" with Islam being "perfectly suited to the Germanic temperament". Hitler said that while the Arabs, on account of their "racial inferiority", would have been unable to handle the harsh climate and conditions of the region, and that instead the Islamized Germans would have "stood at the head of this Mohammedan Empire". A "religion that believed in spreading the faith by the sword and in subjugating all nations to that faith".
Notwithstanding Hitler's apparent admiration for Islam and Muhammad, and his willingness to work with Arab political leaders, he viewed Arab people as racial and social inferiors. Speer acknowledged that in private, Hitler regarded Arabs as an inferior race and that the relationship he had with various Muslim figures was more political than personal.
Hitler was also quoted in the early war years stating, "We shall continue to make disturbances in the Far East and in Arabia. Let us think as men and let us see in these peoples at best lacquered half-apes who are anxious to experience the lash." Nevertheless, Hitler simultaneously made positive references about Muslim culture and Muslims as potential collaborators, such as: "The peoples of Islam will always be closer to us than, for example, France".
In spite of Hitler's conflicting opinions on Islam and Arabs, in a letter to President Roosevelt during the war, Winston Churchill pointed out that Muslim soldiers were providing "the main army elements on which we [the British] must rely for the immediate fighting." Many Muslims have sacrificed themselves to save Jews and fight the Nazis the like of Noor Inayat Khan, Behic Erkin, Abdol-Hossein Sardari, and Si Kaddour Benghabrit the founder of the Great Mosque of Paris.
Hitler on Judaism
National Socialist ideology developed a racial hierarchy which placed minority groups – most especially the Jews – as subhuman. The categorization was based on the Nazi conception of race, and not on religion, thus Slavs and Poles (who were overwhelmingly Christian) were also grouped as inferior to the so-called "Aryan" peoples. Hitler espoused a ruthless policy of "negative eugenic selection", believing that world history consisted of a struggle for survival between races, in which the Jews plotted to undermine the Germans, and inferior groups like Slavs and defective individuals in the German gene pool, threatened the Aryan "master race". However, Hitler also had ideological objections to Judaism as a faith, and some of Hitler's antipathy towards Pauline Christianity (as opposed to his "Nordic Jesusism") flowed from its Jewish origins, as he saw (Pauline) Christianity as "indelibly Jewish in origin and character" and a "prototype of Bolshevism", which "violated the law of natural selection".
Writing for the public in Mein Kampf, Hitler described the Jews as enemies of all civilization and as materialistic, unspiritual beings: "His life is only of this world, and his spirit is inwardly as alien to true Christianity as his nature two thousand years previous was to the great founder of the new doctrine." In the work, he also described a supposedly divine mandate for his anti-Semitism: "Hence today I believe that I am acting in accordance with the will of the Almighty Creator: by defending myself against the Jew, I am fighting for the work of the Lord."
During negotiations for the Concordat between the Catholic Church and Germany in 1933, Hitler said to Bishop of Osnabrück Wilhelm Berning: "I have been attacked because of my handling of the Jewish question. The Catholic Church considered the Jews pestilent for fifteen hundred years, put them in ghettos, etc, because it recognised the Jews for what they were. In the epoch of liberalism the danger was no longer recognised. I am moving back toward the time in which a fifteen-hundred-year-long tradition was implemented. I do not set race over religion, but I recognise the representatives of this race as pestilant for the state and for the church and perhaps I am thereby doing Christianity a great service by pushing them out of schools and public functions".
Secular versus religious influences
Scholarly interest continues on the extent to which inherited, long-standing, cultural-religious notions of anti-Judaism in Christian Europe contributed to Hitler's personal racial anti-Semitism, and what influence a pseudo-scientific "primitive version of social-Darwinism", mixed with 19th century imperialist notions, brought to bear on his psychology. While Hitler's views on these subjects have often been called "social Darwinist", Hitler's grasp of the subject has been argued to have been incomplete, there is little agreement among historians as to what the term may mean, or how it transformed from its 19th-century scientific origins, to become a central component of a genocidal political ideology in the 20th century.
According to historian Lucy Dawidowicz, anti-Semitism has a long history within Christianity, and the line of "anti-Semitic descent" from Luther to Hitler is "easy to draw". In her The War Against the Jews, 1933–1945, she writes that Luther and Hitler were obsessed by the "demonologized universe" inhabited by Jews. Dawidowicz states that the similarities between Luther's anti-Semitic writings and modern anti-Semitism are no coincidence, because they derived from a common history of Judenhass which can be traced to Haman's advice to Ahasuerus, although modern German anti-Semitism also has its roots in German nationalism. Writers including Susannah Heschel and John Toland, have drawn links between Hitler's Catholic background and his anti-Semitism. Catholic historian José M. Sánchez argues that the anti-Semitism that led to the Holocaust was explicitly rooted in Christianity:
Laurence Rees in contrast, notes that there is little emphasis on Christianity in Mein Kampf, which presents a view of the universe conspicuously at odds with traditional Christian notions long established in Germany. Hitler's vision is ordered instead around principles of struggle between weak and strong. Rees argues that Hitler's "bleak and violent vision" and visceral hatred of the Jews had been influenced by sources outside the Christian tradition. The notion of life as struggle Hitler drew from social Darwinism, the notion of the superiority of the "Aryan race" he drew from Arthur de Gobineau's The Inequality of the Human Races; from events following Russia's surrender in World War One when Germany seized agricultural lands in the East he formed the idea of colonising the Soviet Union; and from Alfred Rosenberg he took the idea of a link between Judaism and Bolshevism, writes Rees.
Richard J. Evans notes that Hitler "used his own version of the language of social Darwinism as a central element in the discursive practice of extermination...", and the language of Social Darwinism, in its Nazi variant, helped to remove all restraint from the directors of the "terroristic and exterminatory" policies of the regime, by "persuading them that what they were doing was justified by history, science and nature". Fest considers that Hitler simplified de Gobineau's elaborate ideas of struggle for survival among the different races, from which the Aryan race, guided by providence, was supposed to be the torchbearers of civilization.
In his rhetoric Hitler fed on the old accusation of Jewish deicide. It has been speculated that Christian anti-Judaism influenced Hitler's ideas, especially such works as Martin Luther's essay On the Jews and Their Lies and the writings of Paul de Lagarde. Others disagree with this view. Hitler biographer Toland writes that in 1941 Hitler was still "a member in good standing of the Church of Rome despite his detestation of its hierarchy" and adhered to "its teaching that the Jew was the killer of God. The extermination, therefore, could be done without a twinge of conscience since he was merely acting as the avenging hand of Godso long as it was done impersonally, without cruelty."
In the aftermath of World War II, a Soviet major who asserted Hitler's survival speculated that "It is possible that the man wishes to surround himself with the legend of Jesus Christ," implying that the escaped dictator would ape a main tenet of Christianity, the resurrection of Jesus.
Hitler's policies towards religion
Smaller religious minorities faced harsher repression, with the Jews of Germany expelled for extermination on the grounds of Nazi racial theories. Jehovah's Witnesses were ruthlessly persecuted for refusing both military service and allegiance to Hitler's movement.
Role of religion in the Nazi state
Nazi ideology could not accept an autonomous establishment whose legitimacy did not spring from the government. It desired the subordination of church to state. Nevertheless, Nazi Germany was not formally atheist, and other than for Jews and Jehovah's Witnesses, religious observance was permitted. Julian Baggini wrote that Hitler's Germany was not a "straightforwardly atheist state", but one which "sacralized" notions of blood and nation.
Hitler feared the results of overt attacks on the deep-rooted German churches, as around two thirds of Germans were Protestant and most of the rest were Roman Catholic. German conservative elements, such as the officer corps of the army, opposed Nazi efforts against the churches, and Hitler needed to show caution. The Hitler regime responded to the ideological challenge of Christian morality using political repression and persecution and by challenging Christian teachings through education and propaganda. Some scholars, such as Richard Steigmann-Gall, argue that while there were anti-Christian Nazis, they did not represent the movement's position.
Kirchenkampf Church Struggle
Hitler possessed radical instincts in relation to the Nazi conflict with the Churches, and though he occasionally spoke of wanting to delay a struggle and was prepared to restrain his anti-clericalism out of political considerations, Kershaw considers that his "own inflammatory comments gave his immediate underlings all the license they needed to turn up the heat in the 'Church Struggle.
According to Overy, Hitler "wanted to neutralise any political threat from organised religion ... The first step was to reach agreement with the Roman Catholic Church, whose theology was not susceptible to the new nationalist trends". Hitler dispatched the Catholic conservative Franz von Papen to negotiate a Concordat with the Vatican. He obtained an agreement that clergy would refrain from politics, in return for guarantees of Church rights. Hitler was delighted, and received the congratulations of German Catholic leaders. However, violations of the treaty began almost as soon as it was signed. Hitler promulgated the sterilization law, and began work to dissolve the Catholic Youth League. Clergy, nuns and lay leaders began to be targeted, leading to thousands of arrests over the ensuing years, often on trumped up charges of currency smuggling or "immorality". Catholic publications were shut down. The Gestapo began to violate the sanctity of the confessional.
As Hitler's genocidal plans began to manifest, Catholic priests and bishops held no public protests. Instead, they prayed in support of Germany's cause, seeking to show that their support for Hitler was undiminished.
By early 1937, the church hierarchy in Germany, which had initially attempted to co-operate with Hitler, had become highly disillusioned and Pope Pius XI issued the Mit brennender Sorge encyclicalaccusing Germany of violations of the Concordat and of sowing the tares of "open fundamental hostility to Christ and His Church", and denounced the pagan myth of "blood and soil". Hitler's invasion of the predominantly Catholic Poland in 1939 ignited the Second World War. Kerhsaw wrote that, in Hitler's scheme for the Germanization of the East, "There would, he made clear, be no place in this utopia for the Christian Churches".
On Protestantism, Hitler proposed to unite Germany's 28 Protestant churches into one Reich Church, which was the German Evangelical Church. Hitler stated to Albert Speer, "Through me the Protestant Church could become the established church, as in England." Steigmann-Gall wrote that Hitler demonstrated a preference for Protestantism over Catholicism, as Protestantism was more liable to reinterpretation and non-traditional readings, more receptive to "positive Christianity", and because some of its liberal branches had held similar views. Hitler's interest was opportunistic: "From Hitler's point of view, a national church was of interest purely from a point of view of control and manipulation", wrote Kershaw. He installed his friend Ludwig Müller as leader of the movement and sought to establish a pro-Nazi and anti-Semitic unified Reich Church. Resistance quickly arose in the form of the Pastors' Emergency League, led by Martin Niemöller, which had 40% of clergy by 1934 and founded the Confessing Church, from which some clergymen opposed the Nazi regime.
When German Christians called for rejection of the Bible as "Jewish superstition" and of the Christian calling to "love thy neighbour", the movement lost still further support. Hitler's move to have Müller elected Bishop failed – despite intimidation. He then abandoned his efforts to unite the Protestant churches, appointed Hanns Kerrl as Minister for Church Affairs in December 1934, and distanced himself permanently from the so-called "German Christians". According to Steigmann-Gall, he regretted that "the churches had failed to back him and his movement as he had hoped". A relative moderate, Kerrl initially had some success but amid continuing protests by the Confessing Church against Nazi policies, he accused dissident churchmen of failing to appreciate the Nazi doctrine of "Race, blood and soil". Kerrl said Nazi positive Christianity rejected the Apostles' Creed and Divinity of Christ as the basis of Christianity, and called Hitler the herald of a new revelation. Hitler had Niemöller sent to the concentration camps in 1938, where he remained until war's end. Hitler largely ignored Kerrl, who died in office in 1941 and was not replaced.
From the mid 1930s, the Nazi movement came increasingly to be led by vehement anti-Christians, whom Hitler appointed to key positions. As with the "Jewish question", the radicals pushed the Church struggle forward, especially in Catholic areas, so that by the winter of 1935–1936 there was growing dissatisfaction with the Nazis in those areas. Kershaw wrote that in early 1937, Hitler again told his inner circle that though he "did not want a 'Church struggle' at this juncture", he expected "the great world struggle in a few years' time". Nevertheless, wrote Kershaw, Hitler's impatience with the churches "prompted frequent outbursts of hostility. In early 1937 he was declaring that 'Christianity was ripe for destruction', and that the Churches must yield to the "primacy of the state", railing against any compromise with "the most horrible institution imaginable". Priests were frequently denounced, arrested and sent to concentration camps. At Dachau, the regime established a dedicated Clergy Barracks for church dissidents. The Confessing Church seminary was banned. Its leaders, like Dietrich Bonhoeffer, were arrested. Implicated in the 1944 plot to assassinate Hitler, he was later executed.
Long term plans for the churches
Overy wrote that Christianity was ultimately as incompatible with Nazism as it was with Soviet Communism and that "Hitler expected the end of the disease of Christianity to come about by itself once the falsehoods were self-evident. During the war he reflected that in the long run 'National Socialism and religion will no longer be able to exist together'." Other historians have written of a more active intent on the part of Hitler and the Nazi leadership. Kershaw noted that Hitler's scheme for the Germanization of Eastern Europe saw no place for Christian churches and that Goebbels wrote from conversations with Hitler that there was an insoluble opposition between the Christian and a Germanic-heroic world-view which would need settling after the war. Speer noted in his memoir that churches were not to receive building sites in Hitler's new Berlin. Bullock wrote "once the war was over, Hitler promised himself, he would root out and destroy the influence of the Christian Churches". The Nazi plan was to "de-Christianise Germany after the final victory", writes historian of German Resistance Anton Gill. "By the latter part of the decade of the thirties church officials were well aware that the ultimate aim of Hitler and other Nazis was the total elimination of Catholicism and of the Christian religion. Since the overwhelming majority of Germans were either Catholic or Protestant this goal had to be a long-term rather than a short-term Nazi objective", wrote Michael Phayer.
In its brief of evidence for the Nuremberg trials concerning the Nazi persecution of the churches, the American Office of Strategic Services (a forerunner to the CIA) compiled a report entitled "The Nazi Master Plan" which examined the Nazi persecution of the churches and found that the Hitler regime had a plan to subvert and destroy German Christianity. The investigator wrote:
According to Kershaw, in 1937 Goebbels noted Hitler was becoming more radical on the 'Church Question', and indicated that, though current political circumstances required waiting, his long term plan was to eventually dissolve the Reich concordat with Rome, detach the church entirely from the state and turn the entire force of the party to 'the destruction of the clerics', and end the Peace of Westphalia in a 'great world showdown'. In 1941, when Bishop Clemens August Graf von Galen protested against Nazi Euthanasia and seizures of church properties, although Hitler's sympathies lay with the radicals who wanted von Galen dead and church properties seized, he calculated that this would turn Catholic areas still further against the regime. "Only the need for peace in relation with the churches to avoid deteriorating morale on the home front determined his stance", wrote Kershaw, "Events in the Warthegau (where by 1941 94% of churches and chapels in the Posen-Gnesen diocese were closed, 11% of the clergy were murdered, and most of the remainder thrust into prisons and concentration camps) showed the face of the future."
Explaining his stance towards future of Christianity and other religions under Nazi rule in a series of private conversations in 1941, Hitler states:
Atheism
The National Socialist movement was not formally atheist, and generally allowed religious observance. Julian Baggini wrote that Hitler's Germany was not a "straightforwardly atheist state", but one which "sacrilized" notions of blood and nation. On October 13, 1933, Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess issued a decree stating: "No National Socialist may suffer any detriment on the ground that he does not profess any particular faith or confession or on the ground that he does not make any religious profession at all." However, "The aggressive spread of atheism in the Soviet Union alarmed many German Christians", wrote Geoffrey Blainey, and Hitler saw Christianity as a "temporary ally" against Bolshevism, and courted and benefited from fear among German Christians of militant Communist atheism. In that same year the regime banned most atheistic and freethinking groups in Germanyother than those that supported the Nazis.
When criticised for anti-Christian sentiments in February 1933, Hitler claimed that it was the Nazis not the Catholic Centre Party that had taken on atheist politics. When negotiating the concordat with the Catholic Church, Hitler said he supported religious education in schools. Once in office however, Hitler then pursued a policy of suppression of denominational schools and church youth organizations. Clergymen teachers were removed from virtually all state schools. By 1939 all denominational schools had been disbanded or converted to public facilities. In that year, Evans notes, some 95% of Germans still called themselves Protestant or Catholic, while only 3.5% "Deist" (gottgläubig) and 1.5% atheist. Most in these latter categories were "convinced Nazis who had left their Church at the behest of the Party, which had been trying since the mid 1930s to reduce the influence of Christianity in society".
John Conway notes that the majority of the three million Nazi Party members continued to pay their church taxes and register as either Roman Catholic or Protestant Christians, "despite all Rosenberg's efforts." Aggressive anti-Church radicals like Joseph Goebbels and Martin Bormann saw the kirchenkampf campaign against the Churches as a priority concern, and anti-church and anticlerical sentiments were strong among grassroots party activists. From 1938, writes Overy, "Martin Bormann, head of the Party Chancellery and a prominent party atheist, took a leading role in trying to sever all state financial support for the churches, and to limit their legal status and activities, but the need to mobilise church support for the war effort from September 1939 led, as it did in the Soviet Union after 1941, to a limited political truce between church and state." Speer considered Bormann to be the driving force behind the regime's campaign against the churches and thought that Hitler approved of his aims, but wanted to "postpone this problem to a more favourable time":
George Mosse wrote of Bormann's beliefs:
Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses numbered around 30,000 at the start of Hitler's rule in Germany. For refusing to declare loyalty to the Reich, and refusing conscription into the army, they were declared to be enemies of Germany and persecuted. About 6,000 were sent to the concentration camps.
Judaism
Anti-Judaism as well as racial anti-Semitism were central planks of Hitler's philosophy. His regime perpetrated the Final Solution, an effort to exterminate the Jews, which resulted in a genocide estimated by historians to have killed between 4,204,000 to 7,000,000 Jews. Hitler's ideology presented the Jews as a biological challenge to the "purity" of German blood.
See also
Hitler quotes on religion
Antisemitism and the New Testament
The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century
Irreligion in Germany
Kirchenkampf
Nazi occultism
Odinism
Race and appearance of Jesus
Religious affiliations of chancellors of Germany
Religious aspects of Nazism
References
Notes
Bibliography
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Schramm, Percy Ernst (1978) "The Anatomy of a Dictator" in Hitler: The Man and the Military Leader. Detwiler, Donald S., ed. Malabar, Florida: Robert E. Kreiger Publishing Company. ; originally published as the introduction to Picker, Henry (1963) Hitlers Tischgespräche im Führerhauptquarter ("Hitler's Table Talk")
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External links
Mein Kampf; by Adolf Hitler
Mein Kampf; by Adolf Hitler (James Vincent Murphy's translation, published by Hurst and Blackett in 1939)
Religious beliefs
Criticism of atheism
Occultism in Nazism
Hitler
Historical controversies
Religion in Nazi Germany
Religion and politics
Hitler, Adolf
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstage%20%28magazine%29
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Backstage (magazine)
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Backstage, also previously written as Back Stage, is an American entertainment industry trade publication. Founded by Allen Zwerdling and Ira Eaker in 1960, it covers the film and performing arts industry from the perspective of performers, unions, and casting, with an emphasis on topics such as job opportunities and career advice. The brand encompasses the main Backstage magazine, and related publications such as its website, Call Sheet (formerly Ross Reports)—a bi-monthly directory of talent agents, casting directors, and casting calls, and other casting resources.
The publication was founded in, and originally focused primarily on New York City and the U.S. east coast. In the 1990s, Back Stage established the Los Angeles–based Back Stage West, which competed primarily with the longer-established Drama-Logue; in 1998, Drama-Logue was acquired by Back Stage and merged into Back Stage West. In 2008, both versions were merged into a single national edition.
From the 1990s through the early 2010s, Backstage was a sister to fellow entertainment publications Billboard and The Hollywood Reporter, and later Adweek, via Billboard Publications and its corporate successors, such as Nielsen Business Media and Prometheus Global Media. In 2011, Back Stage was divested by Prometheus to a group led by John Amato, who relaunched the print and digital publications. After being briefly being re-acquired by Prometheus, it was sold to RZ Capital in 2013.
History
Backstage (the company) was founded by Allen Zwerdling and Ira Eaker in New York City in December 1960 as a weekly tabloid-sized newspaper called Back Stage. Zwerdling and Eaker had worked together for years as editor and advertising director, respectively, of the Show Business casting newspaper, which was founded by Leo Shull as Actor's Cues in 1941. After Zwerdling and Eaker left Show Business they looked into creating a casting section within The Village Voice newspaper; but, having been turned down, they decided to launch Backstage on their own.
At the time of its founding, Backstage (the newsmagazine) was primarily a casting paper for New York actors intended to compete with Show Business Weekly. It gradually broadened its scope to include coverage of New York's television commercial production industry and a variety of performing arts, the former of which proved to be so lucrative advertising-wise that the commercial-production beat came to dominate the publication. Additionally, Backstage's reach began to slowly spread across the U.S., although the largest portion of its readership remained on the East Coast.
Owing to the disparity between its main areas of coverage—a focus on casting and entertainment-industry job opportunities, general coverage of the performing arts (acting, legitimate theatre, cabaret, etc.), and its expanding coverage of the commercial production market—Backstage eventually incorporated the film and video production elements of its coverage into a weekly pull-out section called Backstage Shoot, a sort of mini-publication with a special focus on the commercials industry.
Then, in 1975, Backstage opened a Los Angeles bureau and began to more actively extend its casting and editorial coverage across the U.S., with correspondents based in Boston, Florida, Chicago, London, and other key entertainment-industry-centric areas added to the Backstage roster over the years.
Around 1977, co-founder Ira Eaker's daughter, Sherry Eaker, joined Backstage as an editor and worked to further expand Backstages editorial coverage, especially in the areas of theater criticism, cabaret, dance, union news, and advice columns for performers. Sherry Eaker also fostered a relationship between Backstage and its historical antecedent, the British-based newspaper The Stage, which shared a similar look, printing schedule, and market-focus.
In 1986, Backstage was bought by Billboard Publications Inc. (BPI), owner of such publications as Billboard (magazine). In 1988, BPI bought The Hollywood Reporter. Backstage and The Hollywood Reporter along with a few other related brands, were grouped together within BPI, becoming its film and performing arts division, a group designed to compete with Variety and other entertainment-industry trade publications. Backstage would become involved in a number of other acquisitions, mergers, spin-offs, and sales over the next few decades.
Backstage Shoot
On July 6, 1990, the Backstage Shoot pull-out section of Backstage magazine was spun off into a full, standalone publication, SHOOT. The concept was to have Backstage concentrate on actors, performing artists, and theatre, while SHOOT would continue to "serve the news and information needs of creative and production decision-makers at ad agencies, and executives & artisans in the production industry" (according to their official press materials found on ShootOnline.com). To emphasize the change, the official Backstage tagline "The complete service weekly for the communications and entertainment industry" was switched to The Performing Arts Weekly.
Ross Reports
Around this time, Backstage acquired the New York–based Ross Reports publication, a monthly digest founded in 1949 by Wallace A. Ross. The Ross Reports compiled information on casting directors, agents, managers, production companies, and upcoming film and television productions.
In early 1994, Netherlands-based company VNU bought Backstage owner BPI. VNU eventually came to own a variety of trade publications—including all of the BPI magazines as well as Mediaweek, Adweek, Film Journal International, The Hollywood Creative Directory, and many others—along with measurement company Nielsen Media Research, and events such as ShoWest and the Clio Awards.
Back Stage West
Also in early 1994, Back Stage publisher Steve Elish hired a West Coast editor-in-chief, Rob Kendt, to help create a new publication, Back Stage West, a weekly trade paper similar to the New York–based Back Stage but with a focus on the West Coast acting community and casting opportunities based in California. At the time, despite past efforts, Backstage was still popular primarily in the Northeast U.S.
In May 1998, Back Stage acquired its main local competitor, Drama-Logue; The Drama-Logue company was founded by Bill Bordy in 1969 as a casting hotline, and in 1972 it became a weekly trade publication entitled The Hollywood Drama-Logue Casting Sheet, commonly known simply as Drama-Logue. Before the end of 1998, Drama-Logue's holdings were fully integrated into Backstage.com and Back Stage West, which for a time was co-branded as Back Stage West/Drama-Logue.
Backstage.com
Beginning in the late 1990s, a number of casting information and entertainment job websites began cropping up, offering specialized online tools for actors, performers, and models, including online casting submission systems and video-enhanced resumes. Backstage.com, introduced by Publisher Steve Elish, was a leader in taking the casting industry online. Its early products included a paid member's area, which charged $9.95 per month for unlimited access to articles and casting calls across New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Florida, Las Vegas, and other key entertainment-industry hubs. The monthly fee also entitled subscribers to inclusion in the website's first iteration of a headshot and resume database.
Starting in 2000, writer-editor-filmmaker and web-developer Luke Crowe joined the company, and began working on the development of online casting tools for Backstage. Over the next few years, Backstage.com introduced options for casting directors to self-post breakdowns, a searchable acting-jobs database of casting notices, interactive audition lists, casting coverage in every state in the U.S., and an advanced headshot and resume talent database, among other new options, some of the first online tools ever developed for actors and casting directors. The number of new casting notices listed on Backstage.com each week expanded from the hundreds to the thousands over the next few years, while monthly site traffic increased from the hundreds-of-thousands to the millions.
In addition to encompassing all of the content from Backstages print publications, the website's scope continued to expand to include more online-exclusive casting notices and original online-only news stories, feature articles, entertainment-industry listings, and reviews. During this time period, several competitors challenged the brand, but it remained the industry leader. However, the competition eventually sparked major changes in Backstages development, and in October 2005 Backstage relaunched its print and online publications in order to regain its edge.
Relaunches and acquisitions
During this 2005 relaunch process, all Backstage publications were redesigned (including Backstage West); various staffing changes took place; the East Coast/New York edition of Backstage was renamed Backstage East; Backstage.com began publishing more articles on a daily basis and introduced more exclusive editorial content, blogs, feeds, and tools; and Casting. Backstage.com was founded, giving Backstage.com users access to even more advanced casting/job search, sort, alert, and application tools, along with a more robust talent database featuring resumes, pictures, video reels, and audio reels of thousands of working and aspiring actors and performers.
Around this same time, the primary Backstage tagline changed from "The Performing Arts Weekly" to "The Actor's Resource." A secondary branding slogan, "Casting You Can Trust—Since 1960" was also added and given prominent placement both on Backstage.com and on the front covers of the weekly East Coast and West Coast newspaper/magazine versions of Backstage. And sister publication SHOOT (and ShootOnline.com) was sold to another publishing company.
In 2006, a company called Valcon Acquisition B.V., run by a private equity group consortium, bought VNU, making Valcon the new owner of Backstage and all other VNU holdings. Then, on January 18, 2007, VNU rebranded itself The Nielsen Company, with its trade-publication division being renamed Nielsen Business Media.
In early 2007, VP/Group Publisher Steve Elish retired from Backstage after 34 years. However, co-founder Ira Eaker's daughter, former longtime Backstage editor-in-chief Sherry Eaker, carried on her father's work as Backstage's editor at large, along with editor-at-large David Sheward, who left his executive editor position at Backstage after working for the brand for over 28 years. Former publishers include Steve Elish, Jeff Black, and Charlie Weiss. Former lead editors include Sherry Eaker, Rob Kendt, Jamie Painter Young, Daniel Holloway, Dany Margolies, Tom Penketh, Erik Haagensen, Roger Armbrust, Leonard Jacobs, David Fairhurst, Andrew Salomon, Dan Lehman, dance editor Jennie Schulman (who wrote for Backstage for over 40 continuous years, starting with its first issue on Dec. 2, 1960), film and television editor Jenelle Riley, contributing editor Jackie Apodaca, and actor-columnist Michael Kostroff (known for his work in The Wire), among others.
In October 2008, Backstage East and Backstage West were permanently combined into a single weekly publication with an expanded national focus. This new "national edition" was given the same name as the original 1960 edition: Back Stage.
Backstage also launched a number of blogs around this time, including Blog Stage, Espresso, Backstage Unscripted, and The Backstage 411 Casting FAQ, all of which were discontinued in early 2012.
In early 2009, Ross Reports was renamed Call Sheet by Backstage, working with The Hollywood Creative Directory to expand its listings to include a wider variety of entertainment-industry contacts.
In late 2009, Backstage and other Nielsen Business Media brands were sold to e5 Global Media, which was later renamed Prometheus Global Media, and then renamed Guggenheim Digital Media.
The Backstage brand remained closely tied to its primary sister publications, The Hollywood Reporter and Billboard, as well as the other e5 Global Media publications, such as Adweek, Film Journal International, and The Hollywood Creative Directory. However, Backstage also carved out its own industry niche by focusing on the needs of actors, models, performers, and casting directors; publishing directories (such as Call Sheet, a bimonthly listing of talent agents, casting directors, and film productions), books (actor handbooks and biographies published under the Watson-Guptill imprint Backstage Books), casting-director mailing labels, and special "insert" magazines (such as award-season nomination guides, theatre-school guides, and the ACTION magazine for actors interested in making their own movies); producing live events; and continuing the development of Internet casting technology.
Backstage continued to be a resource for audition information, casting calls/casting notices, training opportunities, and entertainment-industry jobs, news, and interviews. Film and theatre were the main topics reviewed and reported upon, but the television, radio, dance, music, cabaret, voice-over, modeling, commercial advertising, and stand-up comedy industries were also included in Backstages coverage.
In October 2011, media entrepreneur John Amato led Backstage through a spin-off from Prometheus Global Media as part of a new strategic partnership, with the new company being called Backstage, LLC. Prometheus shareholder Guggenheim Partners backed the sale.
In August 2012, Back Stage was relaunched again, with the magazine switching from a tabloid-sized newspaper to a smaller, full-color glossy magazine (and also being slightly rebranded from Back Stage to Backstage). The magazine added increased cross-promotion for the resources and utilities on the similarly-redesigned Backstage.com. Amato stated readers had requested that the print edition have a smaller form factor to make it easier to take to casting calls, while the redesigned website was meant to "[lead] the user into the products and content that we’ve seen historically be the most helpful for our audience".
In January 2013, Backstage LLC acquired Sonicbids, a service designed to help musicians find gigs, for $15 million. In April 2013, Prometheus Global Media, now fully owned by Guggenheim, bought the remainder of Backstage LLC. John Amato was made president of the Billboard Group, a new unit that would oversee Backstage, Billboard, and Sonicbids. In December 2013, Backstage and Sonicbids were acquired by RZ Capital.
In December 2016, Backstage expanded its online casting tools and editorial coverage to include a wider international scope, with an initial focus on casting in the United Kingdom.
In October 2017, Backstage launched its first fully integrated mobile casting app.
Current team
As of 2017, principals at Backstage included vice president and national casting editor Luke Crowe. Current Backstage writers and editors include managing casting editor Melinda Loewenstein and supervising casting editor Veronika Daddona, among many others.
Casting
Backstage’s casting department reviews and publishes more than 30,000 casting notices on Backstage.com every year, for projects that range from major studio and network productions and Broadway shows to indie and student films. By monitoring the notices, Backstage is able to quickly work to protect actors from scams, while facilitating the distribution of hundreds of thousands of performance opportunities via a suite of online casting tools.
Editorial
Backstage Magazine features a different actor on its cover every week with original photography, along with entertainment-industry news and advice columns. Previous cover subjects have included Academy Award winners Kevin Spacey, Benicio Del Toro, Jennifer Lawrence, Lupita Nyong’o, and Eddie Redmayne. Backstage.com also features a series of advice columns written by industry insiders called Backstage Experts, offering aspiring and working actors the know-how to find work and improve their craft. There are also features on different acting schools, coaches, and theater companies around the country.
Events
From 1992 to 2012, Backstage produced annual Actorfest trade shows, entertainment-industry networking events held in various cities. Past Actorfest events took place in New York City, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and Detroit. Other Backstage events in the past included the annual Backstage Garland Awards (previously known as the Drama-Logue Award) honoring the California theatre scene; the annual Bistro Awards honoring the cabaret industry, especially NYC-based cabaret; and the bi-coastal An Evening With ... series that combined film screenings with Q&A sessions featuring key actors and directors from each film being shown.
Additionally, Backstage hosted classes, workshops, and networking events through its Backstage University brand, and sponsors numerous events and panels for talent working in the fields of film, television, commercials, radio/voice-overs, theatre, dance, modeling, and club talent (comedians, singers, etc.). Its "Successful Actor" panel series was done in partnership with the American Academy of Dramatic Arts.
References
External links
1960 establishments in New York City
1998 mergers and acquisitions
2013 mergers and acquisitions
Magazines established in 1960
Entertainment trade magazines
Magazines published in New York City
Weekly magazines published in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Shefflin
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Henry Shefflin
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Henry Shefflin (born 11 January 1979) is an Irish hurling manager and former player who is the current manager of the Galway senior hurling team. In his playing career he was nicknamed "King Henry" because of his directive style, dominance, competitive spirit, and leadership on the field. He is the only player to win 'hurler of the year' three times, in 2002, 2006, and 2012. Cian Lynch is the only other player to win the title more than once, winning it in 2018 and 2021. He is widely regarded as the best player in the history of the game.
A versatile forward who started out in the corner, Shefflin made his name in more commanding positions as a centre or full-forward. He is widely regarded to be one of the greatest players in the history of the sport, with many former players, commentators and fans rating him as the number one player of all time.
Raised in Ballyhale, County Kilkenny, Shefflin served an obligatory but underrated hurling apprenticeship at St Kieran's College. He joined the Ballyhale Shamrocks senior team as a goalkeeper at the age of 17 in 1996 and spent the next 21 years as one of the club's key outfield players. He is one of only a handful of men to have won the All-Ireland Club Championship as a player and as a manager. Shefflin's association with Kilkenny began as a member of the minor team in 1996. He progressed through the under-21 and intermediate ranks before making his senior debut in 1999. Shefflin brought his 18-season association with the black and amber jersey to an end when he announced his inter-county retirement on 25 March 2015.
Shefflin is one of the most decorated players of all time. During his time with Kilkenny, he won 10 All-Ireland Championship titles – more than any other player in history, 13 Leinster Championship titles, six National Hurling League titles, and six Walsh Cup titles. Kilkenny, Cork, Tipperary and Limerick are the only teams in hurling history to have won more All-Ireland titles than Shefflin. Shefflin captained Kilkenny on several occasions, particularly in the 2007 season when he captained the team to All-Ireland honours.
Shefflin also has many personal achievements. He remains the only player to have won three Hurler of the Year awards (2002, 2006 and 2012), while he also claimed 11 All-Stars. His 16-season senior career saw him make a record 71 championship appearances for Kilkenny. He is also the all-time leading scorer for Kilkenny with 27–484 which itself was a national record until surpassed by Joe Canning in 2021. Shefflin was named as RTÉ Sports Person of the Year in 2006 and has been repeatedly named on teams of the greatest players of all time, including the Etihad 125 Dream Team in 2009.
Early years
Shefflin was born at the Regional Hospital Cork to Henry and Mae Shefflin (née Fitzgerald). One of a family of four boys and three girls, he was born into a household that had a strong sporting background, particularly in the game of hurling.
Shefflin was educated at St Patrick's national school in Ballyhale where his hurling skills were first noted and honed by the local headmaster, Joe Dunphy. As a child he saw his two older brothers line out with the Kilkenny hurlers at various grades. John Shefflin won an All-Ireland winners' medal in the minor grade in 1990, while Tommy Shefflin won an All-Ireland winners' medal in the under-21 grade that same year. A younger brother, Paul Shefflin, also won Leinster minor medals in the late 1990s.
Shefflin later attended St Kieran's College in Kilkenny, before studying electronics at the Waterford Institute of Technology (WIT). Shefflin later changed course and decided to study both business studies and financial services.
Personal life
Shefflin currently works with New Holland Finance, a subsidiary of Bank of Ireland. His main area of responsibility is in the agri-business side of matters, handling the finance for all the New Holland tractor sales in the locality. His region of responsibility takes in the south-east of the country, including Tipperary, Kilkenny, Wexford, Carlow and Kildare.
On 30 March 2007, Shefflin married Deirdre O'Sullivan, a native of Callan, County Kilkenny and a camogie player of note in her own right. Just over a year later in April 2008 the Shefflins celebrated the birth of their first child, a daughter named Sadhbh. On 30 October 2009 Henry Michael Shefflin, the couple's second child and first son, was born. A third child, Siún, was born in March 2011, while the Shefflin's youngest boy, Freddie, was born in April 2014.
Playing career
Colleges
During his schooling at St Kieran's College in Kilkenny, Shefflin established himself as a key member of the senior hurling team. In 1996 he won his sole Leinster medal as Good Counsel College were narrowly defeated by 1–7 to 1–6. St Colman's College provided the opposition in the subsequent All-Ireland decider. A 1–14 to 2–6 victory gave Shefflin an All-Ireland medal.
University
During his studies at the Waterford Institute of Technology, Shefflin was an automatic inclusion on the college hurling team. In 1999 he was at full-forward as WIT faced University College Cork in the final of the Fitzgibbon Cup. Two goals from Declan Browne in a six-minute spell before half-time gave WIT a commanding lead. Neil Ronan bagged a fourth goal straight after the interval which helped WIT to a 4–15 to 3–12 victory.
Shefflin lined out in a second successive Fitzgibbon Cup decider in 2000. University College Dublin were the opponents on that occasion, however, a 2–10 to 1–6 victory gave WIT the victory. It was Shefflin's second Fitzgibbon Cup medal.
Club
Shefflin played his club hurling with Ballyhale Shamrocks and has had much success with the club. When he was fourteen years-old he failed to make the club's under-16 team, however, Shefflin later became a key member of the Ballyhale minor team. He won a championship medal in that grade in 1997 following a 2–18 to 2–5 defeat of James Stephens.
That same year Shefflin was a key member of the Ballyhale intermediate team. A 4–12 to 3–7 defeat of Graiguenamangh, with Shefflin top scoring with 1–6, secured promotion to the senior grade and gave Shefflin a championship medal.
Success at senior level was slow in coming for Shefflin and Ballyhale. In 2004 it was even rumoured that he was moving clubs to play in Cork with Blackrock, however, this rumour proved to be unfounded.
Two years later he was deployed at centre-forward as Ballyhale faced O'Loughlin Gaels in the senior decider. An impressive 1–22 to 2–11 victory gave Shefflin his first championship medal. He later added a Leinster medal to his collection when Ballyhale secured a comprehensive 1–20 to 1–8 defeat of Birr to take the provincial title for the first time in seventeen years. On 17 March 2007 Ballyhale Shamrocks faced Loughrea in the All-Ireland decider. On a day when Shefflin and James "Cha" Fitzpatrick were held scoreless, the three Reid brothers contributed 3–7 from play. A 3–12 to 2–8 victory gave Shefflin an All-Ireland Senior Club Hurling Championship medal.
Injury resulted in Shefflin missing Ballyhale's second successive championship victory in 2007, however, he was back on the starting fifteen as Ballyhale Shamrocks made it three-in-a-row in 2008. A 2–11 to 0–12 defeat of James Stephens gave Shefflin a second championship medal on the field of play. He later won a second Leinster medal as the Shamrocks defeated reigning champions Birr by 2–13 to 1–11.
Shefflin won a third championship medal in 2009, as Ballyhale claimed a record-equaling four-in-a-row following a 1–14 to 1–11 defeat of James Stephens once again. The subsequent provincial decider saw Ballyhale hit fifteen wides, however, Shefflin still collected a third Leinster medal following a 1–16 to 1–8 defeat of Tullamore. On 17 March 2010 Ballyhale faced three-in-a-row hopefuls Portumna in a "dream" All-Ireland decider. The game failed to live up to the billing, however, 1–19 to 0–17 victory gave Shefflin a second All-Ireland medal.
Five-in-a-row proved beyond Ballyhale Shamrocks, however, the team bounced back in 2012 having lost the championship decider the previous year. A far from vintage 0–16 to 0–12 defeat of Dicksboro gave Shefflin a fourth championship medal.
Shefflin won a fifth championship medal in 2014 as the Shamrocks claimed a 1–20 to 1–13 defeat of reigning champions Clara. He later collected a fourth Leinster medal and proved the difference in a 0–21 to 1–14 defeat of Kilcormac/Killoughey. On 17 March 2015 Ballyhale faced Kilmallock in the All-Ireland decider. A complete mismatch saw Shamrocks win the game by 1–18 to 1–6, with Shefflin collecting a third All-Ireland medal.
Shefflin's final championship appearance was in the 2016 Kilkenny Senior Hurling Championship final on 30 October 2016 in Nowlan Park in the county final. However victory went to the O'Loughlin Gaels GAA club in a closely fought final on a scoreline of 0–19 to 1–12.
Minor, under-21 and intermediate
Shefflin first played for Kilkenny in 1996 when he joined the minor side. He won his first Leinster medal that year following a 1–16 to 1–11 defeat of Dublin. The All-Ireland campaign came to an end at the semi-final stage.
Shefflin was eligible for the minor grade again in 1997. A 3–16 to 1–10 defeat of Offaly gave him a second successive Leinster medal, however, his quest for an All-Ireland medal came to an end at the semi-final stage.
He also played minor football with Kilkenny.
While just out of the minor grade Shefflin was drafted onto the Kilkenny intermediate hurling team in 1998. That year he captured a Leinster medal following a 3–13 to 0–11 defeat of Wexford. Shefflin later lined out in the All-Ireland decider with Limerick providing the opposition. An interesting game developed between these two sides, however, at the final whistle victory went to Limerick by 4–16 to 2–17.
That same year Shefflin was added to the Kilkenny under-21 team. A 2–10 to 0–12 defeat of Dublin in the provincial decider gave him his first Leinster medal in that grade.
Shefflin won a second Leinster medal in 1999, following a 1–17 to 1–6 trouncing of Offaly. The subsequent All-Ireland decider was a thrilling affair, with Kilkenny securing a narrow 1–13 to 0–14 defeat of Galway to give Shefflin his sole All-Ireland medal.
Senior
Unsuccessful beginning
Shefflin made his senior competitive debut for Kilkenny on 21 February 1999 in a 0–14 to 1–9 league defeat by Cork. That campaign ended at the semi-final stage, however, Shefflin retained his place on the starting fifteen for the subsequent championship, making his provincial debut in a 6–21 to 1–14 semi-final trouncing of Laois. Kilkenny later faced Offaly in the provincial final. A huge 5–14 to 1–16 victory over their near rivals and reigning All-Ireland champions gave Kilkenny the win and gave Shefflin a first Leinster medal. The subsequent All-Ireland decider saw Kilkenny face Cork on 12 September 1999. In a dour contest played on a wet day, Cork trailed by 0–5 to 0–4 after a low-scoring first half. Kilkenny increased the pace after the interval, pulling into a four-point lead. Cork moved up a gear and through Joe Deane, Ben O'Connor and Seánie McGrath Cork scored five unanswered points. Kilkenny could only manage one more score – a point from a Shefflin free – and Cork held out to win by 0–13 to 0–12.
Early successes
In 2000, Shefflin won a second successive Leinster medal following another comfortable 2–21 to 1–13 victory over Offaly. As a result of the so-called "back-door" system both sides later faced off against each other again in the All-Ireland final on 10 September 2000. D.J. Carey capitalised on an Offaly mistake after just six minutes to start a goal-fest for 'the Cats'. Carey scored 2–4 in all, sharing his second goal with Shefflin who also scored a goal in the second-half. At the full-time whistle Kilkenny were the champions by 5–15 to 1–14 and Shefflin collected his first All-Ireland medal. He was subsequently honoured with his first All-Star award.
Kilkenny's provincial dominance continued in 2001 and a powerful 2–19 to 0–12 defeat of Wexford gave Shefflin a third Leinster medal.
Kilkenny bounced back in 2002. Shefflin won his first National Hurling League medal, as a late Brian Dowling free secured a narrow 2–15 to 2–14 victory over Cork. He later collected a fourth Leinster medal as Kilkenny recorded a narrow 0–19 to 0–17 defeat of fourteen-man Wexford. On 8 September 2002 Shefflin lined out in his third All-Ireland decider as Kilkenny faced first-round losers Clare. Shefflin and fellow forward D. J. Carey combined to score 2–13 between them, as Kilkenny secured a 2–20 to 0–19 victory. It was a second All-Ireland medal for Shefflin while he was later honoured with his second All-Star award. He also ended the year by being named Hurler of the Year by Texaco, Vodafone and by his peers at the Gaelic Players' Association.
In 2003 Shefflin won a second league medal as Kilkenny came back from eight points down to secure a stunning 5–14 to 5–13 extra-time defeat of Tipperary. He later won a fifth successive Leinster medal, as Kilkenny defeated Wexford by 2–23 to 2–12. The subsequent All-Ireland final on 14 September 2003 saw Kilkenny face Cork for the first time in four years. Both teams remained level for much of the game, exchanging tit-for-tat scores. A Setanta Ó hAilpín goal gave Cork the advantage, however, a Martin Comerford goal five minutes from the end settled the game as Kilkenny went on to win by 1–14 to 1–11. It was Shefflin's third All-Ireland medal. He was later honoured with his third All-Star.
After facing a shock, last-minute 2–15 to 1–16 defeat by Wexford in the Leinster semi-final in 2004, Kilkenny worked their way through the qualifiers and lined out against Cork in the All-Ireland decider on 12 September 2004. The game was expected to be a classic, however, a rain-soaked day made conditions difficult as Kilkenny aimed to secure a third successive championship. The first half was a low-scoring affair and provided little excitement for fans, however, the second half saw Cork completely take over. For the last twenty-three minutes Cork scored nine unanswered points and went on to win the game by 0–17 to 0–9. In spite of ending the year without silverware, Shefflin later collected a fourth All-Star.
Kilkenny were back in form in 2005, with Shefflin winning a third league medal following a 3–20 to 0–15 victory over Clare. "The Cats" later struggled against a wasteful Wexford side, however, a 0–22 to 1–16 victory gave Shefflin a sixth Leinster medal. While a third successive All-Ireland showdown with Cork seemed likely, Galway defeated Kilkenny in the All-Ireland semi-final in one of the games of the decade. In spite of failing to reach the championship decider a fifth All-Star award was quickly added to Shefflin's collection.
Four-in-a-row
In 2006, Shefflin added a third league medal to his collection following a victory over Limerick. He later won his seventh Leinster medal following another facile 1–23 to 1–12 victory over Wexford. On 3 September 2006 Kilkenny faced a Cork team who were presented with the opportunity to become the first side in nearly thirty years to secure three successive All-Ireland championships. Like previous encounters neither side took a considerable lead, however, Kilkenny had a vital goal from Aidan Fogarty. Cork were in arrears coming into the final few minutes, however, Ben O'Connor scored a late goal for Cork. It was too little too late as the Cats denied Cork on a score line of 1–16 to 1–13. Shefflin collected his fourth All-Ireland medal. He rounded off the year once again by claiming a fifth successive All-Star award, his sixth overall, as well as making a clean sweep of the Hurler of the Year awards.
Shefflin collected an eighth Leinster medal in 2007, as Kilkenny asserted their provincial dominance and defeated Wexford by 2–24 to 1–12. On 2 September 2007 Kilkenny faced defeated Munster finalists and surprise All-Ireland semi-final winners Limerick in the championship decider. Kilkenny got off to a flying start with Eddie Brennan Shefflin scoring two goals within the first ten minutes to set the tone. Shefflin later sustained an injury during the game and had to retire at half-time. In spite of losing their captain and star player, Kilkenny still went on to win the game by 2–19 to 1–15 and Shefflin had the honour of collecting a fifth All-Ireland medal and receiving the Liam MacCarthy Cup. It was later revealed that he ruptured a cruciate knee ligament which kept him out of action for his club until the following summer. Shefflin later captured a seventh All-Star award, a record-breaking sixth in succession.
After sitting out the league campaign in 2008, Shefflin later collected a ninth Leinster medal following a 5–21 to 0–17 defeat of Wexford. On 8 September 2008 Kilkenny faced Waterford in the All-Ireland decider for the first time in forty-five years. In a disappointingly one-sided final, Kilkenny produced a near perfect seventy minutes as Waterford endured a nightmare afternoon. A 23-point winning margin, 3–24 from play, only two wides in the entire match and eight scorers in all with Eddie Brennan and Shefflin leading the way in a 3–30 to 1–13 victory. It was Shefflin's sixth All-Ireland medal, while an eighth All-Star quickly followed.
Shefflin collected a fifth league medal in 2009, as Kilkenny beat Tipperary by 2–26 to 4–17 after a thrilling extra-time victory. He later won a tenth Leinster medal as new challengers Dublin were bested by 2–18 to 0–18. On 6 September Kilkenny were poised to become the second team ever in the history of hurling to win four successive All-Ireland championships when they faced Tipperary in the decider. For long periods Tipp looked the likely winners, however, late goals from Shefflin (penalty) and substitute Martin Comerford finally killed off their efforts to secure a 2–22 to 0–23 victory. Shefflin had collected his seventh All-Ireland medal. He later collected a ninth All-Star award.
Continued dominance
In 2010, Kilkenny defeated Galway in an eagerly-anticipated but ultimately disappointing provincial decider. A 1–19 to 1–12 victory gave Shefflin an eleventh Leinster medal. In the subsequent All-Ireland semi-final defeat of Cork, Shefflin had to be substituted after he severed his cruciate ligament. While it was feared that this would rule him out of the All-Ireland decider against Tipperary on 5 September, he made a remarkable recovery and was deemed to fit to start that game. After scoring an early free in the final, his knee again gave out and he was replaced after twelve minutes. Tipperary's Lar Corbett subsequently ran riot and scored a hat-trick of goals as Kilkenny fell to a 4–17 to 1–18 defeat.
Kilkenny's stranglehold in Leinster continued in 2011. A 4–17 to 1–15 defeat of Dublin gave "the Cats" a record-breaking seventh successive championship. It was Shefflin's twelfth winners' medal overall. Kilkenny subsequently faced Tipperary in a record-breaking seventh successive All-Ireland decider on 4 September 2011. Goals by Michael Fennelly and Richie Hogan in either half gave Kilkenny, who many viewed as the underdogs going into the game, a 2–17 to 1–16 victory. Shefflin, who collected a record-equaling eighth All-Ireland medal, later collected a tenth All-Star award.
Kilkenny were shocked by Galway in the 2012 Leinster decider, losing by 2–21 to 2–11, however, both sides subsequently met in the All-Ireland decider on 9 September 2012. Kilkenny had led going into the final stretch, however, Joe Canning struck a stoppage time equaliser to level the game at 2–13 to 0–19 and send the final to a replay for the first time since 1959. The replay took place three weeks later on 30 September 2012. Galway stunned the reigning champions with two first-half goals, however, Kilkenny's championship debutant Walter Walsh gave a man of the match performance, claiming a 1–3 haul. The 3–22 to 3–11 Kilkenny victory gave Shefflin a record-breaking ninth All-Ireland medal on the field of play. He was later presented with an eleventh All-Star award, as well as becoming the first player to be named Hurler of the Year for a third time.
On 1 December 2012, Shefflin went off injured in Ballyhale Shamrocks' defeat by Oulart the Ballagh in the provincial club championship. While the problem was initially thought to be just a badly sprained ankle it was later revealed to be ligament damage and a break in his left mid-foot. This injury ruled him out of Kilkenny's successful 2013 National league campaign. A damaged metatarsal delayed his recovery resulting in him missing Kilkenny's opening championship games. Shefflin made his return to hurling when he was introduced for the last five minutes of Kilkenny's 0–20 to 1–14 qualifier defeat of Tipperary. He was included on the starting fifteen for Kilkenny's subsequent All-Ireland quarter-final against Cork. Just before half time Shefflin received a second yellow card and was red carded for the first time in his championship career. Kilkenny went on to lose the game by 0–19 to 0–14. After an appeal to the Central Hearings Committee Shefflin's red card was subsequently rescinded.
Tenth All-Ireland medal
In 2014, Shefflin collected his sixth league medal, as Kilkenny secured a narrow one-point 2–25 to 1–27 extra-time victory over Tipperary. Shefflin subsequently secured a thirteenth Leinster medal, as a dominant Kilkenny display gave "the Cats" a 0–14 to 1–9 defeat of Dublin. On 7 September 2014, Kilkenny faced Tipperary in the All-Ireland decider, however, Shefflin started the game on the bench before making a brief cameo. In what some consider to be the greatest game of all-time, the sides were level when Tipperary were awarded a controversial free. John O'Dwyer had the chance to win the game, however, his late free drifted wide resulting in a draw. The replay on 27 September 2014 was also a close affair. Goals from brothers Richie and John Power inspired Kilkenny to a 2–17 to 2–14 victory. It was Shefflin's tenth All-Ireland medal.
Retirement
Following Shefflin's tenth All-Ireland success, speculation began to grow about his possible retirement. After stating in November 2014 that he intended to make a decision after the conclusion of the All-Ireland series of the club championship, Shefflin called a press conference on 25 March 2015 and announced that he was retiring from inter-county hurling. In a statement he said, "When I reflect back over the past 16 years playing the game that I love, at the highest level with Kilkenny, it is impossible to quantify the endless hours of happiness, satisfaction and fulfilment I have enjoyed."
In 2015, Shefflin joined The Sunday Game as an analyst for their coverage of the 2015 All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship and featured on RTÉ Radio 1.
Inter-provincial
Shefflin has also lined out with Leinster in the inter-provincial hurling championship. He first played for his province in 1999, however, he had to wait another few years before success in that competition.
In 2002 Leinster faced arch rivals Munster in the decider at Nowlan Park. The game ended in somewhat controversial circumstances when the referee awarded a free when Munster's Peter Queally was deemed to have fouled Jimmy Coogan. Shefflin pointed the free to give Leinster a narrow 4–15 to 3–17 victory. It was Shefflin's first Railway Cup medal.
Leinster were back in the decider again in 2003. Rome was the venue with Connacht providing the opposition. Leinster were nine points in arrears early in the second half, however, the team fought back to secure a 4–9 to 2–12 victory. It was Shefflin's second Railway Cup medal.
In 2009 Shefflin was back on the Leinster team once again. His kicked goal five minutes after the restart set up a 3–18 to 1–17 defeat of Connacht once again.
Recognition
Shefflin has come to be regarded as one of the greatest, if not the greatest player of all-time and has received much praise from Irish sportspeople in all fields.
Fellow nine-time All-Ireland medallist and former Kilkenny goalkeeper Noel Skehan said of him in the build-up to the 2012 All-Ireland final: "Oh, as it stands, you’re talking about the greatest hurler ever even if he didn’t win on Sunday. He’ll still be the greatest hurler. He’s a fantastic sportsman. What he has achieved up until now, even forgetting the result on Sunday, you’d have to put him well up on top of the ladder. To do it all on the pitch is a great achievement. To start every championship match since he came on the scene, it goes without saying how good that is and I hope to God that he achieves it."
Six-time All-Ireland dual medallist and All-Ireland-winning manager Jimmy Barry-Murphy wrote: "He is most certainly the greatest hurler that I have ever seen, and I even saw Christy Ring towards the end of his days. But this guy outshines everything that I have ever seen on a hurling field. His work ethic is amazing, and one that others must aspire to if they are to reach the stars."
Writing in the Kilkenny GAA Yearbook 2012, contemporary Cork hurler, Donal Óg Cusack, wrote: "If there is better to come than Henry, I for one would hope to be around to see him. He is the perfect example for every young player. He doesn’t practice and live his life the way he does because he is Henry Shefflin. He is Henry Shefflin BECAUSE he does those things, and doesn’t stop. He drives on."
Five-time All-Ireland medallist D. J. Carey regards Shefflin as the "greatest forward of all time."
In the build-up to Shefflin's bid for a ninth All-Ireland medal, former Tipperary hurler and manager Babs Keating wrote: "If he can do that he can go down as the greatest hurler in every way. If he can do that it is a record that I can't see ever being surpassed."
Joe Canning, the player Shefflin pipped to the Hurler of the Year award in 2012, stated: "Henry is the best player that has every played and his nine All-Ireland medals speaks for itself. Everybody models themselves on him because he is the ultimate team player and everyone wants to be like him...There is no doubt about it – everybody wants to have him on their team. He is probably the best hurler that has ever played."
Eddie Keher, a six-time All-Ireland medallist and the man who Shefflin surpassed as the top scorer of all-time, stated: "Henry Shefflin is the greatest hurler of all time. He's a most sporting player and he's competitive."
Contemporary Waterford hurler John Mullane wrote: "I can't speak highly enough of Shefflin either. Henry is simply irreplaceable and the measure of the man is his ability to bounce back from serious injuries in recent years to get himself fully fit for the championship."
When asked who he considers to be Ireland's greatest ever athlete, former Ireland rugby captain Brian O'Driscoll said: "That would be the hurler Henry Shefflin, this guy has been an absolute phenomenon for the last 12,13 years. He’s won nine All-Ireland championships with his county and they’re not easy to come by."
In 2016, Gerry Davis won the Hennesy Portrait Prize and was commissioned by the National Gallery of Ireland in 2017 to paint a portrait of Shefflin, which is now displayed in the portrait gallery.
Managerial career
Ballyhale Shamrocks
On 12 December 2017 it was announced that Shefflin would act as co-manager of the Ballyhale Shamrocks senior team alongside his brother Tommy. The Shamrocks won Kilkenny Senior Hurling Championship and Leinster Senior Club Hurling Championship in 2018 before winning the 2019 All-Ireland Senior Club Hurling Championship Final.
On 23 January 2020, it was reported that Shefflin had stepped down as manager of the Ballyhale Shamrocks senior team.
Thomastown
In November 2020, Shefflin was appointed manager of the Thomastown intermediate team.
Galway
On 20 October 2021, Shefflin was announced as the new manager of the Galway senior hurling team.
Championship appearances
All-Ireland Final scores
Career statistics
Club
Inter-county
Honours
Player
St Kieran's College
All-Ireland Colleges' Senior Hurling Championship (1): 1996
Leinster Colleges' Senior Hurling Championship (1): 1996
Waterford Institute of Technology
Fitzgibbon Cup (2): 1998–99, 1999–00
Ballyhale Shamrocks
All-Ireland Senior Club Hurling Championship (3): 2007, 2010, 2015
Leinster Senior Club Hurling Championship (4): 2006, 2008, 2009, 2014
Kilkenny Senior Hurling Championship (5): 2006, 2008, 2009, 2012, 2014
Kilkenny Intermediate Hurling Championship (1): 1997
Kilkenny
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship (10): 2000, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2014
Leinster Senior Hurling Championship (13): 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2014
National Hurling League (6): 2002, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2014
Walsh Cup (6): 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012, 2014
Oireachtas Tournament (1): 1999
All-Ireland Under-21 Hurling Championship (1): 1999
Leinster Under-21 Hurling Championship (2): 1998, 1999
Leinster Minor Hurling Championship (2): 1996, 1997
Leinster Intermediate Hurling Championship (1): 1998
Leinster
Railway Cup (3): 2002, 2003, 2009
Individual
Awards
Texaco Hurler of the Year (3): 2002, 2006, 2012
All Stars Hurler of the Year (3): 2002, 2006, 2012
GPA Hurler of the Year (2): 2002, 2006, 2012
RTÉ Sports Person of the Year (1): 2006
RTÉ Sports Hall of Fame Award (1): 2015
All-Stars (11): 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012
In May 2020, a public poll conducted by RTÉ.ie named Shefflin in the half-forward line alongside Joe Canning and D. J. Carey in a team of hurlers who had won All Stars during the era of The Sunday Game.
Also in May 2020, the Irish Independent named Shefflin at number one in its "Top 20 hurlers in Ireland over the past 50 years".
Manager
Ballyhale Shamrocks
All-Ireland Senior Club Hurling Championship (2): 2019, 2020
Leinster Senior Club Hurling Championship (2): 2018, 2019
Kilkenny Senior Hurling Championship (2): 2018, 2019
Galway
Walsh Cup (1): 2023
Records
Only male athlete in the history of Gaelic games to have won ten All-Ireland senior winner's medals on the field of play.
Only player to score a goal in fourteen consecutive championship seasons (1999–2012).
Joint most Leinster Championship titles (13).
Most Leinster Championship titles (13) on the field of play.
Second-highest scorer in the history of the All-Ireland championship (2010–2021).
Most All-Star awards (11).
Most 'Player of the Year' awards (3) – 2002, 2006, 2012.
Highest scorer from play (24 – 136 = 208 points) in the history of the All Ireland championship (including All Ireland Final replay 2014).
Highest scorer in All-Ireland finals 5–81 (96 pts).
Second-highest scorer from play in All-Ireland finals.
Sources
Corry, Eoghan, The GAA Book of Lists (Hodder Headline Ireland, 2005).
Donegan, Des, The Complete Handbook of Gaelic Games (DBA Publications Limited, 2005).
References
External links
Profile of Henry Shefflin at Kilkenny
Kilkenny GAA on Hogan Stand
Official Kilkenny Website
Kilkenny Supporters Website
HurlingStats.com
A Career in Pictures at
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1979 births
Living people
All-Ireland Senior Club Hurling Championship winning managers
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship winners
All Stars Awards winners (hurling)
All Stars Hurlers of the Year
Alumni of Waterford Institute of Technology
Ballyhale Shamrocks hurlers
Bank of Ireland people
Gaelic games writers and broadcasters
Hurling managers
Kilkenny inter-county Gaelic footballers
Kilkenny inter-county hurlers
Leinster inter-provincial hurlers
RTÉ Sports Person of the Year winners
20th-century Irish people
21st-century Irish people
Waterford IT hurlers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Mexico%20Lobos%20football
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New Mexico Lobos football
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The New Mexico Lobos football team is the intercollegiate football team at the University of New Mexico. The Lobos compete as a member of the Mountain West Conference. Their official colors are cherry and silver. The Lobos play their home games at University Stadium.
History
Early history (1892–1959)
The first New Mexico Lobos football team took the field in 1892. The team didn't have a head coach from 1892 to 1893 and in 1899. The Lobos didn't field a football team from 1895 to 1898, 1900 and 1902. Ralph Hutchinson served as the Lobos head coach from 1911 to 1916, who compiled yearly records of 0–5, 3–3, 3–1–2 4–1 and 4–2 in that span.
From 1920 to 1930, the Lobos were coached by Roy Johnson, who is credited with building the first athletics facilities on campus for the Lobos throughout the 1920s. Chuck Riley became the head football coach for the New Mexico Lobos and remained there for three years, but posted a disappointing record of 7–13–3. Under head coach Gwinn Henry, the Lobos posted an 8–1 record in 1934. But they fell off in the next two seasons, posting records of 6–4 in 1935 and 2–7 in 1936. Henry was replaced after 1936.
Under head coach Ted Shipkey, who was hired to succeed Henry, the Lobos posted yearly records of 4–4–1, 8–3, 8–2, 5–4, and 5–4–1 from 1937 to 1941. Shipkey resigned after five seasons as head coach. The 1938 season was capped with a 26–0 loss in the 1939 Sun Bowl to Utah. Overall, New Mexico was held to 59 yards passing, and was intercepted four times. Furthermore, they were unable to cross Utah's 40-yard line during the entire game. Utah, on the other hand, racked up 366 yards rushing, and outgained the Lobos 384–212.
From 1942 to 1946, the Lobos were led by head coach Willis Barnes, and they posted records of 4–5–2, 1–7, 6–1–1 and 5–5–2 in that span. Barnes' 1945 team won the Sun Bowl and his 1946 team tied in the Harbor Bowl. His final record at UNM is 16–18–5. Barnes resigned after five seasons. As the head football coach at UNM, Berl Huffman struggled to find success on the football field. His three-year tenure produced a record of 8–22–1 that included no winning seasons. The Lobos' best season under his watch was a 4–5 mark in 1947. Huffman was fired after three seasons. Dudley DeGroot, previously head football coach at West Virginia, was hired to take over the Lobos football program after Huffman's firing. Under DeGroot's watch, the Lobos compiled a record of 13–17 in three seasons, which saw the Lobos' fortunes improve on the field. DeGroot saw how limited his talents were and decided to concentrate and gamble on an all-out defense. Every facet of defense DeGroot had coached over 30 years came into being at practices. A dedicated and aggressive defense devised by DeGroot and his relentless assistants brought UNM unofficial "Defensive Team of the Year" honors by all of the major wire services. The season totals were a 7–2 record with five shutouts. The Lobos allowed just 46 points in nine games, an average of 5.1 a game. DeGroot was named Skyline Coach of the Year and five Lobos were named honorable mention All-America: captain and tackle Jack Barger, linebackers Larry White and Jim Bruening, guard Don Papini and kicker Mike Prokopiak. DeGroot retired from coaching after the 1952 season.
For three seasons, Bob Titchenal served as the head football coach at New Mexico. His teams compiled records of 5–3–1, 5–5 and 2–8 for a total of a 12–15–1 record. His teams struggled on the playing field and recruiting was a difficulty for Titchenal and his staff. UNM fired Titchenal after three seasons at the helm. Under head coach Dick Clausen, who came to UNM from Coe College, the New Mexico Lobos football team posted back to back records of 4–6. Clausen departed New Mexico after two seasons to accept the position of athletics director at rival Arizona. In two seasons as head coach after being promoted from assistant coach, Marv Levy guided the Lobos to a 14–6 record and earned Skyline Conference Coach of the Year honors both years. One of Levy's landmark wins at New Mexico was a 28–27 upset win over a powerful Air Force team in 1959. Levy left UNM after back to back 7–3 seasons to accept the head football coach position at California and would go on to a Hall of Fame career as a head coach in the NFL.
Bill Weeks era (1960–1967)
Bill Weeks served an eight-season stint as the head football coach at New Mexico from 1960 to 1967, compiling a record of 40–41–1. His 1961 team won the Aviation Bowl and his 1964 team finished the season ranked No. 16 in the final Coaches' poll.
Coach Weeks won more conference championships – three – than any head coach in the history of New Mexico football. After starting his head coaching career 5–5 in 1960, Weeks and the Lobos embarked on the most successful four-year run in school history. In 1961, UNM finished 7–4 and won the Aviation Bowl with a 29–12 victory over Western Michigan.
That success was followed by outright Western Athletic Conference titles in 1962 and 1963 and a shared conference title in 1964. From 1961 to 1964, the Lobos went 29–12–1 for the best four-season record in program history. Weeks was the school's winningest football coach until Rocky Long surpassed him in September 2005.
Weeks stepped away from coaching after the 1967 season with a final record of 40–41–1.
Rudy Feldman era (1968–1973)
Rudy Feldman, previously associate head coach at Colorado, took over as head coach following Weeks' retirement. As head coach at UNM, Feldman compiled a record of 24–37–2. In his first season, the Lobos posted a winless 0–10 mark but two years later compiled a 7–3 record followed by a 6–3–2 season the next year.
Feldman was reported to have accepted the Baylor head coaching position in December 1971, but Feldman changed his mind shortly thereafter, opting to remain with the Lobos. Feldman quit coaching after six seasons at the helm of the Lobos.
Bill Mondt era (1974–1979)
Coach Bill Mondt was promoted from assistant coach to head coach following Feldman's decision to leave coaching. Under Mondt, the Lobos compiled a record of 31–37–1 in six seasons. Mondt's two winning seasons came in 1975 and 1978, with records of 6–5 and 7–5, respectively. Despite only two winning seasons, the Lobos never had a record worse than 4–6–1 in a single season.
Joe Morrison era (1980–1982)
Joe Morrison came to UNM from UT-Chattanooga. Under his tutelage, the Lobos posted an overall record of 18–15–1, the best of which as a 10–1 record in what turned out to be Morrison's final season.
Morrison departed New Mexico after three seasons to accept the head football coach position at South Carolina.
Joe Lee Dunn era (1983–1986)
From 1983 to 1986, Joe Lee Dunn, promoted from assistant coach after Morrison's departure, was the head football coach of the Lobos, compiling a 17–30 record. The Lobos were not able to build upon the successes of Morrison's tenure, posting yearly records of 6–6, 4–8, 3–8 and 4–8 during Dunn's five seasons.
Frustration among the fans, athletics department and alumni over the team's struggles led to Dunn's resignation after the 1986 season.
Mike Sheppard era (1987–1991)
Mike Sheppard was hired away from Long Beach State to take over as head coach of the Lobos football program on December 25, 1986. Under Sheppard, the Lobos sank to new lows, failing to finish better than 3–9 in a single season and fan support and ticket sales at an all-time low to that point. The Lobos record under Sheppard was a dismal 9–50. Sheppard was fired after the 1991 season.
Dennis Franchione era (1992–1997)
On December 5, 1991, Dennis Franchione was hired away from Texas State and announced as the Lobos new head coach, given the task of rebuilding the lowly program after five dismal seasons. In his six seasons at New Mexico, he led the Lobos to a 33–36 record, including a 9–4 mark in 1997, which earned the Lobos a WAC Mountain Division Championship and an invitation to play in the Insight.com Bowl, their first bowl berth since 1961. Franchione departed New Mexico for TCU after the 1997 season. During the 1996 and 1997 seasons, his roster included future NFL Hall of Fame linebacker Brian Urlacher, who would set numerous defensive records during his time at UNM. His #44 was retired at a ceremony of a UNM home football game several years later.
Rocky Long era (1998–2008)
Rocky Long, previously defensive coordinator at UCLA and a UNM alum, was named as the Lobos' head football coach on December 20, 1997. His overall won-loss record through the 2008 season is 65–69, including 43–31 since 2001, the best five-year stretch for Lobo football in over forty years. He is the most successful head coach in New Mexico Football history, passing Roy Johnson during the 2005 season.
He led the Lobos to three straight post-season bowl games (2003–05) for the first time in school history and the Lobos were bowl-eligible for seven straight seasons, another record. This streak continued into the 2007 season as the Lobos accepted a bid to the New Mexico Bowl. He garnered his first bowl win as Lobo coach by defeating the Nevada Wolf Pack 23–0 in the 2007 New Mexico Bowl.
After 11 seasons, and an overall losing record of coaching at UNM, Long decided to resign on November 17, 2008, two days after the Lobos' regular season ended. Long cited that he was not the right person to lead the program to newer heights. He added that he had no plans of retirement, and that he wanted to continue to coach as a coordinator.
Mike Locksley era (2009–2011)
Mike Locksley, previously offensive coordinator at Illinois, was named head coach of the New Mexico Lobos on December 9, 2008. He signed a six-year contract worth $750,000 annually. Locksley is the first and only African American head football coach in UNM football history.
In late May 2009, a former administrative assistant at New Mexico filed an age and sex discrimination complaint against Locksley with the Equal Opportunity Commission. The complaint was filed by Locksley's former administrative assistant Sylvia Lopez. Lopez claimed to have been subjected to age and sexual discrimination before being transferred out of Locksley's office. The claims were later withdrawn. In late September 2009, Locksley was reprimanded for an altercation with an assistant coach. He was subsequently suspended without pay for ten days. He was not on the sideline for the game against UNLV on October 24, 2009.
Locksley led his Lobos to 1–11 records his first and second seasons. Despite fan outcry to fire him, he returned for his third season. The high buyout was a large reason UNM chose at first not to fire him. UNM athletic director Paul Krebs, who made the decision to retain Locksley, expected improvement in the 2011
season. On September 25, 2011, Locksley was relieved of his duties following an 0–4 start
that culminated in a loss at home to FCS Sam Houston State as well as the arrest of a minor for a DWI while driving a car registered to Locksley's 19-year-old son Meiko, a member of the Lobo Football team. After an internal investigation by UNM, it was found the minor was not a recruit as erroneously reported, but instead a childhood friend of Meiko Locksley from his Champaign, Illinois days where his father served as offensive coordinator for the Illini from 2005 to 2008.
Bob Davie era (2012–2019)
The Lobos' 30th head coach was former Notre Dame head coach Bob Davie, who took over after Locksley was fired. Davie, who has extensive experience as an assistant coach in addition to the stint as a head coach at Notre Dame, had been out of coaching and serving a college football analyst for ESPN for a decade when he was hired by the Lobos.
In Davie's first season as head coach, the Lobos finished the 2012 season with a 4–9 record. Following the season, Davie was given a contract extension by the Lobos athletics department. In 2013, Davie's second season at the helm, UNM compiled a 3–9 record. After another subpar season in 2014, the 2015 Lobos compiled a record of 7–6, which culminated with an appearance in the New Mexico Bowl, UNM's first bowl appearance since 2007. The Lobos lost the game to Arizona by a score of 45–37. After the season, Davie's contract was extended for a second time. On November 25, 2019, Davie and New Mexico agreed to part ways after 8 seasons and a 35–64 record.
Danny Gonzales era (2020–present)
On December 17, 2019, Arizona State defensive coordinator and former Lobo player Danny Gonzales was named the 31st head coach of the Lobos.
Conference affiliations
Independent (1892–1930)
Border Conference (1931–1950)
Mountain States Conference (1951–1961)
Western Athletic Conference (1962–1998)
Mountain West Conference (1999–present)
Championships
Conference championships
New Mexico has won four conference championships, doing so through three conferences: Border Conference, Western Athletic Conference and the Mountain West Conference.
† Co-champions
Division championships
The Lobos have won two division titles, one each in the WAC and the Mountain West Conference.
† Co-champions
Head coaches
Head coaches of New Mexico.
No coach (1892–1893)
W. A. Zimmer (1894)
No team (1895–1898)
No coach (1899)
No team (1900)
Joe Napier (1901)
No team (1902)
Walter McEwan (1903–1904)
Martin F. Angell (1905–1907)
Hermon H. Conwell (1908)
Sam P. McBirney (1909)
Carl Hamilton (1910)
Ralph Hutchinson (1911–1916)
Frank E. Wood (1917)
No team (1918)
John F. McGough (1919)
Roy W. Johnson (1920–1930)
Chuck Riley (1931–1933)
Gwinn Henry (1934–1936)
Ted Shipkey (1937–1941)
Willis Barnes (1942–1946)
Berl Huffman (1947–1949)
Dudley DeGroot (1950–1952)
Bob Titchenal (1953–1955)
Dick Clausen (1956–1957)
Marv Levy (1958–1959)
Bill Weeks (1960–1967)
Rudy Feldman (1968–1973)
Bill Mondt (1974–1979)
Joe Morrison (1980–1982)
Joe Lee Dunn (1983–1986)
Mike Sheppard (1987–1991)
Dennis Franchione (1992–1997)
Rocky Long (1998–2008)
Mike Locksley (2009–2011)
George Barlow # (2011)
Bob Davie (2012–2019)
Danny Gonzales (2020–present)
Bowl games
New Mexico has participated in 13 bowl games. The Lobos have a bowl record of 4–8–1.
Rivalries
New Mexico State
New Mexico's biggest rival is its in-state foe, the New Mexico State Aggies, whom they play annually. The series is known as the Rio Grande Rivalry. The rivalry between New Mexico's only two NCAA Division I institutions dates back to January 1, 1894 – 18 years before New Mexico achieved statehood – when the schools met in a football contest in Albuquerque. While it is clear that New Mexico won that first game, school records seem to disagree on the score. According to New Mexico media guides the final score was 25–5 but according to New Mexico State media guides the score was 18–6. By the time New Mexico entered the union in 1912 UNM and New Mexico A&M (as NMSU was known prior to 1960) had already met on the gridiron six times.
Beginning in 1993, the two universities played for the Maloof Trophy, but it was short-lived; the trophy was retired in 2000. Until 1937 the series was competitive with the Aggies holding a 15–12–4 lead over the Lobos. Since 1938 the Lobos have dominated the series 54–16–1 except during 1959–1968 when the Aggies won 7 of 10 meetings. The Lobos all-time advantage is 72–33–5, however the rivalry remains spirited. Most recently the Lobos defeated the Aggies 55–52 on September 21, 2019, in Albuquerque. The September 26, 2009 game when the Aggies won 20–17 in Albuquerque was the 100th time the teams had played each other.
Arizona
Annually played from 1938 to 1990, the winner of the Arizona-New Mexico rivalry game took ownership of a gun in the Battle for the Kit Carson Rifle. The gun is a Springfield Model 1866 rifle that is rumored to have once belonged to the famous frontier scout, Kit Carson. Game scores from each game are carved into the stock of the rifle. Prior to the 1997 Insight.com Bowl, the two schools announced that they would retire the rifle due to concerns of its history of violence against Native Americans and it has not been used during any subsequent games between the two schools. The two teams quit playing annually after the 1990 season and now play every few years.
Future non-conference opponents
Announced schedules as of September 16, 2021.
References
External links
1892 establishments in New Mexico Territory
American football teams established in 1892
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation%20of%20Arnhem
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Liberation of Arnhem
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Operation Anger (sometimes known as Operation Quick Anger) was a military operation to seize the city of Arnhem in April 1945, during the closing stages of the Second World War. It is also known as the Second Battle of Arnhem or the Liberation of Arnhem. The operation was part of the Canadian First Army's liberation of the Netherlands and was led by the 49th British Infantry Division, supported by armour of the 5th Canadian Armoured Division, Royal Air Force air strikes and boats of the Royal Navy.
The Western Allies first tried to liberate Arnhem in September 1944 during Operation Market Garden. Poor planning, the unexpected presence of German armoured units and a delayed advance by ground forces meant that the 1st British Airborne Division were defeated and a new front stabilised south of the city. Fresh planning to take Arnhem began in the new year as the Canadian First Army sought ways to link up its units advancing into the Netherlands. However it was not until April that the liberation of the city became a distinct possibility. After II Canadian Corps secured the eastern bank of the IJssel river and advanced north, I Canadian Corps prepared to assault Arnhem.
The operation began on 12 April 1945 and proceeded to plan, as the three infantry brigades of the 49th Division leapfrogged each other through the city. Within four days Arnhem was totally under Allied control, allowing the Canadians to advance further into the Netherlands. Less than two weeks after the battle a general truce brought major combat operations in the country to an end and on 5 May the German commander in chief in the Netherlands surrendered to the Canadian Army. Three days later Germany unconditionally surrendered, bringing the war in Europe to a close.
Background
The first battle of Arnhem
In September 1944 the Allies launched Operation Market Garden, an effort to advance around the Siegfried Line and open a route to the Ruhr. The British 1st Airborne Division landed at Arnhem and fought for nine days in the city and surrounding towns and countryside, but the British 2nd Army's advance failed to reach them and they were nearly annihilated. After withdrawing south of the Nederrijn the front line stabilised on the "Island" (the polder between Nijmegen and Arnhem) over the winter.
The residents of Arnhem and Oosterbeek (over 450 of whom had been killed in the battle) were evicted from their homes which were then systematically looted of anything of value to aid refugees in Germany. The shattered settlements were then turned into strong defensive positions to resist future Allied advances. The Arnhem road bridge that the British had fought so hard for was bombed by the Allies in October 1944 to deny its use to the Germans. Arnhem itself was extensively shelled by the Allies over the winter and was even hit by short-falling German-fired V-2 rockets. In retaliation for a Dutch railway workers strike supposed to aid the Allies' September advance, the Germans banned all inland freight movement. This prevented food being grown in the north from reaching the south and west of the country and caused thousands of deaths amongst the Dutch population in the Hongerwinter.
Allied crossing of the Lower Rhine
In February 1945 the Allies launched Operations Veritable and Grenade, striking east from land captured during Market Garden directly into Germany. These paved the way for Operations Plunder and Varsity, crossing the River Rhine further upstream from Arnhem. 21st Army Group then advanced rapidly into north-west Germany. Whilst the British 2nd Army advanced east, General Henry Crerar's First Canadian Army was given the task of liberating the Netherlands.
The Canadian Army had been instructed to plan advances across the Lower Rhine when it first assumed responsibility for the Nijmegen salient in November, but any plans were delayed by the winter and the subsequent allocation of resources for Operation Veritable. However, after Operation Veritable Crerar saw advantages to seizing Arnhem and opening a route to Emmerich during the coming crossing of the Rhine. The first draft of the plan to take the city – known as Operation Anger – was compiled in February as a subsidiary operation to Plunder, but Lieutenant-General Charles Foulkes, commander of the recently arrived I Canadian Corps, thought it safer to wait until the Rhine had been crossed before launching an action on Arnhem, and Anger was shelved.
After Plunder the II Canadian Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Guy Simonds, struck west and seized Emmerich, approaching the IJssel from the east. Crerar saw an opportunity to take Arnhem and open a route between the city and Zutphen to the north, and ordered his two Corps commanders to co-ordinate their advances accordingly. However, he was wary of trying to seize Arnhem before the IJssel had been bridged further north.
In March the 49th (West Riding) Division (nicknamed The Polar Bears), who had been on the Nijmegen Island since November, came under the command of I Canadian Corps. On 2 April the division, supported by Canadian units, led Operation Destroyer to clear the Island, carefully timing the initial attack to coincide with II Corps' clearance of the east bank of the IJssel. On 3 April elements of I Corps crossed the Nederrijn east of the IJssel and met units from II Corps in the town of Westervoort opposite Arnhem. The rest of the Island was cleared within another day and the Allies occupied the southern bank of the Nederrijn in preparation for the assault on Arnhem.
The original (February) plan for Operation Anger had called for an immediate crossing of the Nederrijn near Oosterbeek as soon as the river was reached, if the situation allowed it (Operation Quick Anger). Alternatively, if the German defenses were considered too strong, a better prepared crossing downstream at Renkum could be made (Operation Anger). However, Crerar had ruled that operations could not be made against Arnhem until II Corps had crossed the IJssel and advanced on Apeldoorn, and so Anger could not yet proceed. Additionally reconnaissance patrols on 3 and 4 April determined that German observation posts and positions on the Westerbouwing Heights overlooking the river would make crossing the Nederrijn dangerous. Attempts were made to create smokescreens obscuring the southern bank of the Nederrijn from the watching Germans, a technique that had proved successful in the buildup to Operation Plunder. The screen stretched from the town of Randwijk, west of Arnhem, along the south bank of the river to Huissen, south of Arnhem, but strong winds and a lack of appropriate generators reduced its effectiveness. Additionally the ground on the Island was deteriorating and on 7 April, after considering various alternatives, Foulkes decided Arnhem must be attacked from the east, across the IJssel.
Preparations
Allied forces
The attack was necessarily delayed whilst the 49th Division moved to Westervoort and II Canadian Corps prepared to cross the IJssel further north. The move caused serious logistical problems as the roads around the Island and Westervoort became jammed with traffic. This delay caused concern that the enemy would have time to prepare for the assault, but in the event it appeared they had neither the troops or equipment to improve their situation.
The attack was planned to proceed in three phases. The initial assault would be carried out by the 56th British Infantry Brigade who would cross the IJssel at night in amphibious Buffalo IVs of The Ontario Regiment before clearing the eastern and southern districts of the city. In phase two, the 146th British Infantry Brigade would move forward and attack the high ground north of Arnhem. In the third phase, the 147th British Infantry Brigade would advance through 56th's positions and secure the high ground and north bank of the Nederrijn west of the city. With the heights around Arnhem secure the 5th Canadian Armoured Division would advance through the city and I Corps would resume its advance west. The British took several Canadian units under command along with Churchill Crocodile tanks of the 79th British Armoured Division. Most of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division and 5th Canadian Armoured Division were placed in support, and a composite group known as Murphyforce provided a diversion south of the Nederrijn.
The river crossing would be assisted by landing craft of the Royal Navy, including the 509th LCA Flotilla and 660, 661 and 662 LCM Flotillas, a total of 45 craft. The Royal Army Service Corps (RASC) would run DUKWs across the river during the operation. I Corps' Royal Canadian Engineers (RCE), would build four Bailey pontoon ferries as soon as locations on the enemy bank were captured (two across the IJssel and two across the Nederrijn). The RCE would also deploy a prefabricated Bailey bridge as soon as the situation allowed it. The bridge was built in advance further upstream at Doornenburg and floated nearer to the IJssel just prior to the attack. As soon as the situation allowed it this bridge would be floated into position between Westervoort and Arnhem, hopefully allowing armour to cross the river much faster than the enemy would expect. Canadian pioneers would lay a heavy artillery smokescreen over Arnhem during the attack and in the buildup to the battle they maintained the smoke screen along the Nederrijn, in the hope it would deceive the Germans as to the true direction of the crossing.
Allied order of battle
49th (West Riding) Infantry Division GOC Major-General Stuart Rawlins
56th Infantry Brigade, CO Brigadier R.H. Senior
2nd Battalion, South Wales Borderers
2nd Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment
2nd Battalion, Essex Regiment
146th Infantry Brigade, CO Brigadier D.S. Gordon
4th Battalion, Lincolnshire Regiment
1/4th Battalion, King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry
Hallamshire Battalion, York and Lancaster Regiment
147th Infantry Brigade, CO Brigadier H. Wood
1st Battalion, Leicestershire Regiment
1/7th Battalion, Duke of Wellington's Regiment
11th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers
Attached
Units of the 5th Canadian Armoured Division
11th Armoured Regiment (The Ontario Regiment)
12th Independent Machine Gun Company, Princess Louise Fusiliers
Units of the 79th British Armoured Division
617th Assault Squadron, Royal Engineers
German forces
The German forces in the Netherlands (under Oberbefehlshaber Niederlande commander-in-chief Generaloberst Johannes Blaskowitz) had recently been re-designated Fortress Holland (German: Festung Holland), although this name change had little effect on the units on the ground. The rout of forces the previous year, the formation of ad hoc Kampfgruppe (Battle Groups) and cannibalising of units made it difficult for Allied intelligence to determine German strength north of the Rhine, and it was to remain difficult to ascertain their true strength for several years after the war. Approximately 10,000 troops of the 30th Army Corps were believed to be in the Arnhem–Apeldoorn area, under the command of General der Kavallerie Philipp Kleffel. There were believed to be up to 1,000 men of the 346th Infantry Division, the 858th Grenadier Regiment and other miscellaneous units occupying the Arnhem area, including a divisional battle school, paratroopers and Dutch SS. As well as the natural defence provided by the rivers and the high ground north and west of the city, Arnhem itself had been turned into a strong defensive position after the battle the previous year. On the very day of the opening assault on Arnhem, Heinrich Himmler issued a decree that all cities should be defended at any price, failure to do so being punishable by death.
Battle
On 11 April, II Corps launched Operation Cannonshot – the crossing of the IJssel further north at Deventer – prior to striking west toward Apeldoorn. On the morning of 12 April Foulkes was informed that the operation was well underway, whereupon he ordered the 49th Division to commence their attack that evening. The whole day was spent bombarding the enemy in Arnhem using artillery and ground attack aircraft. The RAF laid on 36 Spitfire and 83 rocket firing Typhoon sorties to soften up the German positions and the attack was preceded by one of the heaviest artillery barrages ever fired by I Canadian Corps. One field gun battery of eight guns fired 640 rounds in ten minutes (an average rate of eight rounds per gun, per minute), and the Pioneer Corps fired 30,000 smoke shells over the course of the battle. A diversionary barrage from south of the Nederrijn provoked a strong German response suggesting they had probably prepared for an attack to be made from the south rather than the east.
Phase one
The initial assault did not proceed entirely to plan. The crossing was set to begin at 10:40pm but was delayed by the late arrival of several assault craft. Additionally several explosive charges on the eastern bank of the river designed to clear a path through landmines and the 'bund' failed to detonate. The 2nd Battalion The Gloucestershire Regiment then discovered several Buffaloes were inoperative and so the companies were forced to cross separately and not in one assault as planned. Despite this the four companies of 2nd Battalion began crossing separately, their way illuminated by Monty's moonlight (searchlights reflecting their light off the clouds overhead) and Bofors guns firing coloured tracers in the direction of attack. Under the cover of heavy machine guns and mortars the first company reached the west bank of the IJssel at 11.15pm. They began to take their objectives in the face of light opposition along the riverbank, sustaining 32 casualties. After a slight delay they secured the landing area for the prefabricated Bailey bridge and at 12.50am The Royal Canadian Engineers began floating the components of the bridge into position. The second wave; the 2nd Battalion The South Wales Borderers crossed the river under heavy artillery fire. Their assault craft drifted downstream in the crossing, but once ashore they advanced rapidly into the city. However their advance stalled and the 1/7th Battalion, Duke of Wellington's Regiment, originally due to cross in Phase 3, was sent over the river to support them. By 7:00am the 2nd Battalion The Essex Regiment were across the river and by 8:45am the RCE had set up a pontoon ferry to begin moving tanks of the Ontario Regiment across as well.
Phase two
The Royal Canadian Engineers continued assembling the Bailey bridge throughout the night and 12 hours after H-Hour, traffic was rolling across the IJssel. This allowed Phase 2 of the operation to proceed and soon troops of 146th Brigade and tanks of the Ontario Regiment were moving up to 56th Brigade's positions. There was relatively little resistance in the morning, although the South Wales Borderers had to beat back a counterattack near the Railway Junction. In the late morning the British advanced towards a large Enka BV factory complex in the eastern area of the city where a battalion of the 346th Infantry and troops of the 46th Festungs Machine Gun Battalion had set up a strong point. The Germans had moved in from Oosterbeek that morning and had thus escaped the earlier bombardments. The 4th Battalion The Lincolnshire Regiment were tasked to clear the complex, although the Germans – being relatively fresh – were able to offer some resistance. With support from the tanks of the Ontario Regiment, and the 79th Division the Germans were eventually overwhelmed in a battle which lasted most of the day. By the evening of 13 April most of the resistance in the city had broken and the 147th Brigade were preparing to cross into Arnhem.
Phase three
The 147th Brigade crossed the Nederrijn from the Island overnight and by the morning of 14 April they were ready to move through 56th Brigade's positions. By now the German defence was crumbling, but the battalions of the 147th encountered significant numbers of mines and demolitions as they advanced. D Company of the Duke of Wellington's Regiment ambushed what they believed to be a German counterattack led by three French Renault tanks, although it later transpired that the Germans had no idea that the British were there. Later in the day, Dutch soldiers of the 34th SS Volunteer Grenadier Division Landstorm Nederland supported by armour counterattacked the Duke of Wellington's positions. The Dutch were eventually beaten back after heavy fighting knocked out their tanks, but were able to blunt a later British advance into their area. By the end of the day the Allied units had reached all of their objectives and most of Arnhem was secure. The 5th Armoured Division began moving onto the high ground north of the city that night, where they met elements of SAS units who had been operating behind enemy lines since earlier that month. On 15 April the Duke of Wellingtons occupied the city's zoo and upon discovering a live polar bear offered it to their brigade commander, who declined. The Germans were cleared out of the precinct of Velp and the surrounding area on 15 and 16 April, bringing Operation Anger to an end.
Aftermath
The Allies liberated a ruined city. After the looting the previous year, houses were little more than empty wrecks – devoid of furniture, household goods and even doors. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation correspondent Matthew Halton described the city as "a deserted, burning shell" and the 49th Division war diary noted that "a town had never been more wantonly destroyed." Evidence of the first battle of Arnhem lay everywhere and the liberation was likened to "entering an ancient tomb."
The Allied advance continued immediately. The 5th Canadian (Armoured) Division began moving through Arnhem towards the high ground north of the city on the night of 14–15 April. In a change to the original plan to head west, the division was given a new mission known as Operation Cleanser and moved north to secure towns between Arnhem and the IJsselmeer. A large German force counterattacked the 5th Division on the night of the 16th at Otterlo, hoping to break out to the West, but were beaten back after heavy losses (see Battle of Otterlo). On 17 April, the 49th Division attacked Ede, occupied by the Dutch SS, and liberated the town in 24 hours. On 27 April a temporary truce came into effect, allowing the distribution of food aid to the starving Dutch civilians in areas under German control (Operation Manna), and on 5 May Generaloberst Blaskowitz agreed to the unconditional surrender of all German forces in the Netherlands.
The British recorded 62 killed and 134 wounded in the action, although it is unclear if this includes Canadian casualties. German figures are imprecise with prisoners of war being recorded as 601 in some sources and up to 1,600 in others. Casualties are similarly unknown, although could have been as high as 3,000. Most of the Allied men killed in the battle were buried at the Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery after the war, whilst Germans who had been buried at localised cemeteries or in field graves were eventually re-interred at Ysselsteyn, along with most Germans killed in the Netherlands. Units involved in the battle were later awarded the battle honour Arnhem 1945. In 1999 the Princess Louise Fusiliers were also granted the honour after research by Captain Sanchez King was able to demonstrate the regiment's entitlement.
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
National Defence and the Canadian Forces Official Histories
ibiblio.org: Official History of the Canadian Army. Chapter XXI: The 1st Corps in the Western Netherlands 1-22 April 1945
Map
Urban warfare
Western European Campaign (1944–1945)
Arnhem
Battles of World War II involving Canada
Battles of World War II involving Germany
Battles and operations of World War II involving the Netherlands
Liberation of Arnhem
April 1945 events in Europe
Arnhem
Liberation of Arnhem
Events in Arnhem
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghazanchetsots%20Cathedral
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Ghazanchetsots Cathedral
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Holy Savior Cathedral (, Surb Amenap′rkich mayr tachar), commonly referred to as Ghazanchetsots (), is an Armenian Apostolic cathedral in Shusha (also known as Shushi) in Azerbaijan, in the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh. It is the cathedra of the Diocese of Artsakh of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Standing high, Ghazanchetsots is one of the largest Armenian churches in the world. A landmark of Shusha and the Karabakh region, and of Armenian cultural and religious identity, it is listed as cultural and historical monument of the breakaway Republic of Artsakh.
Built between 1868 and 1887, the cathedral was consecrated in 1888. It was damaged during the March 1920 massacre of the city's Armenians—and the destruction of their half of the city—by Azerbaijanis and experienced a decades-long decline well into the Soviet period. During the first Nagorno-Karabakh War Azerbaijan used the cathedral as an armoury to store hundreds of missiles. The cathedral was extensively restored in the aftermath of the first war and reconsecrated in 1998. During the 2020 war, it was damaged by Azerbaijani attacks.
In Azerbaijan, the cathedral is called "Gazanchy" () and the authorities have often denied its Armenian heritage, instead vaguely referring to it as "Christian" or falsely labeling it a "Russian Orthodox" edifice. Azerbaijan's announcement of a "renovation", which so far has included the removal of its conical roof, has been met with criticism and concern by different bodies.
Foundation
According to historical records, a small basilica church stood on the present premises as early as 1722. In the 19th century, following the conquest of the Caucasus by the Russian Empire, Shusha was one of the largest cities in the region. The journalist Thomas de Waal notes that it was larger and more prosperous than either Baku or Yerevan, the current capitals of Azerbaijan and Armenia, respectively. Alongside Tiflis, the city was a major center for Armenian cultural activity in the region. According to Russian imperial sources, in 1886 the city had a mixed Armenian (57%) and Tatar (later known as Azerbaijani; 43%) population of almost 27,000. The oldest section of the current cathedral, the bell tower, was built in 1858, and was financed by the Khandamiriants family.
The construction of the church began in 1868 and was completed in 1887. Its name comes from Ghazanchi (present-day Qazançı), a village in Nakhchivan, where the Khandamiriants family originated. Furthermore, the quarter where the church is located was also known by that name (Ղազանչեցոց թաղ, Ghazanchetsots t′agh) as it was populated by the descendants of migrants from Ghazanchi. The church was designed by Simon Ter-Hakobian(ts). The church was consecrated on 20 September 1888 according to an inscription on the upper part of the southern portal. The inscription reads:
1920 massacre and decline
The majority of the Armenian population of Shusha was massacred or expelled in March 1920. The cathedral was damaged and gradually declined. After the region came under Soviet control, due to state atheist policies, it was eventually closed down in 1930 and was turned into a granary in the 1940s. Its dome and part of the walls surrounding it were destroyed in the 1950s. It was then looted and its stones were used to build several upscale houses in the Azerbaijani part of the city. By the 1970s the cathedral "looked like it [had] survived heavy shelling." After public pressure, Soviet and Azerbaijani authorities granted permission for the launch of a restoration project of the cathedral in the 1980s. The restoration began in 1981 and continued until 1988 and was supervised by Volodya Babayan. By 1987 only two of the four stone statues of angels on the bell tower had survived.
First Karabakh War
Shusha's Armenian minority was expelled from the city when the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict began in February 1988. The cathedral was turned into an armory by Azerbaijan. According to Armenian political analyst Levon Melik-Shahnazaryan, the cathedral was set on fire three times between 1988 and 1991 using car tires. Azerbaijanis dismantled the stone statues of angels on the bell tower in 1989. They reportedly sold off its bronze bell, which was later found in a market in Donetsk, Ukraine and was bought by an Armenian officer for three million rubles and returned to Armenia. Prior to the fall of Shushi to the Armenians, Azerbaijani forces stored hundreds of boxes of BM-21 Grad missiles as the cathedral was safe from potential Armenian bombardment. Shusha was used as a base for the shelling of Stepanakert, the largest city of Karabakh, with Grad launchers for several months. Armenian volunteers, including noted activist Igor Muradyan, carried the wooden boxes of artillery and rocket shells out of the church immediately after the capture of the city. The flag of Armenia was raised on top of the damaged dome by Armenian troops. Melik-Shahnazaryan wrote that by the time of its capture "practically, only a stone skeleton had remained of the magnificent structure." A foreign visitor noted that its "windows were missing but the interior was in reasonable condition."
On 23 August 1992, Azerbaijani bombers launched attacks against the church. However, no serious casualties were reported. Felix Corley suggested that the attempt was not of any military importance and "appeared to be a deliberate attempt to attack the Armenian heritage in Karabakh."
Restoration and revival
Restoration of the cathedral began soon after its capture by Armenian forces. As of 1997 it was reportedly the only building being restored in Shushi. Restoration works were conducted by Volodya Babayan and primarily funded by Andreas Roubian, an Armenian evangelical benefactor from New Jersey, who provided $110,000. Tens of thousands of dollars came from various Armenian diaspora communities and wealthy individuals. Cleanup and furnishing were completed in May 1998. The cathedral was reconsecrated on 18 June 1998 on the Feast of the Transfiguration by Archbishop Pargev Martirosyan, the Primate of the Diocese of Artsakh. The first Divine Liturgy at the restored cathedral took place on July 19 with attendance of Nagorno-Karabakh President Arkadi Ghukasyan and officials from Armenia. Archbishop Sebouh Chouldjian read a letter from Catholicos Karekin I, who did not attend due to health problems.
Yulia Antonyan suggested that its reconstruction was "perceived more as a cultural process aimed at a restoration of the Armenian cultural heritage, a spiritual and physical 'rebirth' of the Armenian nation" and came to symbolize the rebirth of Shushi. It now "towers, immaculate once more, above the ruined town," wrote de Waal in his 2003 book Black Garden. Daniel Bardsley wrote in 2009 that the cathedral is now "one of the few pristine-looking buildings in the city."
On 16 October 2008, a mass wedding, sponsored by , a Russian-based businessman from Karabakh, took place in Nagorno-Karabakh. Around 700 couples got married on that day, 500 of whom married at Ghazanchetsots and 200 at Gandzasar monastery.
On 14 April 2016, Catholicos of All Armenians Karekin II and Catholicos of The Holy See of Cilicia Aram I delivered a prayer for peace and for the safety of Nagorno-Karabakh. It came days after clashes between Armenian and Azerbaijani forces, which were the deadliest since the ceasefire of 1994, until the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
On 6 April 2017, Serj Tankian, the lead singer of the rock band System of a Down performed the Christian liturgical prayer "Lord, have mercy" (, Ter voghormia), in Armenian, at the cathedral.
2020 shelling
On 8 October 2020, the cathedral was struck twice by Azerbaijan, which resulted in the collapse of part of the roof. A Russian journalist, Yuri Kotenok was seriously injured by the second strike. Two others were also wounded. Human Rights Watch (HRW) noted that the two attacks "suggest that the church, a civilian object with cultural significance, was an intentional target despite the absence of evidence that it was used for military purposes." HRW collected remnants of the weapon used against the church, which "corroborate the use of guided munitions." An investigation by Hetq concluded that the church was hit with 300 mm rockets, probably that of a TRG-300 Tiger multiple rocket launcher.
Between the shelling of the church and the capture of the town by Azerbaijan, the church continued to attract Armenians. On October 12 cellist Sevak Avanesyan played Krunuk (The Crane) by Komitas inside the partially ruined church. On October 24 a couple from Martuni got married at the church. On November 6, 2020 Archbishop Bagrat Galstanyan of Tavush delivered a prayer at the church.
Armenian reactions
Armenia's Foreign Ministry issued an official statement describing it as "another crime of the military-political leadership of Azerbaijan... this action fully fits into its policy of Armenophobia developed for decades. Azerbaijan, which has completely annihilated the Armenian cultural heritage in Nakhchivan and in other parts of the historical homeland of the Armenian people, now throughout the ongoing military aggression against Artsakh is trying to deprive Armenians of Artsakh of their homeland and historical memory."
The Armenian Apostolic Church condemned the attack and described it as "an outgrowth of extreme religious intolerance."
Armenia's first foreign minister Raffi Hovannisian wrote in the New York Post that for Armenians, "an attack like the one on the Holy Savior Cathedral isn’t just a matter of urgent current affairs. No, the swirling dust kicked up by violence against a Christian house of worship can take back even the most modern-minded Armenian more than a century — to the year 1915," referring to the Armenian genocide.
Azerbaijani reactions
Azerbaijan's Defense Ministry officially denied it was behind the attack, while its state news agency claimed the missiles came from the Armenian side. Azerbaijan's President Ilham Aliyev later stated: "We need to investigate this issue... We have doubts that could have been done by Armenians in order to blame us. If it was done by Azerbaijani military units, that was a mistake and we don’t have any historical or religious targets..." In an interview with BBC, Aliyev stated: "the images of that church which I have seen, show that it is a very minor damage. And this damage can be repaired within maximum two weeks." Almost two years after the war, Aliyev's advisor Hikmet Hajiyev said that the church "sustained collateral damage" during the war.
Foreign reactions
The US Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) stated that they were "dismayed to learn that the Ghazanchetsots Cathedral was seriously damaged by fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh" and called for the safeguarding of places of worship and religious sites, particularly during the violent conflict. US Ambassador-at-Large for International Religious Freedom Sam Brownback stated on Twitter: "I am deeply saddened by the images of damage to the Holy Savior Cathedral (St. Ghazanchetsots). Important religious and cultural sites must be protected."
The attack was condemned by US Representative Frank Pallone and German MP Albert Weiler, among others.
A statement released by the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS), signed by Israel Charny, Yair Auron, Matthias Bjørnlund, Tessa Hofmann and others argued that the strikes on the church are "a part of policy of the cultural genocide that the Azerbaijani government has been implementing over the past 30 years by systematically destroying the Armenian historical heritage."
In December 2020 Human Rights Watch's Europe and Central Asia director Hugh Williamson called on Azerbaijan to investigate the attacks. "It has been over a month since Azerbaijan has retaken control of Shushi and the government needs to waste no time in investigating the attacks and holding those responsible to account. Attacks such as these serve no military purpose and all parties should ensure these kinds of attacks are punished and otherwise prevented," he said.
Under Azerbaijani control
The town of Shusha was captured by Azerbaijani forces by November 9, 2020, when a trilateral armistice agreement was reached between Armenia, Azerbaijan and Russia. On November 14 a photo emerged online showing graffiti on the cathedral's wall. Armenia's Ministry of Culture released a statement claiming that there was already evidence of vandalism against the cathedral. The Armenian Church described the vandalism as desecration and strongly condemned it as an "expression of obvious vandalism and intolerance."
After the war, the Azerbaijani government announced a renovation of the cathedral in the frame of large-scale reconstruction work in Shusha. The renovation project attracted much attention and criticism, with many Armenians alleging that Azerbaijan was seeking to blot out the Armenian identity of the church by altering or obscuring its basic features and design elements. In May 2021, footage released by CivilNet showed the conical dome of the church had been removed and the church itself surrounded by ostensible scaffolding. A report by Caucasian Knot quoted several Azerbaijani state officials who claimed that the renovation project aimed to restore the "original" appearance of the church, which, according to them, lacked the conical dome until it was added by the Armenians following Shushi's capture in 1992. However, the conical dome of the church can be seen in photographs from over a century ago.
The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom and International Christian Concern expressed concern with the announced renovation.
In June 2023 Azerbaijani Ambassador to the Holy See Ilgar Mukhtarov stated that the church, "misappropriated by Armenians is currently regaining its original appearance."
At a media forum in Shusha in July 2023, Aliyev stated: "We do not touch the historical heritage of the Armenian people. There is even an Armenian church here in Shusha. Anyone can go and have a look, not a single stone has been touched there. On the contrary, it is protected."
Architecture
The cathedral's church is a domed basilica with four apsides. It is long and wide. Standing at a height of , it is one of the largest Armenian churches. Its dome, with a metal conical roof, is tall. Architect Artak Ghulyan criticized the proportions of the roof, restored by Volodya Babayan, as being unfaithful (too tall) to the original proportions. The church has three identical entrances from the west, south and north. There are ornamental reliefs on the portals and windows. The church's floor plan is an imitation of that of Etchmiadzin Cathedral, Armenia's mother church. The cathedral is seen as having combined both innovative techniques and well-established traditions of Armenian architecture.
Both the church and the bell tower are built of white limestone. The freestanding bell tower has three floors (levels) and contains two bells, the larger of which was cast in Tula, Russia in 1857. Four sculptures of angels blowing trumpets stand on the top of its first floor.
Significance
The cathedral, along with Gandzasar monastery, is a symbol of history and identity for the Armenians of Artsakh/Karabakh. Novelist Zori Balayan noted that it was often referenced during the emergence of the Karabakh Movement. It has become a symbol of the liberation of the city as perceived by Armenians and a popular pilgrimage site for Armenians from Armenia and the diaspora. Catholicos Karekin II called the cathedral a symbol of the Armenian liberation movement of Artsakh during a mass at the cathedral in 2016. Furthermore, it is seen as a remnant of the 19th and early 20th century religious-cultural renaissance of the city.
Numerous manuscripts used to be kept at the cathedral, the earliest dated 1612. The Right Arm of Grigoris, the grandson of Gregory the Illuminator, was also kept at the cathedral.
Heritage designation
The cathedral is included in the list of cultural and historical monuments of the breakaway Republic of Artsakh and the list of cultural and historical monuments of the Republic of Azerbaijan. In 2001, the Shusha State Historical and Architectural Reserve, which includes Ghazanchetsots Cathedral, was added to the Tentative List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites from Azerbaijan.
Notes
References
Bibliography
view online
Culture of Armenia
Armenian buildings in Azerbaijan
Churches in the Republic of Artsakh
Diocese of Artsakh
Churches in Shusha
19th-century Oriental Orthodox church buildings
19th-century establishments in the Russian Empire
Elizavetpol Governorate
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haka%20in%20sports
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Haka in sports
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Haka, traditional dances of the Māori people, have been used in sports in New Zealand and overseas. Haka are performed to challenge opponents before matches. The dance form has been adopted by the New Zealand national rugby union team, the "All Blacks", the Māori All Blacks, New Zealand women's national rugby union team, the "Black Ferns" and a number of other New Zealand national teams perform before their international matches; some non-New Zealand sports teams have also adopted haka.
History
During 1888–89, the New Zealand Native team toured the Home Nations of the United Kingdom, the first team from a colony to do so. It was originally intended that only Māori players would be selected, but four non-Māori were finally included. As the non-Māori were born in New Zealand, the name "Native" was considered justified. The team performed a haka before the start of their first match on 3 October 1888 against Surrey. They were described as using the words "Ake ake kia kaha" which suggests that the haka was not "Ka Mate".
The "Ka Mate" haka was not well known at this time. In 1900, a newspaper reported New Zealand soldiers in the Boer War chanting "Ka Mate! Ka Mate! Ka ora! Ka ora! Hae-haea! Ha!" The soldiers thought it meant "Kill him! Chop him up! Baste him!"
But during the 1901 Royal Tour, Ngati Kahungunu warriors revived "Ka Mate" when they performed it to welcome the Duke of Cornwall at Rotorua. Newspapers described the full actions of this "ancient ngeri", printing its complete Maori words and an accurate translation. A movie cameraman recorded the performance. "Ka Mate" became famous, and was widely performed throughout New Zealand.
Nevertheless, when New Zealand played its first full international test match against Australia in Sydney in August 1903, the New Zealanders' war cry was "Tena Koe Kangaroo." (full details below)
All Blacks
In 1905 New Zealand made their first tour of Britain. This was the first time the team were referred to as the All Blacks and this particular team also became known as the 'Originals'. It is uncertain whether they performed a haka before every match, but they at least performed "Ka Mate" before their first test, against Scotland, and before the match against Wales. The Welsh crowd, led by the Welsh team, responded by singing the Welsh national anthem.
When a New Zealand Army team played Wales in 1916, the words of "Ka Mate" were included in the printed programme, indicating that the haka was established as an accompaniment to New Zealand rugby teams playing overseas.
The 1924–25 New Zealand rugby team which toured the United Kingdom, Irish Free State, France and Canada and which was nicknamed the Invincibles, performed a haka that was written for them during the voyage to England by two supporters, Judge Frank Acheson of the Native Land Court and Wiremu Rangi of Gisborne. The haka was led by star player George Nēpia. It was performed before all but two of the tour matches. Reporters criticised the team for disappointing the crowd on the two occasions it was not performed.
A pre-match haka was not always performed on All Blacks tours. The team that toured Britain in 1935–36 did not perform one before matches, although they did some impromptu performances at social functions. In the early decades, haka were only rarely performed at home matches, such as the third test of the 1921 Springboks tour, played in Wellington.
In 2015 in a world cup game against Argentina the pyramid formation was first used and has been the regular way the players perform it since.
Shelford reforms
By the 1980s the quality of the haka performances had deteriorated to what some considered to be embarrassing levels as it was performed by mainly non-Māori players who were showed little understanding of the meaning and significance of the haka movements. On the 1986 All Blacks tour to Argentina Buck Shelford after consulting with hooker Hika Reid decided that it was about time that something had to be done. He later commented "I grew up watching the All Blacks do the haka and it was quite comical really the way they did it because they weren't very well trained. I don't think they ever practised it, and they were all out of sync at times and sometimes their actions weren't the same." When a member of the touring party inquired as to whether to perform the haka on the tour Shelford told the team members “If we're going to do it, we're going to do it right. Either perform the haka properly or not at all. Vote on it and decide which way you want to go.”
The team was adamant they wanted to perform the haka. As a result Reid and Shelford who had 10 years of kapa haka experience trained them on how to correctly perform the haka, stressing the importance of correctly learning the tikanga, correct pronunciation of the words and actions.
To further help the team in their understanding Shelford upon his appointment as captain in 1987 brought the team to Te Aute College, a Māori school, to see the students perform a traditional haka.
Up until that time the haka was traditionally only performed at overseas matches. Now that the team were capable of performing it to a high standard Shelford was instrumental in the All Blacks performing the haka for the first time in New Zealand at the 1987 Rugby World Cup.
Māori All Blacks
The Māori All Blacks traditionally used the same haka as the All Blacks until Te Whetu Werohia Tipiwai who was a member of the New Zealand Māori Rugby Board for 15 years and the kaumātua of the Māori All Blacks from 2001 to 2010, composed a new haka, “Timatanga”, for the team. This was first performed in 2001.
Black Ferns
The first overseas appearance of the haka at a women’s game was on 6 April, 1991 in Glamorgan when the New Zealand women’s rugby team performed “Ka Mate” before their first pool game, which was against Canada, at the first women's Rugby World Cup in Wales in 1991. The performance of “Ka Mate” was a source of some controversy as a number of Māori elders and cultural experts were of the opinion that Debbie Chase who led the performance should not have done so using a wide-leg stance, as this was not appropriate for a woman.
The concerns about the use of “Ka mate” led captain Lenadeen Simpson-Brown (who was of Ngāti Porou descent) to obtain permission from the elders of Ngāti Porou to use verses from the iwi’s “Ka Panapana” haka. The team first performed it on the Canada Cup tour in 1996.
After seven games as captain Simpson-Brown was replaced by a captain who had no connection to Ngāti Porou, which lead to concerns about continued use of a haka associated with a specific iwi, whereas the team represented all of the country. The Black Ferns however continued to perform “Ka Panapana” until 2002, by which time it was becoming apparent that it would be better to create a haka that was unique to the Black Ferns. Te Whetu Werohia Tipiwai, took up the challenge of composing one. A discussion followed with former Black Ferns captain Farah Palmer about the team’s values. He then used a waiata (song) composed by Pania Papa as inspiration, though the words didn’t come to him until he was driving over the Tararua ranges. In August 2006 he donated his creation “Ko Ūhia Mai” to the Black Ferns, to which former Black Fern Exia Shelford and Mania Parihi created the rhythm, before in association with a group of players they created suitable actions for the haka. This haka has been used by the Blacks Ferns since then.
Specific hakas
"Ka Mate"
The All Blacks are believed to have first performed a choreographed and synchronized version of the "Ka Mate" haka in 1905.
It is said that this Haka was composed by Te Rauparaha of Ngāti Toa to commemorate his escape from death during an incident in 1810. Chased by his enemies, he hid in a food-storage pit under the skirt of a woman. He climbed out to find someone standing over him, who, instead of killing Te Rauparaha, turned out to be another chief friendly to him. In relief, Te Rauparaha performed this ancient haka, which had been performed all through New Zealand for centuries. The story of Te Rauparaha was merely woven into several older stories about this haka, from a rope-hauling chant to beach a 14th-century voyaging waka, a call for unity under one strong leader, and at the end of an erotic wedding-night chant, 'Kikiki Kakaka.' Ka Mate is still used today together with 'Toia Mai' to "haul the waka" of visitors onto a marae.
Performance
The "Ka Mate" rugby haka generally opens with a set of five preparatory instructions shouted by the leader,
before the whole team joins in:
"Tena Koe Kangarū" 1903
Early in July 1903, when the New Zealand players were assembling in Wellington for their Australian tour, The Evening Post reported that "A unique souvenir has been prepared for the New Zealand team by Mr C. Parata. It contains the following warcry":
The Posts rugby correspondent later reported that the war-cry was first practised by the New Zealand team in mid-Tasman on Monday 13 July, and first performed "in response to several calls" at their official reception at Sydney on Thursday 16 July. The reported wording and translation were published next day in the Sydney Morning Herald and in the Sunday Times on 19 July 1903, after the first match against NSW.
The New Zealanders played ten matches on the tour (won 10, lost 0, points for 276, points against 13). Presumably the warcry was performed before all their matches although a search in PapersPast only located mention of its use before "the first test match".
"Ko Niu Tireni" 1924
The Invincibles performed this haka during their unbeaten 1924–1925 tour. It was purpose-written on their voyage to Europe by Wiremu Rangi of Gisborne, and revised by Judge Acheson of New Zealand's Native Land Court. It had two verses, but the second verse (Put a few of your famous teams on display, and let's play each other in friendship) was omitted in later matches.
First verse of Ko Niu Tireni, with a 1925 translation
Newspaper reports of early games spoke of the "weird war cry of the visitors" in response to the crowds' singing. Thus the fifth game at Swansea began with 40,000 waiting Welshmen singing Cwm Rhondda, Sospan Fach, Land of My Fathers and then God Save the King, to which the All Blacks responded with a "weird chant led by Nēpia".
But as fame of their unbeaten status spread, so did the status of their haka. At the beginning of their 22nd game in Wales at Llanelli, we read On the appearance of the men in red, 'Sosban Fach' was sung with great enthusiasm. Nēpia then led the All Blacks in their famous war dance, which was very impressive. One could almost hear a pin drop while it was rendered. The crowd again sang 'Sosban Fach' in reply.
The haka in Finnegans Wake
Irish writer James Joyce heard the "Ko Niu Tireni" haka performed at the Invincibles' match at Paris in January 1925. He modified some of the words and used them in his word-play novel Finnegans Wake.
Let us propel us for the frey of the fray! Us, us, beraddy!
Ko Niutirenis hauru leish! A lala!
Ko Niutirenis haururu laleish! Ala lala!
The Wullingthund sturm is breaking.
The sound of maormaoring
The Wellingthund sturm waxes fuercilier.
Finnegans Wake, 2nd ed. 1950, Book II chap iii, page 335.
"Kapa o Pango" 2005
Before a Tri Nations match against South Africa on 27 August 2005 at Carisbrook in Dunedin, the All Blacks unexpectedly introduced a new haka, "Kapa o Pango". It featured an extended and aggressive introduction by team captain Tana Umaga highlighted by a drawing of the thumb down the throat. This was interpreted by many as a "throat-slitting" action directed at the opposing team. The All Blacks went on to win the match 31 to 27.
The words to "Kapa o Pango" are more specific to the rugby team than "Ka Mate", referring to the warriors in black and the silver fern.
The new haka was developed by Derek Lardelli of Ngāti Porou by modifying the first verse of "Ko Niu Tirini," the haka used by the 1924 All Blacks. An NZRU press release stated thatKapa o Pango has been over a year in the making, and was created in consultation with many experts in Māori culture. It will serve as a complement to "Ka Mate" rather than a replacement, to be used for 'special occasions'.
Published words and the NZRU explanation
Words chanted on field, and their literal interpretation
The words of both "Kapa o Pango" and "Ko Niu Tireni" are taken from the haka of the earthquake god Ruaumoko, Ko Ruaumoko e ngunguru nei. The lines beginning Ka tū te ihi-ihi... are found in many old haka. Ponga ra, ponga ra is the opening line of 'Te Kiri Ngutu,' an 1880s lament for stolen territory.
"Ko Uhia Mai" 2006
This haka whose literal name is "Let It Be Known" is used both by the fifteen-a-side and the sevens Black Ferns teams.
The words and their literal interpretation
{| border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" style="margin-left:3em"
|+"Ko Uhia Mai"'''
|
|-
|A uhia mai|Let it be known
|-
|Ko wai nga Hine|Who are these women
|-
|Ko wai nga Hine|Who are these women
|-
|Ko nga Mamaku e ngunguru nei|It’s the Black Ferns rumble
|-
|Ko Hineahuone, Ko Hinetitama Ko Hinenui te po|From Hineahuone, Hinetitama and Hinenui te po we came
|-
|Ki te whaiao, ki te ao marama e|To transfer from the heavens to the world of enlightenment
|-
|Hi a haha|
|-
|Mauri ki te rangi|Life force from above
|-
|Me te whenua|Life force from below (earth)
|-
|Nga kapua whakapipi|The gathering clouds
|-
|Mai nga Maunga titia e| The mountains that pierce the sky
|-
|Hi a haha|
|-
|He tia he tia|Let us proceed
|-
|Te Moana nui–a–Kiwa| To the seas
|-
|Mai nga topito| From the corners of the island
|-
|Ki nga moutere| To the neighbouring islands,
|-
|O te ao whanui e| And around the world,
|-
|Hi a haha|
|-
|Tumai ra koe| You stand tall and proud,
|-
|' Te mana wahine
| Women of strength.
|-
|Te Wharetangata
| Who will bear the future.
|-
|Nga Mamaku o Aotearoa
| The Black Ferns of New Zealand.
|-
|He tia he tia. He ranga he ranga
| Rise and press on.
|-
|Haere mai te toki
| When the challenge arrives.
|-
|Haumi ee, hui e
| We will gather and unite together.
|-
|Taiki ee
| Strength together. It will be done.
|}
Responses and controversies
The haka, while normally enjoyed by spectators, has been criticised as an unsporting attempt to intimidate the opposition before the match begins. However, most teams accept that the haka is part of rugby's heritage and face up to the All Blacks during its performance, with both teams standing about 10 metres apart. The 2007 Portuguese Rugby team Captain Vasco Uva said of the haka that "[We] faced it, gave it the respect it deserved and it gave us motivation and we knew if it gave them strength, it was also a point of strength for us."
Ignoring the haka is a tactic sometimes used by opposing teams. Famously, the Australian rugby team did a warm up drill well away from the All Blacks during their 1996 test match in Wellington. More recently, the Italian rugby team ignored the haka during a 2007 World Cup Pool Match. All Black team member, Keven Mealamu, said later that in his opinion the snub had backfired and provided motivation to his team.
Australian back David Campese often ignored the haka, most notably in the 1991 World Cup semi-final victory over the All Blacks, when he chose to practice warm-up drills instead of facing the All Blacks.
In 1989, as the All Blacks were performing the haka in Lansdowne Road before playing Ireland, the Irish lined up in a tight V formation to facing New Zealand and then edged closer and closer to the All Blacks. By the time the end of the haka came, captain Willie Anderson was only inches from Buck Shelford's face.
In 1997, Richard Cockerill was disciplined for responding to the haka before the start of an England vs. All Blacks game. Cockerill went toe-to-toe with his opposite number Norm Hewitt while they performed the haka. The referee became so concerned that Hewitt and Cockerill would begin fighting that he pushed Cockerill away from Hewitt. Cockerill went on to say afterwards "I believe that I did the right thing that day," he said. "They were throwing down a challenge and I showed them I was ready to accept it. I'm sure they would rather we did that than walk away." In recent times when the haka is performed against England, it is often drowned out by England fans singing "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot", causing critics to demand respect towards the cultural symbol. Similarly, Ireland fans have recently drowned out the haka by singing "The Fields of Athenry".
In 2005, Australian rugby league player Willie Mason was caught on camera swearing at New Zealand full back Brent Webb during the haka before a Rugby League Tri-Nations match in Auckland. Mason states he was taking exception to Webb, who was born in Cairns, Queensland, Australia performing the traditional haka.
In 2005, the All Blacks agreed to a request from the Welsh Rugby Union to repeat the sequence of events from the original match a century before in 1905. This involved the All Blacks performing the haka after "God Defend New Zealand" and before "Hen Wlad fy Nhadau". For the November 2006 test, the Welsh Rugby Union demanded a repeat of this sequence. The All Blacks refused, and instead chose to perform the haka in their changing room before the match. All Blacks captain Richie McCaw defended the decision by stating that the haka was "integral to New Zealand culture and the All Blacks' heritage" and "if the other team wants to mess around, we'll just do the haka in the shed". The crowd reacted negatively to the lack of the haka and then being shown brief footage of the haka on the screens at the Millennium Stadium.
In 2006, the Seven Network TV channel in Australia aired a commercial which used digital enhancement to add handbags to video of New Zealand rugby players performing the haka. This was inspired by an incident when former All Black captain Tana Umaga struck Hurricanes teammate Chris Masoe over the head with a woman's handbag after the Super 14 final. All Blacks assistant coach Wayne Smith criticised the advertisement, saying "It is insensitive, I think, to Māori and disrespectful of the All Blacks".
The "Kapa o Pango" haka created controversy when the gesture of a thumb drawn down the throat was interpreted by many observers as implying throat slitting. The All Blacks and Māori interpreted it as drawing the breath of life into the heart and lungs ("hauora"). This led to calls for it to be banned, although a poll conducted in July 2006 showed 60 percent support in New Zealand. During Ireland's tour of New Zealand, the NZRU put the haka on a temporary hiatus, to review its appropriateness, by asking the All Blacks not to perform it against Ireland.
In the 2007 Rugby World Cup quarter-finals, France, after having won the coin toss for the choice of uniforms, famously wore the blue/white/red of the French flag and walked up to within a metre of the haka performance, forming a line of opposition to the performance by the All Blacks, who were wearing a predominantly silver uniform (as opposed to the traditional all black). France went on to beat the All Blacks 20–18.
In the 2008 Rugby Autumn Tests, Wales responded to the haka by standing on the pitch refusing to move until the All Blacks did. This resulted in the referee Jonathan Kaplan berating both teams for a full two minutes after the haka had ended until eventually New Zealand captain McCaw instructed his team to break off. After a spirited first half display which ended with Wales leading 9–6, the All Blacks responded positively and won the game 9–29.
Following the final of the 2011 World Cup, the France national team was fined by the IRB for marching to within 10 metres of their All Black opponents during the performance of the haka. To many, this has been viewed as an insult from the IRB.
In the 2019 Rugby World Cup semi-finals, England fanned out across the pitch and adopted a V-shaped formation before the All Blacks began their Haka. As the All Blacks delivered the challenge, several English players crossed the halfway line and stood their ground when officials tried to usher them back. After the match, the IRB issued England with a fine of £2,000 for having have breached World Cup 2019 rules relating to cultural challenges, which states that no players from the team receiving the challenge may advance beyond the halfway line. England went on to win the match 19–7, advancing to meet South Africa in the final, which they would lose 32–12.
Use after matches
New Zealand national sports teams have occasionally performed the haka (usually Ka Mate) as part of their victory celebrations after winning matches. This is not done as a challenge or sign of triumph over the opposing team, but is instead directed at fans and other spectators as a thank you for support. The haka is also occasionally performed in this context to honour individual players achieving important career milestones. This habit is particularly prevalent for the New Zealand national rugby sevens team.
Use by other teams
Other New Zealand sports teams have similarly performed a haka before a match. The tradition of performing a haka before every test match is just as strong with the Kiwis, the New Zealand national rugby league team, performing it before every game. Traditionally they performed the "Ka Mate" haka, but starting at the 2013 Rugby League World Cup they perform a team-specific haka called "Te Iwi Kiwi". It is also performed by the Australian rules football team and Tall Blacks. In the documentary Murderball, the New Zealand paralympic rugby team can be seen performing a modified version of a haka.
When Munster hosted the All Blacks at Thomond Park, Limerick in November 2008, the four New Zealand players in the Munster team performed their own haka prior to the All Blacks.
At the opening parade of the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, the New Zealand team
stopped in front of the Queen and performed a haka.
New Zealand teams have attracted some criticism for performing haka, on occasions such as winning a swim relay bronze medal.
In 2009, Ice Blacks did their haka before their ice hockey match against Australia. The Tall Blacks performed the dance prior to its games in the 2014 FIBA tournament, including a contest against the United States, where video of the dance was widely circulated and sparked discussion.
The Black Sticks, the (field) hockey team, also perform a haka.
During the 2013 PDC World Cup of Darts, team New Zealand, consisting of Phillip Hazel and Craig Caldwell performed a haka ahead of their match against Australia.
The high-profile of the All Blacks, and their use of haka has led other Pacific teams to use similar dances from their own cultures, such as the Cibi, Kailao, and Siva tau. Other teams from the Pacific and elsewhere however have performed the "Ka Mate" or "Kapa o Pango" haka. For instance, the "Kapa o Pango" haka was used by the University of Hawaii Warriors in 2006, before they created their own war dance, the "Haa", in the Hawaiian language with original movements.
See also
Kapa haka
Māori music
Traditional war dances of other rugby nations:
Cibi (Fiji)
Hako (Rapa Nui) (Easter Island)
Kailao or Sipi Tau (Tonga)
Siva tau (Samoa)
Aboriginal war dance (Australia)
Notes
References
M. Pōmare, 'Ngāti Toarangatira', Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 9 June 2006. URL: www.TeAra.govt.nz
'The Haka – In the Beginning', New Zealand Rugby Museum.
Further reading
External links
Haka! – Haka Sports site.
Te Rauparaha and "Ka Mate" – website New Zealand in History
Rugby league in New Zealand
Rugby union in New Zealand
Haka
Māori language
Rugby football culture
Sports culture
Sports culture in New Zealand
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed%20Jawad
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Mohamed Jawad
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Mohamed Jawad (born 1985 in Miranshah, Pakistan), was accused of attempted murder before a Guantanamo military commission on charges that he threw a grenade at a passing American convoy on December 17, 2002. Jawad's family says that he was 12 years old at the time of his detention in 2002. The United States Department of Defense maintains that a bone scan showed he was about 17 when taken into custody.
Jawad insists that he had been hired to help remove landmines from the war-torn region, and that a colleague had thrown the grenade. He was held in extrajudicial detention first at the Bagram Theater Internment Facility and then at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp from 2003 until 2009. His Internment Serial Number was 900.
The military commission presiding judge ruled that Jawad's confession to throwing a grenade was inadmissible since it had been obtained through coercion after Afghan authorities threatened to kill him and his family. He was ordered released after a successful petition for a writ of habeas corpus before Judge Ellen Huvelle of the U.S. District Court in Washington, D.C., on July 30, 2009. On August 24, 2009, he was transported from Guantanamo Bay to Afghanistan.
Age
Like many Afghans, Mohamed Jawad has no official record of his birth, and does not know his exact age. Human rights workers trying to establish a reliable estimate of his birth date consulted with his mother; she said that he was born six months after his father was killed during a battle near Khost in 1991. In an English-language Al Jazeera broadcast, one of his uncles said he was born four months after the battle where his father was killed, which he said occurred in 1990.
Pentagon spokesman Jeffrey D. Gordon disputed these claims, saying that bone scans performed when Jawad arrived at Guantanamo established that the youth was about eighteen at the time. A report by the University of California at Davis, about juveniles held at Guantanamo, stated that military records show Jawad to have been either 17 or 18 at the time of his arrival.
Background
Jawad's father was killed in a battle in Khost, Afghanistan called Battle for Hill 3234 in January 1988 during the Afghan-Soviet War. Relatives say Jawad was born to his mother six months later in an Afghan refugee camp in Miran Shah, Pakistan, where they continued to live.
Jawad was studying at a sixth or seventh-grade level at a school which United States agents later described as "Jihadi". Several years later, he was approached by four or six men at Qari Mosque in his hometown. They asked if he would be willing to take a lucrative job in Kabul, Afghanistan where the government intended to remove landmines. He was promised 12,000 Pakistani rupees to help clear Soviet-era mines from the region.
Jawad agreed, but said he needed to gain his mother's permission to travel. The men told him to tell his family he had found a job across the border, but not to mention the details lest they worry about his safety. Some of his relatives tried to discourage him, saying Jawad was too young for a job. His mother was not around and he decided to accompany the men.
Attack and capture
Sergeant first class Michael Lyons was driving a white Soviet UAZ jeep, with Sergeant first class Christopher Martin in the passenger seat and the Afghan interpreter Assadullah Khan Omerk in the rear. They had just finished an operation in the marketplace and were stopped in traffic, when somebody tossed a homemade grenade through the jeep's missing rear window.
Both soldiers from the 19th Special Forces Group were wounded, Lyons in the eye, eardrum, and both feet; while Martin had less serious injuries to his right knee, and the Afghan interpreter suffered only minor injuries.
Four American Humvees cordoned off the site of the attack, and Afghan police near the area arrested three men; they held Jawad and Ghulam Saki, while releasing a third suspect. A police officer said that he had seen one throw the grenade, and the other was tackled by a fruit vendor as he prepared to throw a second.
Jawad would later tell his Administrative Review Board at Guantanamo that the men he was with gave him devices he didn't recognise. They told him to put them in his pocket and wait for their return. When he went into his pocket for coins to purchase raisins from a shopkeeper, he was asked why he had a "bomb" in his pocket; the shopkeeper advised him to run and throw the two grenades in the river. It was while running toward the river, yelling at people to move aside because he had a bomb, that Jawad alleges he was "caught".
In an October 2009 interview, Jawad asserted that his nose was broken during his first interrogation at an Afghan police station.
Imprisonment at Bagram
Jawad was held at Bagram prison and interrogated from December 2002 until February 2003.
Imprisonment at Guantanamo
Jawad was transported to Guantanamo Bay detention camp in February 2003. Military records show Jawad tried to kill himself on December 25, 2003, by repeatedly banging his head against a cell wall. Jawad said that guards had subjected him to sleep deprivation.
Medical records
The Department of Defense published heights and weights for the detainees on March 16, 2007. At the time of his capture in Afghanistan in December 2002, Jawad was weighed at 130 pounds. Jawad is one of the detainees whose inprocess date at Guantánamo is missing. His inprocess weight is recorded as 119 pounds. His inprocess height is recorded as 64 inches tall (5'4"). His weight was recorded 23 times between August 2003 and November 2006. No record of his weight was made for six months during the longest and most widespread Guantánamo hunger strike from October 2005 through March 2006.
In 2004 his weight ranged from 118 to 143 pounds.
In 2005 his weight ranged from 140 to 150 pounds.
In 2006 his weight ranged from 142 to 160 pounds.
On November 11, 2012, Santiago Wills wrote in the Atlantic Magazine that health professionals had taken part in Jawad's interrogation. His article discussed the question of ethics of health professionals supporting severe interrogation techniques and treatment in Guantanamo.
Wills quoted from a formerly secret detainee assessment published by WikiLeaks, in which a member of the BSCT team wrote:
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He appears to be rather frightened, and it looks as if he could break easily if he were isolated from his support network and made to rely solely on the interrogator... Make him as uncomfortable as possible. Work him as hard as possible.
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Wills described how Jawad was moved to cell blocks where he didn't speak any of the languages of the captives, in order to increase his feelings of loneliness and isolation. He said the youth was punished for trying to speak to his fellow captives. In addition, his "comfort items" were repeatedly removed—leaving him naked, and without the toiletry required for the ritual cleanliness observant Muslims are supposed to observe prior to their prayers.
Katherine Porterfield, a psychologist from the Survivors of Torture Program at Bellevue Hospital was allowed to treat Jawad in the last years of his detention.
Experienced the "frequent flyer" program
Although the practice was officially banned in March 2004, in May 2004, Jawad was subjected to the "frequent flyer" program of sleep deprivation by being forced to move to a new cell on average every 2 hours and 55 minutes. These transfers happened 112 times over two weeks. Jawad testified that during these weeks, he was also subjected to blaring loud music and bright lights at all times. Military records indicated that Jawad lost 10% of his body weight over this period and told doctors he was urinating blood.
Combatant Status Review
A summary of evidence memo was prepared on October 19, 2004, for Jawad's Combatant Status Review Tribunal. The memo stated that Jawad was from Miran Shah, Pakistan and was recruited by six men in the local mosque to clear Russian mines in Kabul, Afghanistan. The memo alleged that Jawad:
was affiliated with Hezb-E-Islami, a terrorist organization with ties to Osama bin Laden
attended "Jihad Madrassas" that prepared him to fight on the front lines
attended a training camp in late 2002 and received instruction on the AK-47, shoulder-held rocket launchers and grenades
told an associate that he would kill Northern Alliance and American forces.
was captured fleeing the scene of a grenade attack targeting Americans on December 17, 2002.
Jawad had his Personal Representative read from notes from a previous interview at his CSRT hearing. Jawad added verbal testimony for clarification.
First annual Administrative Review Board
An unclassified summary of evidence memo was prepared on November 7, 2005, for Jawad's first annual Administrative Review Board.
It listed several factors favoring continued detention, including that Jawad:
met with an individual in Khost Province, Afghanistan in October 2002. The individual offered Jawad a job that involved killing Americans,
met four people at Qurey Mosque in Miran Shah, Pakistan in December 2002. They offered him 12,000 Pakistan Rupees to clear mines, and
trained for one and a half days in Khost. Jawad was given one or two injections that caused confusion and incoherence. On December 17, 2002, Jawad was given two oral pills that caused the same effects.
The ARB memo repeated claims about training from the CSRT memo, summarized Jawad's statements from his interrogation in Afghanistan immediately after the attack, and registered Jawad's contention that although he was at the scene of the attack, he did not throw the grenade and that he never received any military or terrorist training. There is no transcript listed in Department of Defense records.
Second annual Administrative Review Board
An unclassified summary of evidence memo was prepared on October 26, 2006, for Jawad's second annual ARB. The memo lists Jawad's name as Amir Khan. The allegations and denials listed in the memo are mostly similar to earlier memos and mostly summarize alleged statements from Jawad. There is no transcript listed in Department of Defense records.
Guantanamo military commission charges
In October 2007 Jawad was charged before a Guantanamo military commission for attempted murder for allegedly throwing a grenade into a U.S. military vehicle in Kabul, Afghanistan on December 17, 2002. He was the fourth detainee to face charges under commissions authorized by the Military Commissions Act of 2006. On October 17, 2007, Jawad was charged with three counts of attempted murder in violation of the law of war and three counts of intentionally causing bodily injury in violation of the law of war.
Jawad refused to appear at his arraignment in March 2008. He was forcibly removed from his cell and brought to the commission hearing room. He appeared without incident at the next hearing in May.
Jawad's military defense attorney, Major David Frakt, who was assigned by the government, filed motions seeking the dismissal of charges based on the fact that Jawad was captured as a teenager, treated brutally in U.S. custody and was not a member of a terrorist organization.
In another motion, Frakt complained about the inappropriate involvement by the legal adviser to the commissions, Brigadier General Thomas W. Hartmann, who had withheld exculpatory evidence in recommending charges. Hartmann had been suspended from participating in another commission following similar complaints. He had intervened to move Jawad's case forward in the military commission priorities because wounded victims were available for possible testimony from California. On August 14, 2008, judge Colonel Stephen Henley barred Hartmann from future participation in Jawad's case.
On September 25, 2008, Jawad's military prosecutor, Lt. Col. Darrel Vandeveld, resigned in protest from the Office of Military Commissions, saying it was not providing due process for defendants. He filed a four-page declaration with the court that stated "potentially exculpatory evidence has not been provided" to the defense in the Jawad case. The evidence included the possibility that Jawad may have been drugged prior to the attack, and that the Afghan Interior Ministry said two other men had confessed to throwing the grenade into the U.S. jeep. Frakt intended to call Vandeveld as a defense witness about due process issues. In addition, Vandeveld said he had hoped to arrange a plea deal for Jawad. Vandeveld's superiors banned him from testifying for the defense and said they would do no plea deal. Vandeveld resigned and later testified about the due process issues in court. He was the fourth military prosecutor to resign because of problems with the system of military tribunals.
In October 2008, judge Col. Henley determined that the two confessions Jawad made to Afghan and U.S. officials on December 17, 2002, were both inadmissible due to being obtained as a result of torture and intimidation. Afghan policemen had threatened to kill him and his family unless he confessed. Col. Henley ruled that Jawad's confession in U.S. custody was also inadmissible because of the earlier torture; in addition the U.S. interrogator had blindfolded and hooded Jawad in order to frighten him.
In Boumediene v. Bush (2008), the Supreme Court ruled that detainees could have direct access to federal courts for habeas corpus cases. By the time of his military commission, Mohamed Jawad also had a habeas case pending in the US District Court for the District of Columbia.
Following US District Court Judge Ellen Huvelle's ruling in Jawad's habeas corpus case in federal court that he was a noncombatant, Maj. Frakt filed a motion on July 28, 2009, with his military commission asking for dismissal of his charges and release to freedom.
Release order and possible trial in a civilian court
Judge Huvelle was assigned Jawad's habeas corpus petition. He was represented by Joshua Haifetz of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). On July 17, 2009, Judge Huvelle ruled that the Jawad's confessions were coerced, and thus inadmissible.
She gave the Department of Justice a deadline of July 24, 2009, to produce another justification for holding Jawad as an enemy combatant. On July 24, the Department of Justice acknowledged it lacked the evidence necessary to justify holding Jawad as an enemy combatant.
According to Reuters, the Department of Defense announced it was "taking steps to house" Jawad at an "appropriate facility" in Guantanamo.
United States Attorney General Eric Holder has said that he has ordered a new criminal investigation. The Justice Department said the new investigation is examining videotapes of eyewitness testimony that was not previously available. The investigation could result in new criminal charges in a civilian court on US soil.
On July 28, 2009, Judge Huvelle gave the Department of Justice 24 hours to justify continuing to hold Jawad so it could conduct an "expedited criminal investigation," and scheduled a hearing for July 30, 2009. On July 29, 2009, BBC News reported that Jawad would be released because "there was no military case for Mr Jawad's continued detention."
Carol Rosenberg, writing in the Miami Herald, reported on July 28, 2009 that Jawad has been transferred to Camp Iguana at Guantanamo. His defense attorney David Frakt told Rosenberg that one of Jawad's co-counsels had recently visited Jawad in Camp Iguana. Frakt said, "He's adjusting to his new environment, learning to play the Wii and getting caught up on Afghan cricket and soccer scores. He's pleased but bewildered by the legal developments. Yet again he's won, but he's still there."
Repatriation
Carol Rosenberg, writing in the Miami Herald, reports that Jawad was repatriated on August 24, 2009. He was first sent for questioning to the Pul-e-Charkhi prison, a former Soviet facility. The United States built an American wing in 2007.
Major Eric Montalvo, a former military defense counsel, said that Jawad was scheduled to meet with President Hamid Karzai. He was to be released into the custody of an uncle, Hajji Gul Naik. Montalvo, who had flown to Afghanistan at his own expense because the Department of Defense would not authorize him to help aid Jawad's arrival, said: "It's still not over until he can walk free, but he is almost there. I don't trust anything until I see him in his house with his family."
An article published in The National on October 15, 2009, covered Jawad's return to Afghanistan:
A photograph of [Jawad] before his ordeal shows a boy virtually unrecognisable from the 19-year-old man who, after his release in the summer, described being stripped naked, choked, slammed against walls and often held in isolation during this time. 'The people who are in [Guantanamo and Bagram] jails are all Muslims. The Americans are not respecting their religion and they are not respecting them as humans,' he said.
The National described Jawad as now present for a war that has grown noticeably fiercer in the years he has been away. "The situation will get worse because it's impossible to finish fighting with fighting," he said. "It's impossible to clean blood with blood."
See also
Juveniles held at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp
Sleep deprivation
Omar Khadr
References
External links
Google News microfiche version with photos mirror
Living people
1985 births
Pashtun people
People from Miranshah
Bagram Theater Internment Facility detainees
Guantanamo detainees known to have been released
Afghan extrajudicial prisoners of the United States
Juveniles held at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi%20Bellfield
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Levi Bellfield
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Levi Bellfield (born Levi Rabbetts; 17 May 1968) is an English serial killer, sex offender, rapist, kidnapper, and burglar. He was found guilty on 25 February 2008 of the murders of Marsha McDonnell and Amélie Delagrange and the attempted murder of Kate Sheedy, and sentenced to life imprisonment. On 23 June 2011, Bellfield was further found guilty of the murder of Milly Dowler. On both occasions, the judge imposed a whole life order, meaning that Bellfield will serve the sentence without the possibility of parole. Bellfield was the first prisoner in history to have received two whole life orders.
Biography
Bellfield was born Levi Rabbetts on 17 May 1968, at the West Middlesex Hospital, Isleworth, London, to Jean Rabbetts née Bellfield and Joseph Rabbetts; he is of Romani descent. When Bellfield was 10 years old, his father died from leukaemia. Bellfield and his siblings, Joelion, Harry, Josephine, and Maxine (two brothers and two sisters) were brought up on a Southwest London council estate. He attended Forge Lane Junior School, Rectory Secondary School then Feltham Comprehensive.
Bellfield has fathered eleven children with five different women, the three youngest with his most recent girlfriend, Emma Mills. In May 2022, the Ministry of Justice confirmed that Bellfield was engaged and had applied to marry while in a prison. He proposed to a woman who had started writing to him two years previously, before becoming a visitor on a regular basis. Bellfield would need the permission of the governor at HM Prison Frankland.
Criminal history
Bellfield's first conviction was as a child for burglary in 1981. He was convicted of assaulting a police officer in 1990. He also has convictions for theft and driving offences. By 2002, Bellfield had nine convictions and had spent almost one year in prison for them. In an interview with the media, Detective Chief Inspector Colin Sutton of the Metropolitan Police, who led the murder investigation, said of Bellfield: "When we started dealing with him he came across as very jokey, like he's your best mate. But he's a cunning individual, violent. He can switch from being nice to being nasty, instantly."
Bellfield searched for victims on streets he knew intimately. Detectives tracked down a number of ex-girlfriends, who all described a similar pattern of behaviour when they got involved with him. "He was lovely at first, charming, then completely controlling and evil. They all said the same," said Detective Sergeant Jo Brunt.
At the time of the attacks, Bellfield ran a wheel-clamping business which operated in and around West Drayton, where he lived. Sutton speculated:
Bellfield was seen driving around in his van, talking to young girls at bus stops, while under police surveillance. Amélie Delagrange was seen by CCTV cameras which showed her walking towards Twickenham Green after she missed her stop on the bus home. She may have stopped and spoken to Bellfield between the last two sightings of her. She was attacked shortly afterwards.
Bellfield was arrested early on the morning of 22 November 2004, on suspicion of the murder of Amélie Delagrange. On 25 November, he was charged with three counts of rape in Surrey and West London. On 9 December 2004, he was charged with assaulting a woman in Twickenham between 1995 and 1997 and remanded in custody. Bellfield was rearrested and charged with Delagrange's murder on 2 March 2006, along with the attempted murder of Kate Sheedy and the attempted murder and causing grievous bodily harm to Irma Dragoshi. On 25 May 2006, Bellfield was charged with the murder of Marsha McDonnell.
Victims
Milly Dowler
Amanda Jane "Milly" Dowler was a 13-year-old girl who went missing on leaving Walton-on-Thames railway station on 21 March 2002 and was found dead in Yateley Heath Woods, Yateley, six months later. In August 2009, Surrey Police submitted a dossier to the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) containing evidence of Bellfield's involvement in the murder of Dowler. On 30 March 2010, Bellfield was charged with the kidnapping and murder of Dowler, as well as the attempted kidnapping of then 12-year-old Rachel Cowles on 20 March 2002. Bellfield did not give evidence at his trial and denied any involvement in Dowler's death. A jury convicted Bellfield of Milly Dowler's murder on 23 June 2011.
Marsha McDonnell
Marsha Louise McDonnell, a 19-year-old woman, was beaten over the head with a blunt instrument near her home in Hampton on 4 February 2003. The wound was inflicted shortly after she got off the 111 bus from Kingston upon Thames at the stop on Percy Road. McDonnell died in hospital two days after being admitted. Bellfield sold his Vauxhall Corsa car for £1,500 six days after the murder, having bought it for £6,000 just five months earlier.
Kate Sheedy
Kate Sheedy, then aged 18, was deliberately run over as she crossed the road near an entrance to an industrial estate in Isleworth on 28 May 2004. She survived with multiple injuries and consequently spent several weeks in hospital. Nearly four years later, Sheedy gave evidence against Bellfield when he was tried for her attempted murder. Sheedy had described the car after the attack as a white people carrier with blacked out windows and a broken wing mirror; Bellfield was found to have owned a Toyota Previa matching that description at the time of the attack.
Amélie Delagrange
Amélie Delagrange was a 22-year-old French student visiting the United Kingdom. She was found at Twickenham Green on the evening of 19 August 2004, with serious head injuries, and died in hospital the same night. Within twenty-four hours, the police established that she might have been killed by the same person who had killed Marsha McDonnell eighteen months earlier. Bellfield reportedly confessed to the murder while on remand.
Charges of abduction and attempted murder
Bellfield was also charged with the abduction and false imprisonment of Anna-Maria Rennie, then aged 17, in Whitton on 14 October 2001, after she identified him in a video identity parade four years later. He was also charged with the attempted murder of Irma Dragoshi, then aged 39, in Longford on 16 December 2003. The jury failed to reach verdicts on either of these charges.
Conviction and imprisonment
Bellfield was found guilty of the murders of McDonnell and Delagrange, as well as the attempted murder of Sheedy, on 25 February 2008, more than three years after the last of the three attacks. The following day, he was sentenced to life imprisonment with a whole life order. Bellfield was not in court to hear his sentence, as he had refused to attend court owing to "unfair press coverage" following his conviction.
On 30 March 2010, Bellfield was charged with Dowler's abduction and murder, pre-dating the earliest of the other three charges by almost a year. He was named as the prime suspect in connection with the murder in the immediate aftermath of his first trial in 2008. As a result, the inquest into Dowler's death was adjourned. On 6 October 2010, he appeared in court via video link and was formally charged with one count each of attempted abduction, actual abduction and murder.
Bellfield's second trial began at the Old Bailey on 10 May 2011, and on 23 June the jury found Bellfield guilty. He was again sentenced to life imprisonment the following day and the trial judge once again imposed a whole life order. The trial of Bellfield on another charge, that of the attempted abduction of an 11-year-old girl who was offered a lift in the Walton area by a man in a red car on the day preceding this murder, was abandoned due to newspapers publishing prejudicial material.
On 27 January 2016, Surrey Police announced that Bellfield had admitted, for the first time, abducting, raping and murdering Dowler after being interviewed about whether he had an accomplice. Bellfield later issued a denial that he made any such confession, but Surrey Police stood by their earlier statement.
Bellfield is imprisoned in HM Prison Frankland in County Durham, and will never be released.
Additional victims
After his February 2008 convictions, Bellfield was named by police as a suspect in connection with numerous unsolved murders and attacks on women dating back to 1980.
Patsy Morris
On 16 June 1980, Patricia "Patsy" Joyce Morris, a 14-year old schoolgirl from Feltham, London, was murdered by strangulation. She disappeared on the day of her death having been seen leaving her school during her lunch break. It was believed Morris left school because she had forgotten her rain coat that morning, choosing to return home to change into dry clothes.
Two days later, on the evening of 18 June, Morris' body was found by a police dog handler on Hounslow Heath. She was discovered face down in a copse beside a path on the edge of the Heath, at a location a quarter of a mile from her home in Cygnet Avenue. She was found fully-clothed. She had been strangled with a ligature. There were no signs of sexual assault.
In February 2008, police revealed they were investigating a possible confession to the murder made by Bellfield. He was said to have been obsessed with the murder when it occurred and remained 'fascinated' by the unsolved killing. Bellfield was alleged to have made the confession to a cellmate while on remand. It was then revealed that Bellfield had attended Feltham Comprehensive with Morris, and that he was her childhood boyfriend. Morris' family told the press that they had not known they had known each other, and her sister stated: "We did not know him. It was a shock when we found out they knew each other. Friends told us about it. It is horrendous."
Bellfield would have been 12-years-old at the time of Morris' murder, which occurred a year before he received his first conviction, for burglary, aged 13. He was known to have repeatedly played truant while at school and was known to often frequent Hounslow Heath when he should have been at school. He was also known to have not attended school the day of the murder. Former partners of Bellfield recounted that he had a hatred of blonde women and targeted them for attacks, and it was noted that Morris was herself blonde. Some claimed that Morris' death could have been the start of Bellfield's violent obsession with blondes.
After it was revealed that Bellfield was being investigated by police for the murder of Morris, her father George Morris stated that he was certain that the teenage boy who had given him a death threat in a call at the time was Bellfield, saying: "He's a local man, which is why it could be him. And it's terrifying to think that someone of twelve or thirteen could have done it".
Judith Gold
After Bellfield's 2008 conviction, police revealed they were reviewing the murder of 51-year-old Judith Gold in Hampstead in October 1990. Described as an "attractive and vivacious" middle-class housewife, she had died yards from her home after being hit several times in the face by an unidentified weapon. Police believed Bellfield could have been responsible for this alongside around twenty other unsolved attacks on women in London.
These attacks, which took place between 1990 and around 2004, were all linked to Bellfield because the police researched the frequency of blunt-force trauma attacks on women and children using objects such as hammers and found that they were so rare that only one unsolved attack in Greater London in that time period could not realistically be ruled out as being the work of Bellfield.
The circumstances of Gold's murder were somewhat mysterious: police were unsure why she had dressed as if for a business meeting just before she left her home at around 5:30 a.m. on the day she was killed, 20 October 1990. She left her home above the Midland Bank in Hampstead High Street and was found battered only yards away by a paperboy in Old Brewery Mews, while it was still pitch black. The place she was found was very dark due to recent problems with street lightings at that spot. Unusually, no witnesses reported hearing any screams, struggle or anything else suspicious, and her housemates reported having not heard her get up and leave for unexplained reasons in the middle of the night. Her husband had died two years previously and she lived with her 19-year-old daughter and her family friend.
Gold worked as an insurance and mortgage agent and also as a freelance financier, and was also known as Judith Silver. There was no sign of sexual assault and the motive also appeared not to be robbery as her handbag and jewellery were left untouched, although her very distinctive chain which she wore round her neck had been taken. The chain had been given to her by her new boyfriend, who she had met in Tenerife and who was fifteen years younger than her.
In February 1991, The Guardian had reported that the murder was believed to be linked to an "international financial swindle". Scotland Yard detectives said at the time that they were investigating fraudulent loan schemes that Gold may have been involved in, and it was found that she was involved in an "international advanced-fee fraud". Gold did not usually wake up early and her job did not involve working on Saturdays, and so investigators theorised that she had arranged a meeting with someone and knew the killer. Her work was described as "shadowy" and involved negotiating large low-interest loans with businessmen, which her daughter disliked her doing and which she said made her mother visibly stressed in the days before she died.
The lead detective on the case said in 1994: "We're sure she got in too deep and that's what led to her death." For unknown reasons it was found that Gold had written the number of the local police station on the back of her chequebook. The day before her murder, Gold had mysteriously left the house and her daughter noticed that her car had been reversed into its parking space when she returned, something she never did, raising the possibility she had gone to meet someone then and they had driven her car back home. In February 2022, it was reported that Bellfield had allegedly "confessed" to the murder of Gold.
Russell murders
Regarding the 9 July 1996, murders of 45-year-old Lin Russell and her 6-year-old daughter Megan Russell, BBC Cymru Wales reported that Bellfield had allegedly confessed to the murders to a fellow prisoner, giving details that "would only be known by the killer". Bellfield denied the confession. A 2017 BBC Two programme, The Chillenden Murders, in which a team of independent experts re-examined the evidence, supported the idea Bellfield should be investigated for the killings. The legal team of Michael Stone, convicted of the crimes, maintains Bellfield is the true perpetrator of the attack.
In December 2017, The Sunday Times reported that Bellfield's ex-wife Johanna Collings had told investigators in the Delagrange case that he was with her on the day for her twenty-fifth birthday, the time of the Russell murders, and had spent all day in Twickenham and Windsor, 100 miles away from the scene of the murders which occurred at around 4.30 p.m. It was an alibi which detectives found credible. Collings had helped detectives convict Bellfield for his previous murders, such as in the Milly Dowler murder, giving evidence that he knew well the rural area where her body was left. In regards to the Russell murders, however, she clarified in a BBC documentary in 2017:
In February 2022, it was claimed by Stone's lawyer, Paul Bacon, that Bellfield had confessed to the murders of Lin and Megan Russell in a four-page statement with details he claimed only the killer would know. However, as well as his former wife previously saying it was not possible that he could have been in Kent on the day, a member of Stone's legal team also later admitted that there was nothing in Bellfield's statement which was not already in the public domain, suggesting he could have fabricated it using known evidence. The detective responsible for investigating Bellfield's known crimes, Colin Sutton, also stated to the press: "Knowing Bellfield as I do, this could be him playing mind games". The Metropolitan Police previously investigated allegations that Bellfield was involved in the Russell murders and found no evidence to support the claims. In 2023, Bellfield's lawyer claimed that Bellfield had admitted to the murders during a conversation with a prison psychologist. Stone's lawyer declared that a signed confession by Bellfield had been handed over to the CCRC. In July 2023 the CCRC announced that the case would not be referred to the Court of Appeal. However, this decision was overturned three months later and the CCRC began a review of Stone's conviction based on the new evidence.
Elizabeth Chau and Lola Shenkoya
In October 2022, police were made aware that Bellfield had confessed to the abduction, rape and murder of 19-year-old Elizabeth Chau, who disappeared in 1999, and to the attempted murders of five other women. Chau went missing in West London on 16 April 1999, when she left her home in West Ealing at noon to attend Thames Valley University. She was last seen by a friend on Ealing Broadway at 5.50 p.m. that day. The confession was not made public until April 2023, and Bellfield was not interviewed over the murder until the following month, when he admitted in a recorded interview that he had abducted and killed Chau and pointed to the location of the body on a map. The family of Chau accused the Metropolitan Police of not taking the case seriously because of their race. Authorities are taking Bellfield's claims “extremely seriously”. 27-year-old Lola Shenkoya also vanished several months later from the exact same location as Chau on Ealing Broadway on 3 January 2000. Shenkoya was last seen getting off a bus in Haven Green outside a Burger King restaurant near to Ealing Broadway Underground Station in the early evening. She was not seen again and although Shenkoya's case is believed to have been related to Chau's disappearance, Bellfield has not been publicly identified as a suspect in her presumed murder.
Sarah Spurrell
In January 2004, 23-year-old Sarah Spurrell was struck three times with a hammer in a dark street in the East Sussex town of Hastings. Spurrell survived the attack due to the intervention of a bystander and later informed the police, but was allegedly told that they lacked the resources to investigate the assault. Spurrell later said that she felt police considered her case an "utter joke". In March 2023 Bellfield, who was named as a suspect in the case in 2008, reportedly confessed to the attack on Spurrell and several other attempted murders and assaults. Spurrell was not made aware of Bellfield's confession until she was informed by journalists working for ITV News, for which she criticised the police.
Further developments
Police were informed in early-2015 that Bellfield, in his cell at HM Prison Wakefield, had admitted to unsolved rape and murder cases. The Metropolitan Police co-ordinated the subsequent investigations of ten police forces. On 9 November 2016, they issued a statement which said: "All lines of inquiry have now been exhausted and the decision has been taken to close this investigation as there is no evidence to link the individual to any case for which he has not already been convicted." It was later revealed by police that Bellfield may have lied about other murders so he could inflict pain on their families.
Media
The investigation that led to Bellfield's arrest was dramatised by ITV in a three-part television series that premiered in early-2019; Manhunt was adapted from the memoir of Colin Sutton, with actor Martin Clunes playing Sutton. The third episode of the eight-part series Making a Monster, commissioned by the Crime & Investigation channel, focuses on Bellfield's character and motivations.
The Real Manhunter aired on Sky Crime in 2021 with the second episode exploring the Levi Bellfield investigation. Colin Sutton and his original team of Metropolitan Police detectives described everything from the moment Bellfield was identified through to his arrest, trial and conviction.
See also
List of serial killers in the United Kingdom
Murders of Eve Stratford and Lynne Weedon
David Smith – contemporary killer of women who also operated from south-west London
Murder of Alison Shaughnessy – when some of the charges against Bellfield were forced to be dropped in 2011 due to prejudicial reporting, it was compared to the Shaughnessy case
Colin Campbell – infamous 1980s killer and abductor of women in west London
References
Further reading
1968 births
20th-century English criminals
21st-century English criminals
British people convicted of attempted murder
British people convicted of burglary
British people convicted of kidnapping
British people convicted of theft
Converts to Islam
Criminals from London
English male criminals
English murderers of children
English Muslims
English people convicted of assault
English people convicted of murder
English prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
English Romani people
English rapists
English serial killers
Living people
People convicted of murder by England and Wales
People from Isleworth
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by England and Wales
Romani Muslims
Security guards convicted of crimes
Violence against women in England
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5291203
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Digne
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Roman Catholic Diocese of Digne
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The Diocese of Digne (Latin: Dioecesis Diniensis; French: Diocèse de Digne) is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Catholic Church in France. Erected in the 4th century as the Diocese of Digne, the diocese has been known as the Diocese of Digne–Riez–Sisteron since 1922. The diocese comprises the entire department of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, in the Region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. The diocese was a suffragan diocese of the Archdiocese of Aix-en-Provence and Arles until 2002 and is now a suffragan diocese in the ecclesiastical province of the metropolitan Archdiocese of Marseille. The Bishop of Digne's cathedra is found in Digne Cathedral at the episcopal see of Digne-les-Bains.
Extent
By the Concordat of 1801, this diocese was made to include the two departments of the Hautes-Alpes and the Basses-Alpes; and in addition it received the former Diocese of Digne, the Archdiocese of Embrun, the dioceses of Gap, Sisteron and Senez, a part of the dioceses of Glandèves and Riez, and fourteen parishes in the Archdiocese of Aix-en-Provence and Arles and the Diocese of Apt. In 1822 Gap was revived as an episcopal see, with its territory comprising the department of the Hautes-Alpes. The present Diocese of Digne, divested of the department of the Hautes Alpes, covers the territory formerly included in the Dioceses of Digne, Senez, Glandèves, Riez and Sisteron.
History
The former diocese of Digne was evangelized by Saints Domninus and Vincentius who came from North Africa in the second half of the fourth century with Saint Marcellinus, the Apostle of Embrun. There is no evidence, however, that they were bishops. The first historically known bishop was Pentadius who attended the Council of Agde in 506.
Cathedral
The original cathedral of Digne (Cathédrale Notre-Dame-du-Bourg de Digne) was in Bourg, the city of Digne and the Bourg being two separate legal entities. The earliest architectural remains on the site where the cathedral now stands consist of a wall of Gallo-Roman construction, which local authorities and amateurs would like to push back to the time of Constantine, or at least, as Canon J.-F. Cruvellier admits, to the Constantinian era. It would be completely improper, however, to call this church a cathedral, since it cannot be shown that there was a bishop in Digne until after 500. The second church, as was first asserted by Honoré Bouche, was traditionally believed to have been built or rebuilt by Charlemagne. He made the same claim for the cathedrals of Avignon, Embrun, Seine, Senez, and Glandèves. In 1479, when the Chapter of Digne was attempting to persuade Pope Sixtus IV to grant them the Priory of Saint-Pierre d'Albéra, they impressed him by claiming that their church had been founded and endowed by Charlemagne himself.
In a bull of 1180 (or 1184), addressed to Ugo the Provost and the Canons of S. Maria Dignensis, in which Pope Alexander III takes the Church of Digne under papal protection, the first notation is Burgum Dinense, in quo ecclesia vestra constitit ('Bourg, in which your church is situated'). Jurisdiction over the Bourg belonged to the Provost from 1280, by way of a grant of Count Raymond Berenguer IV of Provence.
On 26 July 1397, during the episcopate of Nicholas de Corbières, the Cathedral of Notre-Dame, which had been rebuilt, and consecrated in 1330, and the church of the convent of the Franciscans were burned. The fires were deliberately set, apparently by bands of Vicomte Raymond de Turenne.
Notre-Dame du Bourg was attacked again, sacked, and consigned to the flames in 1560 by the Huguenots. They returned and wreaked more destruction in 1562, 1568, 1574, and 1591. In 1591 the Duc de Lesdiguières, who had just successfully reduced the Dauphiné to obedience to Henri IV and captured Grenoble, was appealed to by the Duc de la Valette, Governor of Provence, to help him against the forces of the League, who were being supported by the Duke of Savoy. In April 1591, Lesdiguières won the Battle of Esperron, and then in October he appeared before Digne. He directed his cannon first against the monastery of Saint-Vincent, which was being fortified and defended by the forces of the League, and then against the Cathedral of Notre-Dame, which received 54 volleys. The Leaguers capitulated and were allowed to withdraw. They left behind a huge cache of gunpowder in the crypt, however, and, in the removal of those supplies in 1593, further damage was done to tombs and burials. Luckily Notre-Dame du Bourg was not put up for sale or destruction in the confiscations of 1793. Later it was classed as an historical monument, second class, and survived. The episcopal palace was not so lucky. The wars of religion had done such damage that the new bishop, Antoine de Bologne, was not able to reside there when he arrived in Digne in March 1602, but had to live in rented quarters until a new building could be erected.
The Basilica of Saint-Jerôme, which served as a cathedral after the Huguenot devastations of the 16th century, had its foundations begun by Bishop Antoine Guiramand in 1490. He chose a site in the citadel, next to the fortifications. Notre-Dame du Bourg continues to be the cathedral down to the present time, and episcopal functions are regularly held there. A priest and a deacon were ordained in the cathedral on 18 June 2017.
Chapter
In the medieval period the Cathedral Chapter of Digne was composed of a Provost and thirteen Canons, among whom were the Archdeacon, the Sacristan, and the Precentor. The earliest known Provost was Guillaume de Benevento in 1175. In 1669 it was composed of four dignities (dignités, not 'dignitaries') and nineteen canons. In 1742 there were three dignities and ten canons. In the mid-nineteenth century, the Chapter was composed of the two Archdeacons (who were Vicars General of the diocese) and nine titular Canons; there were also thirty honorary Canons, of whom ten had to be from the diocese.
Plague
In 1629 all of Provence was struck by a visitation of the (bubonic) plague. Fears of an invasion had already been aroused in 1628, and the Parliament of Aix issued orders to every commune in Provence to be on watch and to establish a bureau of sanitation in its area. On 10 September 1628 Digne complied and established its bureau of ten members; it also ordered the Consuls of Digne to secure the highways. The plague made its appearance in Digne by the first week in June. From 5 October 1629 to 21 March 1630 the inhabitants were quarantined inside the city. Plague returned at the beginning of June 1631, lasting through the middle of November. In July it struck the convent of the Récollets. An infirmary was set up in the convent of the Franciscans (Cordelliers), though this order was countermanded, so that the chapel could remain in service. The shortage of priests was such that the church of Saint-Jérôme had no clergy at all. The convent and church of the Observant Franciscans were closed. Only the chapel of the Récollets continued to hold services. Pierre Gassendi, who was Provost of the Cathedral Chapter of Digne from 1634 to 1655, reported that, at Digne, before the plague there were some ten thousand inhabitants, but that afterwards only fifteen hundred remained. A generation later, in 1669, the numbers had recovered only to around six thousand persons.
In 1652 the Jesuits established a collège for the education of the youth of Digne.
Revolution
In 1790 the National Constituent Assembly decided to bring the French church under the control of the State. Civil government of the provinces was to be reorganized into new units called 'départements', originally intended to be 83 or 84 in number. The dioceses of the Roman Catholic Church were to be reduced in number, to coincide as much as possible with the new departments. Since there were more than 130 bishoprics at the time of the Revolution, more than fifty dioceses needed to be suppressed and their territories consolidated. Clergy would need to take an oath of allegiance to the State and its Constitution, specified by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, and they would become salaried officials of the State. Both bishops and priests would be elected by special 'electors' in each department. This meant schism, since bishops would no longer need to be approved (preconised) by the Papacy; the transfer of bishops, likewise, which had formerly been the exclusive prerogative of the pope in canon law, would be the privilege of the State; the election of bishops no longer lay with the Cathedral Chapters (which were all abolished), or other responsible clergy, or the Pope, but with electors who did not even have to be Catholics or Christians. All monasteries, convents and religious orders in France were dissolved, and their members were released from their vows by order of the National Constituent Assembly (which was uncanonical); their property was confiscated "for the public good", and sold to pay the bills of the French government. Cathedral Chapters were also dissolved.
Bishops who refused to take the oath to the Constitution were considered to have resigned their posts. Bishop François du Mouchet de Villedieu was one of the non-jurors, and consequently a new election was ordered by the Legislative Assembly. The diocese of Digne had been suppressed by the Civil Constitution and its territory had been merged into the new diocese of Basses-Alpes. The Electors met at Digne on 20 March 1791, and on the third ballot elected the Curé of Valensole, Jean-Baptiste-Romé de Villeneuve as the bishop of Basses-Alpes. The legitimate bishop de Villedieu sent the usurper two letters, but Villeneuve accepted the position and was consecrated at Nîmes by Constitutional Bishop Charles-Benoît Roux. The consecration was valid, but illicit, schismatic, and blasphemous. During the Terror he was ordered to resign his priestly offices, but he refused and spent thirteen months in prison in Digne; he was released only on 9 November 1794. But he returned to desolation. Reason had officially supplanted Religion in France, and the former churches were Temples of Reason. When Religion was restored in 1795, the Constitutional Church revived, except at Manosque and in the countryside, where it was the Roman Church or nothing. In 1798, under orders, he named and consecrated Constitutional bishops for Vaucluse and Bouches-du-Rhone. But he fell ill and died completely unrepentant on 23 December 1798.
Villeneuve was succeeded by his Vicar General, André Champsaud, former Curé of the Cathedral of Digne. He had been imprisoned with Villeneuve in 1793–1794, and had administered the diocese in 1795 on behalf of Villeneuve, who was ill. He was consecrated a bishop at Aix on 5 May 1799 by Constitutional bishop Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Aubert, and resigned in 1801. Champsaud solemnly retracted his errors in 1811, and died on 26 July 1826.
Under the Concordat of 1801
After the signing of the Concordat of 1801 with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte, Pope Pius VII demanded the resignation of all bishops in France, in order to leave no doubt as to who was a legitimate bishop and who was a Constitutional imposter. He then immediately abolished all of the dioceses in France, for the same reason. Then he began to restore the old Ancien Régime dioceses, or most of them, though not with the same boundaries as before the Revolution. The diocese of Digne was revived by Pope Pius VII in his bull Qui Christi Domini of 29 November 1801. Through the influence of General Jean-Joseph Dessole (Dessolles), his uncle was nominated bishop of the restored diocese of Digne by First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte on 29 April 1802, and preconised (approved) by Pope Pius VII on 6 May. He was consecrated in Paris on 11 July by the Bishop of Vannes.
Twentieth century
During the First World War, the diocese of Digne sent 130 of its clergy for mobilisation. Nine priests and three seminarians died in the conflict. Twelve were decorated with the Croix de guerre.
List of Bishops
to 1000
[365: Domninus]
[380: Vincent]
[c. 439–c. 455: Nectarius]
[Memorialis]
506: Pentadius
[524–527: Porcianus]
c. 549–c. 554: Hilarius
573–585: Heraclius
[614: Maximus]
650: Agapius (Agape) or Bobo (Bobon)
798: Raganbaldus
899: Bledericus
1000 to 1300
1025: Eminus
c. 1028–c. 1038: Bernardus (I.)
1038–c. 1068: Hugo (I.)
[1070: Laugier]
1146: Gui
c. 1150 (?): Pierre (I.) Hesmido
Hugo (II.) de Vars
Hugo (III.)
Pierre (II.) de Droilla
1179: Guillaume (I.) de Bénévent
c. 1184/1185 — 1190 (?): Guigue de Revel, O.S.B.
c. 1192 – c. 1196: Bertrand (I.) de Turriers
1206: Ismido
1209: Gualo (Walon) de Dampierre
1211 – 5 October 1232: L(antelmus)
1233 – 1242?: Hugues (IV.) de Laudun
1247–1248: Amblard
1248 – 25 May 1278: Bonifatius
1289–c. 1295: Guillaume (II.) de Porcellet, O.Min.
(c. 1297 – after August 1299) Hugo
1300 to 1600
c. 1302–c. 1318: Renaud de Porcelet
1318–1323?: Armandus
1324–1327: Guillaume (III.) de Sabran
1327 – 7 October 1341: Elzéar de Villeneuve
1341–1361: Jean (I.) Peissoni
1362 – c. 1385 ?: Bertrand (II.) de Seguret
1386 – 5 March 1406: Nicolas de Corbières
1406–1432: Bertrandus (III.) Radulphi, O.Min.
1432–1439: Pierre (III.) de Verceil (Versailles), O.S.B.
1439–1445: Guillaume d'Estouteville
1445 – 22 July 1466: Pierre (IV.) Turelure, O.P.
26 September 1466 – August 1479: Conrad de La Croix
c. 1479 – c. 1513: Antoine de Guiramand
1513–1536: François de Guiramand
1536–1545: Chérubin d'Orsière
1546 – c. 1552: Antoine Olivier
1552–1568: Antoine Hérouet
1568–1587: Henri Le Meignen
1587–1602: Claude Coquelet
1600 to 1800
1602–1615: Antoine (IV.) de Bologne
1615–1628: Louis (I.) de Bologne
1628–1664: Raphaël de Bologne
1664–1668: Toussaint de Forbin-Janson
1668–1669: Jean-Armand de Rotondis de Biscarras
1669–1675: Jean (II.) de Vintimille du Luc
1675–1678: Henri (II.) Félix de Tassy
1678–1708: François (II.) Le Tellier
1708–1728: Henri de Pujet
1730–1741: Antoine Amable de Feydeau, O.Carm.
[1742: Paul de Ribeyre]
1742–1746: Jean-Louis du Lau
1747–1758: Louis Sextius de Jarente de La Bruyère
1758–1784: Pierre-Paul du Queylar
1784–1790: François du Mouchet de Villedieu
Jean-Baptiste-Romé de Villeneuve (Constitutional bishop of Basses-Alpes) (1791–1798)
André Champsaud (Constitutional bishop of Basses-Alpes) (1798–1801)
since 1802
Irénée-Yves Desolle (Dessole) 1802–1805
François-Melchior-Charles-Bienvenu de Miollis 1805–1838
Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour 1840–1848
Marie-Julien Meirieu 1848–1880
Louis-Joseph-Marie-Ange Vigne 1880–1885
Alfred-François Fleury-Hottot 1885–1887
Henri-Abel Mortier 1887–1889
Pierre-Paul Servonnet 1889–1897
Jean Hazera 1897–1905
Dominique Castellan 1906–1915
Léon-Adolphe Lenfant 1915–1917
Jean-Joseph-Benoît-Marie Martel 1917–1923
Cosme-Benjamin Jorcin 1923–1958
René-Fernand-Bernardin Collin, O.F.M. 1958–1980
Edmond-Marie-Henri Abelé 1980–1987
Georges-Paul Pontier 1988–1996 (appointed Bishop of La Rochelle)
François-Xavier Jacques Marie Loizeau 1997–2014
Jean-Philippe Nault 2015–2022 (appointed Bishop of Nice)
Emmanuel Gobilliard 2022–present
See also
Catholic Church in France
Notes and References
Bibliography
Reference works
(Use with caution; obsolete)
(in Latin)
(in Latin)
Studies
Cruvellier, J.-F. (Canon) (1883) "Notice sur l'église de Notre-Dame du Bourg à Digne, ancienne cathedrale de Digne," 3 (1882-3) 149-152, 188-198, 245-248, 291-295; 4 (1883), 75-82, 116-120, 205-212, 250-251, 289-293; 5 (1884), 188-200, 248-262, 408-416.
second edition (in French)
Fisquet, Honoré (1864). La France pontificale: Metropole d'Aix: Digne, 1re partie: Digne et Riez (Paris: Étienne Repos 1864).
Guichard, Firmin (1844). Essai sur l'histoire de Digne pendent les troubles de la Ligue. Digne: Mme. V. A. Guichard.
Guichard, Firmin (1845). Essai sur l'histoire de Digne pendant la peste de 1629 Digne: Mme. V. A. Guichard.
Isnard, Émile (1915). Essai historique sur le chapitre de Digne et sur Pierre Gassendi, ... Digne:Imprimerie Chaspoul. {Hathi Trust: read on-line]
External links
Centre national des Archives de l'Église de France, L'Épiscopat francais depuis 1919, retrieved: 2016-12-24.
Goyau, Georges. "Digne." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. retrieved 2017-07-28.
David M. Cheney, Catholic Hierarchy: Diocese of Digne
Digne
4th-century establishments in Roman Gaul
Digne-les-Bains
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5291351
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholom%C3%A4us%20Ziegenbalg
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Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg
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Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg (10 July 1682 – 23 February 1719) was a member of the Lutheran clergy and the first Pietist missionary to India.
Early life
Ziegenbalg was born in Pulsnitz, Saxony, on 10 July 1682 in a devout Christian family. His father Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg Sr. (1640–1694), was a grain merchant, and his mother was Maria née Brückner (1646–1692). Through his father he was related to the sculptor Ernst Friedrich August Rietschel, and through his mother's side to the philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte. He showed an aptitude for music at an early age. He studied at the University of Halle under the teaching of August Hermann Francke, then the center of Pietistic Lutheranism. Under the patronage of King Frederick IV of Denmark, Ziegenbalg, along with his fellow student, Heinrich Plütschau, became the first Protestant missionaries to India. They arrived at the Danish colony of Tranquebar on 9 July 1706.
Missionary work
A church of the Syrian tradition was probably born in South India as far back in history as the third century, at least. KP Kesava Menon, in his foreword to Christianity in India (Prakam, 1972), described a church typical of that tradition as "Hindu in culture, Christian in religion, and oriental in worship."
Robinson laments the failure of the further forward moment of this potential dialogue between the two religions. He notes that even such supportive sympathisers of the European missionary's endorsement of Hinduism as Roberto de Nobili and Ziegenbalg, despite their enthusiasm for this foreign faith, could never shake their conviction of the superiority of their own faith.
The propagation of the Gospel, despite Danish zeal, remained inchoate till the dawn of the eighteenth century. Frederick IV of Denmark, under the influence of Dr. A. H. Francke, (1663–1727), a professor of divinity in the University of Halle (in Saxony), proposed that one of the professor's eminently skilled and religiously enthusiastic pupils, Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg, be appointed to kindle in "the heathen at Tranquebar" the desired holy spark.
Tranquebar Mission
"Though the piety and zeal of Protestants had often excited an anxious desire to propagate the pure and reformed faith of the gospel in heathen countries, the establishment and defence against the Polish adversaries at home, together with the want of suitable opportunities and facilities for so great a work, combined during the first century after the Reformation, to prevent them from making any direct or vigorous efforts for this purpose."
Ziegenbalg brought Lutheranism and a printing-press to Tanjore court by ship. But what were the Danes already doing there? After an abortive excursion to Sri Lanka, where there was no room left to be conquered and seized, they made their way to Tranquebar circa 1620. Ove Gjedde who, in 1618, had commandeered the expedition to Lanka, initiated a treaty with the king of Tanjore to rent an area no more than "five miles by three in extent", resulting in the setting up of a fort, which still stands, though the Danes relinquished control of Tranquebar in 1845 to the British.
Printing and India found each other serendipitously. In 1556, a Portuguese ship bound for Abyssinia stopped in Goa to obtain provisions; the ship carried a printing press and 14 Jesuits, one of whom was João de Bustamante, the "Indian Gutenberg". The clergy in Goa hungered for the printing press far more vehemently than their counterparts in Abyssinia and, ultimately, the press was unloaded in Goa, and Bustamante stayed to set up the press at the College of St. Paul, a seminary that still exists.
The arrival of the first press in Goa was rejoiced at by St. Francis Xavier who had been preaching the gospel in Goa and in Tranquebar since 1542. Then inexplicably, and, significantly, all presses died out in India. Tamil printing seems to have stopped after 1612. Records show that the last books in Latin and Portuguese were printed in Goa in 1674.
Ziegenbalg responded to the King of Denmark's request for the bequest of a Christian mission to spread the vision of the Gospel in India, and in 1706, Ziegenbalg and his colleague Heinrich Plütschau reached the region of Tranquebar, thus becoming the first Protestant missionaries to arrive on the Indian sub-continent and began their revisionary project. After initial conflict with the East India Company, which even led to a four-month incarceration of Ziegenbalg, the two established the Danish-Halle Mission. They laboured intensively, despite opposition from the local Hindu and Danish authorities in Tranquebar, baptizing their first Indian converts on 12 May 1707.
Education has always been an integral component of missionary work. Ziegenbalg recognized from the start the imperative of learning the local languages in the progress of their mission. Stephen Neill notes this curious serendipity:
"The original plan was that Ziegenbalg should concentrate on Portuguese and Plütschau on Tamil. For no explicit reason, but to the great advantage of the work, this arrangement was changed, and mastery of Tamil became the primary objective of Ziegenbalg.
He had little to help him. No grammar was available. The Jesuits in the sixteenth century had printed a number of books in Tamil, but the work had been discontinued, and the Lutheran missionaries seem never even to have heard that such printed books existed."
Ziegenbalg possibly spent more time picking up the local tongue than in preaching incomprehensibly and in vain to a people who would then have thought him quite remarkable. He went on to write, in 1709: "I choose such books as I should wish to imitate both in speaking and writing ... Their tongue ...(now) is as easy to me as my mother tongue, and in the last two years I have been able to write several books in Tamil..."
Ziegenbalg was publicly critical of some members of the Brahmin caste, accusing them of disregard for lower castes in Hindu society. For that reason, at least one group plotted to kill him. This reaction by native Indians was unusual and Ziegenbalg's work did not generally encounter unfriendly crowds; his lectures and classes drawing considerable interest from locals.
In 1708, a dispute over whether the illegitimate child of a Danish soldier and a non-Christian woman should be baptized and brought up as a Roman Catholic or a Protestant, resulted in Heinrich Plütschau being brought before a court. Although Plütschau was released, Ziegenbalg wrote that "the Catholics rejoiced, that we were persecuted and they were authorized."
He connected this incident, which he took to have emboldened the Catholics, directly with a second nearly two weeks later, which resulted in his imprisonment. This incident arose from Ziegenbalg's intervention on behalf of the widow of a Tamil barber over a debt between her late husband and a Catholic who was employed by the company as a translator. The commander of the Danish fort in Tranquebar, Hassius, regarded Ziegenbalg's repeated intervention in the case, including his advice that the widow kneel before him in the Danish church, as inappropriate and sent for Ziegenbalg to appear before him. When Ziegenbalg demurred, requesting a written summons, he was arrested and, because he refused to answer questions, imprisoned.
Although released after a little more than four months, Ziegenbalg still had a difficult relationship with Hassius and that was one reason for Ziegenbalg's return to Europe in 1714–1716. Ziegenbalg was also married in 1716. He was active in cooperation with the Anglican Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge, making his work one of the first ecumenical ventures in the history of Protestant missionary work.
Neill suggests, "As a missionary of the Danish crown, ordained in Denmark, Ziegenbalg felt himself bound by the liturgy and customs of the Danish church (…) Only in one respect does [he] seem to have made a concession to the fact that this new church was growing up in India; he made use of the presence in the Christian community of a measure of literary and musical talent to introduce the singing of Tamil lyrics to Indian melodies, in addition to using in church the growing collection of hymns which had been translated from German, but in which the original metres and tunes had been preserved."
Literary work
Translations
The 16th century saw the rise of Protestantism and an explosion of translations of the New (and Old) Testament into the vernacular. After all this time spent in blood-wrenching and sweat-drenching scholarship, Ziegenbalg wrote numerous texts in Tamil, for dissemination among Hindus. He was fully conscious of the importance of print in the history of the Protestant Church.
He commenced his undertaking of translating the New Testament in 1708 and completed it in 1711, though printing was delayed till 1714, because of Ziegenbalg's insistent, perfectionist revisions. Stephen Neill comments, "Only rarely has the first translation of Scripture in a new language been found acceptable. Ziegenbalg’s achievement was considerable; for the first time the entire New Testament had been made available in an Indian language. But from the start, Ziegenbalg’s work was exposed to criticism on a variety of grounds" and that Johann Fabricius’ update on the pioneering text was so clearly superior, "before long the older version ceased to be used."
It was obvious to Ziegenbalg that without a printing press all his effort would come to nought. Possibly as early as 1709, he requested a printing press from Denmark. The Danes forwarded the appeal to London to the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. The SPCK, not allowed a foothold in India by the East India Company's merchants, was only too eager to help and in 1712 shipped out to the Tranquebar Mission a printing press with type, paper, ink, and a printer. Ziegenbalg was also hindered by delays in the construction of a suitable Tamil typeface for his purposes.
In a letter dated 7/4/1713 to George Lewis, the Anglican chaplain at Madras, and first printed in Portuguese, on the press the mission had recently received from the Society, for Promoting Christian Knowledge, Ziegenbalg writes: "We may remember on this Occasion, how much the Art of Printing contributed to the Manifestation of divine Truths, and the spreading of Books for that End, at the Time of the happy Reformation, which we read of in History, with Thanksgiving to Almighty God."
Following this, he began translating the Old Testament, building "himself a little house in a quiet area away from the centre of the town, where he could pursue tranquilly what he regarded as the most important work of all. On 28 September 1714, he reports to Francke that the book Exodus has now been completed. At the time of his death, he had continued the work up to the Book of Ruth."
Other works
Ziegenbalg compiled the Tamil-language Bhakti poetry, aiming to promote a better understanding of the natives among the Europeans. However, when he sent these volumes to Halle for publication, his mentor wrote that the duty of the missionaries was "to extirpate heathenism, and not to spread heathenish nonsense in Europe".
S. Muthiah in his fond remembrance ("") ends with an inventory of the man's lesser-known works: "Apart from the numerous Tamil translations of Christian publications he made, he wrote several books and booklets that could be described as being Indological in nature. He also had the press printing educational material of a more general nature. As early as 1708, he had compiled his Bibliothece Malabarke, listing the 161 Tamil books he had read and describing their content. In 1713, in Biblia Tamulica he expanded this bibliography. Also in 1713, the press produced what was perhaps the first Almanac to be printed in India. Then, in 1716, there appeared what was probably the first book printed in Asia in English, A Guide to the English Tongue, by Thomas Dyche.
The next year, the press printed an A.B.C. (in Portuguese) for schools in the English territories. What did not get printed in Tranquebar were Ziegenbalg's Indological writings. In fact, his works like Nidiwunpa ( Moral Quartrains), Kondei Wenden (a Tamil ethics text), Ulaga Nidi (World Moral, Tamil), and his books on Hinduism and Islam were printed only 150-250 years later in Europe and Madras."
Death and legacy
Ziegenbalg was troubled by ill health his entire life, a condition aggravated by his work in the mission field. He died on 23 February 1719, at the age of thirty-six, in Tranquebar. His last 13 years were spent laying the foundations for German scholarship in Tamil that continues to this day. Ziegenbalg is buried at the New Jerusalem Church, which he helped establish in 1718 at Tranquebar.
The positive results of their labours came with challenges. Their work was opposed both by Hindus and by the local Danish authorities. In 1707/08, Ziegenbalg spent four months in prison on a charge that by converting the natives, he was encouraging rebellion. Along with the political opposition, he had to cope with the climatic conditions in India. Ziegenbalg wrote: "My skin was like a red cloth. The heat here is very great, especially during April, May and June, in which season the wind blows from the inland so strongly that it seems as if the heat comes straight out of the oven".
For an account of his death, see Death-bed scenes: or, Dying with and without religion, designed to illustrate the truth and power of Christianity, Volume 43; Volume 651, Part I, Section II, chapter 28.
Johann Phillip Fabricius picked up where Ziegenbalg left off in Bible translation, particularly Tamil Christian hymnody. He also felt that the previous translation by Ziegenbalg urgently needed emendations. "The four qualities which Fabricius found in the originals were lucidity, strength, brevity and appropriateness; these were sadly lacking in the existing Tamil translation, but he hoped that by the help of God he had been able to restore them." Both scholars can also be referred to as proto-linguists, both worked arduously on dictionaries and grammars in Tamil. Interesting semiotic and linguistic questions arise, when taking into consideration both gentlemen's translations of the Bible.
Stephen Neill summarises Ziegenbalg's failures and the cause of tragedy in his life, thus: "He was little too pleased with his position as a royal missionary, and too readily inclined to call on the help of the civil power in Denmark. In his controversies with the authorities at Tranquebar, he was generally in the right, but a less impetuous and more temperate approach might in the end have been more beneficial to the mission. He was too ready to open the coffers of the mission to those who claimed to be needy Christians, though he was right that those who had lost all their property through becoming Christians could not be allowed to starve".
Honors
In Pulsnitz, the “Ziegenbalgplatz” was named after Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg bellows.
Bibliography
Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg: Merckwürdige Nachricht aus Ost-Indien ... Leipzig / Frankfurt am Main 1708.
Tranquebar Bible, 1714 (first bible in Tamil).
Excerpts from writings of Ziegenbalg: Werner Raupp (Hrsg.): Mission in Quellentexten. Geschichte der Deutschen Evangelischen Mission von der Reformation bis zur Weltmissionskonferenz Edinburgh 1910, Erlangen/Bad Liebenzell 1990, p. 138–163 (incl. introd. and lit.), esp. p. 141–154.
See also
Calendar of Saints (Lutheran)
Missionaries
Lutheranism
Sources
References
(with detailed bibliography).
Further reading
Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg: The Father of the Modern Protestant Mission (2007) by Daniel Jeyaraj ()
Genealogy of the South-Indian gods: a manual of the mythology and religion of the people of southern India, including a description of popular Hinduism (by) Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg, Wilhelm Germann, G. J. Metzger (1713)
Propagation of the Gospel in the east: being an account of the success of the Danish missionaries, sent to the East-Indies, for the conversion of the heathen in Malabar. Extracted from the accounts of the said missionaries formerly publish'd, and brought down to the beginning of the year MDCCXIII. Wherein besides a narrative of the progress of the Christian religion in those parts, which the helps and impediments which hitherto have occurr'd; several hints are inserted concerning the religion of the Malabarians, their priests, poets, and other literati; and what may be expected from the printing-press (by) Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg, Heinrich Plütscho (1714)
New Testament (by) Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg, Johann Ernst Gründler (1714)
Urs App. The Birth of Orientalism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010 () contains a 55-page chapter (pp. 77–132) on Ziegenbalg and Mathurin Veyssière de La Croze and their role in the European discovery of Hinduism and Buddhism.
The Tamil New Testament and Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg: a short study of some Tamil translations of the New Testament: the imprisonment of Ziegenbalg, 19.11.1708 - 26.3.1709 (by) Ulla Sandgren (Swedish Institute of Missionary Research, 1991)
A German exploration of Indian society: Ziegenbalg's Malabarian Heathenism, an annotated English translation with an introduction and a glossary, edited by Daniel Jeyaraj, (Mylapore Institute for Indigenous Studies, 2006)
A History of Christianity in India (1707–1858)'' (by) Stephen Neill
Christians meeting Hindus: an analysis and theological critique of the Hindu-Christian encounter in India (by) Bob Robinson (OCMS, 2004)
The Christian library, Volumes 5-6 (by) Thos. George, Jr. (1835)
Serendipities: Language and Lunacy (by) Umberto Eco
External links
Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg's Works available in English
A Letter to the Rev. Geo. Lewis
Genealogy Of The South Indian Gods
Thirty four conferences between the Danish missionaries and the Malabarian Bramans
Propagation of the Gospel in the East: Part III
Other
"Written sources on the Danish-Halle mission (in English and German)"
"Conversations in Tarangambadi: Caring for the Self in Early Eighteenth Century South India" by Eugene F. Irschick
"The prehistory of Orientalism: colonialism and the textual basis for Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg's account of Hinduism" by Will Sweetman
"Heathenism, idolatry and rational monotheism among the Hindus: Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg's "Akkiyanam" (1713) and other works addressed to Tamil Hindus" by Will Sweetman
"Tranquebar – Pictures from the first hundred years of Lutheran mission in India" by Roland Sack
1682 births
1719 deaths
People from Pulsnitz
18th-century German Lutheran clergy
Lutheran missionaries in India
People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar
Translators of the Bible into Tamil
18th-century linguists
Tamil scholars of non-Tamil background
German Lutheran missionaries
German expatriates in India
Burials in India
18th-century translators
17th-century translators
Missionary linguists
17th-century Lutheran theologians
18th-century Lutheran theologians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Archdiocese%20of%20Aix
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Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Aix
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The Archdiocese of Aix-en-Provence and Arles (Latin: Archidioecesis Aquensis in Gallia et Arelatensis; French: Archidiocèse d'Aix-en-Provence et Arles; Occitan Provençal: Archidiocèsi de Ais de Provença e Arle or Archidioucèsi de z'Ais e Arle) is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory or archdiocese of the Catholic Church in France. The archepiscopal see is located in the city of Aix-en-Provence. The diocese comprises the department of Bouches-du-Rhône (minus the arrondissement of Marseilles), in the Region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. It is currently a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Marseilles and consequently the archbishop no longer wears the pallium.
After the Concordat, the archdiocese gained the titles of Arles and Embrun (1822), becoming the Archdiocese of Aix (–Arles–Embrun) (Latin: Archidioecesis Aquensis in Gallia (–Arelatensis–Ebrodunensis); French: Archidiocèse d'Aix (–Arles–Embrun); Occitan Provençal: Archidiocèsi de Ais (–Arle–Ambrun) or Archidioucèsi de z'Ais (–Arle–Ambrun)). The dioceses of Fréjus and Toulon had been suppressed and parts of Toulon and Riez were attributed to Aix. But in the Concordat of 1817, Arles was reestablished as a metropolitanate (which lasted only until 1822, when it became suffragan to Aix), and the metropolitanate of Aix was assigned the suffragan dioceses of Fréjus (including Toulon, where its bishop now resides), Digne, and Gap. From 1838 to 1867 the diocese of Algiers was also suffragan (subordinate) to the archbishop of Aix.
In 2007, the name of the diocese was changed again to the Archdiocese of Aix (–Arles) (Latin: Archidioecesis Aquensis in Gallia (–Arelatensis); French: Archidiocèse d'Aix (–Arles); Occitan Provençal: Archidiocèsi de Ais (–Arle) or Archidioucèsi de z'Ais (–Arle)). In 2008, the title of Embrun was reattached to the Diocese of Gap by decision of Pope Benedict XVI.
The current archbishop is Christian Delarbre.
History
Certain traditions make Saint Maximinus, one of the seventy-two Disciples and the companion of Mary Magdalen in Provence (for which there is no biblical justification), the first bishop of Aix. Louis Duchesne seems to have proved that this saint, the object of a local cult, was not considered the first bishop of Aix, or connected with the life of Saint Mary Magdalen, except in later legends, devised towards the middle of the 11th century by the monks of Vézelay and by Bishop Rostan de Fos, who was seeking funds for the building of a cathedral.
The Roman Empire
The city of Aix became a matter of controversy at the beginning of the fifth century. The Council of Nicaea, in its fourth canon, had decreed that each ecclesiastical province, which was coterminous with the Imperial Roman province, should have as its metropolitan the bishop of the capital city of the province. Aix had been the capital of the Roman Imperial province of Gallia Narbonensis Secunda, one of the seventeen Roman provinces in Gaul. Gallia Narbonensis Secunda included the cities of Aix, Gap, Sisteron, Apt, Riez, Fréjus, Antibes and Nice. By the end of the fourth century, certainly by the time of Theodosius the Great in 381, however, the number of provinces had been reduced to fifteen, and Gallia Narbonensis Secunda had been combined with Gallia Narbonensis Prima. Who, then, was the metropolitan of the ecclesiastical province of Gallia Narbonensis Prima et Secunda? The Council of Turin, which met in September 401 (?), was faced with competing claims, from the metropolitan of Viennensis, the metropolitan of Arles, and Proculus the bishop of Marseille (who had been the delegate of the Gauls at the Council of Aquileia in 381). The decision of the Council was that the bishop of Marseille had no claim to the metropolitan status over Gallia secunda, since it was not in his own province. Bishop Proculus could continue to hold the title of metropolitan during his lifetime, but only out of respect for his personal qualities, not as a matter of principle. Thereafter, with regard to the claims of the archbishops of Vienne and Arles, whichever of the two could prove his right to metropolitan status over Gallia secunda should be the metropolitan. There seems to have been no bishop of Aix present, nor even a representative, to speak for the city of Aix or present proof of its status.
The first historically known bishop of Aix, Lazarus, occupied this see about the beginning of the 5th century. He had been ordained by Bishop Proculus of Marseille, which caused a scandal and reproaches from Pope Zosimus, since he had been condemned at the Council of Turin as a calumniator. He was ordained under the reign of the usurper Constantine, and on his fall in 411, Lazarus resigned.
The issue of metropolitan status was settled by Pope Zosimus in a letter of 29 September 417 to the bishops of the Province of Vienne and the Province of Gallia Narbonensis Secunda, declaring that the archbishop of Arles was the metropolitan, not Proculus of Marseille or Simplicius of Vienne. In a letter of May or June 514, Pope Symmachus (498–514) wrote to Archbishop Caesarius of Arles that, if the bishop of Aix, or any other bishop, should be summoned by the metropolitan and he refuses to obey, he should be submitted to ecclesiastical discipline.
Medieval Aix
In 737 the city of Aix was taken and sacked by the Saracens. The people fled to hilltop refuges, and the city was deserted. The damage to the ecclesiastical system was so extensive that it called forth a letter from Pope Hadrian I to Archbishop Bertherius of Vienne on 1 January 774. He advised the archbishop that King Charles (Charlemagne) had visited Rome with reports of the devastation, and had promised to help in restoring things. The Pope therefore sent letters informing the metropolitans that the status of eighty years earlier should be maintained, and that the privileges of metropolitans should be maintained even if, at the request of the Frankish kings, the pallium should be bestowed on a suffragan (subordinate) bishop. The situation as it had been in the time of Pope Leo II (662–663) should be restored.
Aix perhaps became an archbishopric only at the end of the 8th century; but it was a subordinate of the metropolitan archbishop of Arles. The Council of Frankfort, in 796, was uncertain about the status of Aix, and decided to refer the matter to the pope.
Up to the end of the eleventh century the cathedral of Aix was at Notre-Dame-de-la-Sed, which was situated to the west of the town, outside the walls. The new Cathedral of Saint-Sauveur was begun c. 1070, with the appeal for funds made by Archbishop Rostan de Fos (1056–1082). It was consecrated by Archbishop Petrus (III) (1101–1112) on 7 August 1103. He was assisted by Archbishop Gibelinus of Arles, Joannes of Cavaillon, Berengar of Fréjus, and Augerius of Riez, as well as the dignitaries of Aix: the provost, the archdeacon, the sacristan, two archpriests, and at least six canons. It is said that Bishop Foulques (c. 1115 – c. 1132) increased the number of canons in the cathedral chapter from twelve to twenty, and that he obtained the sanction of Pope Honorius II (1124–1130) for his actions. In 1693, and again in 1771, there were only two dignities and eighteen canons.
On 6 November 1097, Pope Urban II removed the diocese of Aix from the province of Arles and attached it as suffragan (subordinate) to the ecclesiastical province of Narbonne. In 1099, shortly after his coronation, Pope Paschal II repeated this decision in a letter to Archbishop Bertrand of Narbonne. Not content with that arrangement, the new archbishop, Pierre (III) (1101-1112), began a campaign to influence the papacy. He succeeded in obtaining the pallium from the new Pope Paschal II on 28 March 1104. This was the first time that an archbishop of Aix had ever been granted the use of the pallium.
Renaissance
The University of Aix was founded in 1409 by Pope Alexander V, which was confirmed by Count Louis (II) of Provence on 30 December 1413. Additional privileges were granted by King Henri IV in 1603 (a refoundation, in fact, since the university had become moribund in the face of the Huguenot challenge); by Louis XIII in 1622; by Louis XIV in 1660 and 1689; and by Louis XV in 1719. The archbishop of Aix was the chancellor of the university, ex officio. The rector of the university was elected. The university had faculties in theology, law, and medicine.
Count Louis II also established a Parliament for Provence in Aix, on 14 August 1415. When Count Charles III of Provence, the nephew of René of Anjou, died in 1481, he named as his heir King Louis XI of France and his heirs. Louis XII established a full royal administrative apparatus in Province in 1501.
In 1580 King Henri III of France established a network of seven Sovereign Ecclesiastical Chambers in France, to deal with legal matters arising from appeals concerning all taxes imposed by diocesan agencies, as well as appeals against decisions of the diocesan agencies. Aix was the center of one of these chambers, which included the dioceses of Aix, Apt, Gap, Fréjus, Riez, Sisteron; Marseille, Toulon, Orange (suffragans of Arles); Digne, Glandèves, Grasse, Senez and Vence (suffragans of Embrun). The archbishop of Aix was the president of the Chamber of Aix. The sees of Avignon, Carpentras, Cavaillon and Vaison were directly dependent upon the pope, and did not come under the jurisdiction of the king of France. They were therefore exempt from the jurisdiction of the Ecclesiastical Chamber.
Revolution
In 1790 the National Constituent Assembly decided to bring the French church under the control of the State. Civil government of the provinces was to be reorganized into new units called 'départements', originally intended to be 83 or 84 in number. The dioceses of the Catholic Church were to be reduced in number, to coincide as much as possible with the new departments. Since there were more than 130 bishoprics at the time of the Revolution, more than fifty dioceses needed to be suppressed and their territories consolidated. Clergy would need to take an oath of allegiance to the State and its Constitution, specified by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, and they would become salaried officials of the State. Both bishops and priests would be elected by special 'electors' in each department. This meant schism, since bishops would no longer need to be approved (preconised) by the Papacy; the transfer of bishops, likewise, which had formerly been the exclusive prerogative of the pope in canon law, would be the privilege of the State; the election of bishops no longer lay with the Cathedral Chapters (which were all abolished), or other responsible clergy, or the Pope, but with electors who did not even have to be Catholics or Christians. All monasteries, convents and religious orders in France were dissolved, and their members were released from their vows by order of the National Constituent Assembly (which was uncanonical); their property was confiscated "for the public good", and sold to pay the bills of the French government. Cathedral Chapters were also dissolved.
A protest against the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was drawn up by the archbishop of Aix, Jean-de-Dieu-Raimond de Boisgelin de Cucé, and it was published on 30 August 1790 with the signatures of twenty-four bishops.
A new civil department, called "Bouches du Rhône", was created by the French Legislative Assembly, as part of a new Metropolitanate called "Métropole des côtes de la Méditerranée". The old diocese of Aix was suppressed, and a new "Diocese of Bouches du Rhône" was created, with its center at Aix; the head of the new diocese was named the metropolitan of the "Métropole des côtes de la Méditerranée". On 15 February 1791 the specially chosen electors met at Aix, and on 23 February elected the curé of Eyragues, Charles-Benoît Roux, as their bishop, by a vote of 365 out of a total of 510 electors. None of the Catholic bishops of the Midi had been willing to take the oath to the Constitution of 1790, and therefore Roux had to be consecrated in Paris, on 3 April, by the Constitutional Bishop of Paris, Jean-Baptiste Gobel. The consecration was valid, but canonically irregular, schismatic, and blasphemous (as a parody of genuine Catholic sacraments). Roux attempted to carry out his episcopal duties, but when the people of the Midi rose up against the National Convention, which had sanctioned the execution of King Louis XVI, Roux supported the insurgents. He went into hiding, but was arrested on 20 September 1793. In prison he secretly made his retraction of his errors to a non-Constitutional priest. He was executed on 5 April 1794 at Marseille by order of a Revolutionary Tribunal. The National Convention presently abolished all Religion, and substituted the Goddess of Reason. In 1795, after the Terror, when Reason was deposed and Religion restored, Aix was served by one of the vicars general of Constitutional Bishop Roux, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Aubert, who was appointed Bishop of "Bouches du Rhône" on 29 April 1798.
Church of the Concordat
After the signing of the Concordat of 1801 with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte, Pope Pius VII demanded the resignation of all bishops in France, in order to leave no doubt as to who was a legitimate bishop and who was a Constitutional imposter. He then immediately abolished all of the dioceses in France, for the same reason. Then he began to restore the old Ancien Régime dioceses, or most of them, though not with the same boundaries as before the Revolution. The diocese of Aix was revived by Pope Pius VII in his bull Qui Christi Domini of 29 November 1801. A new archbishop of Aix was appointed, Jérôme-Marie Champion de Cicé, and Constitutional Bishop Aubert made his submission to Cicé and then travelled to Rome and sought absolution from Pope Pius VII. Under the Concordat, however, Bonaparte exercised the same privileges as had the kings of France, especially that of nominating bishops for vacant dioceses, with the approval of the Pope. The practice continued until the Restoration in 1815, when the privilege of nomination returned to the hands of the King of France. On the occasion of the proclamation of the Empire in 1804, Archbishop de Cicé was made a member of the Legion of Honor and a Count of the Empire.
In accordance with the Concordat between Pope Pius VII and King Louis XVIII, signed on 11 June 1817, the transfer of Bishop de Bausset of Vannes to the Archdiocese of Aix was preconised on 1 October 1817. The archdiocese of Embrun remained suppressed, and its title was transferred to the Archdiocese of Aix. The archbishop of Aix-Embrun was metropolitan of the dioceses of Fréjus, Digne, and Gap. The Concordat, however, was never ratified by the French National Assembly, which had the reputation of being more royalist than the King, and therefore, ironically, Napoleonic legislation was never removed from the legal code (as agreed in the Concordat of 1817) and the terms of the Concordat of 1817 never became state law.
In 1881 and 1882, Jules Ferry was responsible for the enactment of the Jules Ferry Laws, establishing free primary education throughout France, and mandatory secular education. The five faculties of theology (at Paris, Bordeaux, Aix, Rouen, and Lyon), which had been supported financially by the State, were suppressed.
In the 1890s the archbishop of Aix, François Xavier Gouthe-Soulard, came into increasing disrepute, both with Paris and with the Vatican, because of his support for the extreme right-wing anti-republican Congregation of the Assumption (Assumptionists). A letter of support for their newspaper, La Croix, in which Gouthe-Soulard wrote, "We are not living under a Republic, we are living under Freemasonry," brought the Archbishop a penal condemnation from the French courts in 1892. He was fined 3000 francs and had his salary suspended. In 1896, La Croix founded an electoral committee, the Comité Justice-Égalité, with a view to opposing Jews, Masons, and Socialists at all levels in the electoral process. Pope Leo XIII and his Secretary of State Mariano Rampolla, who did not want to offend the republicans, while still supporting the Catholic faithful, tried to moderate the views of the Assumptionists, even to the point of sending messengers to the bishops of France to explain the Pope's electoral policy. For the election cycle of 1898, Senator Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau, who was a Catholic and a conservative, but a republican and far from being an anti-Semite, formed an electoral alliance between the Opportunists and the Rallié as he ran for President of the Republic. The Assumptionists and La Croix did everything they could to disrupt this conservative-moderate alliance, and in the superheated atmosphere following the Dreyfus Affair did considerable damage. Waldeck-Rousseau never forgave them, and began legal processes against the Assumptionists as an unauthorized congregation. When they were convicted in January 1900, Archbishop-Gouthe-Soulard and five other bishops published letters in La Croix, sympathizing with the plight of the Assumptionists. Nonetheless they were ordered by the Pope to cease writing. Archbishop Gouthe-Soulard came to their defense, and criticized the Pope for cutting off the index finger of his own right hand. Waldeck-Rousseau then struck against the Archbishop, sending each of the six bishops a notice on 30 January that their defiance of the law was unacceptable, and informing them that their payments from the Caisses du Trésor were suspended. Gouthe-Soulard died on 9 September 1900, mooting any additional actions against him.
The hostile anti-republicanism of the Catholic right, however, continued to fuel anticlericalism. In 1904, two French bishops, Pierre Geay of Laval and Albert Le Nordez of Dijon, dared to announce that they were republicans, and they urged a reconciliation with the French Republic. They were ordered by Pope Pius X to resign (Le Nordez had been denounced as a freemason), and the French Chamber of Deputies replied by voting to sever diplomatic relations with the Vatican. Similarly, in 1904, as part of the liquidation of the Salesian Fathers in France, who did not have the status of an authorized congregation according to the law of 1 July 1901, the archbishop of Aix, François-Joseph Bonnefoy, had to appear in a court in Marseille to be granted title to the domaine de Saint-Pierre-de-Canon, which had been given the Salesians as a legacy; otherwise the property would have been confiscated by the State.
The high point came in 1905, with the Law on the Separation of the Churches and the State. This meant, among other things, the end of financial support of any religious group on the part of the French government and all of its subdivisions. An inventory was ordered of all places of worship that had received subsidies from the State, and all property not legally subject to a pious foundation was to be confiscated to the State. That was a violation of the Concordat of 1801. In addition the State demanded repayment of all loans and subsidies given the Churches during the term of the Concordat. On 11 February 1906, Pope Pius X responded with the encyclical Vehementer Nos, which condemned the Law of 1905 as a unilateral abrogation of the Concordat. He wrote, "That the State must be separated from the Church is a thesis absolutely false, a most pernicious error." Diplomatic relations were broken, and did not resume until 1921.
Bishops and Archbishops
To 1000
45? : Maximinus of Aix
80? : Sidonius of Aix
[ca. 394–ca. 401: Triferius]
ca. 408–ca. 411: St. Lazarus
c. 411–c.420: Maximus (I)
c.420-c.430: Menelphalus]
c.430-439: Armentary.
[439?–475: Auxanius]
475–494: Basilius
c. 524–c. 541: Maximus
c. 549–c. 554: Avolus
c. 566: Franco
581–585: Pientius
596 [–636]: Protasius
...
794 Ignotus
...
828: Benedictus
867?: Honoratus
878–879: Robert (I)
887: Matfridus
928–947: Odolricus
949: Israel
966?–979: Silvester
c. 991–1018: Amalric I
1000 to 1300
c. 1019: Pons (I.) (de Châteaurenard)
10xx?–1032: Amalric (II)
1032–ca. 1050: Petrus (I)
c. 1050 – 1056: Pons (II.) de Châteaurenard
1056–1082: Rostan de Fos
1082–1101: Petrus (II) Gaufridi
1101–c. 1112: Petrus (III)
1115?–1131/1132: Fouques
1132–1157: Pons de Lubières
1162–1165: Peter (IV)
1165–1174: Hugues de Montlaur
1178–1180: Bertrand de Roquevaire
1180–1186: Henri
1186–1212: Gui de Fos
1212–1223: Bermond Cornut
1123–1251: Raimond Audibert
1251–1257: Philip I
1257–1273: Vicedomino de Vicedominis
1274–1282: Grimier Vicedominus
1283–1311: Rostan de Noves
1300 to 1500
1311–1312: Guillaume de Mandagot
1313–1318: Robert de Mauvoisin
1318–1320: Pierre des Prés
1321–1322: Pierre Auriol, O.Min.
1322–1329: Jacques de Concos, O.P.
1329–1348: Armand de Narcès
1348–1361: Arnaud de Pireto
1361–1368: Jean Peissoni
1368–1379: Giraud de Pousillac
1379–1395: Jean d'Agout (Avignon Obedience)
1396–1420: Thomas de Puppio (Avignon Obedience)
1395?–1405: Jacques (Roman Obedience)
1420–1421: Guillaume Fillastre
1422–1443: Avignon Nicolaï
1443–1447: Robert Roger
1447–1460: Robert Damiani
1460–1484: Olivier de Pennart
1484–1499: Philippe Herbert
1500 to 1800
1500–1503: Christophe de Brillac
1503–1506: François de Brillac
1506–1541: Pierre Filleul
1541–1550: Antoine Filleul
1551–1566: Jean de Saint-Chamond
1568–1571: Lorenzo Strozzi
1574–1576: Julien de Médicis
1576–1591: Alexandre Canigiani
1591–1597: Gilbert Genebrard
1599–1624: Paul Hurault de L'Hôpital
1624–1625: Gui Hurault de L'Hôpital
1626–1628: Alphonse-Louis du Plessis de Richelieu, O.Cist.
Sede vacante (1628–1631)
1631–1644: Louis de Bretel
1645–1648: Michel Mazarin (brother of Cardinal Jules Mazarin)
1655–1683: Jérôme Grimaldi
1693–1708: Daniel de Cosnac
1708–1729: Charles-Gaspard-Guillaume de Vintimille du Luc
1729–1770: Jean-Baptiste de Brancas
1771–1801: Jean de Dieu-Raymond de Boisgelin de Cucé
1791–1794: Charles-Benoît Roux (Constitutional Bishop)
1798–1801: Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Aubert (Constitutional Bishop)
From 1800
Jérôme-Marie Champion de Cicé (9 Apr 1802 – 22 Aug 1810)
Sede vacante (1810–1817)
Pierre-François-Gabriel-Raymond-Ignace-Ferdinand de Bausset-Roquefort (8 Aug 1817 – 29 Jan 1829)
Charles-Alexandre de Richery (8 Feb 1829 – 25 Nov 1830)
Jacques Raillon (14 Dec 1830 Appointed – 13 Feb 1835 Died)
Joseph Bernet (6 Oct 1835 Appointed – 5 Jul 1846 Died)
Pierre-Marie-Joseph Darcimoles (5 Dec 1846 Appointed – 11 Jan 1857 Died)
Georges-Claude-Louis-Pie Chalandon (4 Feb 1857 Appointed – 28 Feb 1873 Died)
Théodore-Augustin Forcade, M.E.P. (21 Mar 1873 Appointed – 12 Sep 1885 Died)
François Xavier Gouthe-Soulard (2 Mar 1886 Appointed – 9 Sep 1900 Died)
François-Joseph-Edwin Bonnefoy (5 Apr 1901 Appointed – 20 Apr 1920 Died)
Maurice-Louis-Marie Rivière (9 Jul 1920 Appointed – 28 Sep 1930 Died)
Emmanuel Coste (28 Jul 1931 Appointed – 18 Jan 1934 Died)
Clément-Emile Roques (24 Dec 1934 Appointed – 11 May 1940 Appointed, Archbishop of Rennes))
Florent-Michel-Marie-Joseph du Bois de la Villerabel (11 May 1940 Appointed – 13 Dec 1944 Resigned)
Charles-Marie-Joseph-Henri de Provenchères (3 Nov 1945 Appointed – 30 Nov 1978 Retired)
Bernard Louis Auguste Paul Panafieu (30 Nov 1978 Appointed – 24 Aug 1994 Appointed, Coadjutor Archbishop of Marseille)
Louis-Marie Billé (5 May 1995 Appointed – 10 Jul 1998 Appointed, Archbishop of Lyon)
Claude Feidt (17 Jun 1999 Appointed – 29 Mar 2010 Resigned)
Christophe Dufour (20 May 2008 Appointed Coadjutor Archbishop; 29 Mar 2010 Succeeded – 5 Jul 2022 Retired) (fr)
Christian Delarbre (5 Jul 2022 Appointed – present)
See also
Catholic Church in France
List of Catholic dioceses in France
Croix de Provence on the Montagne Sainte-Victoire
Notes and references
Sources
Reference works
(Use with caution; obsolete)
(in Latin)
(in Latin)
Studies
Clouzot, Étienne (editor) (1923). Pouillés des provinces d'Aix, d'Arles et d'Embrun Paris:Imprimerie nationale [Recueil des historiens de la France, Pouillés, Tome VIII]. [lists of benefices]
Dolan, Claire (1981). Entre tours et clochers: les gens d'Église à Aix-en-Provence au XVIe siècle. (Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada: Editions de l'Université de Sherbrooke/Aix-en-Province-Edisud).
second edition (in French)
Goyau, Georges (1909), "France", in: .
Pascal, Adrien (1925). Le Clergé du diocese d'Aix pendant le XIX' siècle. (Aix- en-Provence 1925)
External References
Centre national des Archives de l'Église de France, L'Épiscopat francais depuis 1919, retrieved: 2016-12-24.
David M. Cheney, Catholic-Hierarchy: Aix. Retrieved: 2016-07-05
Acknowledgment
Aix-en-Provence
Aix-en-Provence
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20Consort-class%20ironclad
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Prince Consort-class ironclad
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The Prince Consort class of ironclad battleship were four Royal Navy wooden-hulled broadside ironclads: HMS Royal Oak, HMS Prince Consort, HMS Ocean, and HMS Caledonia. They were originally laid down as , but were converted to ironclads. Royal Oak was Britain's fifth ironclad battleship completed.
Prince Consort, Ocean, and Caledonia were built to a common design and are today known as the Prince Consort class, though contemporaries knew them as the Caledonia class. Royal Oak was their half-sister.
Genesis
The of nine 91-gun two-decker steam line-of-battle ships were laid down between March 1859 and October 1860 (a further three were ordered, but never laid down, and eventually cancelled in 1863). Their dimensions were the same as (101 guns), but had a new timbering plan to suit the smaller armament. The reduction in armament was intended to improve the efficiency of the guns.
Bulwark and Robust were suspended in March 1861 in an advanced state of construction and were eventually broken up in March 1873 and August 1872 respectively.
The remaining seven ships of the Bulwark class were less complete state and were converted into 'ironclad frigates'. Of these Triumph (later renamed Prince Consort), Ocean, and Caledonia were converted to 'broadside ironclads' with 1,000 nhp engines. Royal Oak had a similar conversion but with the original 800 nhp engine.
Royal Alfred, Zealous and Repulse were later converted into 'central battery ships'.
Reasons for the conversion programme
When the first British ironclads were conceived, the Surveyor (Rear Admiral Sir Baldwin Wake Walker) said, "They must be regarded as an addition to our force, as a balance to those of France, and not as calculated to supersede any existing class of ship; indeed no prudent man would, at present, consider it safe to risk up the performance of ships of this novel character, the naval Supremacy of Great Britain." For this reason, the Royal Navy continued to lay down and complete steam two-deckers and three-deckers. However, in 1861, it was clear that Britain was falling behind in ironclads laid down (see table below). The ten French ironclads laid down in 1861 were the start of the French programme of 1860, which was intended over a number of years to produce: 20 sea-going ironclads for the active fleet, 10 sea-going ironclads for the reserve fleet, and 11 floating batteries.
The British response to the French programme was taken in a number of steps.
On 28 September 1860, the Board of Admiralty decided to order three new iron-hulled ironclads: one large - Achilles, and two medium-size - Hector and Valiant. Though there was still great uncertainty as to the value of ironclads, and the Controller was directed to report as to their "fitness for use as transports or other duties in case it should be deemed advisable at any time to strip off their armour plates."
On 7 February 1861 Rear Admiral Sir Baldwin Wake Walker resigned as Controller. He was replaced by Rear Admiral Sir Robert Spencer Robinson.
Following a report from the British naval attaché in Paris regarding the progress of the French 1860 programme, the Naval members of the Board asked for the provision of ten new sea-going ironclads and the adaptation of ten or more existing steam line of battleships for armour protection with a total outlay of £3,000,000.
The Prime Minister, Lord Palmerston, advocated cutting down and armouring the last sailing battleships rather than reducing the number of steam line of battleships. (In 1861, the fleet of steam line of battleships were extremely modern, and comprised the main battle strength of the Royal Navy.)
The Chancellor of the Exchequer, William Ewart Gladstone, had decided in November 1859 that ironclads must be the vessels of the future. In early 1861, he was willing to accept a bigger appropriation for armoured ships if it could be offset by reduction in expenditure on wooden line of battleships. Gladstone suggested that the navy build wooden-hulled ironclads like the French.
In March 1861, construction of the Bulwark-class two-decker steam line of battleships was suspended. Then in May 1861 it was decided to convert the five least complete ships of the Bulwark class into ironclads. It was also decided to lay down three new very large iron-hulled ironclads, which became the Minotaur, Agincourt, and Northumberland.
Writing in December 1866, the Controller wrote: "The Caledonia and Ocean were ships of the line, of the largest class of two-deckers, in a certain state of advancement when in the Spring of 1861 I was appointed to the Controller’s office. The proposals I made in May 1861, to the Board, to convert these ships and three others into what they are now, was accepted, and I beg leave to call their Lordships’ attention to the concluding paragraphs of those submissions which in substance were as follows -
"'No doubt is entertained that the ship would be a sufficiently good sea boat to go to the Mediterranean, if required, and that her speed would be at least as great as that estimated (12.4 knots)' - 'but while proposing this mode of action I beg leave to observe that such ships will, in my opinion, be in every way inferior to ships of the Achilles class with those modifications which we propose to make in her Plating, but I have no hesitation in making these proposals, not as the wisest, and not as the safest way of meeting the exigencies of the case, but because I am led to believe that other considerations make this plan the only practicable one.'
"I certainly appeal with confidence to the Admiral’s reports as a proof that my expectation and those I held out to their Lordships in proposing these ships have been realized."
Conversion
"The two-decked wooden ship which were turned into armoured frigates had their sides cut down considerably, and the main deck and its battery removed; while the armour, although about equal in weight to the parts removed, is not as high above water. the iron-clad is, therefore, less top-heavy than the wooden ship was previously to be converted; in other words the conversion has the effect of bringing down the centre of gravity of the ship."
As part of the conversion they were lengthened by 21 feet. "The object of lengthening was to provide more space for an armament mounted entirely on one deck except for chase guns. Such extensions are carried out by a process well recognised in naval architecture; which is quote possible at any stage in the building of a ship [or afterwards], not by adding to the extremities, but in cutting her in two at the point of greatest beam and separating the halves sufficiently to insert a new section between them. This is usually done by erecting a launching cradle round the stern half, moving it down the slipways on the cradle as far as required and building up the gap. In such fashion the Prince Consort, Caledonia and Ocean (as well as the Royal Alfred and Royal Oak) were each drawn out 23 feet when already partially on the frame... But as the midship portion of a hull is always the part subjected to the greatest sagging and hogging strains in a head or following sea, special care is necessary to ensure the inserted section is sufficiently strongly built in; particularly if it has to bear the burden of the engines as it did in the Prince Consort class. Exceptionally stout timbering was therefore used for the purpose in those ships; even with that their central structure sometimes exhibit signs of stress giving rise to trouble in a minor degree." "Although the added central section had a full bilge throughout, their floors rose in the old fashion forward and aft, because their underwater lines had taken shape before conversion was ordered and could not be altered without an almost entire rebuilding of the ship. This reduced the carrying capacity of the hull compared with that of a full bodied vessel such as the Bellerophon; but retained a good model for easy movement and contributed to their excellent steering qualities alike under steam and sail."
The bows of the Bulwark class were of the normal knee-shape for wooden warships. When they were converted to ironclads, the Prince Consorts and the Royal Oak were completed with stems approaching the upright above water, and this style, which was so much decried at first, had by the late-1860s won aesthetic approval. "The bow has been modified in order to dispense with overhanging weight, to increase its fitness to cleave and surmount waves, and to adapt it for ramming purposes." Though they did not have underwater rams.
"The stern has been modified in order to give protection to the rudder-head, to deflect raking shot, and to render it more fit to receive easily the blows of following waves."" "Aft the overhang of the counter was narrowed to an oval termination foreshadowing what became the normal battleship type of stern thirty years later, except that the counter was above water instead of below. As these were the first vessels with that novel design of stern they were often called 'double-enders' until the design became so common as to suggest no peculiarity." "The upper parts of the wooden rudder... showed above water, and the rudder was of the old narrow unbalanced type with a bronze neck socket to receive an iron double-tillered norman head."
As wooden-hulled ships the Prince Consorts and the Royal Oak lacked the double bottom and water-tight bulkheads given to iron-hulled vessels. However, at the time people did not consider these things necessary for wooden ships, whose sides and bottoms were very thick, and for which there was much experience. With an iron-hulled ship the "bottom is without any doubt very thin and liable to penetration by a rock or any other hard substance; but the danger resulting from penetration is very greatly reduced by the adoption of a proper number of watertight divisions or bulkheads in the ship's hold, while it may be almost got rid of by the cellular bottom, now given to all our iron-clads, which prevents the entrance of water into the hold even when the outer plating is penetrated." It should be added that before the introduction of the bracket-frame system with the Bellerophon, double-bottoms on British iron-hulled iron-clads were very partial.
Armour
"In our earlier iron-clads the protection is only partial, extending over a portion of the length of the broadside. No better example of this system can be chosen than the Warrior. Her length is 380 feet, and the armoured portion is only 213 feet in length, the extremities of the ship being left entirely unprotected... The rudder head and steering apparatus are left entirely unprotected. This system of partial protection is also adopted in the Black Prince, Defence, and Resistance; but the desire to increase the amount of protection led to the introduction into the Hector and Valiant of a modification of the Warriors disposition of armour. This modification consisted in adding a belt of plating, extending from the upper to the main decks, before and abaft the main portion of the broadside armour, which was arranged similarly to Warriors. The main deck, on which the guns are fought, is thus protected throughout the entire length, but the extremities 'between wind and water' are quite as unprotected as those on the Warrior".
"Both these plans of disposing the armour were afterwards considered unsatisfactory, and resort was had in the , and in the converted ships of the Caledonia class, to the system of which had been introduced into the construction of the floating batteries built during the Crimean war, by means of which what is known as 'complete protection' is secured. Throughout the length the armour extends from the upper deck down to about 6 feet below the waterline... The principal advantages possessed by this disposition of the armour over that of the Warrior are that the extremities of the ship, especially on the parts near the water-line, are iron-cased, and that the protected guns can be ranged along the length of the broadside instead of being concentrated in a central battery. There are, however, the accompanying disadvantages of having bow and stern heavily burdened, and of the resulting increase in the total weight of armour. For wood-built iron-clads this plan has the additional advantage of protecting the upper works throughout the length from the destructive effects of shells. The French ships are, for the most part plated in this manner".
"In 1861 many verbal discussions took place between myself [the Controller] and the constructors of the day, as to the cause of the excessive rolling of our ships, when compared with similar French constructions. When I [the Controller] urged upon them the possibility of adding largely to the armour plating of the ships, and of not confining it, as had been done, in the Warrior and other ships, I was met with very great opposition, and my endeavours to get the five wooden ships wholly Armour-Plated were met by two reasons against doing so. One was, that extensive armour-plating must cause excessive rolling; and the other, that there were doubts of the stability of a ship wholly armour-plated. Now it turned out that the stability of these ships wholly armour-plated proved excessive, and, if their stability had been lessened, their rolling would have been diminished; but the Constructors of the Navy were not alone in their opinion."
"In the wood ships the [4.5 inch thick] armour was bolted on outside the planking of an ordinary line-of-battle ship, being consequently backed by about 30 inches of timbering and planking." This compared with armour backed by of teak for the , , Achilles and the , and armour backed by of teak for the Minotaur class.
Rolling
In the 1860s rolling was measured as the sum of the angles to port and to starboard. "Admiral Dacres Report for 1864 [on the Channel Squadron] shows that on the four days when all the ships were together, the means of the extreme rolls recorded were as follow: Hector, 10 degrees; Warrior and Defence, 10.25; Black Prince, 11.05; Prince Consort, 11.75; and Edgar (wooden line-of-battle ship), 14.25. The Warriors rolling was measured by a different instrument from that used on board the other ships, so that she cannot fairly be compared with them. This record is, however, of great interest, on account of the comparison it renders possible between the behaviour of the iron-clads and the wooden two-decker, the latter proving the heaviest roller in the squadron. In Admiral Yelverton's Report [on the Channel Squadron] for 1866, there are given examples of the comparative rolling of several of the iron-clads, obtained from three days' observations, of which the mean results are:- Achilles and Bellerophon, 6.6 degrees; Hector, 11.3; Ocean, 14.3; Lord Clyde, 16.1; Pallas, 17.3. ... The small size of the Pallas, as compared with the other ships, puts her at a great disadvantage as regards comparative rolling in ordinary waves."
"The Achilles has a distance of about 3 feet between the centre of gravity and the metacentre, and is a remarkable steady ship; whereas the Prince Consort, with a distance of 6 feet, rolls much more than the Achilles."
Carrying capacity of wood hulls compared with iron hulls
Parkes claims, "In the Service their construction was regarded as a retrograde movement, their very heavy wooden hulls having only 80 per cent of the carrying capacity of iron ones." However, this view is mistaken and unfair. The following table is taken from Reed. It shows that in 1861, wooden-hulled ironclads had a greater carrying capacity than contemporary iron-hulled designs.
It is of course true, that when Reed's bracket-frame system was introduced with the Bellerophon (laid down December 1863), iron hulls became much lighter for the same strength.
Machinery
"The Prince Consorts were all three engined by Maudslay and Sons on an identical plan, … the arrangement of their machinery was very unusual, though not entirely without precedent in wooden-hulled steamers. When horizontal reciprocating marine engines were being installed it was necessary as a first step to select a position for the cylinders with enough athwartship level to give a proper length for the stroke… As the Prince Consorts had been shaped with an underwater run of the old style before being ordered for conversion… their floors rose considerably abaft the midship point; which meant the only practicable position for the much larger engines they were to carry was in the added central body halfway between bow and stern." (Iron-hulled ironclads had their engines further aft.) "Return-connecting-rod engines were installed."
Royal Oaks boilers were in one group of six on the forward side of the engines. The Prince Consorts larger engines required more boilers, so they had two groups of four; one set forward of the engines, and one set further aft; this was why the Prince Consorts had two widely spaced funnels (one for each set of boilers). The Prince Consorts boilers were not of equal size. The forward set were larger and had five furnaces each, whereas the aft boilers had three furnaces each. "Each group of boilers had its own coal bunkers abreast it". "The boilers worked at 20 lb pressure."
Cost of construction
The following table compares the cost of construction of:
Two-decker steam line of battleships of the Duncan-class. Had the Bulwark class been completed to their original design, their costs would have been similar.
Wooden-hulled ironclad battleships of the Prince Consort class and their half-sister the Royal Oak.
Iron-hulled ironclad battleships (the first seven laid down).
The ironclads were much more expensive both in absolute terms and in cost per ton than the steam wooden line of battleships. The cost per ton of all the ironclads listed was similar, with Prince Consort the least expensive at £36 per ton, and Achilles and Valiant the most expensive at £48 per ton.
None of the cost data in the table above includes the cost of armament.
Data on Duncan and Gibraltar are taken from Lambert. The date of steam trials has been taken as the date of completion. Costs probably do not include "masts, sails, stores, &c., until complete for sea".
Data on the displacement and construction dates of ironclads has been taken from Conways (except for 'laid down' dates for the conversions from the Bulwark class, which were taken from Lambert. Data on costs of ironclads are the "actual outlay on labour and materials" and were taken from Reed. The costs quoted by Reed are similar (but not always identical) to those quoted in Parkes. Baxter quotes similar but not identical costs for the first four British ironclads.
Notes
References
Ballard, Admiral G.A. The Black Battlefleet, published Nautical Publications Co. and Society for Nautical Research, 1980.
Baxter, James Phinney The Introduction of the Ironclad Warship, published Harvard University, 1933.
Brown, David K. Warrior to Dreadnought, Warship Development 1860–1905, published Chatham Publishing, 1997.
Clowes, William Laird Four Modern Naval Campaigns, Historical Strategical, and Tactical, first published Unit Library, 1902, reprinted Cornmarket Press, 1970.
Lambert, Andrew Warrior, Restoring the World's First Ironclad, published Conway Maritime Press, 1987.
Lambert, Andrew Battleships in Transition, the Creation of the Steam Battlefleet 1815-1860, published Conway Maritime Press, 1984.
Laughton, John Knox Essay on Naval Tactics, 1873, published as Part 2 of The Gun, Ram and Torpedo, Manoeuvres and tactics of a Naval Battle of the Present Day, by Gerard Noel, 2nd Edition, pub Griffin 1885.
Parkes, Oscar British Battleships, first published Seeley Service & Co, 1957, published United States Naval Institute Press, 1990.
Reed, Edward J Our Ironclad Ships, their Qualities, Performance and Cost, published John Murray, 1869.
Robinson, Robert Spencer Remarks on Admiral Yelverton's Report on the Cruise of the Channel Fleet, Department of the Controller of the Navy reference DS5205, December 1866, UK National Archives file ADM 1/5968.
Robinson, Robert Spencer letter DM No 976, 18 January 1866, UK National Archives file ADM 1/5980.
Mediterranean Station Correspondence, UK National Archives files ADM 135/1, ADM 135/3, and ADM 135/4.
Report and papers on Sanitary Condition of HMS Royal Oak, in Mediterranean Station Correspondence, UK National Archives files ADM 1/592, and ADM 121/3
Reports and papers on rearmament of ironclads 1866-7, UK National Archives file ADM 1/5980.
External links
Battleship classes
Prince Consort class battleship
Ship classes of the Royal Navy
Prince Consort class battleship
Ironclad classes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goose%20step
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Goose step
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The goose step is a special marching step which is performed during formal military parades and other ceremonies. While marching in parade formation, troops swing their legs in unison off the ground while keeping each leg rigidly straight.
The step originated in Prussian military drill in the mid-18th century and was called the (literally, "piercing step") or . German military advisors spread the tradition to Russia in the 19th century, and the Soviets spread it around the world in the 20th century.
The term "goose step" originally referred to balance stepping, an obsolete formalized slow march. The term is nowadays heavily associated with Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in many English-speaking countries. As a result, the term has acquired a pejorative meaning in some English-speaking countries.
History
Origin
The originated in the 18th century, like other march steps, as a method of keeping troops lined up properly as they advanced towards enemy lines. It was introduced into German military tradition by Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, a Field Marshal whose close attention to training transformed the Prussian infantry into one of the most formidable armed forces in Europe. Other armies adopted different march steps that served the same purpose. The Russian Empire adopted the goose step during the 1796–1801 reign of Paul I.
By the mid-19th century, the replacement of muskets with rifles greatly increased the accuracy of defensive fire. It was too hazardous to march forward into battle in precise formation, and the practice of marching towards enemy lines became obsolete. However, armed forces continued to drill recruits in marching techniques that now focus on team building, military uniformity, and ceremonial functions. This was true in Prussia and the later German Empire, where the goose step became emblematic of military discipline and efficiency.
Adoption outside Europe
The goose step became widespread in militaries around the world in the 19th and 20th centuries. Military modernization and political influence carried the practice to Asia, Africa, and Latin America from its origins in Prussia and Russia.
The first wave of adoption took place in the late 19th century, as the Prussian army became greatly admired for its decisive victory in the Franco-Prussian War. This led many countries to modernize their military forces along the Prussian model. Goose stepping continued to gain ground even after Germany's defeat in World War I, as many nations still looked to the German model for military organization and training.
The Chilean Army was the first non-European country to adopt the goose step, importing many Prussian military traditions after the War of the Pacific. The practice of goose stepping then spread widely throughout Latin America from Chilean influence.
Meanwhile in Asia, the Beiyang New Army of Imperial China also adopted goose stepping together with Prussian military model. After its dissolution, the National Revolutionary Army of the successive Republic of China continued the practice, also because that they were being trained by German advisers in the 1920s; after the Communists won the Chinese Civil War, the People's Liberation Army of People's Republic of China would follow suit and bring the practice into present day, owing to both tradition and its own Soviet influence. They account for the largest single goose-stepping military today.
Cold War
During the Cold War, the Soviet Union trained the military forces of many of its client states with Soviet military drill and ceremonial practices. This led to the second great wave of goose step adoption, as it was introduced into many Third World countries in Asia and Africa. Meanwhile, the United States, United Kingdom, and France were, through efforts in their client republics and allies, preventing the use of the goose step in their armed services. A divided Germany was also divided in their armies' foot drill; the East German kept the goose step (although it incoorperated some Soviet-style goose step elements), while the West German only kept the (quick march). The centuries-long German practice of goose-stepping finally ended in 1990, when the former was absorbed into the latter due to German Reunification.
Usage
Ceremonial usage
The goose step is a difficult marching style that takes much practice and choreography in order to coordinate the timing of each person's step with one-another. It is therefore reserved for ceremonial occasions such as military parades. Because it is difficult to maintain for long periods of time, troops typically only begin to goose-step when they approach the reviewing stand and return to a normal march step once they have marched past. Large military parades require several days of practice to ensure that troops can perform the goose step without injuring themselves. Preparatory training includes having soldiers march in small groups, with arms linked to maintain balance.
Guards of honour also use the goose step during solemn ceremonies such as at war memorials or military cemeteries. The goose step has been featured in several Olympic opening ceremonies, as the host nation pays the same respect to the Olympic flag as to its own flag.
In the most rigorous form of the goose step, often found in guard mounting ceremonies, the pace is done at a slow march, and the leg is nearly horizontal, and sometimes well beyond. In a standard goose step, found in large military parades, the pace is done at a quick march and the leg is raised only to knee-height, or even to calf height. The lower goose step improves balance and unit cohesion at the tempo of a quick march. Flagbearers and honour guards will frequently march with a higher goose step than the mass of troops following.
Adopted countries
The goose step is a feature of military ceremonies in dozens of countries, to varying extents. Some countries use the goose step as a general parade step performed by all troops, while others reserve it for honour guards and ceremonial units.
Americas
The goose step is very popular in Latin America, where it has been adopted by most Spanish-speaking countries. It is not found in countries where English or Portuguese is an official language.
Argentina: The Infantry Company of the Colegio Militar de la Nación uses a sort of goose half step (with the leg at approximately 45 degrees) as their parade step while passing in front of the authorities. Other units perform the high step.
Bolivia some troops marching with this step similar to the Paraguayan forces step marching but in slower pace.
Chile uses the Prussian form of the goose step essentially unaltered.
Colombia
Cuba uses the goose step styling inherited from the Soviet Union.
Ecuador uses a waist-high goose-step in military parades.
El Salvador
Guatemala: only the marker squad of the Military Academy goosesteps.
Haiti: The Haitian military was dissolved in 1996. However, demobilized soldiers have formed militias that continue to drill with the goose step. The government began reforming its armed forces in 2016, sending them to be trained by Latin American countries that use the goose step like Ecuador. Thus, the new Haiti Defence Force marches in like manner as in many South and Central American armed services which use the practice.
Honduras
Mexico: adopted the goose step marching in early 1980s.
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay: In military parades, cadets march with a waist-high goose step at the quick step. Other units do not goose step.
Peru
Suriname: Suriname National Army uses the goose step for military parade purpose since the late 1990s.
Venezuela: Only military officer cadets use the goose step for parade purposes, other units of the armed forces (save for special forces, which march on parade on the double) used the goosestep until 1960 and from 2010 to 2017.
Europe
Goose-stepping is found primarily in Central and Eastern Europe.
Albania
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Bulgaria
Czech Republic: A moderate form of the goose step is performed by honour guards, with the foot raised only a few centimetres off the ground, these are the only units that use it on parade. It is not used by other units of the military, however.
Estonia: Moderate goose step is the general parade step, which replaced the Soviet style in 2005.
Georgia: While no longer in use, only two breakaway states in Abkhazia and South Ossetia uses the goose step, as it is aligned with Russia.
Hungary: Only color guards goose step in slow time during military ceremonies.
Latvia: Only selected guards goose step in ceremonial purposes.
Moldova: Only honour guards and color guards. The goose step continues to be used in the breakaway region of Transnistria.
Norway
Poland: performed at 112-116 steps per minute, raising the feet 10 centimetres off the ground
Russia
Slovakia uses the goose step as a general parade step only by honor guards.
Spain uses the goose step as a slow march for the most important ceremonies, such as royal funerals and the presentation of the colours. The goose step is not used for military parades or guard mounting ceremonies.
Sweden
Ukraine
Africa
Most African militaries trace their adoption of the goose step to the Cold War, when the Communist countries supplied them with military aid and training. The German colonies used the goose step until World War I, when they were absorbed by the victorious Allies, but all of them restored the goose step after independence.
Algeria
Angola uses the goose step as a general parade step. The MPLA was supported by the Soviet Union and Cuba during the Angolan War of Independence.
Benin
Botswana： Although Botswana has British military traditions it uses a goose step on a slow march and High Step in quick march
Burkina Faso uses the goose step as a special march step for military bands and commando units. Other units do not goose-step.
Burundi uses the goose step as a general parade step. Burundi was formerly part of German East Africa.
Cameroon was a German colony prior to World War I.
Chad does the goose step in slow time.
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Republic of the Congo
Djibouti: At military parades, a horizontal goose step is performed at a slow march.
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eswatini
Gabon
Ghana includes the western half of the former German colony of Togoland. Only the Ghanaian Special Forces use the goose step in military parades.
Ivory Coast
Madagascar
Mauritania
Mozambique
Namibia was formerly known as German South West Africa. When the country became independent from apartheid South Africa in 1990, it kept the British-style march step. However, it has since returned to the traditional goose step, done with a modified form of the German arms drill in the English language.
Niger using goose step in slow marching time.
Nigeria
Rwanda uses a horizontal goose step for military parades. Rwanda was formerly part of German East Africa, and the rebels who won the Rwandan Civil War received their military training in the goose-stepping country of Uganda. The new type of goose step was performed during the 25th anniversary of the end of the Rwandan Genocide as the troops were trained by the Chinese PLA.
Senegal
Seychelles
Tanzania includes most of the former German East Africa. The country was aligned with the socialist side during the Cold War, and its military received training from East Germany. At military parades, a horizontal goose step is performed at a quick march.
Togo comprises the eastern half of the former German colony of Togoland. Togo now uses the goose step as a general parade step, performed at a slow march.
Uganda
Middle East and Central Asia
Afghanistan has used the goose step since the 1950s during the royal period of the country, thanks to advisers from the Soviet Armed Forces and from Iran. The tradition was carried on into the communist era, the U.S.-backed Islamic Republic and the second Taliban government.
Iran has used the goose step since the Imperial era, as the country was influenced first by the Russian Empire and had in the 1920s an increase of foreign trade and technical collaboration with Germany, with Reichswehr advisers present in the army. The Islamic Republic's armed forces have continued the practice.
Kazakhstan's use of the goose step is a direct result of Soviet military influence on the country when it was a republic of the Soviet Union. On February 3, 2016, President Nursultan Nazarbayev ordered that personnel of the Kazakh Armed Forces march at 95–105 steps per minute raising the forward leg 10–15 centimeters above the ground. This differs from their Russian counterparts who goose step at a rate of 120 steps per minute.
Kyrgyzstan
Lebanon and its military do not perform the goose step. However, the Hezbollah paramilitary forces use the goose step, as they are trained and supplied by Iran and North Korea.
Qatar adopted the goose step in 2017, after receiving training from Chinese drill instructors.
Syria adopted the goose step during the Cold War, when it was aligned with the Soviet Union. Personnel of the Syrian Armed Forces continue to goose-step, while Kurdish forces have adopted the high step.
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
Yemen
East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia
Bangladesh
Bhutan practicing the goose step due receiving training by Indian army instructors.
Cambodia
China: The Chinese term 正步 (zhèng bù) literally translates as "straight march" or "upright march". China adopted the goose step during the last days of its imperial dynasty, since their Beiyang New Army was modelled after the Prussian Army. After the 1911 revolution, the National Revolution Army of the Republic of China continued the practice due to tradition and also influences from their German military advisors in 1920s. After the Chinese Civil War, the People's Liberation Army of China again continued the practice due to both tradition and Soviet influences; it was seen publicly for the first time in 1951, when the second anniversary of the People's Republic of China was celebrated with a military parade in Beijing. The practice continued on both sides of the Taiwan Strait until 2003, when it was abandoned by the Republic of China Armed Forces. The People's Republic of China continues to use the goose step as its ceremonial march step. In 2021, the ROC defense ministry has once again resumed goose step training, in time for the 2024 centennial celebration of the Republic of China Military Academy.
Hong Kong: Since the 1997 handover of sovereignty, some Hong Kong's institutions, traditionally conducting British-style drill, like Customs and Excise Department, have adopted the goose step. With the enaction of the Hong Kong National Security Law, the other disciplined services have also adopted the practice for relevant ceremonial purposes, such as the National Security Education Day. There are no plans to change to goose-stepping force-wide as of March 2021, but the traditional approach is pending official review. While the Chinese central government has also requested uniformed youth groups in Hong Kong to adopt the goose step practice of the PLA in the mainland, only one organization has adopted the practice there. As of January 2022, the Hong Kong Police Force has adopted the goose step method as a means of showing patriotism.
India: The goose step is performed by colour guards, as well as border guards at the Wagah border ceremony. Some units, such as the Gurkha and Assam regiments, use the goose step as a general parade step, although the foot does not generally leave the ground for more than a couple of inches.
Indonesia: The goose step, known as langkah tegap or firm step, is performed during ceremonial occasions by the military, police (although the foot does not generally leave the ground for more than a couple of inches unlike the military), scouts, and the flag troop. Seems a kind of fusion with the British-style marching, the step is performed by swinging hands (at 90 degrees, or as high as the shoulder), either unarmed or at slope/shoulder arms position. If at port arms, both arms hold the weapon while performing it.
North Korea for many years practiced a form of bouncing goose step, which leaves a visual impression of a clear bounce in each step. This is unique among all militaries that practice the goose step. North Korea switched from a standard Soviet goose step to the bouncing goose step between 1993 and 1998, but a modified form resembling Soviet practice was reinstated in 2020 characteristic of a less vigorous bounce and a slower pace.
Laos
Mongolia
Myanmar: The Myanmar Armed Forces do not use the goose step. However, the ethnic Kachin, Kokang, Shan, and Wa insurgents in northern Myanmar use the goose step, as they allied with the Communist Party of Burma in the 1960s and received training from Chinese advisors.
Nepal uses the goose step as a general parade step, but lifting the feet only a couple of inches above the ground; only Honor Guards have been observed to march with a "full" goose step. The practice has also been adopted by Gurkha regiments in the Indian Army, but not by Gurkha regiments in the British Army.
Pakistan uses the goose step as a military march step in slow time only. The marching pace while goose stepping is 60 bpm
Taiwan: Similar to Mainland China, The Republic of China Armed Forces performed the goose step because the Beiyang New Army was modelled after the Prussian Army. This was abandoned by the Republic of China Armed Forces in 2003, under Chen Shui-Bian's DPP government. In 2021, the ROC defense ministry once again resumed goose step training, in time for the 2024 centennial celebration of the Republic of China Military Academy. In 2023, goose step marching was performed by the Republic of China Armed Forces for the first time in 20 years for the 99th anniversary of Whampoa Military Academy
Thailand
Vietnam: North Vietnam had adopted the goose step by 1954, when the victory at Dien Bien Phu was celebrated with a military parade in Hanoi. It received Chinese and Soviet military aid during the Vietnam War. The use of goose step styling inherited from China continues in a united Vietnam today.
Abandonment
The goose step is a ceremonial march that requires substantial training. It is often abandoned in times of war, as more pressing needs occupy the available training time. Opinion on the goose step was divided even in the German Wehrmacht in the 1930s. During the later stages of World War II, the goose step nearly disappeared because of manpower shortages, accelerated courses in basic training, and a paucity of appropriate occasions.
After the Second World War, West Germany abandoned the goose step in favor of "marching step" (Gleichschritt), due to their status as light infantry. East Germany preserved the goose step and renamed it the "drilling step" (Exerzierschritt) to avoid references to old Prussian and Wehrmacht military traditions. The 200-year-old German tradition of goose stepping finally ended with German reunification in 1990, as East German forces were absorbed into the Bundeswehr and conformed to West German military customs. Although goose-stepping has no official sanction, the practice is not illegal in Germany. Some civilian marching bands and riflemen's associations continue to goose-step while others dropped it altogether.
After the fall of the Soviet Union, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Georgia abandoned the Russian-style goose step (by 2015, Estonia revived the practice but only color guards do so on parades and Latvia retained the goose step for ceremonial purposes). The other 11 former Soviet Republics have kept the goose step (only Moldova's military honor guard unit retains the practice). The breakaway Russian-occupied regions in Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine continue to use the goose step.
Ethiopia adopted the goose step during the Derg military junta, which espoused socialist ideals and sought Soviet military aid. The practice was dropped after the Derg were overthrown.
Hungary used the high step during the regency of Miklós Horthy, and switched to the goose step early in the Cold War. Neither march step was retained after the end of the Cold War, as the parade of 1961 formally ended its use in favor of the normal quick march. (It was only retained as a slow march for the entrance of historical colors, until 1990 a modified high step was used by guards of honour.)
Italy introduced the goose step in 1938 under Benito Mussolini as the Passo Romano ("Roman Step"). The custom was never popular in Italy's armed forces except amongst the Blackshirts. The goose step was dropped after World War II.
Romania used the goose step from the 1910s up until 2004, when the Romanian Armed Forces ended using it for formal parades. Today only historical units dressed in uniforms from the First World War perform the goose step, but with in shoulder arms position on the march instead of the usual slope arms done until the 2000s, by then only by guards of honor.
Switzerland is a majority German-speaking country that absorbed many German (and certain Austrian) military traditions alongside those of France and Italy as a reflection of the country's diversity. The Swiss Armed Forces abandoned the goose step in 1946, after the German defeat in World War II.
The goose step was also being practiced in the neighbor countries of Germany like Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark and Luxembourg in tandem with other influences (particularly British, French and Germans), but following the Second World War these countries dropped it altogether.
The Malaysian Armed Forces (ATM), in 2018, once practiced the goose step as their new type of marching step combined with British style marching for ceremonial purpose, but was abandoned later after receiving several criticism from Malaysian citizens.
The Republic of China (Taiwan) Armed Forces continued to use the goose step after the end of the Chinese Civil War. The 80-year tradition of goose-stepping was finally ended in 2003, during an independence-minded Democratic Progressive Party administration. In 2016, veterans organizations criticized the sloppy marching of military cadets and began holding their own goose-stepping parades, reviewed by Kuomintang politicians on two occasions. In 2021, the Taiwanese department of defense resumed goose step training, in time for the 2024 centennial celebration of the Republic of China Military Academy. In 2023, the goose step was once again publicly performed at the 99th Anniversary of the Republic of China Military Academy
Zimbabwean guerillas used the goose step during the Rhodesian Bush War of the 1970s. ZIPRA was trained and supplied by the Warsaw Pact, adopting East German uniforms and the goose step. Meanwhile, ZANLA was supplied and trained by China in Maoist guerilla tactics. However, Zimbabwe ultimately attained black majority rule thanks to British influence. As a result, the unified Zimbabwean Army maintained a British march step.
High step
The High step is similar to the goose step but instead of keeping the leg straight, the knee is bent at the top of the arc. It has been utilized by a number of military forces, often as an alternative to or replacement for the goose step.
Argentina: the high step is standard among the Argentine Navy and Air Force, and has been increasingly adopted by units of the Army and Naval Prefecture which had previously used the goose step.
Brazil
Czech Republic
East Timor
Hungary: the high step was used during the Interwar Period but abandoned in favor of the goose step after World War II.
Iran: the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps uses the high step while the rest of the military uses the goose step.
Japan: the Japanese military was modernized along German lines during the Meiji era and adopted the high step during this time. The step was abandoned after the country's defeat in World War II. Some units, such as the Northern Army units of the JGSDF, firefighting units, and police forces, still maintain the practice.
Lebanon
Philippines: the high step been practiced by military juniors or cadets for training purpose only. It's not been used in military parade, honor guard or official ceremony however.
Portugal
Syria: the Syrian Armed Forces use the goose step, but Kurdish forces in the Syrian Civil War have adopted the high step.
Somalia
Somaliland
Turkey
Uruguay
Yugoslavia: the high step was adopted by the Royal Yugoslav Army, abandoned in favor of the goose step by the Yugoslav People's Army after World War II, but reinstated when the country sought to disassociate itself from the Soviet Union as a result of the Tito–Stalin split. The former Yugoslav republics of Serbia, North Macedonia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina (exception for Croatia) continue to use it to this day.
In popular culture and propaganda
The goose step was ridiculed by Allied propaganda in the World Wars as a symbol of blind obedience and senseless attachment to military form. Prior to U.S. entry into World War I, American military observers had remarked favorably on the goose step as a means of building unit cohesion. However, its association with Nazi Germany in World War II proved fatal to the goose step's reputation in English-speaking countries. It was condemned in George Orwell's essay The Lion and the Unicorn, and proved an easy target for parody in many editorial cartoons and Hollywood films.
Orwell commented in "England Your England" (1941) that the goose step was used only in countries where the population was too scared to laugh at their military.
Cultural references
In "The Germans", an episode of the British sitcom Fawlty Towers first broadcast in 1975, the main character Basil Fawlty imitates the goose step in front of some German hotel guests.
In Disney's The Lion King (1994), the hyenas marching through Scar's Be Prepared song perform the goose step to symbolize the dictatorship that will be imposed after Mufasa is overthrown.
In a 1999 television adaptation of Orwell's Animal Farm, the goose step is performed by a flock of geese, singing the praises of their porcine leader Napoleon in a propaganda film.
In colloquial English, the phrase goose-stepping has connotations of blind obedience and submission. The term does not carry this negative connotation in countries that currently use the goose step, though this is sometimes the actual case. This can result in mistaken interpretations due to cultural differences:
In Spartacus, a ballet by Aram Khachaturian, the Roman soldiers goose-step in most of their scenes. English-speaking reviewers sometimes conclude erroneously that the choreography must be intending to link the Roman Empire with the tyranny of Nazi Germany. However, goose-stepping in Russia carries no such connotation, and reflects only military discipline. Goose-stepping can be found in a number of Russian ballets in which it is not associated with the villains.
The older English meaning of goose-step is sometimes found in a humorous context:
In The Tale of Tom Kitten, a children's book by Beatrix Potter, the three puddle-ducks are described as "marching one behind the other and doing the goose step".
See also
Lockstep marching
Military step
References
Further reading
this article contains text originally from the May 25 version of the corresponding German Wikipedia article.
Marching Orders - Mark Scheffler, Slate.com (Jan, 2003).
External links
Video of goose-stepping guards at the Lenin Mausoleum (YouTube, 240p, 1:06 min)
Changing of the Guards of the "Tomb of the Unknown Soldier" in Red Square in Moscow (YouTube, 360p, 2:00)
Goose step military parade Indonesian Army soldiers goose-step during a military parade
Military marching
Military traditions
Walking
Metaphors referring to birds
Military of Nazi Germany
German inventions
18th-century introductions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnificat%20%28Bach%29
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Magnificat (Bach)
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Johann Sebastian Bach's Magnificat, BWV 243, is a musical setting of the biblical canticle Magnificat. It is scored for five vocal parts (two sopranos, alto, tenor and bass), and a Baroque orchestra including trumpets and timpani. It is the first major liturgical composition on a Latin text by Bach.
In 1723, after taking up his post as Thomaskantor in Leipzig, Bach set the text of the Magnificat in a twelve movement composition in the key of E-flat major. For a performance at Christmas he inserted four hymns (laudes) related to that feast. This version, including the Christmas interpolations, was given the number 243.1 (previously 243a) in the catalogue of Bach's works.
Likely for the feast of Visitation of 1733, or another feast in or around that year, Bach produced a new version of his Latin Magnificat, without the Christmas hymns: instrumentation of some movements was altered or expanded, and the key changed from E-flat major to D major, for performance reasons of the trumpet parts. This version of Bach's Magnificat is known as BWV 243.2 (previously BWV 243).
After publication of both versions in the 19th century, the second became the standard for performance. It is one of Bach's most popular vocal works.
History
In Leipzig, the Magnificat was regularly part of Sunday services, sung in German on ordinary Sundays but more elaborately and in Latin on the high holidays (Christmas, Easter and Pentecost) and on the three Marian feasts Annunciation, Visitation and Purification.
Bach's tenure as Thomaskantor in Leipzig
Apart from an early setting of the Kyrie, on a mixed Greek and German text (BWV 233a), all of Bach's known liturgical compositions in Latin were composed during his tenure as Thomaskantor in Leipzig, from 1723 until his death in 1750. Compared to Lutheran practice elsewhere, an uncharacteristic amount of Latin was used in church services in Leipzig. An early account of Bach showing interest in liturgical practices in Leipzig dates from 1714, when he noted down the order of the service on the first Sunday in Advent during a visit to the town. At the time Johann Kuhnau was the Cantor in Leipzig. When Kuhnau died in 1722, one of the candidates applying for the post of Thomaskantor was Christoph Graupner, a former pupil of Kuhnau, who reused a Magnificat he had composed for Christmas 1722 as an audition piece in January 1723, three weeks before Bach presented his audition cantatas Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe, BWV 22 and . Bach assumed the position of on 30 May 1723, the first Sunday after Trinity, performing an ambitious cantata in 14 movements, , followed by a comparable cantata, the next Sunday.
Traditional setting of the German Magnificat
The traditional setting of Luther's German translation of the Magnificat ("Meine Seele erhebt den Herren") is a German variant of the , a rather exceptional psalm tone in Gregorian chant. The tonus peregrinus (or ninth tone) is associated with the ninth mode or Aeolian mode. For the traditional setting of Luther's German Magnificat that is the minor mode for which the last note of the melodic formula is the tonic, a fifth below its opening note.
The tonus peregrinus variant that is associated with Luther's German Magnificat appears in compositions by, among others, Johann Hermann Schein, Heinrich Schütz, Johann Pachelbel and Dietrich Buxtehude. Bach uses the melodic formula as an instrumental in movement 10 (Suscepit Israel) of his Latin Magnificat. He uses it again in his "German Magnificat", i.e. the cantata composed for Visitation of 1724, in the chorale harmonisations BWV 323 and 324, and in the fourth Schübler Chorale BWV 648. Also in BWV 733, Fuga sopra il Magnificat, the melodic formula is used as a theme: this chorale prelude may however be the work of Bach pupil Johann Ludwig Krebs.
Extended settings of the Magnificat
Being a quintessential part of vespers, evensong or matins, the Magnificat was, already for over a century before Bach's composition, the liturgical text that was most often set to music apart from the Mass ordinary. In Protestantism there was no Latin text more often set to music than the Magnificat. Also settings of the German text of the Magnificat were current from the early 17th century, without one form suppressing the other.
Extended settings of the Magnificat, also indicated as settings in a concertato sectional construction, that is in several movements with chorus, orchestra and vocal soloists, and a non-linear treatment of the text (parts of the text repeated multiple times by the singers), go back to the old Italian school of music. Such an example can be found in Claudio Monteverdi's Magnificat a 7 voci, one of two alternative Magnificat settings included in his Vespro della Beata Vergine. In a Lutheran tradition there is for example Schütz' Latin Magnificat, SWV 468. Magnificat composers like Johann Levini, Antonio Lotti and Francesco Durante are cited as possible inspirations for Bach. Around Bach's time there are also examples by Heinichen and by Vivaldi.
In many of these settings a single verse of the Magnificat can be sung by one or more soloists alternating with choral singing, as Bach does in his treatment of the third Magnificat verse: the soprano sings the first words of the verse, while the chorus concludes it. This particular split of the third verse, leaving only the last two words (omnes generationes) to the chorus, had been practised before by Ruggiero Fedeli, and in a Magnificat in G minor from 1720 which Bach probably knew (that Magnificat in G minor used to be attributed to Tomaso Albinoni). Also Graupner's 1722 Magnificat had this split.
Another characteristic of Bach's Magnificat is that it is set for a five-part chorus. Extending a standard SATB choir with more voice parts was however no novelty for Magnificat compositions: for example Johann Pachelbel, the teacher of Johann Sebastian's eldest brother, had composed half a dozen Magnificats for SSATB choir, and one for soli, SSATB double choir and orchestra. Kuhnau's Magnificat setting also used a SSATB choir. Bach had already composed for a SSATB choir in Weimar (Der Himmel lacht! Die Erde jubilieret, BWV 31, an Easter cantata from 1715). He did the same in his funeral motet Jesu, meine Freude. Around the time when the D major version of the Magnificat originated, he composed for the same extended chorus in his Mass for the Dresden court. Other extended choral settings by Bach include his Sanctus for six vocal parts (SSSATB) for Christmas 1724, and compositions for double choir like the St Matthew Passion (1727) and the secular cantata Preise dein Glücke, gesegnetes Sachsen, BWV 215 (1734). Such compositions with an extended choir are however outside Bach's usual routine for liturgical music.
Bach was not the first to include mixed German/Latin Christmas interpolations in a Magnificat sung in Latin: Hieronymus Praetorius published a Magnificat with such interpolations in 1622. Samuel Scheidt's Geistliche Konzerte III (1635) contained three Magnificats with interpolations, the first of these (SSWV 299 for SSATTB and basso continuo) with the first stanza of "Vom Himmel hoch da komm ich her" as first interpolation.
The Visitation version(s)
In the Gospel of Luke the words of the Magnificat are spoken by Mary when she visits her cousin Elizabeth, both being pregnant, Mary with Jesus and Elizabeth with John the Baptist. In Christianity, the feast commemorating that visit is called Visitation. It is a chosen opportunity to give more than ordinary attention to the Magnificat canticle in liturgy, while the feast celebrates the event tied to its origin.
In Bach's time the feast day of Visitation fell on 2 July. The D major version of Bach's Magnificat (BWV 243.2) may have been performed on , as part of the church service in the St. Thomas Church (Thomaskirche) in Leipzig. That year there had been a period of mourning after the death of the sovereign, Augustus the Strong. During that mourning period, which ran from Sexagesima Sunday (15 February) to the fourth Sunday after Trinity (28 June), no concerted music was allowed in the churches. During that period Bach had been composing a Kyrie-Gloria mass in B minor which he dedicated to the successor, Frederick Augustus II, in a letter signed .
The first occasion after the mourning period that re-allowed concerted church music was the feast of Visitation, Thursday . It is possible that Bach produced his new version of the Magnificat for this occasion, although Christmas of the same year as first performance date for the new version is possible too: it can not be determined with certainty on which day around 1732–1735 the D major version of the Magnificat was first performed, and until when Bach amended the score to its final state. Around 1733 Bach filed two cantatas by Gottfried Heinrich Stölzel, for the fifth and the sixth Sunday after Trinity (5 and 12 July in 1733): Bach may have relied on church music by other composers for the services in Leipzig in July 1733, while composing and copying out the performance parts of the extensive first part of the Mass in B minor.
In 2003 Bach scholar Andreas Glöckner argued that the very first version of Bach's Magnificat, that is the E major version before the four Christmas interpolations were added to the autograph, was first performed on 2 July 1723. That would have been exactly ten years before the transposed version, and composed for the same Marian feast. Bach had taken up his post as in Leipzig on 30 May, the first Sunday after Trinity in 1723. Visitation was the first feast day of his tenure, which called for exceptionally festive music.
The Christmas interpolations
Before Glöckner's 2003 article on the origin of the Magnificat, and for some authors still after that, it was generally assumed that Bach had composed his Magnificat in the quiet time of Advent 1723 for a first performance at the Christmas vespers. For that performance Bach composed four laudes, songs of praise partly in German, partly in Latin to be inserted at certain points in the E-flat major version of the Magnificat. The E-flat major version of the Magnificat including these interpolations is known as BWV 243.1 (previously BWV 243a).
The text of these laudes had been used in Leipzig in a Christmas cantata by Bach's predecessor Kuhnau. Possibly those settings in C major of the same four texts as the laudes Bach had included in his Christmas Magnificat were not a self-contained cantata, but laudes Kuhnau had composed for insertion in his C major Magnificat when it was to be performed at Christmas. These laudes illustrate what the Gospels describe as the circumstances around Christ's birth, and were embedded in an old tradition named (rocking of the cradle).
As these laudes were to be performed with a very limited accompaniment of instruments, they were supposedly performed from the small loft in the high choir of the Thomaskirche, opposite to the large organ loft where the other movements of the Magnificat were performed. The autograph of the E-flat major version of the Magnificat (BWV 243.1) suggests that Bach intended to perform the first version of his Magnificat also without the laudes, depending on circumstances, for example on other feasts than Christmas.
Other Magnificats by Bach?
Bach's Nekrolog, the 1754 obituary written by Johann Friedrich Agricola and the composer's son Carl Philipp Emanuel, mentions that the composer wrote several Magnificats. Apart from the extant copies of the Latin Magnificat BWV 243, of the German Magnificat BWV 10 and of the chorale harmonisation BWV 324, a Magnificat for soprano solo was considered lost in the 19th century. The score of that so-called "little" Magnificat () was rediscovered in the 20th century, and listed as however, its authenticity was doubted. In 1982 Melchior Hoffmann was identified as the composer of this German Magnificat Meine Seel erhebt den Herren. A similar cantata on a German paraphrase of the Magnificat, Meine Seele rühmt und preist, BWV 189 for tenor solo and composed for Visitation, has also been attributed to Hoffmann.
Another German libretto paraphrasing the Magnificat, published by Picander in his 1728–29 cantata cycle for performance on 2 July 1728, may have been set by Bach. Similarly, a Meine Seele erhebet den Herrn cantata by an unknown librettist for Visitation 1725. Further, Bach copied Latin Magnificats by other composers:
in the early 1740s Bach copied Antonio Caldara's Magnificat in C major, arranging its Suscepit Israel movement (BWV 1082).
is a Magnificat in C major for double SATB choir and orchestra, copied by Bach around 1742. The manuscript score indicates no composer, but in 2012 it was discovered that it is Bach's arrangement (by adding parts for timpani and for a third trumpet) of a late 17th-century composition by Pietro Torri. An earlier attribution of the work had been to Antonio Lotti.
Structure and movements
Bach's Magnificat consists of eleven movements for the text of Luke 1:46–55, concluded by a twelfth doxology movement. Each verse of the canticle is assigned to one movement, except verse 48 (the third verse of the Magnificat) which begins with a soprano solo in the third movement and is concluded by the chorus in the fourth movement. The traditional division of the Magnificat, as used by composers since the late Middle Ages, was in 12 verses: it differs from Bach's 12 movements in that Luke's verse 48 is one verse in the traditional division, while the doxology is divided into two verses.
There is however no numbering of movements in Bach's autographs, nor is there a caesura between the third and the fourth movement: the 25th measure of the Quia respexit (where the soprano soloist sings their last note) is the first measure of the Omnes generationes movement. The four Christmas interpolations are placed after the second, the fifth, the seventh and the ninth movement on the Magnificat text. These four laudes movements are usually indicated by the letters A to D, with these text sources:
A: Hymn by Martin Luther
B: Verse attributed to Sethus Calvisius
C:
D: Fragment of a Christmas hymn
Performance time of the Magnificat lies typically between 25 and 30 minutes, with an additional five minutes for the Christmas interpolations. The duration of the version without Christmas hymns is comparable with that of an average Bach cantata. However, there are many differences: the Magnificat contains about twice as many movements as an average cantata, keeping it short by avoiding da capos in the arias, and altogether no recitatives. Also the text is in Latin (not the usual language for a Bach cantata), the architecture of the movements is fairly complex, as opposed to the fairly simple structure of an average cantata, and the choral writing is in five parts, "outside the normal routine of Bach's sacred vocal works".
Scoring and key signature
The movements 1 (Magnificat), 7 (Fecit potentiam) and 12 (Gloria patri) are the cornerstones of the composition: they are in the tonic key (E major for BWV 243.1, D major for BWV 243.2), and are the only movements that feature a five-part chorus as well as a tutti orchestra. The chorus also sings in movement 4 (Omnes generationes), accompanied by an orchestra without trumpets and timpani, and in movement 11 (Sicut locutus est), there only accompanied by the continuo. The first three choral movements are, in the version without the Christmas hymns, followed by two movements for a vocal soloist, the second one often with richer scoring. In the movements for vocal soloists the instrumentation is as usual in Bach's cantata's: the soloists are accompanied by an obbligato instrument, only strings and/or continuo. Movement A (Vom Himmel hoch) is the only a cappella movement.
As natural trumpets were usually tuned in D in Saxony, this is given as a reason why Bach transposed the initial E-flat major version to D major.
Voices
Bach set the Magnificat for SSATB five-part choir. Five vocal soloists are required: two sopranos (sI, sII), alto (a), tenor (t) and bass (b). In movement 10 (Suscepit Israel) both sopranos sing together with the alto.
Orchestra
The Baroque orchestra for BWV 243.1 consists of "due violini, due oboe, tre trombi, tamburi, basson, viola e basso continuo", i.e. two violins (Vl), two oboes (Ob), three trumpets (Tr, tonic), timpani (Ti, tonic and dominant), bassoon, viola (Va) and basso continuo (Bc). Two recorders (flauto dolce, Fl) are required for aria No. 9 Esurientes, but are not part of the tutti.
For the 1733 version, Bach used a somewhat more extended orchestra: the recorders are replaced by traversos (Fl) and they get separate parts in all four choral movements. In movements three and four the oboes are replaced by oboes d'amore (Oa). In the 10th movement (Suscepit Israel) the oboes replace the trumpet for the obbligato instrumental part.
The continuo part is played by organ, bassoon, cello and violone in most movements. In the 1723 version movement 10 (Suscepit Israel) has a bassett (Ba) part played exclusively by violins and viola in unisono. In the 1733 version this continuo line is given to a continuo that includes cello, but not bassoon and violone.
Symmetrical structure
Bach's Magnificat is built symmetrically around the 7th movement (Fecit potentiam): Between the first and the 7th movement there are four verses of the Magnificat, between the 7th and the last there are also four. First, seventh and last movement are in the tonic key, with full orchestra and choir. The second and 11th movement are in the same major key, the third and the 10th movement are in the relative minor key. The movement preceding, and the one following, the central 7th movement are also in a minor key. The fifth and the ninth are in a major key, different from the tonic. The Christmas additions are separated by two Magnificat verses, the first addition being after the second verse. The Christmas hymns are always in the same key as the preceding movement. By verse, this is what the harmonic structure looks like:
Verse 1 and 2 (movements 1 and 2, followed by movement A in the Christmas version): tonic key (major)
Verse 3: starts in relative minor key (movement 3), moving to another minor key (movement 4)
Verse 4 (movement 5, followed by movement B in the Christmas version): major key different from tonic
Verse 5 (movement 6): minor key
Verse 6 (movement 7, followed by movement C in the Christmas version): tonic key
Verse 7 (movement 8): minor key
Verse 8 (movement 9, followed by movement D in the Christmas version): major key different from tonic
Verse 9 (movement 10): relative minor key
Verse 10 and doxology (movements 11 and 12): tonic key
Regarding voices and orchestration the four Magnificat verses between the first and the seventh movement, and those between the seventh and the last, have a less symmetrical build-up: here the idea is rather that after a tutti movement there are two or three arias building up to the next choral movement:
movements two and three, both for solo soprano, build up to the Omnes generationes choral movement No. 4
movements five (solo) and six (duet), build up to the 7th tutti movement
movements eight and nine (both solo movements), followed by an aria for vocal trio, build up to the final two choral movements
The last aria in each of these sets of arias is first a solo, then a duet, then a terzet (trio). When inserting the Christmas hymns, building up to the seventh movement alternates arias with choral movements, while in the second half of the composition the choral movements at the outer ends are separated by a set of four arias: solo → solo → duet → trio. In such sixteen-movement performance there is however another symmetry: the third section (movement A), and the third counting down from the last (movement 10) both use a Lutheran chorale melody as cantus firmus: soprano voices in the first case ("Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her"), instrumental in the second ("Meine Seele erhebt den Herren"). The symmetry of the Christmas version can be pictured as follows:
Two movements (1, 2) in tonic key → "cantus firmus" movement (A)
Verse in minor key (mvt. 3, 4) → two movements in the same major key (5, B)
Verse in minor key (mvt. 6) → two movements in tonic key (7, C)
Verse in minor key (mvt. 8) → two movements in the same major key (9, D)
Two movements in tonic key (11, 12) ← "cantus firmus" movement (10)
This is also 5 times two verses of the Magnificat followed by a movement with a text that comes from elsewhere, the only bible quote of these other texts (movement C, also a doxology like the last movement) being coupled with the central 7th movement.
The structure of Bach's Magnificat has been compared with that of Kuhnau's, which he probably knew, and with that of Johann Philipp Krieger's Magnificat of 1685, which Kuhnau probably knew. Kuhnau's Magnificat, his largest extant vocal work, has a similar orchestration as the first version of Bach's Magnificat (differences: Kuhnau's has a second viola, Bach's has two recorders in one movement), and it has the same "expandability" with settings of the same laudes for a Christmas performance. Kuhnau's Magnificat has standard SATB soloists, but like Bach's, a SSATB choir. All three Magnificats set verses 1, 6, 10 and 12 of the Magnificat text for chorus. Kuhnau's has five choral movements, like Bach's, but his second is verse 4 (instead of 3b for Bach), and his last is only verse 12, where for Bach that final chorus sets both verse 11 and 12. In all three Magnificats the other verses are set for soloists, as a single voice or combined into duets and trios.
The twelve movements of the Magnificat canticle
1. Magnificat
("My spirit gives great praise to the Lord", ) is the text used for the opening chorus. The movement consists of 6 blocks of 15 measures, totalling 90 bars of music, exactly half of them with choral singing:
Measure 1–30: the orchestra presents itself with what looks like a ritornello, but is in fact rather a concerto tutti. The movement has the form of an Italian aria, modelled after the concerto style Bach had developed in Köthen: in that style the material is presented in an instrumental tutti.
Measure 1–15: the motive played by oboe I in the first measure sets the jubilant tone of the tutti. It is the first of two main motives.
Measure 16–30: in measure 16, almost imperceptible in the whirling movement of other instruments, violin I presents a new motive: it is the second main motive. The last measures before the entrance of the choir that motive is repeated by multiple instruments.
First motive (as sung by sopranos I in measure 31):
Second motive (as sung by the tenors in measure 35):
Measure 31–75: accompanied by the continuo, the chorus enters as a concerto soloist, imitating the opening material.
Measure 31–45: The sopranos enter first, with the first main motive, and from measure 32 alto and tenor imitate the same. The basses enter from measure 33 while the full orchestra plays a short intervention for two measures. In measures 35–36 the chorus sings the second main motive from the opening tutti. After that the orchestra dominates again, with the chorus following or giving contrasting melodies. From the end of measure 37 voices one after another start singing "anima mea", until in the last three measures of this block all singers take the text (the Lord) once, all of them with the last syllable of that word on the first beat of the 45th measure, after which the orchestra, apart from the continuo, is silent till the beginning of measure 47: the singers bridge the central barline between measures 45 and 46 with the first main motive sung by altos, sopranos I and sopranos II consecutively.
Measure 46–60: after the sopranos recapitulate the start of the movement with their voices, and a brief intervention by the orchestra in measures 47–48, the second main motive is sung again, first by the highest voices in measure 49, followed by the lower voices in measure 50. In this block the chorus takes a leading role, limited groups of instruments accompanying with short ideas taken from the opening tutti, until in the last two measures all instruments join, ending with the second main motive played by trumpet I in measure 60. In this second of three blocks for the singers, the only text they sing is a repetition of the word "magnificat".
Measure 61–75: in the first measure of this block the altos sing the first main motive while all instruments halt for at least a few beats. The singers keep the leading role, while groups of instruments play additional motives. Later the orchestral writing thickens, returning from the subdominant to the tonic. The text remains for most of this block, the conclusion "anima mea" (my soul) is heard by the alto for the first time, in measure 67, embedded in the other voices' . All parts sing "" once again, soprano II beginning with a long note continued by a melisma in measure 73, the others in 74.
Measure 76–90: after 45 measures of choral singing follow fifteen measures of instrumental postlude, with material condensed from the opening tutti.
2. Et exultavit
("And my spirit has rejoiced [in God my Saviour]") is an aria sung by soprano II, accompanied by the strings. The aria continues the feelings of joy from the first movement, but in a less extrovert way. In the Christmas 1723 version, this movement is followed by the first interpolation, the hymn "Vom Himmel hoch da komm ich her".
3. Quia respexit
(Because he has looked upon the humility) is an aria sung by soprano I with an obbligato oboe (oboe d'amore in the D major version). It is the only movement for which Bach marked the tempo at the beginning: Adagio (only the D major version). Steinberg notes that voice and instrument first share the material in a "contemplative duet", but on (from henceforth shall call me blessed) the voice changes to a "simpler, more declamatory style". Spitta notes: "Scarcely ever has the idea of virgin purity, simplicity, and humble happiness found more perfect expression than in this German picture of the Madonna, translated, as it were, into musical language."
4. Omnes generationes
The continuation of the verse and completion of the sentence, (all generations), is given to the chorus. The setting has been likened to a turba chorus as used by Bach in his Passions. Some commentators see an atmosphere close to aggression, others rather an evocation of multitude. The sound in the E-flat major version is somewhat harsher than in the D major version, for example the bass line in measure three, and in measure 24 where the first version has a dissonant dominant ninth which was changed to a less dissonant harmony in the later version.
5. Quia fecit
(Because he did great things for me) is an aria sung by the bass, accompanied only by the continuo. The motif, again beginning with repeated notes, is introduced by four measures of the continuo, then repeated by the voice.
6. Et misericordia
(And mercy), a duet for alto and tenor, begins with an undulating movement in 12/8 time, played by violins and violas. In the D major version these strings play con sordino, flutes doubling the violins.
7. Fecit potentiam
(He shows strength) shares key and scoring with the first movement. The tenor is the first voice to enter, followed by alto, SII, bass and SI, leading to two calls without melismas near the middle of the movement. appears in various voices, but then isolated, in a sequence from the highest voice to the lowest. The conclusion, , is marked Adagio and illustrates the text in long chords, with accents by the trumpets.
8. Deposuit
(He hath put down the mighty) is an aria for tenor, accompanied by continuo and unisono violins, presenting material in a 14 measure ritornello. The second thought of the verse, beginning with (and exalted the humble), is sung without introduction. After a shorter ritornello, the tenor sings the complete text again, the first part in a slightly modified version, but the exaltation considerably expanded after which the ritornello in full length is repeated at the end.
9. Esurientes
(The hungry) is sung by the alto, accompanied by two flutes. The ritornello of eight measures introduces a motiv moving up, on a continuo of steady quarter notes, for four measures, later sung on (He hath filled the hungry with good things), while downward lines and a continuo moving in eighth notes later go with (and the rich he hath sent away). In Latin, the last word is (empty-handed).
10. Suscepit Israel
(He hath holpen his servant Israel) is scored for an unusual combination of the three highest voices and two oboes in unison (a single trumpet in the E-flat major version). The wind instrument(s) cite the as a , on a continuo line that most of the time only changes every measure, moving one step down or up. The voices imitate each other, in gentle movement. Almost the only leaps in the whole measure occur on the word , with a downward fourth on each syllable.
11. Sicut locutus est
(As he spake [to our fathers, to Abraham, and to his seed for ever]), the last line of the Magnificat has a theme in four distinct measures: the first repeated notes, the second flowing eighth notes, the third quarter notes in leaps, the fourth half notes leaping up a sixth. When the theme is developed the first time, four voices enter from bottom to top. In the second development, soprano I begins, followed by alto, tenor and bass. The movement ends with a more homophonic section in which the bass has the theme once more, while soprano I sings long suspended notes in a descending scale covering almost an octave.
12. Gloria patri
The work is concluded by the doxology, (Glory to the father), performed by the complete ensemble. The first part of the text ends in a long cadenza. After changing the time signature from common time to triple metre, the second part of the text, (as it was in the beginning), repeats material from the beginning of the work.
The hymns added in the Christmas 1723 version
The first time the Christmas hymns of the E-flat major version of Bach's Magnificat were printed was in the same volume as the D major version of the Magnificat, in the 1862 Bach Gesellschaft XI/1 publication, which presented the hymns in an annex. In that publication the hymns were however not transposed to fit in the D major setting of the Magnificat. More recently publishers offer such transposed (and completed) versions of the hymns, so that they can be performed as part of the D major version of the Magnificat, for instance Novello in 2000 (Neil Jenkins) and Bärenreiter in 2014.
A. Vom Himmel hoch
The text is the first stanza of "", a hymn by Martin Luther paraphrasing the annunciation to and adoration of the shepherds from . Bach sets this first laudes a cappella in four parts, and, like the two preceding movements, in the tonic key. The form is a chorale fantasia, with all sopranos singing the 1539 chorale melody attributed to Luther as a cantus firmus, while the lower voices make the counterpoint by imitating sections of the melody line in diminished time. Where the Latin of the preceding movements may have been largely incomprehensible for the congregation in Bach's time, here is a first movement that was not only recognizable for the words, but also for the melody: the chorale would have been sung by the congregation the preceding evening during the Christmas Eve service.
Quarter of a century later Bach returned to the chorale melody of "Vom Himmel hoch da komm' ich her", writing a set of five canonic variations on that theme (BWV 769), one of a few compositions printed during the composer's lifetime. Bach also included three settings of the chorale melody in his Christmas Oratorio. (in the Orgelbüchlein), 700, 701, 738 and 738a are chorale preludes based on the "Vom Himmel hoch" theme.
B. Freut euch und jubiliert
The text of this movement is "" (Rejoice with pious mind, To Bethlehem go now and find The fair and holy new-born Boy, Who is your comfort peace, and joy), a verse by Sethus Calvisius.
For SSAT, , .
C. Gloria in excelsis
The text, "", is a variant of the opening verse of the . The better known version from the Vulgate, ending on "... bonae voluntatis", is an incorrect rendering of the original Greek version of , there said by angels in the Christmas night. The Vulgate version translates as "Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace to people of good will", while the end of the Greek version is rendered more correctly as "Peace on earth, and good will towards men", as it was understood by Luther (""). Lutheran theologians thus rejected the Vulgate version (they would have the verse end on "... bonae voluntes" in Latin), while composers were attached to the classic formula for its melodious rhythm. This Magnificat interpolation is the only place where Bach uses a version of the Gloria text that differs from the Vulgate, more or less catching the spirit of the theologian-approved version.
For SSATB and violins, E-flat major, .
D. Virga Jesse floruit
The text is "" (The stem of Jesse hath flourished, Our Emanuel hath appeared, And hath put on human flesh, And become a lovely child, Alleluja!) and is a fragment of a longer Christmas hymn that was printed in Gottfried Vopelius' Neu Leipziger Gesangbuch.
For S B, F major, 12/8.
Reception history
After the composer's death the autographs of both the E-flat major and the D major version of the Magnificat were owned by his son Carl Philipp Emanuel. Publication followed in the 19th century, including the Christmas hymns of the E-flat major version, and a variety of vocal and instrumental scores adapted to contemporary performance practice for the D major version. By the end of that century "The Magnificat in D (was) considered one of the grandest illustrations of Bach's genius." Generally it was also the D major version without the Christmas hymns that was chosen for performance.
A new critical edition of both BWV 243.2 and 243.1 was published in 1955 as Series 2, Volume 3 of the New Bach Edition. Although the D major version remained the standard for life performance and studio recordings, half a century later also the E-flat major version had been published in new editions adapted to performance, it had been recorded several times, and its composition history had been further unravelled.
18th century
In 1749, a year before his father's death, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach's Magnificat in D major had been performed in Leipzig, like his father's an extended setting. When Johann Sebastian had died, Carl Philipp Emanuel owned the autograph of both versions of his father's Magnificat, and staged the composition in Hamburg in 1786.
Laudes A and B (transposed to fit in a D major composition) were combined with a movement of a cantate by Graun (probably Carl Heinrich Graun) to form a Christmas motet, Kündlich groß ist das gottselige Geheimnis,
19th century
The score of the E-flat major version of Bach's Magnificat was first published by Simrock in 1811, edited by Georg Pölchau, however with printing errors, and without the Christmas hymns. It was the first composition of Bach for vocal soloists, chorus and orchestra that was printed in orchestral score, but at the time this publication had little success in sales. When in 1822 young Felix Mendelssohn composed a Magnificat in D major he showed that he knew Bach's version.
The D major version of Bach's Magnificat didn't appear in print before the Bach-revival that followed Mendelssohn's 1829 performance of the St Matthew Passion. In the 1840s a piano reduction by Robert Franz of Bach's D major version of the Magnificat appeared. In 1862 the orchestral and vocal score was published in Volume 11/1 of the Bach-Gesellschaft edition. The same edition printed the Christmas interpolations for the first time. A year later Robert Franz complained the composition had still received too little attention from music critics and so remained virtually unknown to the general public. A year later he published the D major version of the Magnificat with an orchestral score in line with 19th century performance practice, for example expanding the "organ and continuo" single stave with annotated bass from the autograph and the Bach-edition into several separate staves for organ, bassoon and celli.
Novello printed an Octavo edition of the D major Magnificat in 1874, using a translation to English which John Troutbeck based on the text in The Book of Common Prayer. In 1880, when Bach's autographs of the composition were already kept in the Royal Library (later State Library) of Berlin, Philipp Spitta devoted many pages to the Magnificat in his Bach-biography, considering it recognized as one of the greatest achievements of the composer's genius. Bach's Magnificat was performed several times in the last quarter of the 19th century, for instance in Germany and the Netherlands.
20th century
In 1924 Arnold Schering edited the full orchestral score of the D major version of Bach's Magnificat for publication by Ernst Eulenburg and Edition Peters. Performances of the Magnificat by, among others, Serge Koussevitzky and the Boston Symphony Orchestra were recorded in the 1940s and appeared on 78 rpm records. LP recordings of the early 1950s included live performances of the Magnificat directed by Otto Klemperer and by Herbert von Karajan, the last one with Elisabeth Schwarzkopf as soprano.
The Neue Bach Ausgabe published Bach's Magnificat (both BWV 243.1 and BWV 243.2) in 1955, edited by Alfred Dürr. This Urtext score was reused in several ensuing publications by Bärenreiter, among which several with an English translation. More recordings of the Magnificat became available, for instance directed by Kurt Redel, Leonard Bernstein, Karl Richter and Karl Ristenpart. The second half of the 1960s saw the first recordings of the Christmas version of the Magnificat BWV 243.1 including the laudes, and new recordings of the D major version by von Karajan, Karl Münchinger and Daniel Barenboim.
The earliest LP-releases that contained the Christmas laudes of BWV 243.1 inserted them, transposed, in the D major version BWV 243.2 of the Magnificat. In this form Helmuth Rilling's recording with the Bach-Collegium Stuttgart and the appeared in 1967 with a performance time of 40:06. Wolfgang Gönnenwein's Bach: Magnificat in D (Including Christmas Interpolations), with the Deutsche Bachsolisten and the Süddeutscher Madrigalchor appeared in the 1970s.
Bruno Maderna recorded BWV 243.1, with the choir and orchestra of the Südwestdeutscher Rundfunk, and Hedy Graf, Hildegard Laurich, Adalbert Kraus and Michael Schopper as vocal soloists, in 1971. Its CD-release as volume 8 of the Maderna Edition by Arkadia was in 1991. The first recording on period instruments of Bach's Magnificat, with the four choral Christmas interpolations (BWV 243.1), was released by Simon Preston and the Academy of Ancient Music in 1978 (L'Oiseau Lyre / Decca), coupled with Vivaldi's Gloria. Nicolaus Harnoncourt's first recording of the D major version followed in 1984. Also Helmuth Rilling and John Eliot Gardiner had by then recorded the D major version of the Magnificat.
20th century Magnificat composers often refer to Bach's composition in their new setting: Vaughan Williams (1932) and Rutter (1990) include hymns and songs outside the liturgical text in their extended settings, like Bach's Christmas version; Penderecki's extended setting (1973–74) makes musical associations to Bach's D major setting; Pärt uses a SSATB choir in his a cappella setting (1989).
Before the end of the century CD recordings of the D major version of Bach's Magnificat by Sigiswald Kuijken, Robert Shaw, Andrew Parrott, Philippe Herreweghe, Neville Marriner, Peter Schreier, Harry Christophers, Ton Koopman, and by the Bach Collegium Japan had been released. Philip Pickett's 1995 recording of the E-flat major version appeared on L'Oiseau Lyre. Other CD releases with BWV 243.1 that became available before the end of the century include a recording by Rilling and the Gächinger Kantorei, one with the Regensburger Domspatzen, and one with Rolf Schweizer, the Motettenchor Pforzheim and L'arpa festante playing on period instruments.
Novello published both the E-flat major and the D major version of the Magnificat in a single publication in 2000, edited by Neil Jenkins. This edition also offered a transposed version of the Christmas 1723 laudes so that they could be fitted in performances of the D major version of the Magnificat. The last measures of the Virga Jesse, missing from the autograph score, were in this edition completed on the basis of a similar composition by Bach.
21st century
Philippe Herreweghe's 2002 recording of BWV 243.1 with Collegium Vocale Gent was released by Harmonia Mundi in 2003. In 2003 Ton Koopman recorded the Christmas version of Bach's Magnificat with Amsterdam Baroque in the St. Thomas church in Leipzig. A DVD of the recording, which included a performance of Kuhnau's Magnificat with his four Christmas interpolations, and of Bach's German Magnificat BWV 10, was released in 2004. Thomas Hengelbrock's recording of BWV 243.1, with the Balthasar-Neumann-Chor and Ensemble, was released by Deutsche Harmonia Mundi in 2008. In 2009 Philippe Pierlot performed the D major version of the Magnificat with the Ricercar Consort, with five vocal soloists without choir.
Facsimiles of Bach's autographs of both versions of the Magnificat became available on-line. Bärenreiter published a critical edition of all score versions, based on Dürr's 1955 edition, again in 2014/15. The "synthetic" D major version, that is the D major version of the Magnificat with the Christmas laudes transposed to fit in that version, now published both by Novello and Bärenreiter, found performers and audiences.
That the composition ranges among Bach's most popular vocal works is illustrated by its regular appearance in classical music polls like Klara's . In December 2016, Bach's autograph of the D major version of his Magnificat was among the top three most visited scores at the Bach Digital website.
References
Sources
Bach, Johann Sebastian. Magnificat in E-flat major.
(1720–1739) Autograph: Magnificat E-flat major and Christmas hymns (Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, D-B Mus. ms. Bach P 38, at ) Note: Virga Jesse incomplete
(1811) First edition of the Magnificat score, E-flat major version, without the Christmas hymns.
(1862) Von Himmel hoch (SATB) / Freut euch und jubiliert (SSAT, continuo) / Gloria (SSATB with colla parte instruments & violino obligato) / Virga Jesse (fragment – S, B, continuo). Bach-Gesellschaft Ausgabe, Volume 11.1, Appendix. Edited by Wilhelm Rust. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel
(1959) Magnificat Es-dur: Herausgegeben von Alfred Dürr, Taschenpartituren No. 58. Bärenreiter, 1959.
(2014a)
Bach, Johann Sebastian. Magnificat in D major.
( 1732–1735) Autograph: Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, D-B Mus. ms. Bach P 39:
Manuscript of BWV 243.2 at
Composer's Manuscript at IMSLP
(1841) Magnificat in D-Dur : Klavierauszug, edited by Robert Franz. Breslau: Leuckart.
(1862) Bach-Gesellschaft Ausgabe, Band 11.1. Magnificat D dur und vier Sanctus, edited by Wilhelm Rust. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel.
(1864) Magnificat (in D-dur) bearbeitet von Robert Franz. Leipzig: Leuckart
(1874) Magnificat in D, in vocal score with an accompaniment for the organ or pianoforte – The adaptation to English words by J. Troutbeck. Novello's Original Octavo Edition. Novello, Ewer and Co.
(1895) Magnificat in D dur: Klavierauszug von Salomon Jadassohn. Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel
( 1956) Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, Series 2: Messen, Passionen und oratorische Werke, Volume 3: Magnificat D-dur BWV 243: Klavierauszug (Eduard Müller). Kassel (etc.): Bärenreiter.
( 1956) Magnificat D-Dur, BWV 243. Urtext of the New Bach Edition (Alfred Dürr). Foreword by the editor in German. English translation by Hans Ferdinand Redlich. For solo voices (SSATB), chorus (SSATB) and orchestra. Parts for: fl1, fl2, ob1, ob2, bsn1, tpt1, tpt2, tpt3, timp. – organ – strings (3,3,2,2). Duration: 30 min.
(1959) Magnificat in D major, BWV 243 Urtext edition taken from: J.S. Bach, Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, Series II, Vol. 3: Magnificat (Alfred Dürr). Preface in German with English translation by Hans Ferdinand Redlich, Jeremy Noble and J. Bradford Robinson. Kassel / New York : Bärenreiter. 11th printing, 2005.
(2014b)
Bach, Johann Sebastian. Magnificat in E-flat major and Magnificat in D major (published together)
(2000)
Bach, Johann Sebastian.
Gresham College lecture.
Spitta, Philipp. "Fünftes Buch: Leipziger Jahre von 1723–1734" in Johann Sebastian Bach, Zweiter Band. Breitkopf & Härtel, 1880.
"Fünftes Buch: Leipziger Jahre von 1723–1734" pp. 3–479 in Johann Sebastian Bach, Zweiter Band. Dritte unveränderte Auflage, Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1921.
Further reading
External links
Performance of the Magnificat in D major (BWV 243) by the Netherlands Bach Society (video and background information)
Magnificat (MIDI) from impresario.ch, with practice files for choristers
Keep it Short: J S Bach Magnificat, a 2011 Gresham College lecture by Christopher Hogwood
Compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach
1733 compositions
Bach
Compositions with natural trumpets in D
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellboy%20II%3A%20The%20Golden%20Army
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Hellboy II: The Golden Army
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Hellboy II: The Golden Army is a 2008 American superhero film based on the Dark Horse Comics character of the same name, created by Mike Mignola. Produced by Lawrence Gordon and Lloyd Levin in association with Dark Horse Entertainment, and distributed by Universal Pictures, it is a sequel to Hellboy (2004) and is the second live-action film in the franchise. Directed and written by Guillermo del Toro from a story he co-wrote with Mignola, the film stars Ron Perlman as Hellboy, alongside Selma Blair, Doug Jones, Jeffrey Tambor, and John Hurt. In the film, Hellboy and the Bureau of Paranormal Research and Defense must battle a mythical prince who plans to reclaim the world for his magical kindred.
Hellboy II: The Golden Army was released in the United States on July 11, 2008 to generally positive reviews from critics; with praised towards its fantasy atmosphere, as well as Perlman and the other cast's acting performances. It grossed over $168 million against a production budget between $82.5–85 million. The film received a nomination for Best Makeup at the 81st Academy Awards.
The film was rebooted in 2019, simply titled Hellboy an was released by Lionsgate. Following the critical and commercial failure of the film, a second reboot was announced in 2023.
Plot
During Christmas 1955, a young Hellboy is told a bedtime story by his adoptive father, Trevor Bruttenholm, of an ancient war between humans and magical creatures. One day, the goblin blacksmith offer to Balor, king of the elves, to build him an indestructible mechanical army. Encouraged by his son Prince Nuada, Balor accepts. The Golden Army subsequently devastates humanity. Regretting his actions, Balor forms a truce with the humans. The crown to command the Golden Army, which can only be worn by one of royal blood, is split into three pieces. Nuada, disagreeing with the truce, leaves in exile.
In the present, a year after foiling the evil sorcerer Grigori Rasputin's plans to summon the Ogdru Jahad and enact Armageddon, Nuada returns and begins gathering the pieces of the crown. He collects the first piece from an auction by unleashing tooth fairies that eat the crowd, and then kills his father for the second piece. His twin sister Princess Nuala escapes with the final piece.
Meanwhile, at the B.P.R.D., demonic special agent Hellboy is having issues with his girlfriend Liz and dislikes that their organization must operate in secrecy. Investigating the auction slaughter, Hellboy allows himself to be revealed to the world. In the commotion, Abe Sapien discovers Liz is pregnant but she swears him to secrecy.
Furious at Hellboy's actions, Tom Manning's superiors send the ectoplasmic medium Johann Krauss to rein him in. With Krauss in charge, the team tracks the tooth fairies to a secret troll market under the Brooklyn Bridge. Abe finds Nuala, who has obtained a map leading to the Golden Army, and falls in love with her. Hellboy fights and kills Nuada's accomplice Wink and an elemental forest god that Nuada summons against him. During the fight, Nuada questions why he fights for the humans when they have driven the magical creatures into hiding, of which he, too, is one. Nuala is taken under the B.P.R.D.'s protection.
Nuada tracks his sister to the B.P.R.D. headquarters using their magical bond, which also causes them to share wounds and read each other's thoughts. Nuala hides the final crown piece before Nuada finds her and he battles Hellboy. Nuada critically wounds Hellboy with his spear and abducts Nuala, promising her return in exchange for the crown piece. Unable to remove the spear shard in his wound, Liz and Abe decide to take Hellboy to the Golden Army's location in the Giant's Causeway of Northern Ireland. Krauss comes along, as he sympathizes with Liz, revealing that he, too, lost his wife in the accident that caused the loss of his own body.
They encounter the Bethmoora goblin master blacksmith who brings them before the Angel of Death to retrieve the spear shard. Though warned that Hellboy will doom humanity if he lives and that she will suffer the most from it, Liz pleads for Hellboy's life. The Angel removes the shard from Hellboy's chest and tells Liz to give him a reason to live. She reveals to Hellboy that he will be a father and he recovers.
The goblin leads the team to the resting place of the Golden Army, where Nuada awaits them. Abe gives him the last piece of the crown and Nuada awakens the Golden Army. Hellboy challenges Nuada for the right to command the army. As Hellboy is a member of Hell's royal family, Nuada must accept the challenge. Hellboy defeats Nuada and spares his life, but as Nuada tries stabbing him, Nuala commits suicide to stop her brother and the dying Nuada tells Hellboy he will have to choose whether humanity or magical beings must die. Abe psychically shares his feelings with Nuala before she dies. Liz uses her pyrokinesis to melt the crown, deactivating the Golden Army for good.
Hellboy, Liz, Abe, and Johann resign from the B.P.R.D. and Hellboy contemplates his future life with Liz and their baby. Liz corrects him by revealing that she is pregnant with twins.
Cast
Ron Perlman as Hellboy: An immensely powerful demon who works for the government organization Bureau for Paranormal Research and Defense (B.P.R.D.). Guillermo del Toro described the character's dilemma in the sequel, "[He] has always fought on the side of humans, but this [fantasy of destruction] pushes his buttons to reconsider." In the sequel, Hellboy is armed with an enormous new gun called "The Big Baby", which fires flare-like bullets. Montse Ribé plays a young version of Hellboy in an opening flashback.
Selma Blair as Liz Sherman: A pyrokinetic member of B.P.R.D. and Hellboy's girlfriend. Blair described her character as more engaging in the sequel, "In the first one she was afraid to take a step. She was completely a zombie, not wanting to own up to her power and having the memory of what she'd created in her life... I was really eager to come and play Liz with a little more vibrancy." Blair also had short hair for her role, avoiding long hair from her portrayal in the first film, which she felt "brought her face down". The actress emphasized Liz Sherman's growth in the sequel, "She's looking to the future much more, and things are happening in this one that she has to buck up... I think you're dealing with a lot knowing this young girl that we last saw as very damaged, and now she's with this guy, and all these people around her, I think, we've really had to step up a strength, and a confidence in her so that I don't look like the little baby kid sister tagging along."
Doug Jones as three characters:
Abe Sapien: An ichthyo sapien psychic who works for B.P.R.D. with Hellboy. Jones said of his return to the role after the first film, "He's been an absolute treat for me to play this time. He's written with so many different colours and levels and there's a love interest... And his buddy time with Hellboy is more concrete and his brother/sister time with Liz is even better." Jones believed that Abe Sapien became "the brains, the intellect of the team" while Hellboy protects his character because he is still "kind of innocent". The actor pointed to his character's adolescence with love, "His love life is something that's never been tapped into before... So just like a 13-year-old with his first crush, this is how you're going to see Abe this time. A portion of him. Will this affect his decision-making powers?" Unlike the first movie, where Abe's voice was dubbed by David Hyde Pierce, Doug Jones provided the voice himself.
Angel of Death: A female angel with androgynous characteristics. Jones explained his portrayal, "The script refers to the angel as a her and that's what I do. I think she has feminine qualities, but she's not totally a woman either. And that's okay. I like characters that keep you guessing."
Chamberlain: The door keeper for King Balor. The creature is long, gangly, eight feet tall and wears silk and velvet robes. It also has long, spindly fingers, which filmmakers mobilized with servos and which Jones wore as extensions of his own hands.
John Alexander and James Dodd as Johann Krauss: Krauss is a German psychic whose ectoplasmic being is contained in a suit after a botched séance. Originally, filmmakers planned to create a computer-generated version of the glass fishbowl helmet, but with the cost being prohibitive, they created an actual helmet. To ensure the invisibility of the actor's head under the glass, perspective and mirror tricks were used. The helmet was controlled by two puppeteers, so the heavy contraption had to be shared between Alexander and Dodd.
Seth MacFarlane voices Johann Krauss, having taken over from Thomas Kretschmann, after del Toro decided that Kretschmann's voice and the mechanical sound effects to Johann's suit did not mesh well.
John Alexander also performs and voices the Bethmoora Goblin, a legless goblin who helps Hellboy and the team find the Angel of Death. He is the master goblin blacksmith who forged the Golden Army and lost his original legs in the process.
Luke Goss as Prince Nuada Silverlance: King Balor's son and a martial arts expert of extraordinary proficiency. Goss was previously cast as mutant vampire Jared Nomak in del Toro's 2002 film Blade II, and the director approached the actor to be cast in Hellboy II. The only other actor considered for the part was Charlie Hunnam. Goss trained with action director and former Jackie Chan Stunt Team member, Brad Allan, learning sword and spear skills for six to seven months for his role. He and Anna Walton also learned ancient Gaelic from a dialog coach for their lines. Goss did not perceive Nuada as evil, explaining, "It's issues, his people, he's part of what he truly believes. I don't think, really, he's so deluded... [He] is driven by an ethic that was instilled by the person he has problems [with; that is,] his father, and inevitably, that leads into the conflict with him and Hellboy." Goss also noted that his character admired and revered his twin sister, portrayed by Anna Walton. He said of the prince and the princess, "There is an incestuous relationship that's not maybe overly obvious to everybody, but some people hopefully will pick up on the fact, certainly from my direction towards her."
Anna Walton as Princess Nuala: King Balor's daughter and Nuada's twin sister. She is described as "very light" while Nuada is "very dark", creating a yin and yang dynamic. She elaborated on the incestuous tones between her character and Prince Nuada, "He's the dark side and she's the light side and they're pulled apart and pulled back together again, and she's trying to get away because she knows there is something she has to do. He can't let that go and they can't really do anything without each other so it's a really interesting thing." Her character also forms a relationship with Abe Sapien, and Walton noted their similarities, "They are both slightly lost souls and they understand each other." Walton spoke of her character's sense of purpose, "She feels very strongly about what she has to do in the film, and then her absolute connection and love for the Earth and what we are given. That's what she's here to protect... Her relationship with her brother, and how he is almost a part of her but she has to break away and will do whatever it takes to stop him from achieving what he wants to achieve, which is the mass destruction of mankind."
Jeffrey Tambor as Tom Manning: Head of the B.P.R.D., he has a slightly antagonistic relationship with Hellboy.
John Hurt as Trevor Bruttenholm: Hellboy's adoptive father, he is seen in the beginning of the film telling young Hellboy the story of the Golden Army.
Brian Steele as four of the trolls:
Mr. Wink: A giant cave troll who was originally conceived by Guillermo del Toro. Wink was sculpted by Mario Torres, and the costume was worn by Brian Steele. In the film, Wink's right arm has a giant metal fist. The fist was designed by filmmakers to be made of heavy plastic to stay light enough for motors to operate the mechanical fingers. The fist could also be physically detached and used as a projectile without any computer-generated imagery used. Several of Mike Mignola's comics characters wield similar mechanical fists on chains, including the Kriegaffes used by Herman von Klempt. Likewise, Mr. Wink has an old wound on the left side of his face that has closed one of his eyes. Del Toro said that he named Mr. Wink after Selma Blair's one-eyed dog (which Blair confirms in a commentary track for the DVD release).
Cathedral Head: A troll who is the owner of a map shop who gives Princess Nuala the hidden map.
Fragglewump: A monstrous Scottish troll that masquerades as a sweet old lady and feeds on kittens and fears canaries.
Cronie Troll: A spice shop owner who gets in an argument with Hellboy in the troll market
Roy Dotrice as King Balor: The one-armed king of Elfland. All of his dialogue is in Gaelic.
Production
In May 2004, following the release of Guillermo del Toro's Hellboy the previous month, a sequel was announced by Revolution Studios with del Toro returning to direct and Ron Perlman reprising his lead role as the title character. The director sought to create a film trilogy with the first sequel anticipated for release in 2006. Revolution Studios planned to produce the film and distribute it through a deal with Columbia Pictures, but by 2006, their distribution deal wasn't renewed and Revolution began refocusing on exploiting their film library. In August 2006, Universal Pictures acquired the project with the intent to finance and distribute the sequel, which was newly scheduled to be released in summer of 2008. Production was scheduled to begin in April 2007 in Etyek, Hungary (near Budapest) and London, England.
Director Guillermo del Toro explored several concepts for the sequel, initially planning to recreate the classic versions of Frankenstein, Dracula and the Wolf Man. He and comic book creator Mike Mignola also spent a few days adapting the Almost Colossus story, featuring Roger the Homunculus. They then found it easier to create an original story based on folklore, because del Toro was planning Pan's Labyrinth, and Mignola's comics were becoming increasingly based on mythology. Later, del Toro pitched a premise to Revolution Studios that involved four Titans from the four corners of Earth—Wind, Water, Fire, and Earth—before he replaced the Titans with a Golden Army. Mignola described the theme of the sequel, "The focus is more on the folklore and fairy tale aspect of Hellboy. It's not Nazis, machines and mad scientists but the old gods and characters who have been kind of shoved out of our world."
Del Toro released Pan's Labyrinth in 2006, and the film earned multiple Academy Awards, providing the director enough clout to begin production on the film. Guillermo del Toro began filming the film in June 2007 in Budapest and concluded in December 2007. The film was the first American production to shoot at Korda Studios in Hungary, then newly built outside Budapest. The creature shop was led by the company Spectral Motion, and Filmefex contributed work in makeup and prosthetics. The latter company designed a creature for the troll market scene and built several statues and full-size replicas of the Golden Army.
Music
Eddy Arnold – "Santa Claus Is Coming to Town"
Takako Nishizaki and Jenő Jandó – "Violin Sonata No. 9"
Travis – "All I Want to Do Is Rock"
Poet in Process – "Why"
Brenga Astur – "Nel Caleyu La Fonte"
Eels – "Beautiful Freak"
Barry Manilow – "Can't Smile Without You"
Red Is for Fire – "Noir"
Release
Hellboy II: The Golden Army opened on July 11, 2008, in 3,204 theaters in the United States and Canada. The film ranked first at the box office, grossing an estimated $35.9 million over the weekend, outperforming the opening of its predecessor, which had opened with $23.2 million. The opening was the biggest of Guillermo del Toro's directing career until 2013, when it was surpassed by Pacific Rim.
Audiences polled by CinemaScore, during the opening weekend, gave the film a 'B' grade. The demographic for the film was mostly male, and the age distribution for moviegoers below and above 25 years old was evenly split. Outside of the United States and Canada, the film had a limited release on 533 screens in Mexico, Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore, grossing $4.6 million.
In its second weekend in the United States and Canada, the film's box office performance dropped 71% to gross $10.1 million, a larger drop than its predecessor, which dropped 53% in comparison. The sequel's larger drop was attributed to the significant opening of the Batman film The Dark Knight. As of September 9, 2008 the film has grossed $75,986,503 in the United States and Canada. The film came top in the UK and Ireland box office charts upon its release on August 22 and earned an additional international gross of $84,401,560 bringing its worldwide total to $160,388,063.
Marketing
In addition to television spots showing scenes from the film, humorous adverts were also aired depicting Hellboy appearing on Ghost Hunters; being interviewed by James Lipton on Inside the Actors Studio; playing video games with Chuck Bartowski from Chuck; visiting the set of American Gladiators; auditioning for a high school event; and hosting a public service announcement with a cat.
Home media
Hellboy II: The Golden Army was released on DVD and Blu-ray on November 11, 2008. For the DVD, there is both a single-disc and a 3-disc special edition (not available in the UK).
The single-disc edition includes the movie and a very limited selection of special features. Available on the one-disc edition is a "Director's Notebook" section, in which pages of Del Toro's notebook are reproduced, showcasing design sketches and annotations by the director, as well as "video pod" segments in which he explains these designs and concepts further. The segment is available in the three-disc edition in the "pre-production vault", which also includes other galleries. The three-disc special edition includes two audio commentaries (one by Del Toro and another by members of the cast), six deleted scenes, several featurettes, a full-length documentary, and image galleries. Though not added into the movie after credits due to budget cuts, a comic style of the Zinco Sequel is added to the special features, serving as a prologue to the third Hellboy movie. The third disc contains a digital copy. Hellboy II: The Golden Army was released on 4K UHD Blu-Ray on May 7, 2019.
Reception
Critical response
Rotten Tomatoes reported that of critics gave the film positive reviews, with an average rating of , based on reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Guillermo del Toro crafts a stellar comic book sequel, boasting visuals that are as imaginative as the characters are endearing." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 78 out of 100, based on 36 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three and a half stars out of four, the same rating he gave the first film, writing: "In every way the equal of del Toro's original Hellboy, although perhaps a little noisier, it's another celebration of his love for bizarre fantasy and diabolical machines." Michael Rechtshaffen writing in The Hollywood Reporter said Hellboy II was an uncompromised vision of del Toro's imagination. He said that with the director given free rein, the film came across as an amalgam of the best moments from his previous films, only with better visual effects. John Anderson of Variety wrote of a rococo precision to the visuals that exceeded that of the first film. He cited del Toro's "clockmaker's preoccupation with detail" and ability to blend state-of-the-art technology with more classical visuals as the reasons for the film's success. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly said that the plot did not often deviate from its comic-book traditions, but that del Toro staged the action "brilliantly". He said that while the visual effects deserved recognition, what made the film so exciting was the personality they were imbued with. Chuck Wilson of The Village Voice said that del Toro was on autopilot, but that he and his Pan's Labyrinth crew, cinematographer Guillermo Navarro in particular, staged the steady stream of action set-pieces expertly. Mike Goodridge of Screen International wrote that del Toro had retained the B movie tone of the first film, saying the film managed to avoid the self-importance of The Incredible Hulk and the Batman film series and that del Toro was simply a "great storyteller" providing a "good time". Stuart Levine in Premiere praised the visuals and "beautiful" set-pieces, but said del Toro's script fell a little short of his direction. Alonso Duralde writing for msnbc.com said it represented a backwards step for del Toro, saying that despite several creepy sequences, the film was a return to the muddled storytelling and pretty visuals of his pre-Pan's Labyrinth films. He said del Toro's screenplay lacked energy or momentum. However, Peter Bradshaw, of The Guardian, said almost the opposite was the case, as he thinks "it is a crackingly enjoyable and exciting sequel, with something that the memory of Pan's Labyrinth might have entirely erased: a sense of humour." Noting that "this spectacular movie seethes and fizzes with wit and energy, absorbing and transforming influences such as Ghostbusters and even Harry Potter and the secret world of Diagon Alley."
John Anderson said the film would be "almost unthinkable" without Ron Perlman in the lead role, saying the film was more successful than its predecessor mainly due to the more deliberately amusing tone and the "drily ironic" title character. He said the only weak link was Luke Goss's "unimposing" villain. While praising the general banter between Perlman and Blair, Stuart Levine said the nonchalant Hellboy exhibited insufficient growth as a character, and that Jeffrey Tambor was largely wasted in his role. He agreed that Goss's villain was weak as written, with no tangible menace. Helen O'Hara of Empire said the character was only let down by a lack of screentime in which to give him enough dramatic weight, and that Goss did "a perfectly good job". Owen Gleiberman said Perlman was more assured than in the first Hellboy, funnier and more cantankerous. He said the entire ensemble had "an appealing, outsize grandeur" about it. Mike Goodridge said the film carefully developed the character relationships, and Chuck Wilson said that other than the title character's penchant for chewing cigars, he was otherwise "uninteresting". Alonso Duralde wrote that the "sitcom-ish" character dilemmas were uninteresting, saying that Perlman and Tambor's performances were regularly let down by the script. He said that Blair's performance was possibly the first bad one he'd seen by the actress, and that while Jones was "brilliant" physically, his vocal performance was inferior to David Hyde Pierce's in the first Hellboy film. Michael Rechtshaffen called Perlman "terrific" and said Blair's brooding portrayal was effective.
Michael Rechtshaffen concluded that Hellboy II was less focused than the first film, but that it played "faster and looser" and mostly a "wild ride". In a positive review, John Anderson's main criticism was a sequence set in Northern Ireland, which he called the least interesting and most conventional segment of the film. Chuck Wilson said the film "didn't have much on its mind", but that it would amaze children and amuse adults, Stuart Levine said the film was worth viewers' time, and Alonso Duralde said Hellboy II was "limp and unengaging". Owen Gleiberman surmised that the film was "derivative yet... dazzling", and Mike Goodridge concluded by praising the filmmakers' skill at creating a film that, despite featuring "stunning" action sequences and creature effects, still found time for character development and a fulfilling story that expanded the franchise's wider mythology. Peter Bradshaw suggested that "'Visionary' is a word too easily applied to fantasy movies, but it sticks easily here."
The film appeared on some critics' top ten lists of the best films of 2008. Rene Rodriguez of the Miami Herald named it the fifth-best film of 2008 (along with The Dark Knight), and Stephanie Zacharek of Salon named it the tenth-best film of 2008 (along with Iron Man).
Awards
Tie-in publications and merchandise
Short story
Guillermo del Toro and Matthew Robbins co-authored the short story, "Tasty Teeth", which was published in the 2004 anthology Hellboy: Odder Jobs by Dark Horse Comics. In the story, Hellboy encounters tooth fairies in a tomb in Romania, featuring elements that were later incorporated into the auction house sequence in the film.
Promotional comic
This story by Mike Mignola and Guillermo del Toro with art by Francisco Ruiz Velasco was published as a special promotion for the film by Dark Horse Comics in one-shot comic book Hellboy: The Golden Army (January 2008) with three variant covers:
Photo cover of Ron Perlman as Hellboy
Photo cover of Doug Jones as Abe Sapien
Photo cover of Selma Blair as Liz Sherman
In his introduction film director del Toro affirms his and Mignola's admiration of Velasco's "clean, propulsive narrative, draftsmanship, and artistic skills" and states that the intention of this title is to treat the film's opening narrative as a mini-epic and give the artist the opportunity to tell it with unlimited budget and shooting time.
In the story Professor Trevor Bruttenholm, caring for the young Hellboy at Douglas Air Force Base, New Mexico, on Christmas Eve 1944, relates the story of the Golden Army from the film's opening prologue, which he describes as the first tale ever told, as a bedtime story that he ends by saying one day Hellboy may find out if it is true.
Art book
Hellboy II: The Art of the Movie (June 18, 2008, ) by Guillermo del Toro and Mike Mignola with art by Sergio Sandoval and Francisco Ruiz Velasco looks into the film's evolution, from early concept art and diary sketches to photos of the final props, sets, and includes:
Complete screenplay including a deleted scene illustrated with the original storyboards
Interviews and commentary from creator Mike Mignola and filmmaker Guillermo del Toro
Novelization
Hellboy II: The Golden Army (June 18, 2008, ) by Robert Greenberger is the official novelization of the film.
Video game
During its initial theatrical release in North America, a video game set within the Hellboy universe was released around the time that of the film entitled Hellboy: The Science of Evil for PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable and Xbox 360, released on June 24 in North America and August 15 in Europe. Despite its close release date, promotion alongside the film and featuring voices of the same actors, the game is not a direct movie tie-in with the plot not being related to that of the film but instead follows an original story where Hellboy investigates Nazi operations in Romania under Herman von Klempt, an antagonist from the comics.
Zinco epilogue
Included as a special feature on the DVD is an animated comic that foreshadows the events of the next film. In the Zinco Epilogue, a group of men go into Rasputin's tomb and find Kroenen's body. After bringing Kroenen to a doctor along with instructions to revive him with an alchemical manual, Zinco and his party travel to an arctic cave with Zinco as the only survivor. Upon entering the cavern, Zinco opens a container he has with him containing the preserved head of Kroenen and attaches it to a giant robot. As soon as it is attached, the cyborg awakens and the spirit of Rasputin appears, stating that he has one more job for him.
Notes
Post release
Cancelled sequel and spin-offs
Del Toro had expressed interest in a sequel, saying, "I think we would all come back to do a third Hellboy, if they can wait for me to get out of Middle-Earth, but we don't know. Ron may want to do it sooner, but I certainly know where we're going with the movie on the third one." On May 30, 2010, Guillermo del Toro dropped out of directing The Hobbit.
In June 2010, Del Toro speculated that Hellboy III might happen after his next project, but said that the screenplay had yet to be written.
On July 14, 2012, after being inspired by a recent Make-A-Wish function in which Ron Perlman appeared in full Hellboy makeup for a terminally ill boy, Del Toro stated, "I can say publicly that now we are together in trying [to do Hellboy 3]".
On April 5, 2013, in an interview with Comic Book Resources, Hellboy creator Mike Mignola commented that the possibility of a third Hellboy film seemed unlikely, stating "The biggest problem I see as far as PR for the next billion years is explaining endlessly ... that there's no Hellboy 3 movie".
On June 30, 2013, del Toro discussed the possibility of developing Hellboy 3 at Legendary Pictures. He stated: "I hate giving pieces about it, but last night, we were at dinner and Ron said, 'I would be very happy to do Hellboy again, when are we doing Hellboy 3? Thomas Tull said, 'I would love to see Hellboy 3.' He didn't say he would love to do it he just said he'd like to see it, but today, I'll ask him." Ron Perlman added his support for the idea, stating: "Not just anybody can make this movie. I loved working for Legendary and I know for Guillermo working on Pacific Rim was one of his greatest experiences. The reason I loved working for them is because Guillermo was so happy. I came in six months into the shoot and he seemed as fresh as a daisy, simply because he was working for someone who appreciated and supported his outlandish visions of what he wanted to put on the screen. My immediate, silent wish was, wouldn't it be great if these guys came in and helped resolve the Hellboy series."
Del Toro suggested telling the story of Hellboy 3 in comic book form, but Mignola vetoed the idea.
On June 30, 2013, in an interview, Ron Perlman spoke about Hellboy 3 saying, "[Hellboy 3] needs to be twice as big as Hellboy 1 or Hellboy 2. It's all of these oracles coming home to roost with these apocalyptic things taking place, Guillermo's version of this resolve in the trilogy is epic in scope. Not just anybody can make this movie. It has to be somebody who's no stranger to this sense of scope. For me to do Hellboy 3, it could kill me—in terms of physically demanding, for a guy my age, but it's worth it because anyone who sits and listens to Guillermo's version of how this thing ends is completely seduced. It's so theatrical and compelling and if you liked the first two movies in any way, shape or form, this is the ultimate one-two punch."
On July 11, 2014, in a Reddit AMA, Del Toro said, "Well, you know, we don't have that movie on the horizon, but the idea for it was to have Hellboy finally come to terms with the fact that his destiny, his inevitable destiny, is to become the beast of the Apocalypse, and having him and Liz face the sort of, that part of his nature, and he has to do it, in order to be able to ironically vanquish the foe that he has to face in the 3rd film. He has to become the beast of the Apocalypse to be able to defend humanity, but at the same time he becomes a much darker being. It's a very interesting ending to the series, but I don't think it will happen. ... We have gone through basically every studio and asked for financing, and they are not interested. I think that the first movie made its budget back, and a little bit of profit, but then it was very very big on video and DVD. The story repeated itself with the second already, it made its money back at the box office, but a small margin of profit in the release of the theatrical print, but was very very big on DVD and video. Sadly now from a business point of view all the studios know is that you don't have that safety net of the DVD and video, so they view the project as dangerous."
In July 2015, del Toro said that Legendary Pictures might fund Hellboy 3 if Pacific Rim: Uprising does well at the box office: "The hard fact is that the movie's going to need about $120 million and there's nobody knocking down our doors to give it to us. It's a little beyond Kickstarter." After del Toro left the director's chair for Pacific Rim: Uprising, the deal fell through.
In February 2017, Del Toro announced via Twitter, "Must report that 100% [Hellboy 3] will not happen."
In July 2019, Perlman said that he would still love to finish the trilogy with del Toro, ignoring the reboot, and that he thought it could happen if financing could be found. In January 2022, Perlman encouraged Del Toro to proceed with the sequel, saying that they owed it to the fans to get it done and that "it would be an epic conclusion."
In 2010, Hellboy screenwriter Peter Briggs was asked by Universal to script a spin-off centring on Prince Nuada, and provisionally agreed that Briggs could direct the film in New Zealand. Briggs began work on an outline with co-writer Aaron Mason. Titled Hellboy: Silverlance, the script was a B.P.R.D. story featuring Abe Sapien as the main character with Hellboy in a supporting role. Moving into the new B.P.R.D. headquarters in Colorado, Abe is troubled by his psychic connection with Princess Nuala, and begins researching the elves' history. The film would have shown Nuada's adventures throughout history, including his rivalry with a fairy courtier who orchestrates Nuada's exile in hopes of marrying Nuala and seizing control of the fairy kingdom; Nuada first meeting Mister Wink by saving him from a troupe of soldiers during the Spanish Inquisition; and Nuada in Nazi Germany, engineering a pact to keep various supernatural entities safe during World War II (with Nuada and Kroenen fighting in a "friendly" match for Project Ragnarok men.) Doug Jones would have played both Abe and the Angel of Death, who strikes a bargain with Nuada. Rupert Evans's Agent Myers would also have returned. The story climaxed at the new B.P.R.D. headquarters, with the return of Rasputin's summoning gauntlet. Universal wanted to proceed with the project, but it emerged that del Toro's Hellboy 3 was still a possibility, so Silverlance was shelved.
In 2015, Briggs received another call from Universal, saying that Hellboy 3 had been cancelled and asking him and Mason to return for a reworked Silverlance, with producer Lawrence Gordon involved. The caveat was that Hellboy could not appear, but the writers managed to get the character a cameo appearance at the climax. If successful, the film would have launched a From the Files of the B.P.R.D. spin-off series.
In May 2017, Briggs affirmed that, with the announcement of the Hellboy reboot, the Silverlance project was dead.
In September 2023, Pearlman stated that he was still interested in making a third film with del Toro to complete the trilogy.
Reboots
About 2014, Mignola, writer Andrew Cosby, and the producers began work on the story for a new film. The project was initially intended as a sequel to del Toro's films, but Perlman was unwilling to star without del Toro involved. When Neil Marshall joined, it was decided that the new film would be a reboot.
On May 8, 2017, it was announced that Millennium Films was in negotiations with producers Larry Gordon and Lloyd Levin for a film with the working title Hellboy: Rise of the Blood Queen, with Marshall is in talks to direct and Stranger Things star David Harbour expected to play Hellboy. Hellboy creator Mike Mignola co-wrote the script with Cosby and Christopher Golden. On August 8, 2017, Lionsgate confirmed that the project would finally only be known as Hellboy. The film was released on April 12, 2019 to negative reviews and performed poorly at the box office.
In February 2023, Millennium Media announced plans for a new live-action reboot titled Hellboy: The Crooked Man, the first in a potential series of films. Production is scheduled to begin in March 2023 in Bulgaria with Brian Taylor directing from a script by Mignola and Golden, based on the 2008 comic of the same name. The film is to be co-produced between Nu Boyana and Campbell Grobman Film and is presented by Millennium Media in association with Dark Horse Entertainment.
References
Further reading
External links
From mind to movie - how the world of Hellboy II was created - Extrageographic
Hellboy films
2008 films
2000s fantasy action films
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2000s pregnancy films
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American superhero films
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Films based on Celtic mythology
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Demons in film
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barberini%20ivory
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Barberini ivory
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The Barberini ivory is a Byzantine ivory leaf from an imperial diptych dating from Late Antiquity, now in the Louvre in Paris. It represents the emperor as triumphant victor. It is generally dated from the first half of the 6th century and is attributed to an imperial workshop in Constantinople, while the emperor is usually identified as Justinian, or possibly Anastasius I or Zeno. It is a notable historical document because it is linked to queen Brunhilda of Austrasia. On the back there is a list of names of Frankish kings, all relatives of Brunhilda, indicating her important position. Brunhilda ordered the list to be inscribed and offered it to the church as a votive image.
Although it is not a consular diptych, it shares many features of their decorative schemes. The emperor is accompanied in the main panel by a conquered barbarian in trousers at left, a crouching allegorical figure, probably representing territory conquered or reconquered, who holds his foot in thanks or submission, and an angel or victory, crowning the emperor with the traditional palm of victory (which is now lost). Although the barbarian is partly hidden by the emperor's huge spear, this does not pierce him, and he seems more astonished and over-awed than combative. Above, Christ, with a fashionable curled hair-style, is flanked by two more angels in the style of pagan victory figures; he reigns above, while the emperor represents him below on earth. In the bottom panel barbarians from West (left, in trousers) and East (right, with ivory tusks, a tiger and a small elephant) bring tribute, which includes wild animals. The figure in the left panel, representing a soldier, carries a statuette of Victory; his counterpart on the right is lost.
Design
It was originally made up of five rectangular plaques, although that on the right has been replaced (perhaps in the 16th century) by a board bearing the inscription CONSTANT. N. IMP. CONST. The plaques are fitted together by tongue and groove joints, around a larger central plaque. Overall, the piece is the only such secular object to survive in such good condition. It measures high by wide overall, with the central panel high by wide by deep. It is made from elephant ivory, sculpted and mounted with precious stones (7 pearls survive). It carries no traces of polychromy, contrary to what certain historians have supposed.
It is not certain that the Barberini ivory belonged to a diptych, that is that there was a second set of plaques forming a second leaf with another portrait, perhaps of the empress – this first leaf is already too heavy to be comfortably used as a real writing tablet, and there is not trace of a hinge that could indicate it was a bookcover.
Owners
The reverse of the object is flat and smooth, without the depression for wax which would be found on a consular diptych, which would be used as a writing tablet. Nevertheless, it is streaked with lines engraved later over older ink inscriptions – it includes a list of names (prayers for the dead), among whom can be seen the kings of Austrasia and other names, mostly Latin ones. Onomastics shows that the list comes from Auvergne and not from Provence as has been thought from the location of the object in the modern era. The inscriptions also date to the 7th century (maybe around 613) and show that the work was brought to Gaul early in its life.
The ivory's history between then and 1625 is unknown – in that year it was offered by the leading antiquary Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc to the Papal legate Cardinal Francesco Barberini in Aix-en-Provence, becoming part of the Barberini collection in Rome. Peiresc mentions it specifically in a letter to his friend Palamède de Vallavez, dated 29 October 1625:
...[the cardinal] was pleased to see an ancient ivory bas-relief which I recovered a little earlier, where is represented the emperor Heraclius on horseback, with borders bearing a cross and his son Constantine carrying a Victory and many captive provinces beneath his feet, like that of the Grand 'Camayeul' of Tiberius. I gave it to him as he left (...) he had several similar pieces in the same manner in ivory, with which [my example] would go well.
We can very probably find confirmation of it being in the Barberini collection through a mention of an ivory representing Constantine in the inventory of sculptures in the possession of Francesco Barberini between 1626 and 1631.
It was acquired by the Louvre in 1899 and has since then been in the département des objets d'art (inventory number OA 9063).
Iconography
The work combines on the one hand a classic theme of the total power of the victorious emperor, crowned by Victory, whose universal rule is synonymous with peace and prosperity, and on the other hand the theme of Christian victory brought by Christ's patronage and blessing of the emperor. It introduces a new cosmic hierarchy into the representation of the triumph of the Roman Empire and is thus a highly political work designed to serve as imperial propaganda. The quality of the workmanship allows it to be attributed to an imperial workshop in Constantinople.
Central panel
The composition is arranged around a central plaque which dominates it by its motif as much as by its stylistic quality. The sculpted motif is a triumphant figure of an emperor on a rearing horse. In his right hand the emperor holds the butt of a lance, the other end pointed towards the ground, and in his left he holds his horse's reins. Behind the lance is the figure of a barbarian, identified as such by his hair, his bushy beard and above all by his clothes - his curved cap (similar to a Phrygian cap), indicating an eastern origin, a long-sleeved tunic and baggy trousers. Symbolising a Persian or a Scythian, he may represent the peoples defeated by the emperor – as a sign of submission he touches the lance with his right hand and raises his left hand - or be "cheering", perhaps a member of an auxiliary unit. Ernst Kitzinger noted as "remarkable... the amount of lively activity with which the central relief is packed", in contrast to the static figures at the centre of most diptychs. In his interpretation "The emperor has arrived on his charger this instant, his mantle still flying in the wind. It almost appears as though he had just passed through a low city gate which had caused him to tilt his head. He pulls in his reins and makes a rapid half-turn as he rams his spear into the ground to use it as a support in dismounting. ... In all Roman art there is no more spirited portrayal of an imperial adventus."
In the lower right corner, under the horse, a woman lies on the ground. Her robe has slipped, revealing her right breast, and in her left hand she holds a fold of her robe containing fruits, symbols of prosperity. Her right hand is raised to the emperor's right foot in a gesture of submission. She personifies Earth, representing the emperor's universal domination and with the fruits symbolising the prosperity of his reign. This personification was often presented in this role on images of the triumphant emperor or the emperor in majesty, as for example on the missorium of Theodosius (with Tellus similarly represented at the bottom of the composition, under the figure of Theodosius I enthroned in majesty) and on the relief of the pietas augustorum on the arch of Galerius (where the Tetrarchs are accompanied by a series of personifications, including Gaia) These personifications of Tellus/Gaia are generally recognisable by their principal attribute of a cornucopia – this is not actually present on the ivory, but the fruit-filled fold in the woman's robe is of the same form and fulfils the same symbolic function.
Counterbalancing this first female figure, in the top right hand corner of the central panel, is a statuette of a winged Victory standing over a globe inscribed with the sign of the cross, holding a palm (symbol of victory) in her left hand and in her right hand (now broken) she almost certainly held a crown to be placed on the emperor's head. This type of statuette personification is also one of the links to the iconography of the triumphant emperor, found on several coins (e.g. the reverse of the solidus of Constantine II, right) but also in sculpture (e.g. the scene of sacrifice on the arch of Galerius) and on some consular diptychs.
The emperor has a bowl or archivolt haircut, of the sort where the fringe describes an arched circle around his face, similar to that worn by Constantine, and wears a crown studded with pearls, of which four survive. His facial features are oval in form and quite heavy, notably the eyelids and the nose, but give a cheerful character to the imperial portrait. The emperor wears the military uniform of commander in chief, the role in which he is portrayed – under his cuirass he wears a short tunic and over the cuirass a cloak (paludamentum), of which a fold flies behind him and which is held onto his shoulder by a round fibula. The fibula was originally made of precious stone, like the cuirass. He wears cross-laced boots (cothurni), ornamented with a lion's head. The horse's harness is decorated with a series of medallions dripping in inlays, now lost apart from the one in the centre of its head.
The relief of this central motif was particularly accentuated – the Victory, the lance, and to a lesser extent the heads of the emperor and of his horse are all sculpted very nearly in the round. The care taken in modelling the drapery and in the rendering of certain anatomical details, such as the muscles of the emperor's arm, may qualify it as classicising. These characteristics, added to the disproportionate scale of the figures, underline the majesty of the imperial person, recalling Theodosian art.
Side panels
The side panels are in less-elevated relief (the maximum depth of the carving on the central panel is 28 mm, whereas it is only 9 mm on the side panels), and are stylistically slightly less virtuosic than the central panel. They bear borders inscribed in a simplified zig-zag pattern, leaving room in the border around the central panel for a garland of stylised leaves with a small round hole on the middle of each side for four now-lost inlays.
The left hand panel represents a superior officer, recognisably by his military clothing and equipment, comparable to those of the emperor. Bearded, he wears a cuirass and the paludamentum, fixed to his right shoulder by a simpler fibula than that worn by the emperor. We can distinguish the scabbard of his sword fixed to his belt, worn on the left side. He advances towards the emperor and presents him with a statuette of Victory on a pedestal - she hold a crown and a palm, like the Victory on the central panel. At his feet is a bag. The man stands in an architectural scheme formed of two columns supporting Corinthian capitals and of a tessellated pattern (possibly opus sectile) evoking a room in an imperial palace.
This figure is sometimes interpreted as a consul, and the statuette of Victory and the bag (interpreted as in all probability containing gold) as consular attributes. However, the figure may also represent sparsio, the consular largesses represented on other diptychs, such as those of Clement (513) and Justin (540), with the bag of gold more broadly symbolic of war booty, proof of imperial triumph. Equally, where Caesar Gallus holds a comparable statuette of victory in his image on the Calendar of 354, he wears civil and not military clothing. The officer on the Barberini ivory is thus more likely to represent a general who took part in the victorious campaign represented by the ivory. It is natural to suppose that in the symmetrical panel on the right (now missing) showed another general in similar fashion.
There is also the possibility that this figure represents the Frankish king Clovis I, who possibly received the diptych in 508.
Bottom panel
The bottom panel forms a sort of frieze decorated by a double procession of barbarians and animals converging on a central figure of Victory. She is turned to look upwards towards the figure of the emperor on the central panel and holds in her right hand a military trophy, represented in the traditional form of a branch with military arms, armour and booty fixed to it. The defeated barbarians carry to the emperor various gifts as tribute and are differentiated by their clothes and by the wild animals who accompany them. To the left, two bearded figures are of the same type as the barbarian in the central panel, wearing short tunics, Phrygian caps and closed boots. One of them wears a crown, the other a cylindrical container with unknown contents, perhaps gold, and ahead of them walks a lion. They may be Persians or Scythians
To the right, the two barbarians are dressed very differently - nude from the waist up, they wear a fabric headdress heightened by feathers, a simple piece of fabric tied at the waist and sandals. They are accompanied by a tiger and a small elephant. The first bears an elephant's tusk on his shoulder and the second a baton of unknown function. These represent Indians.
This motif of barbarians rendering homage to the emperor is common in Roman and Byzantine bas-reliefs – here, it is the aurum coronarium, the presenting of tribute. They show the emperor's clementia and underline the symbolism of imperial victory. One of two ivory fragments attributed to an imperial diptych now in Milan also represent this motif, in a slightly earlier work. It can also be found in Constantinople, for example on the base of the column of Arcadius (in a composition comparable to that on the Barberini ivory) or on the obelisk of Theodosius in the hippodrome (shown left). On the obelisk of Theodosius ten barbarians, again divided into two groups, converge on the central figure of the emperor, in this example enthroned in majesty in an imperial box surrounded by other augusti. On the left are Persians, and on the right are indeterminate western barbarians, perhaps Germans or Goths. Victory is absent on this relief, but she is well represented on the lost base of the column of Arcadius and on the lost base traditionally attributed to the column of Constantine – in both cases Victory is in a central position, as a sort of intermediary between the defeated barbarians and the figure of the emperor, situated below.
Upper panel
The upper panel of the ivory is occupied by two angels bearing an imago clipeata, a large medallion bearing a bust of a young and beardless Christ, holding a cruciform sceptre in his left hand and making a traditional sign of benediction with his right (the ring-finger held over the thumb). The bust is framed by symbols of the sun to the left and of the moon and a star to the right. The pair of angels bearing an image of Christ here replaces the earlier image of two winged Victories bearing a personification of Constantinople to be found on the second panel of the previously-mentioned imperial diptych at Milan – the substitution is far from insignificant and implies a paradigm shift vital to the dating and understanding of the Barberini ivory. Kitzinger notes that the angel on the left echoes the emperor's turned head, and says "Christ makes his appearance in heaven at the moment in which the emperor stages his triumphal adventus on earth. It is a graphic depiction of the harmony between heavenly and earthly rule."
Identification of the emperor
The question of the identity of the emperor represented on the central panel is the central problem to have occupied commentators on the Barberini ivory – its first modern owner, Peiresc, recognised him without hesitation as Heraclius and identified the officer offering the statuette of Victory as his son Constantine III. Later identifications of the central figure have also included Constantine I, Constantius II, Zeno and above all Anastasius I or Justinian. The identification is complicated by the fact that the emperor shown is not necessarily the reigning emperor at the date when the ivory was produced. Thus the dating of the ivory is undeniably a useful indication in identifying the emperor but it is not conclusive in that regard.
Anastasius
From a stylistic point of view, the high-relief sculpture of the central panel is comparable to two other ivory panels dating to the start of the 6th century, each representing an empress – one is at the Bargello in Florence (left), the other at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. They show the empress Ariadne (?-518), wife of the emperor Zeno (430-491) and then of Anastasius I (491-518). This parallel could suggest identifying the emperor on the Barberini ivory with Anastasius.
Anastasius's reign was marked by a difficult war against the Sassanid Persians from 502 to 505, ended by a peace in 506, which restored the status quo but which could be presented in Constantinople as a triumph after initial Roman setbacks. The production of the Barberini ivory can thus be envisaged in this context, making the triumph represented the one celebrated over the Persians.
Although the figure shares characteristics with certain consuls on diptychs contemporary with Anastasius I, such as that of Anastasius (517) and above all that of Magnus (518), the emperor's portrait on the Barberini ivory bears little resemblance with known portraits of Anastasius such as the medallion on the consular diptych of Anastasius. It is in fact closer to known portraits of Constantine, which has allowed certain historians to identify him with that emperor, including Barberini himself, as a contemporary catalogue entry for it shows (see above). This interpretation also owes something to the modern inscription on the right-hand replacement panel, in which it is easy to recognise the emperor's name, or at least so long as it does not refer to Constans or Constantius II instead.
On the other hand, stylistic criteria leave no doubt that the ivory is no earlier than the end of the 5th century, with the resemblance to the imperial portrait to portraits of Constantine explained by the commissioner's explicit will to recall the image of that emperor. From this perspective, this reference back to the iconography of Constantine fits Justinian better than it does Anastasius I.
Justinian
The lower-relief style of the secondary panels, and notably the purely graphic and unplastic rendering of clothing, accommodates a later dating of the work to around the middle of the 6th century. The work's combination of high-quality reliefs evokes another famous work of ivory sculpture of this era, the Throne of Maximian at Ravenna, datable to 545-556, and another product of a top-quality workshop, perhaps even the same one, in either Constantinople or Alexandria – this would make the triumphant emperor Justinian.
The prepossessing position given in the composition to the figure of Christ blessing the emperor also suggests a Justinian date – it is comparable to a consular diptych of Justin from 540, the last known consular diptych before Justinian suppressed the consulship in 541, and the first to place images of Christ and of the imperial couple (Justinian and Theodora) in medallions below the portrait of the consul. Up until then the Christian presence on these diptychs had been limited to the symbol of the cross, like those framing the imperial portraits on the consular diptych of Clement in 513. This cross could also be shown within a crown carried by two angels, the best-known motif of the Theodosian era – besides ivories such as that at Murano, it also figures on the bas-reliefs of the column of Arcadius and the decoration of the sarcophagus of Sarigüzel. Replacing the cross within the crown with a bust of Christ on the Barberini ivory marks another step in the Christianisation of the relief form, which would also date it to later than the reign of Anastasius and corresponds well to the ideological orientation observed at the start of Justinian's reign. The Archangel ivory in London, of which only one panel survives, represents an archangel holding a sceptre and a globe topped by a cross and can be assigned to the same ideological movement. It was dated precisely to the start of Justinian's reign in 527 by D.H. Wright, after making a new translation of its Greek inscription.
The identification of the triumphant emperor with Justinian thus corresponds quite well to the imagery left behind by this emperor, which also includes equestrian statues and statues of Victory (for victories over the Persians that were heavily proclaimed in propaganda but not particularly real). A drawing by Nymphirios (a member of the entourage of Cyriac of Ancona) now in the library of the University of Budapest shows the statue which surmounted the column raised by Justinian in 543/4 in the Augustaion in Constantinople and described at length by Procopius of Caesarea in his Edifices (I, 2, 5). The emperor, mounted on a horse with one hoof raised, holds an orb surmounted by a cross in his left hand and greets the viewer with his right hand. He is crowned with a large plumed headdress or toupha. According to the epigram which was its dedicatory inscription, conserved in the Anthology of Planudes and confirmed by Procopius's account, the statue was set up so as to face east, towards the Persians, as a sign of the emperor threatening them. The connection of this statue with the triumphant emperor on the Barberini ivory is also justified in that the former was part of a sculptural group in the Augustaion which also included statues of three barbarian kings offering tribute to the emperor, as in the lower panel of the ivory.
The drawing of the statue from the Augustaion may be linked to another equestrian representation of Justinian on one of his medals, left. The medal in question is a gold one weighing 36 solidi (164g), discovered in 1751 and now lost after being stolen from the Cabinet des Médailles (now part of the BNF) in 1831, although an electrotype of it survives. On the obverse is a nimbate bust of Justinian as a general, armed with a lance, wearing a cuirass and crowned with the diadem and toupha. The inscription reads Dominus Noster Iustiniianus Perpetuus Augustus (Our Lord Justinian, Perpetual Augustus). The reverse shows Justinian, again with a nimbus, riding a richly-dressed horse whose harness recalls that of the horse on the Barberini ivory. In front of him is a Victory holding a palm and a trophy under her left arm. A star is shown on the field, the exergue inscription gives the mark CONOB (indicating a mint in Constantinople) and the legend reads Salus et Gloria Romanorum (Safety and Glory of the Romans). The portrayal of Justinian in three-quarters profile allows the medal to be dated to before 538, after which he was systematically only represented full-face (right). The particularly sumptuous celebrations at the triumph in 534 marking the reconquest of Carthage from the Vandals could have been the occasion marked by the minting of this exceptional medal.
Another equestrian statue, of which only the dedicatory inscription remains (again in the Anthology of Planudes), could be seen in the hippodrome of Constantinople. This time no drawing of the statue survives, but its location in the hippodrome (the main meeting place in Constantinople and thus the best place for exhibiting imperial propaganda images) leads us to think that it must have been one of the most famous equestrian statues of the emperor, and thus likely to be imitated in ivory and other media. The inscription certainly suggests a monumental composition which cannot fail to evoke the central motif of the Barberini ivory:
Behold, prince [and] exterminator of the Medes, the offerings brought to you by Eustathios, at the same time father and son of the Rome which you hold: a horse rearing over a Victory, a second Victory who crowns you and you yourself astride this horse, fast as the wind. Thus high has your power risen, O Justinian – and on the earth the champions of the Medes and Scythians will remain forever in chains.
The existence of these equestrian statues of Justinian at Constantinople suggests that the central theme of the Barberini ivory reprises a lost type popularised by these statues, rather than that it created a new type. At least one other example of this type survives, on a bronze weight, now held at the Byzantine and Christian Museum of Athens (right). It bears an exact copy of the central motif of the Barberini ivory, with less detail and on a highly reduced scale. Rather than the bronze being directly modelled on the ivory, it is more probable that they both derived from a single model, perhaps a lost equestrian statue in the hippodrome. This does not cast doubt on the bronze, like the diptych, being the product of an imperial workshop and an official object. However, the bronze remains a more modest copy of the model, cheaper and thus perhaps meant for a wider circulation than the ivory.
The existence of this smaller copy confirms the popularity of this type of propaganda image under the rule of Justinian and also speaks of the emperor's zeal for making and spreading these images on very different media, from the monumental figurative sculptures in full three-dimensions to reliefs, bronze miniatures and ivory panels. Justinian's reign contained many wars that ended in victory, or more often wars that could be presented propagandistically as such, thus justifying the production of this type of object.
The pre-eminent position of a barbarian traditionally identified as a Persian as well as the type's parallels with the statuary group of the Augustaion invites the viewer to consider that the creation of this image type was occasioned by the “perpetual peace” concluded with Sassanid Persia in 532, although stylistic criteria suggest a later date.
Notes
References
Marco Cristini, Eburnei nuntii: i dittici consolari e la diplomazia imperiale del VI secolo, Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 68, 2019, p. 489-520.
Antony Cutler, "Barberiniana. Notes on the Making, Content, and Provenance of Louvre OA. 9063", Tesserae : Festschrift für Josef Engemann, Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum, Ergänzungsband 18, 1993, p. 329-339;
Danièle Gaborit-Chopin, in Byzance, l'art byzantin dans les collections publiques françaises (catalogue of an exhibition at the Louvre, 3 November 1992 – 1 February 1993), Paris, 1993, numéro 20, p. 63-65;
A. Héron de Villefosse, « L'Ivoire de Peiresc », Mémoires de la Société nationale des Antiquaires de France, 75, 1915-1918, p. 267-295;
Kitzinger, Ernst, Byzantine art in the making: main lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art, 3rd-7th century, 1977, Faber & Faber, (US: Cambridge UP, 1977)
Jean-Pierre Sodini, "Images sculptées et propagande impériale du IVe au VIe siècle : recherches récentes sur les colonnes honorifiques et les reliefs politiques à Byzance", in A. Guillou et J. Durand, Byzance et les images, La Documentation française, Paris, 1994, p. 43-94;
Richard Delbrück, Die Consulardiptychen und verwandte Denkmäler, Berlin, 1929, numéro 48;
Wolfgang Fritz Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike und des Frühen Mittelalters, Mainz, 1952 2, numéro 48, p. 36-37.
Further reading
Weitzmann, Kurt, ed., Age of spirituality : late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century, no. 28, 1979, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, ; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
External links
Catalogue entry on the Louvre's Atlas database
6th-century sculptures
Byzantine ivory
Greek, Etruscan and Roman antiquities in the Louvre
Ivory
Horses in art
Reliefs in France
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregation%20Beth%20Elohim
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Congregation Beth Elohim
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Congregation Beth Elohim (, 'House of God'), also known as the Garfield Temple and the Eighth Avenue Temple, is a Reform Jewish congregation located at 274 Garfield Place and Eighth Avenue, in the Park Slope neighborhood of Brooklyn in New York City, United States.
Founded in 1861 as a more liberal breakaway from Congregation Baith Israel, for the first 65 years it attempted four mergers with other congregations, including three with Baith Israel, all of which failed. The congregation completed its current Classical Revival synagogue building in 1910 and its "Jewish Deco" (Romanesque Revival and Art Deco) Temple House in 1929. These two buildings were contributing properties to the Park Slope historic district, listed as a New York City Landmark district and listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
The congregation went through difficult times during the Great Depression, and the bank almost foreclosed on its buildings in 1946. Membership dropped significantly in the 1930s because of the Depression, grew after World War II, and dropped again in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of demographic shifts. Programs for young children helped draw Jewish families back into the neighborhood and revitalize the membership.
By 2006, Beth Elohim had over 1,000 members, and, , it was the largest and most active Reform congregation in Brooklyn, the "oldest Brooklyn congregation that continues to function under its corporate name", and its pulpit was the oldest in continuous use in any Brooklyn synagogue. In 2009, it was listed by Newsweek as one of America's 25 "Most Vibrant" Jewish congregations.
Early years: Pearl Street
Congregation Beth Elohim was founded on September 29, 1861, by 41 German and Bohemian Jews at Granada Hall on Myrtle Avenue, members of Congregation Baith Israel who had become disaffected after they attempted and failed to reform practice there. The synagogue name was chosen by a vote of the membership, and the services were led by George Brandenstein, who served as cantor, and was paid $150 (today $) a year. Brandenstein was hired as cantor, not rabbi, because "the congregation believed having a cantor was more important", though in practice he filled both roles. A shamash (the equivalent of a sexton or beadle) was also hired for $75 a year.
While searching for a permanent location, the congregation continued to meet and hold services at Granada Hall. Men and women sat together, unlike the traditional separate seating, and services were conducted in German and Hebrew. Within a few months, the former Calvary Protestant Episcopal church on Pearl Street, between Nasau and Concord, was purchased for $5,100 (today $) and renovated for another $2,000 (today $). The new building was dedicated on March 30, 1862, and the congregation became known as "the Pearl street synagogue". By 1868, membership had increased to 103, and by 1869, almost 100 students attended the Sunday school.
Beth Elohim had originally conducted its services in the traditional manner, but on February 19, 1870 "inaugurated the moderate reform services" instead. In an attempt to stem defections and make the synagogue more attractive to existing and potential members, that same month the congregation purchased, for $55,000 (today $), the building of the Central Presbyterian Church on Schermerhorn Street near Nevins Street. Sufficient numbers of new members did not, however, materialize, and the congregation was forced to give up its new building, forfeit its $4,000 (today $) deposit, and return to the Pearl Street building. Instead, the Pearl street building was renovated, and an organ and choir added. Ignaz Grossmann served as rabbi from 1873 to 1876.
Beth Elohim voted to retire Brandenstein in 1882, an action which created some controversy both within the congregation, and among other Brooklyn synagogues. Younger members of the congregation found no specific fault with Brandenstein, but wanted "a change", and succeeded in dismissing him and electing an entirely new board of officers. The final vote was 29 in favor, 21 against, out of a total membership of 53 or 54 (only the male heads of households were counted as members during this era). Solomon Mosche was hired to replace Brandenstein.
In April 1883, Baith Israel, Beth Elohim, and Temple Israel, Brooklyn's three leading synagogues, attempted an amalgamation. This was the third such attempt; the previous two had failed when the members could not agree on synagogue ritual. The combined congregation, which would purchase new premises, would have 150 members; members would be refunded half the purchase price of the pews in their existing buildings. Mosche and the rabbi of Temple Israel were to split the offices of rabbi and cantor: Baith Israel, at the time, had no rabbi. Though this attempt also failed, in the following year the three congregations carried out combined activities, including a picnic and a celebration of the 100th birthday of Moses Montefiore. Membership at that time still hovered around 50.
Mosche fell ill in 1884, and after being unable to serve for six months, was replaced by 26-year-old William Sparger. Despite his illness, Mosche lived until age 75, dying on November 3, 1911.
Sparger was Hungarian by birth, a graduate of the Prince Rudolph University of Vienna, and, according to a contemporary New York Times article, "belong[ed] to the extreme liberal school of Hebrew theology". He introduced changes to the services, including improving the choir, bringing in a new prayer book, adding Friday night services, and the "radical reform" of making the sermon the most important part of the service. He appealed to younger congregants, and, under his direction, the synagogue experienced a large increase in attendance.
State Street
Though more seats had been added to the synagogue by narrowing the aisles, as a result of Sparger's innovations Beth Elohim outgrew its Pearl Street building, and a new one was sought. After a three-year search, in 1885 Beth Elohim purchased the building of the Congregational Church at 305 State Street (near Hoyt) for $28,000 (today $), and moved in that year.
In 1891, Temple Emanu-El in Manhattan offered Sparger a salary larger than Beth Elohim could match, and he moved there. Beth Elohim subsequently split the offices of cantor and rabbi, hiring G. Taubenhaus as rabbi and the Mauritz Weisskopf as cantor.
Born in Warsaw, Taubenhaus could read the Pentateuch fluently in Hebrew at age four, and began studying the Talmud at age six. He attended the "Berlin theological seminary" (likely the Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums) for six years. Upon emigrating to the United States, he served at Kehillah
Kodesh Bene Yeshurum in Paducah, Kentucky, Temple Israel in Dayton, Ohio, and Congregation B'nai Israel in Sacramento, California, before becoming the rabbi of the Shaari Zedek ("Gates of Hope") synagogue in New York. Differences with the latter congregation led to his resignation there shortly before being hired by Beth Elohim. Taubenhaus's brother Joseph would be appointed rabbi at Baith Israel, Beth Elohim's parent congregation, in 1893, and another brother, Jacob/Jean Taubenhaus, was a famous French chess master.
By the time of Taubenhaus's hiring, Beth Elohim was, according to the Brooklyn Eagle, "recognized as the leading Hebrew synagogue of Brooklyn". The views of the congregation regarding kashrut (the Jewish dietary laws) were by then quite liberal; in 1892, when Hyman Rosenberg was expelled as rabbi of Brooklyn's Beth Jacob synagogue for eating ham, Taubenhaus stated that he did not believe his congregation would expel him for doing the same.
In 1895, Samuel Radnitz succeeded Weisskopf as cantor, a role he filled until his death in 1944.
By the turn of the twentieth century English had replaced German in the services and official minutes, and the second days of holidays eliminated. The synagogue had 106 members and annual revenues of around $8,000 (today $), and its Sunday School had approximately 300 pupils.
Taubenhaus left the congregation in 1901, and the following year Alexander Lyons was hired as the congregation's first American-born rabbi. Lyons went on to serve the congregation for 37 years, until his death in 1939 at the age of 71.
In 1907, the women's auxiliary was founded; until then, though seating was mixed, women had little say in the running of the synagogue. That year the congregation had 110 member families and annual revenues of $9,259.55 (today $). The congregational school, which held classes one day a week, had 15 teachers and 200 students.
Garfield Place and Eighth Avenue
1908–1929: New buildings
In 1908, the congregation purchased a by lot on the northeast corner of Garfield Place and Eighth Avenue. Plans were made to erect a new synagogue building there with a sanctuary seating 1,500 people, at an anticipated cost of $100,000 (today $). The structure was designed and built by the Manhattan architectural firm of Simon Eisendrath and B. Horowitz (or Horwitz). Construction began in 1909 and completed in 1910. Designed in the Classical Revival style, this "monumental example" of "austere neo-Classical grandeur" had five sides, representing the five books of Moses, a sanctuary that ultimately sat 1,200, and was capped by a saucer dome. The entrance faced the corner of Garfield and Eighth, and carved in stone over it was the Biblical verse fragment "MINE HOUSE SHALL BE AN HOUSE OF PRAYER FOR ALL PEOPLE" (). The basement held classrooms, an auditorium, and administrative offices, and behind the Torah ark was a combination Rabbi's study/Board meeting room. The State Street building was sold to Congregation Mount Sinai.
1909 was also the year Judah Leon Magnes proposed and founded his Kehilla, a "comprehensive communal organization for the Jews of New York", which operated until 1922. Lyons opposed its creation, arguing that Jews in New York were too diverse to co-exist in one organization with a single set of standards, that Jews should not organize as Jews for anything except purely religious purposes, and that in any event Reform Judaism was the future and Orthodox Judaism would not survive. As Lyons put it,
To me Reform Judaism is an irresistible conviction. I believe it to be the religion of the Jewish future, while I regard orthodoxy as a survival that may have a galvanized life now and then, but on the whole is doomed.
By 1919, Beth Elohim had 133 member families. The congregational school, which held classes once a week, had 305 students and 16 teachers.
Negotiations to merge with Union Temple (the successor to Temple Israel) were started in 1925. A confirmation vote eventually passed, and the impending merger was announced in the Brooklyn Eagle. However, younger congregants feared a loss of identity, and forced a withdrawal.
Instead, the congregation raised funds for a second building, and in 1928–1929 built the six-story Temple House (used for all congregational activities) on the corner opposite the main sanctuary. Designed by Mortimer Freehof and David Levy, the cast stone building's architectural style was "Jewish Deco", a mix of Romanesque Revival and Art Deco decorative forms that was common in Jewish buildings of the period. Romanesque features included the fenestrations, while a prominent Art Deco feature was "the figure of Moses and the Tablets of Law, emphasizing the corner of the roof parapet." The doorway and balcony at the east end of the building had "a distinctly Moorish flavor, featuring symbolic ornament: the Star of David, the Menorah, and the Lion of Judah." The names of major figures from the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) were inscribed on the Garfield Place facade, and the Biblical verses "SHOW ME THY WAYS O LORD TEACH ME THY PATHS GUIDE ME" () on the Eighth Avenue facade. The building was also decorated with bas-reliefs of Jonah being swallowed by a great fish and Babylonian charioteers. It housed a 125-seat chapel, a large ballroom, social halls, class rooms for the religious school, meeting rooms, administrative offices, a library, handball courts, a gymnasium, and a swimming pool.
Lyons took on a number of causes in the 1910s and 1920s. He worked with Bishop David Greer and Rabbi Stephen Wise to expose conditions in New York's tenements, dissociated himself from Tammany Hall candidates, tried to secure a re-trial for Leo Frank, and opposed some of the views of Samuel Gompers. In 1912, Lyons was a founding member of the Eastern Council of Reform Rabbis, an organization of Reform rabbis from the Eastern United States that was created despite opposition from the Central Conference of Reform Rabbis. In 1919 he withdrew from the Brooklyn Victory Celebration Committee (celebrating the Allied victory in World War I) and asked that his contributed funds be donated instead to the Red Cross; many committee members eventually resigned in protest over the overt politicization of the event, and its control by William Randolph Hearst.
1930s: Landman joins, Great Depression, Lyons dies
Isaac Landman, a graduate of Hebrew Union College, joined Lyons as rabbi of Beth Elohim in 1931. Born in Russia in 1880, Landman had come to the United States in 1890. In 1911, with the assistance of Jacob Schiff, Julius Rosenwald, and Simon Bamberger, he founded a Jewish farm colony in Utah, and during World War I he was "said to be the first Jewish chaplain in the United States Army to serve on foreign soil". A leader in Jewish–Christian ecumenism, he was editor of American Hebrew Magazine from 1918, served as the delegate of the Union of American Hebrew Congregations (now Union for Reform Judaism) to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, and in the late 1930s and early 1940s was editor of the new ten volume Universal Jewish Encyclopedia.
Landman had also been a prominent opponent of Zionism: when, in 1922, the United States Congress was considering the Lodge–Fish resolution in support of the Balfour Declaration, Landman and Rabbi David Philipson had presented the Reform movement's (then) anti-Zionist position to the House Committee on Foreign Affairs. Landman also printed many opinions against the resolution and Zionism in his American Hebrew Magazine. The bill was eventually unanimously supported by both houses of Congress, and approved by President Harding.
During the Great Depression synagogue membership decreased significantly; experiencing financial difficulties, the congregation stopped paying its mortgage. Nevertheless, Beth Elohim was not completely moribund; in 1931 it opened its Academy of Adult Jewish Education, which "offered courses in Bible, religion and contemporary Jewish life", and operated throughout the Depression. By 1937 the congregation had elected Lyons "rabbi for life".
In 1938 Lyons made common cause with Thomas Harten, the black pastor of Holy Trinity Baptist Church. Speaking to a mixed black–Jewish audience at the church, Lyons informed the listeners that he was planning to attend the second Joe Louis versus Max Schmeling boxing match in order to protest Adolf Hitler's "view that a bout between a German and a Negro was improper". Lyons denounced the Nazi racial ideas, which he noted discriminated against blacks as well as Jews, and encouraged the audience to boycott all German-made goods until "Hitler comes to his senses".
Lyons died the following year, and Landman served as sole rabbi. After his death, the Central Conference of American Rabbis described Lyons as the "dean of the Brooklyn rabbinate from the point of view of service".
World War II and aftermath: Sack joins, Landman dies
The synagogue's fortunes improved in the 1940s, but in 1946, its bank threatened to foreclose on its buildings, in anticipation of their sale to the local Catholic diocese, as the congregation had not paid the mortgage in many years. The congregation succeeded in convincing the bank to re-negotiate its mortgage, and reduce the outstanding loan, and Max Koeppel led a drive to pay it off completely.
Eugene Sack, the father of Second Circuit Court of Appeals judge Robert D. Sack, joined Landman as rabbi in 1946. While serving as assistant rabbi of Congregation Rodeph Shalom of Philadelphia, Sack had been instrumental in the founding of the Reform movement's National Federation of Temple Youth in 1939, and had presented a paper at its first biennial convention. Starting in 1943 he spent 18 months in the Pacific Theater of Operations of World War II as an army chaplain; at one point he had to substitute peach juice for Passover wine.
Sack had also previously been involved in anti-Zionist efforts amongst the Reform rabbinate. In 1942 the Central Conference of American Rabbis had abandoned its former anti-Zionist stance, and adopted a resolution favoring the creation of a Jewish army in Palestine, to fight alongside other Allied armies, and under Allied command. Sack and other prominent Reform rabbis opposed this; meeting on March 18, 1942, they agreed "there was a need to revitalize Reform Judaism, to oppose Jewish nationalism, and to publicize their point of view". They planned "for a meeting of non-Zionist Reform Rabbis to discuss the problems that confront Judaism and Jews in the world emergency", to be held in Atlantic City. 36 rabbis eventually attended the two-day conference on June 1, 1942, including Beth Israel's Landman. The conference led to the formation of the anti-Zionist American Council for Judaism, "the only American Jewish organization ever formed for the specific purpose of fighting Zionism and opposing the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine."
Landman died suddenly in 1946, leaving Sack to head Beth Elohim alone; Sack would eventually serve as rabbi for 35 years. Richard Harvey also joined as cantor in the 1940s; he would serve until his death in the 1970s.
After the war, Beth Elohim allowed women to become full members, granting them full voting privileges and allowing them to hold office. The congregation subsequently elected Jeanette Marks as a trustee. At this time the origins of the membership began to change, as Jews of Eastern European descent started joining the congregation.
In the late 1940s the central vault ceiling of the main sanctuary cracked, and had to be repaired. At that time the pulpit was also rebuilt, so that the rabbi and cantor had separate pulpits. Underneath the sanctuary ran an underground stream which would regularly overflow, leading to flooding problems. The flooding was fixed in the 1950s with the installation of check valves, and a concrete slab floor was installed. Though the intent was to provide usable space in the basement, it was rarely used.
By 1953, Beth Elohim had grown to over 700 families, and the religious school had over 550 students. In the 1960s, however, membership began to decline, as young families moved to the suburbs.
1970s–2000s: Decline, Weider joins, re-birth
In 1970, the congregation again encountered difficulties, "faced with dwindling membership and bleak prospects". The members, however, created one of the earliest nursery schools in the neighborhood, which, along with the Brownstone Revival movement in Park Slope, helped draw Jewish families back into the temple and revitalize the membership. One of those young families was that of Gerald I. Weider, a young rabbi who joined the synagogue's staff in 1978.
A native of the Bronx, Weider graduated from Rutgers University, and was ordained at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati in 1973 (he would be granted a Doctor of Divinity degree by Hebrew Union College in 1998). Before joining Beth Elohim, he served as Assistant Rabbi of Temple Ohabei Shalom of Brookline, Massachusetts, and as the Associate Rabbi of Washington Hebrew Congregation in Washington, D.C. At Beth Elohim, he focused on programming and services for urban Jewish families. Under his leadership, Beth Elohim opened after–school and early childhood centers in 1978, and a day camp the following year, all housed in the Temple House.
The 1970s also saw a return to more traditional practices in the service, under Weider's guidance. Some members began wearing head coverings in the sanctuary, some Hebrew prayers were added to the Sabbath service, and the Reform movement's new High Holy Days prayer book The Gates of Repentance was adopted. The synagogue building and Temple House were contributing properties to the Park Slope historic district, which was listed as a New York City Landmark district in 1973, and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.
In 1985, Weider and Beth Elohim, in cooperation with the rabbis of the Park Slope Jewish Center and Congregation Baith Israel Anshei Emes, proposed opening a liberal Jewish day school in Brooklyn. Though housed at Beth Elohim, it would not be affiliated with any specific Jewish movement, and was intended for children from all branches of Judaism. Planning began in earnest in 1994; the school was modeled on New York's Abraham Joshua Heschel School, as an outgrowth of Beth Elohim's preschool program. The intent was to start with only first grade in 1995, but extend to eighth grade by 2000. At the time Beth Elohim had approximately 500 member families and 141 children in the preschool. The school opened in 1995, and continued for three years, growing to 38 students, before moving to new premises and becoming independent under the name "Hannah Senesh Community Day School".
In the 1980s and 1990s Beth Elohim's buildings were repaired and refurbished a number of times. The sanctuary ceiling cracked in the early 1980s, and services were held in Temple House for a time. The congregation mounted a "Save our Sanctuary" campaign in 1982, and repaired the ceiling. In the 1980s Beth Elohim also refurbished the Moses stained glass window, and painted the main sanctuary. The congregation restored and renovated its buildings in 1990, and in 1992 did emergency restoration work to the facade of Temple House and restored the pews. In 1997 the synagogue began its "Kadimah Capital Campaign", which was intended to raise funds to repair and renovate the buildings. By 1999, the congregation had restored Temple House's facade, rebuilt the collapsed Garfield St. entrance, made entry into the synagogue handicapped accessible, added a multipurpose space and classrooms in the basement of the sanctuary, and planned to add a fifth floor for more classrooms. That year Sack (by then Rabbi Emeritus) died; the year before his death his son, Robert, at his induction as a Second Circuit judge, had described his father as "the most open minded man he had ever known".
Janet Leuchter joined as cantor in 2001. A native of Vineland, New Jersey, and 1999 graduate of Hebrew Union College, she had previously served as cantor of Temple Avodah in Oceanside, New York.
Weider retires, events since 2006
Weider retired as senior rabbi in 2006, after 28 years of service. He was succeeded by Andy Bachman. At that time, Beth Elohim had over 500 members. In 2007, the synagogue was a winner of the Union for Reform Judaism's Congregation of Learners award for medium size synagogues, for "those synagogues that provide an exceptional environment of varied and comprehensive learning opportunities and have imbued their synagogue communities with a culture of learning".
In 2009, Beth Elohim was described as the largest and most active Reform congregation in Brooklyn. Prominent members included U.S. Senator Chuck Schumer. In April of that year, Beth Elohim was listed by Newsweek as one of America's 25 "Most Vibrant" Jewish congregations. In September, just four days before Yom Kippur, a part of the sanctuary ceiling collapsed. No-one was hurt, but the sanctuary had to be closed. The nearby Old First Reformed Church—with which Beth Elohim had had close ties since the 1930s—offered its premises for the holiday (Sunday night and Monday), and accommodated over 1000 worshipers. The day before the holiday, the synagogue was picketed by members of the Westboro Baptist Church, who shouted antisemitic and anti-gay slogans.
, Beth Elohim was the "oldest Brooklyn congregation that continues to function under its corporate name", and its pulpit was the oldest in continuous use in any Brooklyn synagogue. Its rabbis were Andy Bachman, Shira Koch Epstein, and Marc Katz, the rabbi emeritus was Gerald Weider, and the cantor was Joshua Breitzer.
Bachman, a graduate of University of Wisconsin–Madison with a 1996 rabbinic ordination from Hebrew Union College, became Beth Elohim's first new senior rabbi in 25 years on October 25, 2006. Before becoming senior rabbi he had previously been an educator there from 1993 to 1998. An advocate of more traditionalism in the Reform movement, in 2002 he started a small, more traditional, Hebrew-focused spinoff prayer group at Beth Elohim, and has spoken in favor of a more traditional liturgy. Bachman and his wife, Rachel Altstein, have been instrumental in bringing 20- and 30-year-olds into the synagogue, and in December 2007, Bachman was named one of The Forwards "Forward 50". In 2008 he was a regular contributor to the Washingtonpost.Newsweek Interactive website. Epstein, born in the Bronx and raised in New Milford, Connecticut, attended Wesleyan University and Hebrew Union College, and served as the coordinator of the Institute for Reform Zionism. In 2008 she was a member of "Rabbis for Obama", a cross-denominational group of more than 300 American rabbis supporting Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign. Barrington Rhode Island native Marc Katz graduated from Tufts University and studied at Hebrew Union College in Jerusalem before becoming Beth Elohim's rabbinic intern in 2009. He served as the congregation's Associate Rabbi until 2018 and is now the Rabbi at Temple Ner Tamid in Bloomfield, NJ.
On September 22, 2013, Beth Elohim celebrated its 150th anniversary and dedicated a new Sefer Torah. Members of Beth Elohim stated it was "the first Torah in New York City to be completed by a woman".
In June 2015, Andy Bachman departed to join the 92nd Street Y as the Director of Jewish Content and Community Ritual, and in addition, he founded "Water Over Rocks," a non-profit dedicated to memory and civic responsibility. In July 2015, Rachel Timoner became the Senior Rabbi.
Notes
ReferencesBrooklyn Eagle, no bylineNew York Times, no bylineCongregation Beth Elohim websiteOther'''
External links
Congregation Beth Elohim website
Rabbi Rachel Timoner's website
Rabbi Andy Bachman's website
Rabbi Marc Katz's Website
, summary of a sermon given by Rabbi William Sparger of Congregation Beth Elohim, in The New York Times, May 31, 1886, p. 2.
, summary of a sermon given by Rabbi G. Taubenhaus of Congregation Beth Elohim, in The New York Times, October 7, 1897, p. 7.
, letter to the editor by Rabbi Alexander Lyons of Congregation Beth Elohim, in The New York Times'', October 12, 1902, p. 6.
1861 establishments in New York (state)
1910 establishments in New York (state)
1929 establishments in New York City
Art Deco architecture in Brooklyn
Art Deco synagogues
Czech-American culture in New York City
Czech-Jewish culture in the United States
German-Jewish culture in New York City
Historic district contributing properties in New York City
National Register of Historic Places in Brooklyn
Neoclassical synagogues
Park Slope
Reform synagogues in New York City
Religious organizations established in 1861
Romanesque Revival architecture in New York City
Romanesque Revival synagogues
Synagogue buildings with domes
Synagogues in Brooklyn
Synagogues on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City
Synagogues completed in 1910
Synagogues completed in 1929
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%20dissidents
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Soviet dissidents
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Soviet dissidents were people who disagreed with certain features of Soviet ideology or with its entirety and who were willing to speak out against them. The term dissident was used in the Soviet Union (USSR) in the period from the mid-1960s until the Fall of Communism. It was used to refer to small groups of marginalized intellectuals whose challenges, from modest to radical to the Soviet regime, met protection and encouragement from correspondents, and typically criminal prosecution or other forms of silencing by the authorities. Following the etymology of the term, a dissident is considered to "sit apart" from the regime. As dissenters began self-identifying as dissidents, the term came to refer to an individual whose non-conformism was perceived to be for the good of a society. The most influential subset of the dissidents is known as the Soviet human rights movement.
Political opposition in the USSR was barely visible, and apart rare exceptions, it had little consequence, primarily because it was instantly crushed with brute force. Instead, an important element of dissident activity in the Soviet Union was informing society (both inside the USSR and in foreign countries) about violation of laws and human rights and organizing in defense of those rights. Over time, the dissident movement created vivid awareness of Soviet Communist abuses.
Soviet dissidents who criticized the state in most cases faced legal sanctions under the Soviet Criminal Code and the choice between exile abroad (with revocation of their Soviet citizenship), the mental hospital, or the labor camp. Anti-Soviet political behavior, in particular, being outspoken in opposition to the authorities, demonstrating for reform, writing books critical of the USSR were defined in some persons as being simultaneously a criminal act (e.g. violation of Articles 70 or 190-1), a symptom (e.g. "delusion of reformism"), and a diagnosis (e.g. "sluggish schizophrenia").
1950s–1960s
In the 1950s, Soviet dissidents started leaking criticism to the West by sending documents and statements to foreign diplomatic missions in Moscow. In the 1960s, Soviet dissidents frequently declared that the rights the government of the Soviet Union denied them were universal rights, possessed by everyone regardless of race, religion and nationality. In August 1969, for instance, the Initiating Group for Defense of Civil Rights in the USSR appealed to the United Nations Committee on Human Rights to defend the human rights being trampled on by Soviet authorities in a number of trials.
Some of the major milestones of the dissident movement of the 1960s included:
Public readings of poetry at the Mayakovsky Square in downtown Moscow, where some of the underground writings critical of the system were often circulated; some of these public readings were dispersed by the police;
The trial of poet Iosif Brodsky (later known as Joseph Brodsky, the future winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature) who was charged with 'parasitism' for not being officially employed and sentenced in 1963 to internal exile; he gained widespread sympathy and support in dissident and semi-dissident circles, mostly through the notes from his trial compiled by Frida Vigdorova
The trial and sentencing of writers Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel who were arrested in 1965 for publishing their co-authored work abroad under pennames and sentenced to labor camp and internal exile; opposition to this trial led to a campaign of petitions for their release that was signed by thousands of people, many of whom went on to participate more actively in the dissident movement
Silent demonstrations on Moscow's Pushkin Square initiated by Alexander Yesenin-Volpin on the Soviet Constitution Day of Dec. 5, 1965, with posters urging the authorities to observe their own Constitution
Petitioning campaigns against the downplaying of Stalin's terror after the removal of Nikita Khrushchev and the resurgence of the cult of Stalin's personality in parts of the Soviet government bureaucracy
The launch, in April 1968, of the underground periodical, 'Chronicle of Current Events', documenting violations of human rights and protest activities across the Soviet Union
The publication in the West of Andrei Sakharov's first political essay 'Reflections on Progress and Intellectual Freedom' in the spring and summer of 1968
The rally of protest against the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia to suppress 'the Prague Spring'; was held on August 25, 1968 on Moscow's Red Square by eight dissidents including Viktor Fainberg, Natalya Gorbanevskaya, Pavel Litvinov, Vladimir Dremlyuga, and others
The founding of the Initiative on Human Rights in 1969
1970s
Our history shows that most of the people can be fooled for a very long time. But now all this idiocy is coming into clear contradiction with the fact that we have some level of openness. (Vladimir Voinovich)
The heyday of the dissenters as a presence in the Western public life was the 1970s. The Helsinki Accords inspired dissidents in the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland to openly protest human rights failures by their own governments. The Soviet dissidents demanded that the Soviet authorities implement their own commitments proceeding from the Helsinki Agreement with the same zeal and in the same way as formerly the outspoken legalists expected the Soviet authorities to adhere strictly to the letter of their constitution. Dissident Russian and East European intellectuals who urged compliance with the Helsinki accords have been subjected to official repression. According to Soviet dissident Leonid Plyushch, Moscow has taken advantage of the Helsinki security pact to improve its economy while increasing the suppression of political dissenters. 50 members of Soviet Helsinki Groups were imprisoned. Cases of political prisoners and prisoners of conscience in the Soviet Union were divulged by Amnesty International in 1975 and by The Committee for the Defense of Soviet Political Prisoners in 1975 and 1976.
US President Jimmy Carter in his inaugural address on 20 January 1977 announced that human rights would be central to foreign policy during his administration. In February, Carter sent Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov a letter expressing his support for the latter's stance on human rights. In the wake of Carter's letter to Sakharov, the USSR cautioned against attempts "to interfere' in its affairs under "a thought-up pretext of 'defending human rights.'" Because of Carter's open show of support for Soviet dissidents, the KGB was able to link dissent with American imperialism through suggesting that such protest is a cover for American espionage in the Soviet Union. The KGB head Yuri Andropov determined, "The need has thus emerged to terminate the actions of Orlov, fellow Helsinki monitor Ginzburg and others once and for all, on the basis of existing law." According to Dmitri Volkogonov and Harold Shukman, it was Andropov who approved the numerous trials of human rights activists such as Andrei Amalrik, Vladimir Bukovsky, Vyacheslav Chornovil, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, Alexander Ginzburg, Natalya Gorbanevskaya, Pyotr Grigorenko, Anatoly Shcharansky, and others:
If we accept human rights violations as just "their way" of doing things, then we are all guilty. (Andrei Sakharov)
Voluntary and involuntary emigration allowed the authorities to rid themselves of many political active intellectuals including writers Valentin Turchin, Georgi Vladimov, Vladimir Voinovich, Lev Kopelev, Vladimir Maximov, Naum Korzhavin, Vasily Aksyonov, psychiatrist Marina Voikhanskaya and others. A Chronicle of Current Events covered 424 political trials, in which 753 people were convicted, and no one of the accused was acquitted; in addition, 164 people were declared insane and sent to compulsory treatment in a psychiatric hospital.
According to Soviet dissidents and Western critics, the KGB had routinely sent dissenters to psychiatrists for diagnosing to avoid embarrassing public trials and to discredit dissidence as the product of ill minds. On the grounds that political dissenters in the Soviet Union were psychotic and deluded, they were locked away in psychiatric hospitals and treated with neuroleptics. Confinement of political dissenters in psychiatric institutions had become a common practice. That technique could be called the "medicalization" of dissidence or psychiatric terror, the now familiar form of repression applied in the Soviet Union to Leonid Plyushch, Pyotr Grigorenko, and many others. Finally, many persons at that time tended to believe that dissidents were abnormal people whose commitment to mental hospitals was quite justified. In the opinion of the Moscow Helsinki Group chairwoman Lyudmila Alexeyeva, the attribution of a mental illness to a prominent figure who came out with a political declaration or action is the most significant factor in the assessment of psychiatry during the 1960–1980s. At that time Soviet dissident Vladimir Bukovsky wrote A New Mental Illness in the USSR: The Opposition published in French, German, Italian, Spanish and (coauthored with Semyon Gluzman) A Manual on Psychiatry for Dissidents published in Russian, English, French, Italian, German, Danish.
Repression of the Helsinki Watch Groups
In 1977-1979 and again in 1980-1982, the KGB reacted to the Helsinki Watch Groups in Moscow, Kiev, Vilnius, Tbilisi, and Erevan by launching large-scale arrests and sentencing its members to in prison, labor camp, internal exile and psychiatric imprisonment.
From the members of the Moscow Helsinki Group, 1978 saw its members Yuri Orlov, Vladimir Slepak and Anatoly Shcharansky sentenced to lengthy labor camp terms and internal exile for "anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda" and treason. Another wave of arrests followed in the early 1980s: Malva Landa, Viktor Nekipelov, Leonard Ternovsky, Feliks Serebrov, Tatiana Osipova, Anatoly Marchenko, and Ivan Kovalev. Soviet authorities offered some activists the "opportunity" to emigrate. Lyudmila Alexeyeva emigrated in 1977. The Moscow Helsinki Group founding members Mikhail Bernshtam, Alexander Korchak, Vitaly Rubin also emigrated, and Pyotr Grigorenko was stripped of his Soviet citizenship while seeking medical treatment abroad.
The Ukrainian Helsinki Group suffered severe repressions throughout 1977-1982, with at times multiple labor camp sentences handed out to Mykola Rudenko, Oleksy Tykhy, Myroslav Marynovych, Mykola Matusevych, Levko Lukyanenko, Oles Berdnyk, Mykola Horbal, Zinovy Krasivsky, Vitaly Kalynychenko, Vyacheslav Chornovil, Olha Heyko, Vasyl Stus, Oksana Meshko, Ivan Sokulsky, Ivan Kandyba, Petro Rozumny, Vasyl Striltsiv, Yaroslav Lesiv, Vasyl Sichko, Yuri Lytvyn, Petro Sichko. By 1983 the Ukrainian Helsinki Group had 37 members, of whom 22 were in prison camps, 5 were in exile, 6 emigrated to the West, 3 were released and were living in Ukraine, 1 (Mykhailo Melnyk) committed suicide.
The Lithuanian Helsinki Group saw its members subjected to two waves of imprisonment for anti-Soviet activities and "organization of religious processions": Viktoras Petkus was sentenced in 1978; others followed in 1980-1981: Algirdas Statkevičius, Vytautas Skuodys, Mečislovas Jurevičius, and Vytautas Vaičiūnas.
Currents of dissidence
Civil and human rights movement
Starting in the 1960s, the early years of the Brezhnev stagnation, dissidents in the Soviet Union increasingly turned their attention towards civil and eventually human rights concerns. The fight for civil and human rights focused on issues of freedom of expression, freedom of conscience, freedom to emigrate, punitive psychiatry, and the plight of political prisoners. It was characterized by a new openness of dissent, a concern for legality, the rejection of any 'underground' and violent struggle.
Throughout the 1960s-1980s, those active in the civil and human rights movement engaged in a variety of activities: The documentation of political repression and rights violations in samizdat (unsanctioned press); individual and collective protest letters and petitions; unsanctioned demonstrations; mutual aid for prisoners of conscience; and, most prominently, civic watch groups appealing to the international community. Repercussions for these activities ranged from dismissal from work and studies to many years of imprisonment in labor camps and being subjected to punitive psychiatry.
Dissidents active in the movement in the 1960s introduced a "legalist" approach of avoiding moral and political commentary in favor of close attention to legal and procedural issues. Following several landmark political trials, coverage of arrests and trials in samizdat became more common. This activity eventually led to the founding of the Chronicle of Current Events in April 1968. The unofficial newsletter reported violations of civil rights and judicial procedure by the Soviet government and responses to those violations by citizens across the USSR.
During the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, the rights-based strategy of dissent incorporated human rights ideas and rhetoric. The movement included figures such as Valery Chalidze, Yuri Orlov, and Lyudmila Alexeyeva. Special groups were founded such as the Initiative Group for the Defense of Human Rights in the USSR (1969) and the Committee on Human Rights in the USSR (1970). The signing of the Helsinki Accords (1975) containing human rights clauses provided rights campaigners with a new hope to use international instruments. This led to the creation of dedicated Helsinki Watch Groups in Moscow (Moscow Helsinki Group), Kiev (Ukrainian Helsinki Group), Vilnius (Lithuanian Helsinki Group), Tbilisi, and Erevan (1976–77).
The civil and human rights initiatives played a significant role in providing a common language for Soviet dissidents with varying concerns, and became a common cause for social groups in the dissident milieu ranging from activists in the youth subculture to academics such as Andrei Sakharov. Due to the contacts with Western journalists as well as the political focus during détente (Helsinki Accords), those active in the human rights movement were among those most visible in the West (next to refuseniks).
Movements of deported nations
Several national or ethnic groups who had been deported under Stalin formed movements to return to their homelands. In particular, the Crimean Tatars aimed to return to Crimea, the Meskhetian Turks to South Georgia and ethnic Germans aimed to resettle along the Volga River near Saratov.
The Crimean Tatar movement takes a prominent place among the movement of deported nations. The Tatars had been refused the right to return to the Crimea, even though the laws justifying their deportation had been overturned. Their first collective letter calling for the restoration dates to 1957. In the early 1960s, the Crimean Tatars had begun to establish initiative groups in the places where they had been forcibly resettled. Led by Mustafa Dzhemilev, they founded their own democratic and decentralized organization, considered unique in the history of independent movements in the Soviet Union.
Emigration movements
The emigration movements in the Soviet Union included the movement of Soviet Jews to emigrate to Israel and of the Volga Germans to emigrate to West Germany.
Soviet Jews were routinely denied permission to emigrate by the authorities of the former Soviet Union and other countries of the Eastern bloc. A movement for the right to emigrate formed in the 1960s, which also gave rise to a revival of interest in Jewish culture. The refusenik cause gathered considerable attention in the West.
Citizens of German origin who lived in the Baltic states prior to their annexation in 1940 and descendants of the
eighteenth-century Volga German settlers also formed a movement to leave the Soviet Union. In 1972, the West German government entered an agreement with the Soviet authorities which permitted between 6,000 and 8,000 people to emigrate to West Germany every year for the rest of the decade. As a result, almost 70,000 ethnic Germans had left the Soviet Union by the mid-1980s.
Similarly, Armenians achieved a small emigration. By the mid-1980s, over 15,000 Armenians had emigrated.
Russia has changed in the recent years largely in the social, economic, and political spheres. Migrations from Russian have become less forceful and primarily a result of free will that is expressed by the individual.
Religious movements
The religious movements in the USSR included Russian Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant movements. They focused on the freedom to practice their faith and resistance to interference by the state in their internal affairs.
The Russian Orthodox movement remained relatively small. The Catholic movement in Lithuania was part of the larger Lithuanian national movement. Protestant groups which opposed the anti-religious state directives included the Baptists, the Seventh-day Adventists, and the Pentecostals. Similar to the Jewish and German dissident movements, many in the independent Pentecostal movement pursued emigration.
National movements
The national movements included the Russian national dissidents as well as dissident movements from Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Georgia, and Armenia.
Among the nations that lived in their own territories with the status of republics within the Soviet Union, the first movement to emerge in the 1960s was the Ukrainian movement. Its aspiration was to resist the Russification of Ukraine and to insist on equal rights and democratization for the republic.
In Lithuania, the national movement of the 1970s was closely linked to the Catholic movement.
Literary and cultural
Several landmark examples of dissenting writers played a significant role for the wider dissident movement. These include the persecutions of Osip Mandelshtam, Boris Pasternak, Mikhail Bulgakov, and Joseph Brodsky, as well as the publication of The Gulag Archipelago by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn.
In literary world, there were dozens of literati who participated in dissident movement, including Vasily Aksyonov, Arkadiy Belinkov, Leonid Borodin, Joseph Brodsky, Georgi Vladimov, Vladimir Voinovich, Aleksandr Galich, Venedikt Yerofeyev, Alexander Zinoviev, Lev Kopelev, Naum Korzhavin, Vladimir Maximov, Viktor Nekrasov, Andrei Sinyavsky, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, and Varlam Shalamov.
In the early Soviet Union, non-conforming academics were exiled via so-called Philosophers' ships. Later, figures such as cultural theorist Grigori Pomerants were among active dissidents.
Other intersections of cultural and literary nonconformism with dissidents include the wide field of Soviet Nonconformist Art, such as the painters of the underground Lianozovo group, and artists active in the "Second Culture".
Other groups
Other groups included the Socialists, the movements for socioeconomic rights (especially the independent unions), as well as women's, environmental, and peace movements.
Dissidents and the Cold War
Responding to the issue of refuseniks in the Soviet Union, the United States Congress passed the Jackson–Vanik amendment in 1974. The provision in United States federal law intended to affect U.S. trade relations with countries of the Communist bloc that restrict freedom of emigration and other human rights.
The eight member countries of the Warsaw Pact signed the Helsinki Final Act in August 1975. The "third basket" of the Act included extensive human rights clauses.
When Jimmy Carter entered office in 1976, he broadened his advisory circle to include critics of US–Soviet détente. He voiced support for the Czech dissident movement known as Charter 77, and publicly expressed concern about the Soviet treatment of dissidents Aleksandr Ginzburg and Andrei Sakharov. In 1977, Carter received prominent dissident Vladimir Bukovsky in the White House, asserting that he did not intend "to be timid" in his support of human rights.
In 1979, the US Helsinki Watch Committee was established, funded by the Ford Foundation. Founded after the example of the Moscow Helsinki Group and similar watch groups in the Soviet bloc, it also aimed to monitor compliance with the human rights provisions of the Helsinki Accords and to provide moral support for those struggling for that objective inside the Soviet bloc. It acted as a conduit for information on repression in the Soviet Union, and lobbied policy-makers in the United States to continue to press the issue with Soviet leaders.
US President Ronald Reagan attributed to the view that the "brutal treatment of Soviet dissidents was due to bureaucratic inertia." On 14 November 1988, he held a meeting with Andrei Sakharov at the White House and said that Soviet human rights abuses are impeding progress and would continue to do so until the problem is "completely eliminated." Whether talking to about one hundred dissidents in a broadcast to the Soviet people or at the U.S. Embassy, Reagan's agenda was one of freedom to travel, freedom of speech and freedom of religion.
Dissidents about their dissent
Andrei Sakharov said, "Everyone wants to have a job, be married, have children, be happy, but dissidents must be prepared to see their lives destroyed and those dear to them hurt. When I look at my situation and my family's situation and that of my country, I realize that things are getting steadily worse."
Fellow dissident and one of the founders of the Moscow Helsinki Group Lyudmila Alexeyeva wrote:
According to Soviet dissident Victor Davydoff, totalitarian system has no mechanisms that could change the behavior of the ruling group from within. Any attempts to change this are immediately suppressed through repression. Dissidents appealed to international human rights organizations, foreign governments, and there was a result.
See also
A Chronicle of Current Events
Anarchism in Russia
Anti-Leninism
Anti-Stalinist left
Chronicle of the Catholic Church in Lithuania
Dissident movement in the People's Republic of Poland
Dubravlag
Human rights movement in the Soviet Union
Left communism
Perm-36
Parallels, Events, People (36 parts) – 2013 documentary by Natella Boltyanskaya
Refusenik – 2007 documentary by Laura Bialis
Samizdat
They Chose Freedom (4 parts) – 2005 documentary by Vladimir Kara-Murza Jr.
References
Further reading
Outsiders' works
Reprinted in
Insiders' works
The work in Russian was also published in: The work in English was published in:
Audiovisual material
Soviet democracy movements
Writing circles
Soviet opposition groups
Persecution of dissidents in the Soviet Union
Underground culture
Era of Stagnation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Haywood
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Harry Haywood
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Harry Haywood (February 4, 1898 – January 4, 1985) was an American political activist who was a leading figure in both the Communist Party of the United States (CPUSA) and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). His goal was to connect the political philosophy of the Communist Party with the issues of race.
In 1926, he joined other African-American Communists and travelled to the Soviet Union to study the effect of Communism on racial issues found in the United States. His work there resulted in his selection to be the head of the Communist Party's Negro Department. The party platform changed by the late 1930s and began to stray away from advocating for African-American self-determination. As the party's platform changed over time, Haywood lost his stance within the party. His work also included creating a group to help the Scottsboro boys case.
Haywood was also an author. His first book was Negro Liberation, published in 1948. After he was expelled from his affiliating party, he wrote an autobiography called Black Bolshevik, which was also published in 1978. He contributed major theory to Marxist thinking on the national question of African Americans in the United States. He was also a founder of the Maoist New Communist movement.
Biography
Early years
Harry Haywood was born Haywood Hall, Jr., on February 4, 1898, in South Omaha, Nebraska, to former slaves Harriet and Haywood Hall, from Missouri and West Tennessee, respectively. They had migrated to Omaha because of jobs with the railroads and meatpacking industry, as did numerous other southern blacks. South Omaha also attracted White immigrants, and ethnic Irish had established an early neighborhood there. Haywood was the youngest of three sons.
In 1913 after their father was attacked by whites, the Hall family moved to Minneapolis, Minnesota. Two years later in 1915 they moved to Chicago. During World War I, he served with the Eighth Regiment, a black United States regiment. Upon his return to Chicago, the younger Hall was radicalized by the bitter Red Summer of 1919, especially the Chicago race riot, in which mostly ethnic Irish attacked blacks on the South Side.
Hall was influenced by his older brother Otto, who joined the Communist Party in 1921 and invited Hall to enter the secret African Blood Brotherhood. He was also influenced by theories he read of in Vladimir Lenin's State and Revolution as a teen. He stated, in his autobiography Black Bolshevik, that "this work was the single most important book I had read in the entire three years of my political search and was decisive in leading me to the Communist Party."
Military service
Haywood's military career included service in three wars. His interest in military combat began when his friends recalled tales of their service in the Eighth Illinois, Black National Guard Regiment. During World War I, he served with the Eighth Regiment, a black United States regiment. In the Spanish Civil War, like many Americans there, he fought for the Popular Front with the Abraham Lincoln Battalion of the International Brigades. Haywood held the position of Regimental Commissar in the XV International Brigade during the Battle of Brunete. While in Spain he, Langston Hughes and Walter Benjamin Garland broadcast from Madrid in support of the Republican cause. During World War II, he served in the Merchant Marine, where he was active with National Maritime Union.
Career with the Communist Party USA
Harry Haywood began his revolutionary career by joining the African Blood Brotherhood in 1922, followed by the Young Communist League in 1923. Soon after in 1925, he joined the Communist Party, USA (CPUSA). After joining the CPUSA, Haywood went to Moscow to study; it was on his passport application that he first adopted the pseudonym "Harry Haywood", deriving it from the first names of his mother and father. In Moscow, he studied first at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East in 1925, then at the International Lenin School in 1927. The anticolonial revolutionaries he met while in Moscow included Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh. He began to advocate for African-American concerns, arguing that they were captives in the United States and that "they must embrace nationalism in order to avoid the harmful effects of integration." He stayed until 1930 as a delegate to the Communist International (Comintern).
Haywood was General Secretary of the League of Struggle for Negro Rights, but he was active in issues involving working-class Whites as well. In the early 1930s, while head of the CPUSA Negro Department, he led the movement to support the Scottsboro Boys; organized miners in West Virginia with the National Miners Union; and was a leader in the struggles of the militant Sharecroppers' Union in the Deep South. In 1935 he led the "Hands off Ethiopia" campaign in Chicago's Black South Side to oppose Italy's invasion of Ethiopia. When eleven Communist leaders were tried under the Smith Act in 1949, Haywood was assigned the task of research for the defense.
In the CPUSA, Haywood served on the Central Committee from 1927 to 1938 and on the Politburo from 1931 until 1938. He also participated in the major factional struggles internal to the CPUSA against Jay Lovestone and Earl Browder, regularly siding with William Z. Foster.
The Comintern and the Black Belt nation
During his four-and-half-year stay in the Soviet Union (1925–1930), Harry Haywood held dual membership in both the CPUSA and the CPSU. As a member of the CPSU, he traveled extensively in the Soviet Union's autonomous republics, and participated in the struggles against both the Left Opposition headed by Leon Trotsky and the Right Opposition led by Nikolai Bukharin. In these struggles and in others, Haywood was on the side of Joseph Stalin. While working as a delegate for the Comintern, he served on commissions dealing with the question of African Americans in the United States, as well as the development of the "Native Republic Thesis" for the South African Communist Party. Haywood worked to draft the "Comintern Resolutions on the Negro Question" of 1928 and 1930, which stated that African Americans in the Southern part of the United States made up an oppressed nation, with the right to self-determination up to and including secession. He would continue to fight for this position throughout his life.
He believed that a distinct African-American nation had developed that satisfied the criteria laid out by Stalin in his Marxism and the National Question: a historically constituted, stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, and psychological makeup manifested in a common culture. Because African Americans in the South constituted such a nation, Haywood believed the correct response was a demand for self-determination, up to and including the right to separate from the United States. Their "national territory" was historically the South, and they deserved full equality everywhere else in the United States. Haywood believed that only with genuine political power, which from a Marxist point of view included control of the productive forces, such as land, could African Americans obtain genuine equality. Their gaining of equality was a prerequisite for broader working class unity.
Most of those in the CPUSA who disagreed with Haywood considered the question of African-American oppression a matter of racial prejudice with moral roots, rather than an economic and political question of national oppression. They saw it as a problem to be solved under Socialism and in no need of special attention until after the institution of the revolutionary Dictatorship of the Proletariat. They criticized him for falling "into the bourgeois liberal trap of regarding the fight for equality as primarily a fight against racial prejudices of whites." To this charge, Haywood countered that the category of "race" is a mystification. He believed that relying on race and ignoring economic questions could only alienate African Americans and inhibit working-class unity.
Following the Great Migration of millions of blacks to the North and Midwest, accompanied by their urbanization, critics attempted to use statistics to counter the Black Belt theory and show there no longer was a black nation centered in the South. In his 1957 article, "For a Revolutionary Position on the Negro Question", Haywood responded that the question of an oppressed nation in the South was not one of "nose counting."
Harry Haywood's 1948 book, Negro Liberation, was the first major study of the African-American national question written by an African-American Marxist. He argued that the root of the oppression of Blacks was the unsolved agrarian question in the South. He believed that the unfinished bourgeois democratic revolution of Reconstruction had been betrayed in the Hayes-Tilden Compromise of 1877. It abandoned African Americans to plantations as tenant farmers and sharecroppers, faced with the Redeemer governments, the system of Jim Crow laws, and the terror of the Ku Klux Klan and other paramilitary groups. According to Haywood, the rise of imperialism left blacks frozen as "landless, semi-slaves in the South." According to Haywood's autobiography, Paul Robeson subsidized his work on the project by offering $100 a month. It was translated and published in Russian, Polish, German, Czech and Hungarian. It was reprinted in 1976 by Liberator Press, the publishing arm of the October League. Haywood argued that "the position of the book was not new, but a reaffirmation of the revolutionary position developed at the Sixth Comintern Congress in 1928. The heart of this position is that the problem is fundamentally a question of an oppressed nation with full rights of self-determination. It emphasized the revolutionary essence of the struggle for Black equality arising from the fact that the special oppression of Blacks is a main prop of the system of imperialist domination over the entire working class and the masses of exploited American people. Therefore the struggle for Black liberation is a component part of the struggle for proletarian revolution. It is the historic task of the working-class movement, as it advances on the road to socialism, to solve the problem of land and freedom of the Black masses." On the other hand, Haywood went on to write, "What was new in the book was the thorough analysis of the concrete conditions of Black people in the post-war period. I made extensive use of population data; the 1940 census, the 1947 Plantation Count and other sources, in order to show that the present day conditions affirmed the essential correctness of the position we had formulated years before." Because of this and other works, Robert F. Williams called Harry Haywood "one of the modern pioneers in the Black liberation struggle."
Expulsion from the CPUSA
Following the death of Stalin in 1953 and Nikita Khrushchev's rise to power, the CPUSA followed Khrushchev's policy of destalinization and "peaceful coexistence". Long an admirer of Mao Zedong, Harry Haywood was one of the pioneers of the anti-revisionist movement born out of the growing Sino-Soviet split. He was driven out of the CPUSA in the late 1950s along with many others who took firm anti-revisionist or pro-Stalin positions.
The CPUSA's decision to change its position on the African-American national question was a central factor in Haywood's expulsion. Though the CPUSA had not been as active in the South since the dissolution of the Sharecroppers Union, in 1959 the CPUSA officially dropped its demand for self-determination for African Americans there. (The demand had been dropped earlier when Browder liquidated the party in 1944.) The CPUSA instead held that as American capitalism developed, so too would Black-White unity.
In 1957 he wrote "For a Revolutionary Position on the Negro Question" (later published by Liberator Press) but was unsuccessful at changing the direction of the Party. In 1959, Haywood, although no longer a functioning party member, attempted to intervene one last time. He wrote "On the Negro Question", which was distributed at the Seventeenth National Convention by and in the name of African Blood Brotherhood founder Cyril Briggs. This was not effective, however, as most of Haywood's potential allies had already been expelled from the CPUSA in the name of combatting "left"-sectarianism and dogmatism.
In Haywood's view, "White chauvinism" in the party, rather than an accurate analysis of the economic issues, had caused the change in position. He also argued that the change prevented the CPUSA from giving appropriate leadership as the Civil Rights Movement developed. He believed the Party was left behind actions of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the NAACP. The Party was even more alienated from the militant Black Power Movement that was to follow.
Political Activities 1950s–1980s
Haywood and his wife Gwendolyn Midlo Hall were among the founders of the Provisional Organizing Committee for a Communist Party (POC), formed in New York City in August 1958 by 83 mostly Black and Puerto Rican and White trade unionists, mainly coal miners from Williamsport, Pennsylvania and maritime workers. Its membership included Theodore W. Allen, best known later for his "White skin privilege" theory and widely acclaimed historical writings. According to Haywood, the POC rapidly degenerated into an isolated, dogmatic, ultraleft sect, completely removed from any political practice. Nevertheless, the (POC) did release many highly trained organizers from the dead hand of the CPUSA as the civil rights and the black power movement began to hit the streets. In 1964, Haywood worked in Harlem with Jesse Gray, leader of the Harlem Rent Strike and Tenants' Union later elected to the New York State Legislature from Harlem. Haywood worked with Malcolm X in 1964 until his assassination in 1965, and with James Haughton and Josh Lawrence in Harlem Fight-Back, then in Oakland, California, in 1966, then in Detroit, Michigan, with the Detroit Revolutionary Union Movement (DRUM) and the League of Revolutionary Black Workers. Haywood then returned to Mexico for a short time and then to the United States permanently in 1970 invited by Vincent Harding, then Director of the Institute for the Black World in Atlanta, Georgia.
In 1964, Haywood began to become involved with the New Communist Movement, the goal of which was to found a new vanguard Communist Party on an anti-revisionist basis, believing the CPUSA to have deviated irrevocably from Marxism-Leninism. He later worked in one of the newly formed Maoist groups of the New Communist Movement, the October League, which became the Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist). In the CP(M-L) Haywood served on the Central Committee. He published his autobiography Black Bolshevik although some of his important writings and political life during the 1960s were edited out. For example, the manuscript he wrote with the acknowledged collaboration with Gwendolyn Midlo Hall and was dedicated to Robert F. Williams was not mentioned. This work, circulated in mimeographed form from early 1964 throughout California and the Deep South, deeply influenced the armed self-defense movement against the Ku Klux Klan during 1964 and 1965 and projected a slogan widely picked up throughout the Deep South that we must pose our own challenge to order and stability to counter the challenge posed by "massive resistance" by Southern politicians and racist terrorists. Black Bolshevik became an important book widely cited by scholars and read by the wider public as well. Through it and his other writings, Haywood provided ideological leadership far beyond the New Communist Movement. Haywood's theoretical contributions had a substantial impact on the major, and numerous warring factions of the New Communist Movement well beyond his own CP(M-L), including, for example, the League of Revolutionary Struggle (Marxist-Leninist), the early Revolutionary Communist Party, the Revolutionary Workers Headquarters and the Communist Workers Party. Nonetheless, lack of experience, sectarianism, and voluntarism played a major role in keeping the young Maoist groups from taking a strong leading role. In his last published article, Haywood wrote that the New Communist movement spent too much time and energy seeking the "franchise" of governments and parties outside the United States without validating itself among the people of our own country.
Haywood's theoretical contributions to questions of African-American national oppression and national liberation remain highly valued by the Ray O. Light Group, which developed out of an anti-revisionist split from the Communist Party USA in 1961, Freedom Road Socialist Organization, which was originally formed from the mergers of several New Communist Movement groups in the 1980s, and the Maoist Internationalist Movement as well as by many black revolutionaries and activists today. Haywood's role in the black protest movements during the 1960s through the 1980s can be studied at the Harry Haywood Papers, Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Books Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in New York City and Harry Haywood Collection, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Haywood's theoretical innovations have been influential in a range of scholarship including historical materialism, geography, Marxist education, and social movement theory, among others.
Marriage and family
In 1920, Haywood married a woman named Hazel, but they separated the same year.
While he was in Los Angeles in the late 1930s or 1940, he married Belle Lewis, whom he had known for years. They divorced in 1955.
In 1956, Haywood married Gwendolyn Midlo, a Jewish activist from New Orleans, Louisiana. She has been active in civil rights throughout her life. She also has become a prominent historian of slavery in the United States and Latin America, and of the African diaspora. She made her academic career at Rutgers University. They had three children, whom Midlo Hall mostly provided for alone. They are Dr. Haywood Hall (b. 1956), Dr. Rebecca Hall (b. 1963), and a third child from a previous marriage, Leonid A. Yuspeh (b. 1951.)
Haywood and Midlo Hall remained married until his death in 1985. Between 1953 and 1964, they collaborated on numerous articles, including some published in Soulbook Magazine, founded in Berkeley, California, in 1964. She did not follow him into the New Communist Movement, and they mostly lived apart after late 1964. Shortly before Haywood's expulsion from the Communist Party, he moved with his family to Mexico City, Mexico. During these years, Midlo Hall earned her bachelor's and master's degrees in history at Mexico City College. She returned with Haywood to the United States in 1964 working as a temporary legal secretary, started teaching in North Carolina in 1965, enrolled in graduate school in 1966, and earned her doctorate in 1970 at the University of Michigan. From there, she went to work as an assistant professor at Rutgers University, where she made her academic career and advanced to full professor. Midlo Hall has taught Africans in the Atlantic World at Michigan State University, as Adjunct Professor of History.
Death and legacy
Haywood died in January 1985, and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia. (Columbarium Court 1, Section LL, Column 7, 2nd Row from bottom. Interred under birth name "Haywood Hall.") He had a service-related disability and spent the last few years of his life at a Veterans Administration medical facility. The Harry Haywood papers are housed at the Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, and at the Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Books Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York City.
In Richard Wright's autobiographical novel Black Boy (American Hunger), the character of Buddy Nealson is said to represent Haywood.
See also
Communists in the United States Labor Movement (1919–37)
Communists in the United States Labor Movement (1937–50)
The Communist Party USA and African-Americans
Civil rights movement (1896–1954)
Timeline of Racial Tension in Omaha, Nebraska
Black nationalism
Black separatism
Footnotes
Other sources consulted
Max Elbaum, Revolution in the Air: Sixties Radicals Turn to Lenin, Mao, and Che. New York: Verso, 2006.
William Z. Foster, History of the Communist Party of the United States. New York: International Publishers, 1952.
Lance Hill,Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
Robin D.G. Kelley, Hammer & Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1990.
William Eric Perkins, "Harry Haywood (1898-1985)," in Mari Jo Buhle, Paul Buhle, Dan Georgakas, Eds. Encyclopedia of the American Left. New York: Garland, 1990.
Cedric J. Robinson, Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.
Works
The Communist Position on the Negro Question. With Earl Browder and Clarence Hathaway. New York: Workers Library Publishers, 1931.
Lynching: A Weapon of National Oppression. With Milton Howard. New York: International Publishers, 1932.
The Road to Negro Liberation: Report to the Eighth Convention of the Communist Party of the USA. New York: Workers Library Publishers, 1934.
The South Comes North in Detroit's Own Scottsboro Case. New York: League of Struggle for Negro Rights, n.d. [1930s].
Negro Liberation. New York: International Publishers, 1948. —Reissued by Liberator Press, Chicago, 1976.
Articles from Soulbook, 1965–1967.
Harry Haywood, For a Revolutionary Position on the Negro Question. Chicago: Liberator Press, 1975.
Harry Haywood, Black Bolshevik: Autobiography of an Afro-American Communist. Liberator Press, Chicago: 1978.
Further reading
Dawson, Michael C. Black Visions. The Roots of Contemporary African-American Political Ideologies. University of Chicago Press, Chicago: 2001.
Foster, William Z. History of the Communist Party of the United States. International Publishers, New York: 1952.
Foster, William Z. The Negro People in American History. International Publishers, New York: 1954.
Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. Defying Dixie. The Radical Roots of Civil Rights 1919–1950. W.W. Norton & Company, New York 2008.
Howard, Walter T. Black Communists Speak on Scottsboro. A Documentary History. Temple University Press, Philadelphia: 2008.
Howard, Walter T. We Shall Be Free!: Black Communist Protests in Seven Voices. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2013.
Kelley, Robin D. G. Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill: 1990.
Kelley, Robin D. G. and Betsy Esch, "Black Like Mao: Red China and Black Revolution", in Afro-Asia: Revolutionary Political and Cultural Connections Between African Americans and Asian Americans. Fred Ho and Bill V. Mullen, Eds. Duke University Press, Durham: 2008; pp. 97–155.
Solomon, Mark.The Cry Was Unity. Communists and African Americans, 1917–1936. University of Mississippi Press, Jackson: 1998.
External links
Harry Haywood Internet Archive
Documents from School on Afro-American National Question. Important texts from New Communist Movement groups based on theories put forward by Haywood.
The Third International and the Struggle for a Correct Line on the African American National Question. May 2006 text presented by Freedom Road Socialist Organization to the Workers Party of Belgium
Harry Haywood Papers Bentley Historical Library, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
1898 births
1985 deaths
Activists for African-American civil rights
Members of the Communist Party USA
African-American life in Omaha, Nebraska
American Comintern people
Marxist theorists
American Maoists
Abraham Lincoln Brigade members
20th-century African-American politicians
Anti-revisionists
Politicians from Omaha, Nebraska
American sailors
Military personnel from Omaha, Nebraska
United States Army soldiers
African-American trade unionists
American expatriates in the Soviet Union
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Communist University of the Toilers of the East alumni
International Lenin School alumni
African-American communists
African-American history of Nebraska
African-American Marxists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowdsourcing
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Crowdsourcing
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Crowdsourcing involves a large group of dispersed participants contributing or producing goods or services—including ideas, votes, micro-tasks, and finances—for payment or as volunteers. Contemporary crowdsourcing often involves digital platforms to attract and divide work between participants to achieve a cumulative result. Crowdsourcing is not limited to online activity, however, and there are various historical examples of crowdsourcing. The word crowdsourcing is a portmanteau of "crowd" and "outsourcing". In contrast to outsourcing, crowdsourcing usually involves less specific and more public groups of participants.
Advantages of using crowdsourcing include lowered costs, improved speed, improved quality, increased flexibility, and/or increased scalability of the work, as well as promoting diversity. Crowdsourcing methods include competitions, virtual labor markets, open online collaboration and data donation. Some forms of crowdsourcing, such as in "idea competitions" or "innovation contests" provide ways for organizations to learn beyond the "base of minds" provided by their employees (e.g. LEGO Ideas). Commercial platforms, such as Amazon Mechanical Turk, match microtasks submitted by requesters to workers who perform them. Crowdsourcing is also used by nonprofit organizations to develop common goods, such as Wikipedia.
Definitions
The term crowdsourcing was coined in 2006 by two editors at Wired, Jeff Howe and Mark Robinson, to describe how businesses were using the Internet to "outsource work to the crowd", which quickly led to the portmanteau "crowdsourcing". Howe published a definition for the term in a blog post in June 2006:
Simply defined, crowdsourcing represents the act of a company or institution taking a function once performed by employees and outsourcing it to an undefined (and generally large) network of people in the form of an open call. This can take the form of peer-production (when the job is performed collaboratively), but is also often undertaken by sole individuals. The crucial prerequisite is the use of the open call format and the large network of potential laborers.
Daren C. Brabham defined crowdsourcing as an "online, distributed problem-solving and production model." Kristen L. Guth and Brabham found that the performance of ideas offered in crowdsourcing platforms are affected not only by their quality, but also by the communication among users about the ideas, and presentation in the platform itself.
Despite the multiplicity of definitions for crowdsourcing, one constant has been the broadcasting of problems to the public, and an open call for contributions to help solve the problem. Members of the public submit solutions that are then owned by the entity who originally broadcast the problem. In some cases, the contributor of the solution is compensated monetarily with prizes or public recognition. In other cases, the only rewards may be praise or intellectual satisfaction. Crowdsourcing may produce solutions from amateurs or volunteers working in their spare time, from experts, or from small businesses.
Historical examples
While the term "crowdsourcing" was popularized online to describe Internet-based activities, some examples of projects, in retrospect, can be described as crowdsourcing.
Timeline of crowdsourcing examples
618–907 – Tang dynasty introduced the Joint-Stock Company, the earliest form of crowdfunding. This was evident during the cold period of the Tang Dynasty when the colder climates resulted in poor harvests and the lessening of agricultural taxes, culminating in the fragmentation of the agricultural sector. The fragmentation meant that the government had to reform the tax system relying more on the taxation of salt and most importantly business leading to the creation of the Joint-Stock Company.
1567 – King Philip II of Spain offered a cash prize for calculating the longitude of a vessel whilst at sea.
1714 – The longitude rewards: When the British government was trying to find a way to measure a ship's longitudinal position, they offered the public a monetary prize to whoever came up with the best solution.
1783 – King Louis XVI offered an award to the person who could "make the alkali" by decomposing sea salt by the "simplest and most economic method".
1848 – Matthew Fontaine Maury distributed 5000 copies of his Wind and Current Charts free of charge on the condition that sailors returned a standardized log of their voyage to the U.S. Naval Observatory. By 1861, he had distributed 200,000 copies free of charge, on the same conditions.
1849 – A network of some 150 volunteer weather observers all over the USA was set up as a part of the Smithsonian Institution's Meteorological Project started by the Smithsonian's first Secretary, Joseph Henry, who used the telegraph to gather volunteers' data and create a large weather map, making new information available to the public daily. For instance, volunteers tracked a tornado passing through Wisconsin and sent the findings via telegraph to the Smithsonian. Henry's project is considered the origin of what later became the National Weather Service. Within a decade, the project had more than 600 volunteer observers and had spread to Canada, Mexico, Latin America, and the Caribbean.
1884 – Publication of the Oxford English Dictionary: 800 volunteers catalogued words to create the first fascicle of the OED.
1916 – Planters Peanuts contest: The Mr. Peanut logo was designed by a 14-year-old boy who won the Planter Peanuts logo contest.
1957 – Jørn Utzon was selected as winner of the design competition for the Sydney Opera House.
1970 – French amateur photo contest C'était Paris en 1970 ("This Was Paris in 1970") was sponsored by the city of Paris, France-Inter radio, and the Fnac: 14,000 photographers produced 70,000 black-and-white prints and 30,000 color slides of the French capital to document the architectural changes of Paris. Photographs were donated to the Bibliothèque historique de la ville de Paris.
1979 – Robert Axelrod invited academics on-line to submit FORTRAN algorithms to play the repeated Prisoner's Dilemma; A tit for tat algorithm ended up in first place.
1991 – Linus Torvalds began work on the Linux operating system, and
1996 – The Hollywood Stock Exchange was founded: It allowed buying and selling of shares.
1997 – British rock band Marillion raised $60,000 from their fans to help finance their U.S. tour.
1999 – SETI@home was launched by the University of California, Berkeley. Volunteers can contribute to searching for signals that might come from extraterrestrial intelligence by installing a program that uses idle computer time for analyzing chunks of data recorded by radio telescopes involved in the SERENDIP program.
1999– The U.S. Geological Survey’s (USGS’s) "Did You Feel It?" website was used in the US as a method where by residents could report any tremors or shocks they felt from a recent earthquake and the approximate magnitude of the earthquake.
2000 – JustGiving was established: This online platform allows the public to help raise money for charities.
2000 – UNV Online Volunteering service launched: Connecting people who commit their time and skills over the Internet to help organizations address development challenges.
2000 – iStockPhoto was founded: The free stock imagery website allows the public to contribute to and receive commission for their contributions.
2001 – Launch of Wikipedia: "Free-access, free content Internet encyclopedia".
2001 – Foundation of Topcoder – crowdsourcing software development company.
2004 – OpenStreetMap, a collaborative project to create a free editable map of the world, was launched.
2004 – Toyota's first "Dream car art" contest: Children were asked globally to draw their "dream car of the future".
2005 – Kodak's "Go for the Gold" contest: Kodak asked anyone to submit a picture of a personal victory.
2005 – Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) was launched publicly on November 2, 2005. It enables businesses to hire remotely located "crowdworkers" to perform discrete on-demand tasks that computers are currently unable to do.
2005 – Reddit was launched in 2005. Reddit is a social media platform and online community where users can submit, discuss and vote, leading to diverse discussions and interactions.
2006 – Waze (then named FreeMap Israel), a community-oriented GPS app, was created. It allows users to submit road information and route data based on location, such as reports of car accidents or traffic, and integrates that data into its routing algorithms for all users of the app.
2010 – The 1947 Partition Archive, an oral history project that asked community members around the world to document oral histories from aging witnessed of a significant but under-documented historical event, the 1947 Partition of India, was founded.
2011 – Casting of Flavours (Do us a flavor in the USA) – a campaign launched by PepsiCo's Lay's in Spain. The campaign was to create a new flavor for the snack where the consumers were directly involved in its formation.
Early competitions
Crowdsourcing has often been used in the past as a competition to discover a solution. The French government proposed several of these competitions, often rewarded with Montyon Prizes. These included the Leblanc process, or the Alkali prize, where a reward was provided for separating the salt from the alkali, and the Fourneyron's turbine, when the first hydraulic commercial turbine was developed.
In response to a challenge from the French government, Nicolas Appert won a prize for inventing a new way of food preservation that involved sealing food in air-tight jars. The British government provided a similar reward to find an easy way to determine a ship's longitude in the Longitude Prize. During the Great Depression, out-of-work clerks tabulated higher mathematical functions in the Mathematical Tables Project as an outreach project. One of the largest crowdsourcing campaigns was a public design contest in 2010 hosted by the Indian government's finance ministry to create a symbol for the Indian rupee. Thousands of people sent in entries before the government zeroed in on the final symbol based on the Devanagari script using the letter Ra.
Applications
A number of motivations exist for businesses to use crowdsourcing to accomplish their tasks. These include the ability to offload peak demand, access cheap labor and information, generate better results, access a wider array of talent than what is present in one organization, and undertake problems that would have been too difficult to solve internally. Crowdsourcing allows businesses to submit problems on which contributors can work—on topics such as science, manufacturing, biotech, and medicine—optionally with monetary rewards for successful solutions. Although crowdsourcing complicated tasks can be difficult, simple work tasks can be crowdsourced cheaply and effectively.
Crowdsourcing also has the potential to be a problem-solving mechanism for government and nonprofit use. Urban and transit planning are prime areas for crowdsourcing. For example, from 2008 to 2009, a crowdsourcing project for transit planning in Salt Lake City was created to test the public participation process. Another notable application of crowdsourcing for government problem-solving is Peer-to-Patent, which was an initiative to improve patent quality in the United States through gathering public input in a structured, productive manner.
Researchers have used crowdsourcing systems such as Amazon Mechanical Turk or CloudResearch to aid their research projects by crowdsourcing some aspects of the research process, such as data collection, parsing, and evaluation to the public. Notable examples include using the crowd to create speech and language databases, to conduct user studies, and to run behavioral science surveys and experiments. Crowdsourcing systems provided researchers with the ability to gather large amounts of data, and helped researchers to collect data from populations and demographics they may not have access to locally.
Artists have also used crowdsourcing systems. In a project called the Sheep Market, Aaron Koblin used Mechanical Turk to collect 10,000 drawings of sheep from contributors around the world. Artist Sam Brown leveraged the crowd by asking visitors of his website explodingdog to send him sentences to use as inspirations for his paintings. Art curator Andrea Grover argues that individuals tend to be more open in crowdsourced projects because they are not being physically judged or scrutinized. As with other types of uses, artists use crowdsourcing systems to generate and collect data. The crowd also can be used to provide inspiration and to collect financial support for an artist's work.
In navigation systems, crowdsourcing from 100 million drivers were used by INRIX to collect users' driving times to provide better GPS routing and real-time traffic updates.
In science
Astronomy
Crowdsourcing in astronomy was used in the early 19th century by astronomer Denison Olmsted. After being awakened in a late November night due to a meteor shower taking place, Olmsted noticed a pattern in the shooting stars. Olmsted wrote a brief report of this meteor shower in the local newspaper. "As the cause of 'Falling Stars' is not understood by meteorologists, it is desirable to collect all the facts attending this phenomenon, stated with as much precision as possible", Olmsted wrote to readers, in a report subsequently picked up and pooled to newspapers nationwide. Responses came pouring in from many states, along with scientists' observations sent to the American Journal of Science and Arts. These responses helped him to make a series of scientific breakthroughs including observing the fact that meteor showers are seen nationwide and fall from space under the influence of gravity. The responses also allowed him to approximate a velocity for the meteors.
A more recent version of crowdsourcing in astronomy is NASA's photo organizing project, which asked internet users to browse photos taken from space and try to identify the location the picture is documenting.
Behavioral science
In the field of behavioral science, crowdsourcing is often used to gather data and insights on human behavior and decision making. Researchers may create online surveys or experiments that are completed by a large number of participants, allowing them to collect a diverse and potentially large amount of data. Crowdsourcing can also be used to gather real-time data on behavior, such as through the use of mobile apps that track and record users' activities and decision making. The use of crowdsourcing in behavioral science has the potential to greatly increase the scope and efficiency of research, and has been used in studies on topics such as psychology research, political attitudes, and social media use.
Energy system research
Energy system models require large and diverse datasets, increasingly so given the trend towards greater temporal and spatial resolution. In response, there have been several initiatives to crowdsource this data. Launched in December 2009, OpenEI is a collaborative website run by the US government that provides open energy data. While much of its information is from US government sources, the platform also seeks crowdsourced input from around the world. The semantic wiki and database Enipedia also publishes energy systems data using the concept of crowdsourced open information. Enipedia went live in March 2011.
Genealogy research
Genealogical research used crowdsourcing techniques long before personal computers were common. Beginning in 1942, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints encouraged members to submit information about their ancestors. The submitted information was gathered together into a single collection. In 1969, to encourage more participation, the church started the three-generation program. In this program, church members were asked to prepare documented family group record forms for the first three generations. The program was later expanded to encourage members to research at least four generations and became known as the four-generation program.
Institutes that have records of interest to genealogical research have used crowds of volunteers to create catalogs and indices to records.
Genetic genealogy research
Genetic genealogy is a combination of traditional genealogy with genetics. The rise of personal DNA testing, after the turn of the century, by companies such as Gene by Gene, FTDNA, GeneTree, 23andMe, and Ancestry.com, has led to public and semi public databases of DNA testing using crowdsourcing techniques. Citizen science projects have included support, organization, and dissemination of personal DNA (genetic) testing. Similar to amateur astronomy, citizen scientists encouraged by volunteer organizations like the International Society of Genetic Genealogy have provided valuable information and research to the professional scientific community. The Genographic Project, which began in 2005, is a research project carried out by the National Geographic Society's scientific team to reveal patterns of human migration using crowdsourced DNA testing and reporting of results.
Ornithology
Another early example of crowdsourcing occurred in the field of ornithology. On 25 December 1900, Frank Chapman, an early officer of the National Audubon Society, initiated a tradition dubbed the "Christmas Day Bird Census". The project called birders from across North America to count and record the number of birds in each species they witnessed on Christmas Day. The project was successful, and the records from 27 different contributors were compiled into one bird census, which tallied around 90 species of birds. This large-scale collection of data constituted an early form of citizen science, the premise upon which crowdsourcing is based. In the 2012 census, more than 70,000 individuals participated across 2,369 bird count circles. Christmas 2014 marked the National Audubon Society's 115th annual Christmas Bird Count.
Seismology
The European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre (EMSC) has developed a seismic detection system by monitoring the traffic peaks on its website and analyzing keywords used on Twitter.
In journalism
Crowdsourcing is increasingly used in professional journalism. Journalists are able to organize crowdsourced information by fact checking the information, and then using the information they have gathered in their articles as they see fit. A daily newspaper in Sweden has successfully used crowdsourcing in investigating the home loan interest rates in the country in 2013–2014, which resulted in over 50,000 submissions. A daily newspaper in Finland crowdsourced an investigation into stock short-selling in 2011–2012, and the crowdsourced information led to revelations of a tax evasion system by a Finnish bank. The bank executive was fired and policy changes followed. TalkingPointsMemo in the United States asked its readers to examine 3,000 emails concerning the firing of federal prosecutors in 2008. The British newspaper The Guardian crowdsourced the examination of hundreds of thousands of documents in 2009.
Data donation
Data donation is a crowdsourcing approach to gather digital data. It is used by researchers and organizations to gain access to data from online platforms, websites, search engines and apps and devices. Data donation projects usually rely on participants volunteering their authentic digital profile information. Examples include:
DataSkop developed by Algorithm Watch, a non-profit research organization in Germany, which accessed data on social media algorithms and automated decision-making systems.
Mozilla Rally, from the Mozilla Foundation, is a browser extension for adult participants in the US to provide access to their data for research projects.
The Australian Search Experience and Ad Observatory projects set up in 2021 by researchers at the ARC Centre of Excellence for Automated Decision-Making and Society (ADM+S) in Australia was using data donations to analyze how Google personalized search results, and examine how Facebook's algorithmic advertising model worked.
The Citizen Browser Project, developed by The Markup, was designed to measure how disinformation traveled across social media platforms over time.
In public policy
Crowdsourcing public policy and the production of public services is also referred to as citizen sourcing. While some scholars argue crowdsourcing for this purpose as a policy tool or a definite means of co-production, others question that and argue that crowdsourcing should be considered just as a technological enabler that simply increases speed and ease of participation. Crowdsourcing can also play a role in democratization.
The first conference focusing on Crowdsourcing for Politics and Policy took place at Oxford University, under the auspices of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2014. Research has emerged since 2012 which focused on the use of crowdsourcing for policy purposes. These include experimentally investigating the use of Virtual Labor Markets for policy assessment, and assessing the potential for citizen involvement in process innovation for public administration.
Governments across the world are increasingly using crowdsourcing for knowledge discovery and civic engagement. Iceland crowdsourced their constitution reform process in 2011, and Finland has crowdsourced several law reform processes to address their off-road traffic laws. The Finnish government allowed citizens to go on an online forum to discuss problems and possible resolutions regarding some off-road traffic laws. The crowdsourced information and resolutions would then be passed on to legislators to refer to when making a decision, allowing citizens to contribute to public policy in a more direct manner. Palo Alto crowdsources feedback for its Comprehensive City Plan update in a process started in 2015. The House of Representatives in Brazil has used crowdsourcing in policy-reforms.
NASA used crowdsourcing to analyze large sets of images. As part of the Open Government Initiative of the Obama Administration, the General Services Administration collected and amalgamated suggestions for improving federal websites.
For part of the Obama and Trump Administrations, the We the People system collected signatures on petitions, which were entitled to an official response from the White House once a certain number had been reached. Several U.S. federal agencies ran inducement prize contests, including NASA and the Environmental Protection Agency.
Language-related data
Crowdsourcing has been used extensively for gathering language-related data.
For dictionary work, crowdsourcing was applied over a hundred years ago by the Oxford English Dictionary editors using paper and postage. It has also been used for collecting examples of proverbs on a specific topic (e.g. religious pluralism) for a printed journal. Crowdsourcing language-related data online has proven very effective and many dictionary compilation projects used crowdsourcing. It is used particularly for specialist topics and languages that are not well documented, such as for the Oromo language. Software programs have been developed for crowdsourced dictionaries, such as WeSay. A slightly different form of crowdsourcing for language data was the online creation of scientific and mathematical terminology for American Sign Language.
In linguistics, crowdsourcing strategies have been applied to estimate word knowledge, vocabulary size, and word origin. Implicit crowdsourcing on social media has also approximating sociolinguistic data efficiently. Reddit conversations in various location-based subreddits were analyzed for the presence of grammatical forms unique to a regional dialect. These were then used to map the extent of the speaker population. The results could roughly approximate large-scale surveys on the subject without engaging in field interviews.
Mining publicly available social media conversations can be used as a form of implicit crowdsourcing to approximate the geographic extent of speaker dialects. Proverb collection is also being done via crowdsourcing on the Web, most notably for the Pashto language of Afghanistan and Pakistan. Crowdsourcing has been extensively used to collect high-quality gold standards for creating automatic systems in natural language processing (e.g. named entity recognition, entity linking).
In product design
LEGO allows users to work on new product designs while conducting requirements testing. Any user can provide a design for a product, and other users can vote on the product. Once the submitted product has received 10,000 votes, it will be formally reviewed in stages and go into production with no impediments such as legal flaws identified. The creator receives royalties from the net income.
In business
Homeowners can use Airbnb to list their accommodation or unused rooms. Owners set their own nightly, weekly and monthly rates and accommodations. The business, in turn, charges guests and hosts a fee. Guests usually end up spending between $9 and $15. They have to pay a booking fee every time they book a room. The landlord, in turn, pays a service fee for the amount due. The company has 1,500 properties in 34,000 cities in more than 190 countries.
In market research
Crowdsourcing is frequently used in market research as a way to gather insights and opinions from a large number of consumers. Companies may create online surveys or focus groups that are open to the general public, allowing them to gather a diverse range of perspectives on their products or services. This can be especially useful for companies seeking to understand the needs and preferences of a particular market segment or to gather feedback on the effectiveness of their marketing efforts. The use of crowdsourcing in market research allows companies to quickly and efficiently gather a large amount of data and insights that can inform their business decisions.
Other examples
Geography — Volunteered geographic information (VGI) is geographic information generated through crowdsourcing, as opposed to traditional methods of Professional Geographic Information (PGI). In describing the built environment, VGI has many advantages over PGI, primarily perceived currency, accuracy and authority. OpenStreetMap is an example of crowdsourced mapping project.
Engineering — Many companies are introducing crowdsourcing to grow their engineering capabilities and find solutions to unsolved technical challenges and the need to adopt newest technologies such as 3D printing and the IOT.
Libraries, museums and archives — Newspaper text correction at the National Library of Australia was an early, influential example of work with text transcriptions for crowdsourcing in cultural heritage institutions. The Steve Museum project provided a prototype for categorizing artworks. Crowdsourcing is used in libraries for OCR corrections on digitized texts, for tagging and for funding, especially in the absence of financial and human means. Volunteers can contribute explicitly with conscious effort or implicitly without being known by turning the text on the raw newspaper image into human corrected digital form.
Agriculture — Crowdsource research also applies to the field of agriculture. Crowdsourcing can be used to help farmers and experts to dentify different types of weeds from the fields and also to provide assistance in removing the weeds.
Cheating in bridge — Boye Brogeland initiated a crowdsourcing investigation of cheating by top-level bridge players that showed several players as guilty, which led to their suspension.
Open Source Software and Crowdsourcing software development have been used extensively in the domain of software development.
Healthcare — Research has emerged that outlined the use of crowdsourcing techniques in the public health domain. The collective intelligence outcomes from crowdsourcing are being generated in three broad categories of public health care: health promotion, health research, and health maintenance. Crowdsourcing also enables researchers to move from small homogeneous groups of participants to large heterogenous groups beyond convenience samples such as students or higher educated people. The SESH group focuses on using crowdsourcing to improve health.
Methods
Internet and digital technologies have massively expanded the opportunities for crowdsourcing. However, the effect of user communication and platform presentation can have a major bearing on the success of an online crowdsourcing project. The crowdsourced problem can range from huge tasks (such as finding alien life or mapping earthquake zones) or very small (identifying images). Some examples of successful crowdsourcing themes are problems that bug people, things that make people feel good about themselves, projects that tap into niche knowledge of proud experts, and subjects that people find sympathetic.
Crowdsourcing can either take an explicit or an implicit route:
Explicit crowdsourcing lets users work together to evaluate, share, and build different specific tasks, while implicit crowdsourcing means that users solve a problem as a side effect of something else they are doing. With explicit crowdsourcing, users can evaluate particular items like books or webpages, or share by posting products or items. Users can also build artifacts by providing information and editing other people's work.
Implicit crowdsourcing can take two forms: standalone and piggyback. Standalone allows people to solve problems as a side effect of the task they are actually doing, whereas piggyback takes users' information from a third-party website to gather information. This is also known as data donation.
In his 2013 book, Crowdsourcing, Daren C. Brabham puts forth a problem-based typology of crowdsourcing approaches:
Knowledge discovery and management is used for information management problems where an organization mobilizes a crowd to find and assemble information. It is ideal for creating collective resources.
Distributed human intelligence tasking (HIT) is used for information management problems where an organization has a set of information in hand and mobilizes a crowd to process or analyze the information. It is ideal for processing large data sets that computers cannot easily do. Amazon Mechanical Turk uses this approach.
Broadcast search is used for ideation problems where an organization mobilizes a crowd to come up with a solution to a problem that has an objective, provable right answer. It is ideal for scientific problem-solving.
Peer-vetted creative production is used for ideation problems, where an organization mobilizes a crowd to come up with a solution to a problem which has an answer that is subjective or dependent on public support. It is ideal for design, aesthetic, or policy problems.
Ivo Blohm identifies four types of Crowdsourcing Platforms: Microtasking, Information Pooling, Broadcast Search, and Open Collaboration. They differ in the diversity and aggregation of contributions that are created. The diversity of information collected can either be homogenous or heterogenous. The aggregation of information can either be selective or integrative. Some common categories of crowdsourcing have been used effectively in the commercial world include crowdvoting, crowdsolving, crowdfunding, microwork, creative crowdsourcing, crowdsource workforce management, and inducement prize contests.
Crowdvoting
Crowdvoting occurs when a website gathers a large group's opinions and judgments on a certain topic. Some crowdsourcing tools and platforms allow participants to rank each other's contributions, e.g. in answer to the question "What is one thing we can do to make Acme a great company?" One common method for ranking is "like" counting, where the contribution with the most "like" votes ranks first. This method is simple and easy to understand, but it privileges early contributions, which have more time to accumulate votes. In recent years, several crowdsourcing companies have begun to use pairwise comparisons backed by ranking algorithms. Ranking algorithms do not penalize late contributions. They also produce results quicker. Ranking algorithms have proven to be at least 10 times faster than manual stack ranking. One drawback, however, is that ranking algorithms are more difficult to understand than vote counting.
The Iowa Electronic Market is a prediction market that gathers crowds' views on politics and tries to ensure accuracy by having participants pay money to buy and sell contracts based on political outcomes. Some of the most famous examples have made use of social media channels: Domino's Pizza, Coca-Cola, Heineken, and Sam Adams have crowdsourced a new pizza, bottle design, beer, and song respectively. A website called Threadless selected the T-shirts it sold by having users provide designs and vote on the ones they like, which are then printed and available for purchase.
The California Report Card (CRC), a program jointly launched in January 2014 by the Center for Information Technology Research in the Interest of Society and Lt. Governor Gavin Newsom, is an example of modern-day crowd voting. Participants access the CRC online and vote on six timely issues. Through principal component analysis, the users are then placed into an online "café" in which they can present their own political opinions and grade the suggestions of other participants. This system aims to effectively involve the greater public in relevant political discussions and highlight the specific topics with which people are most concerned.
Crowdvoting's value in the movie industry was shown when in 2009 a crowd accurately predicted the success or failure of a movie based on its trailer, a feat that was replicated in 2013 by Google.
On Reddit, users collectively rate web content, discussions and comments as well as questions posed to persons of interest in "AMA" and AskScience online interviews.
In 2017, Project Fanchise purchased a team in the Indoor Football League and created the Salt Lake Screaming Eagles, a fan run team. Using a mobile app, the fans voted on the day-to-day operations of the team, the mascot name, signing of players and even offensive play calling during games.
Crowdfunding
Crowdfunding is the process of funding projects by a multitude of people contributing a small amount to attain a certain monetary goal, typically via the Internet. Crowdfunding has been used for both commercial and charitable purposes. The crowdfuding model that has been around the longest is rewards-based crowdfunding. This model is where people can prepurchase products, buy experiences, or simply donate. While this funding may in some cases go towards helping a business, funders are not allowed to invest and become shareholders via rewards-based crowdfunding.
Individuals, businesses, and entrepreneurs can showcase their businesses and projects by creating a profile, which typically includes a short video introducing their project, a list of rewards per donation, and illustrations through images. Funders make monetary contribution for numerous reasons:
They connect to the greater purpose of the campaign, such as being a part of an entrepreneurial community and supporting an innovative idea or product.
They connect to a physical aspect of the campaign like rewards and gains from investment.
They connect to the creative display of the campaign's presentation.
They want to see new products before the public.
The dilemma for equity crowdfunding in the US as of 2012 was during a refinement process for the regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission, which had until 1 January 2013 to tweak the fundraising methods. The regulators were overwhelmed trying to regulate Dodd-Frank and all the other rules and regulations involving public companies and the way they traded. Advocates of regulation claimed that crowdfunding would open up the flood gates for fraud, called it the "wild west" of fundraising, and compared it to the 1980s days of penny stock "cold-call cowboys". The process allowed for up to $1 million to be raised without some of the regulations being involved. Companies under the then-current proposal would have exemptions available and be able to raise capital from a larger pool of persons, which can include lower thresholds for investor criteria, whereas the old rules required that the person be an "accredited" investor. These people are often recruited from social networks, where the funds can be acquired from an equity purchase, loan, donation, or ordering. The amounts collected have become quite high, with requests that are over a million dollars for software such as Trampoline Systems, which used it to finance the commercialization of their new software.
Inducement prize contests
Web-based idea competitions or inducement prize contests often consist of generic ideas, cash prizes, and an Internet-based platform to facilitate easy idea generation and discussion. An example of these competitions includes an event like IBM's 2006 "Innovation Jam", attended by over 140,000 international participants and yielded around 46,000 ideas. Another example is the Netflix Prize in 2009. People were asked to come up with a recommendation algorithm that is more accurate than Netflix's current algorithm. It had a grand prize of US$1,000,000, and it was given to a team which designed an algorithm that beat Netflix's own algorithm for predicting ratings by 10.06%.
Another example of competition-based crowdsourcing is the 2009 DARPA balloon experiment, where DARPA placed 10 balloon markers across the United States and challenged teams to compete to be the first to report the location of all the balloons. A collaboration of efforts was required to complete the challenge quickly and in addition to the competitive motivation of the contest as a whole, the winning team (MIT, in less than nine hours) established its own "collaborapetitive" environment to generate participation in their team. A similar challenge was the Tag Challenge, funded by the US State Department, which required locating and photographing individuals in five cities in the US and Europe within 12 hours based only on a single photograph. The winning team managed to locate three suspects by mobilizing volunteers worldwide using a similar incentive scheme to the one used in the balloon challenge.
Using open innovation platforms is an effective way to crowdsource people's thoughts and ideas for research and development. The company InnoCentive is a crowdsourcing platform for corporate research and development where difficult scientific problems are posted for crowds of solvers to discover the answer and win a cash prize that ranges from $10,000 to $100,000 per challenge. InnoCentive, of Waltham, Massachusetts, and London, England, provides access to millions of scientific and technical experts from around the world. The company claims a success rate of 50% in providing successful solutions to previously unsolved scientific and technical problems. The X Prize Foundation creates and runs incentive competitions offering between $1 million and $30 million for solving challenges. Local Motors is another example of crowdsourcing, and it is a community of 20,000 automotive engineers, designers, and enthusiasts that compete to build off-road rally trucks.
Implicit crowdsourcing
Implicit crowdsourcing is less obvious because users do not necessarily know they are contributing, yet can still be very effective in completing certain tasks. Rather than users actively participating in solving a problem or providing information, implicit crowdsourcing involves users doing another task entirely where a third party gains information for another topic based on the user's actions.
A good example of implicit crowdsourcing is the ESP game, where users find words to describe Google images, which are then used as metadata for the images. Another popular use of implicit crowdsourcing is through reCAPTCHA, which asks people to solve CAPTCHAs to prove they are human, and then provides CAPTCHAs from old books that cannot be deciphered by computers, to digitize them for the web. Like many tasks solved using the Mechanical Turk, CAPTCHAs are simple for humans, but often very difficult for computers.
Piggyback crowdsourcing can be seen most frequently by websites such as Google that data-mine a user's search history and websites to discover keywords for ads, spelling corrections, and finding synonyms. In this way, users are unintentionally helping to modify existing systems, such as Google Ads.
Other types
Creative crowdsourcing involves sourcing people for creative projects such as graphic design, crowdsourcing architecture, product design, apparel design, movies, writing, company naming, illustration, etc. While crowdsourcing competitions have been used for decades in some creative fields such as architecture, creative crowdsourcing has proliferated with the recent development of web-based platforms where clients can solicit a wide variety of creative work at lower cost than by traditional means.
Crowdshipping (crowd-shipping) is a peer-to-peer shipping service, usually conducted via an online platform or marketplace. There are several methods that have been categorized as crowd-shipping:
Travelers heading in the direction of the buyer, and are willing to bring the package as part of their luggage for a reward.
Truck drivers whose route lies along the buyer's location and who are willing to take extra items in their truck.
Community-based platforms that connect international buyers and local forwarders, by allowing buyers to use forwarder's address as purchase destination, after which forwarders ship items further to the buyer.
Crowdsolving is a collaborative and holistic way of solving a problem through many people, communities, groups, or resources. It is a type of crowdsourcing with focus on complex and intellectually demanding problems requiring considerable effort, and the quality or uniqueness of contribution.
Problem–idea chains are a form of idea crowdsourcing and crowdsolving, where individuals are asked to submit ideas to solve problems and then problems that can be solved with those ideas. The aim is to find encourage individuals to find practical solutions to problems that are well thought through.
Macrowork tasks typically have these characteristics: they can be done independently, they take a fixed amount of time, and they require special skills. Macro-tasks could be part of specialized projects or could be part of a large, visible project where workers pitch in wherever they have the required skills. The key distinguishing factors are that macro-work requires specialized skills and typically takes longer, while microwork requires no specialized skills.
Microwork is a crowdsourcing platform that allows users to do small tasks for which computers lack aptitude in for low amounts of money. Amazon's Mechanical Turk has created many different projects for users to participate in, where each task requires very little time and offers a very small amount in payment. When choosing tasks, since only certain users "win", users learn to submit later and pick less popular tasks to increase the likelihood of getting their work chosen. An example of a Mechanical Turk project is when users searched satellite images for a boat to find Jim Gray, a missing computer scientist.
Mobile crowdsourcing involves activities that take place on smartphones or mobile platforms that are frequently characterized by GPS technology. This allows for real-time data gathering and gives projects greater reach and accessibility. However, mobile crowdsourcing can lead to an urban bias, and can have safety and privacy concerns.
Simple projects are those that require a large amount of time and skills compared to micro and macro-work. While an example of macro-work would be writing survey feedback, simple projects rather include activities like writing a basic line of code or programming a database, which both require a larger time commitment and skill level. These projects are usually not found on sites like Amazon Mechanical Turk, and are rather posted on platforms like Upwork that call for a specific expertise.
Complex projects generally take the most time, have higher stakes, and call for people with very specific skills. These are generally "one-off" projects that are difficult to accomplish and can include projects such as designing a new product that a company hopes to patent. Such projects are considered to be complex because design is a meticulous process that requires a large amount of time to perfect, and people completing the project must have specialized training in design to effectively complete the project. These projects usually pay the highest, yet are rarely offered.
Demographics of the crowd
The crowd is an umbrella term for the people who contribute to crowdsourcing efforts. Though it is sometimes difficult to gather data about the demographics of the crowd as a whole, several studies have examined various specific online platforms. Amazon Mechanical Turk has received a great deal of attention in particular. A study in 2008 by Ipeirotis found that users at that time were primarily American, young, female, and well-educated, with 40% earning more than $40,000 per year. In November 2009, Ross found a very different Mechanical Turk population where 36% of which was Indian. Two-thirds of Indian workers were male, and 66% had at least a bachelor's degree. Two-thirds had annual incomes less than $10,000, with 27% sometimes or always depending on income from Mechanical Turk to make ends meet. More recent studies have found that U.S. Mechanical Turk workers are approximately 58% female, and nearly 67% of workers are in their 20s and 30s. Close to 80% are White, and 9% are Black. MTurk workers are less likely to be married or have children as compared to the general population. In the US population over 18, 45% are unmarried, while the proportion of unmarried workers on MTurk is around 57%. Additionally, about 55% of MTurk workers do not have any children, which is significantly higher than the general population. Approximately 68% of U.S. workers are employed, compared to 60% in the general population. MTurk workers in the U.S. are also more likely to have a four-year college degree (35%) compared to the general population (27%). Politics within the U.S. sample of MTurk are skewed liberal, with 46% Democrats, 28% Republicans, and 26% "other". MTurk workers are also less religious than the U.S. population, with 41% religious, 20% spiritual, 21% agnostic, and 16% atheist.
The demographics of Microworkers.com differ from Mechanical Turk in that the US and India together accounting for only 25% of workers; 197 countries are represented among users, with Indonesia (18%) and Bangladesh (17%) contributing the largest share. However, 28% of employers are from the US.
Another study of the demographics of the crowd at iStockphoto found a crowd that was largely white, middle- to upper-class, higher educated, worked in a so-called "white-collar job" and had a high-speed Internet connection at home. In a crowd-sourcing diary study of 30 days in Europe, the participants were predominantly higher educated women.
Studies have also found that crowds are not simply collections of amateurs or hobbyists. Rather, crowds are often professionally trained in a discipline relevant to a given crowdsourcing task and sometimes hold advanced degrees and many years of experience in the profession. Claiming that crowds are amateurs, rather than professionals, is both factually untrue and may lead to marginalization of crowd labor rights.
Gregory Saxton et al. studied the role of community users, among other elements, during his content analysis of 103 crowdsourcing organizations. They developed a taxonomy of nine crowdsourcing models (intermediary model, citizen media production, collaborative software development, digital goods sales, product design, peer-to-peer social financing, consumer report model, knowledge base building model, and collaborative science project model) in which to categorize the roles of community users, such as researcher, engineer, programmer, journalist, graphic designer, etc., and the products and services developed.
Motivations
Contributors
Many researchers suggest that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations cause people to contribute to crowdsourced tasks and these factors influence different types of contributors. For example, people employed in a full-time position rate human capital advancement as less important than part-time workers do, while women rate social contact as more important than men do.
Intrinsic motivations are broken down into two categories: enjoyment-based and community-based motivations. Enjoyment-based motivations refer to motivations related to the fun and enjoyment contributors experience through their participation. These motivations include: skill variety, task identity, task autonomy, direct feedback from the job, and taking the job as a pastime. Community-based motivations refer to motivations related to community participation, and include community identification and social contact. In crowdsourced journalism, the motivation factors are intrinsic: the crowd is driven by a possibility to make social impact, contribute to social change, and help their peers.
Extrinsic motivations are broken down into three categories: immediate payoffs, delayed payoffs, and social motivations. Immediate payoffs, through monetary payment, are the immediately received compensations given to those who complete tasks. Delayed payoffs are benefits that can be used to generate future advantages, such as training skills and being noticed by potential employers. Social motivations are the rewards of behaving pro-socially, such as the altruistic motivations of online volunteers. Chandler and Kapelner found that US users of the Amazon Mechanical Turk were more likely to complete a task when told they were going to help researchers identify tumor cells, than when they were not told the purpose of their task. However, of those who completed the task, quality of output did not depend on the framing.
Motivation in crowdsourcing is often a mix of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. In a crowdsourced law-making project, the crowd was motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic motivations included fulfilling civic duty, affecting the law for sociotropic reasons, to deliberate with and learn from peers. Extrinsic motivations included changing the law for financial gain or other benefits. Participation in crowdsourced policy-making was an act of grassroots advocacy, whether to pursue one's own interest or more altruistic goals, such as protecting nature. Participants in online research studies report their motivation as both intrinsic enjoyment and monetary gain.
Another form of social motivation is prestige or status. The International Children's Digital Library recruited volunteers to translate and review books. Because all translators receive public acknowledgment for their contributions, Kaufman and Schulz cite this as a reputation-based strategy to motivate individuals who want to be associated with institutions that have prestige. The Mechanical Turk uses reputation as a motivator in a different sense, as a form of quality control. Crowdworkers who frequently complete tasks in ways judged to be inadequate can be denied access to future tasks, whereas workers who pay close attention may be rewarded by gaining access to higher-paying tasks or being on an "Approved List" of workers. This system may incentivize higher-quality work. However, this system only works when requesters reject bad work, which many do not.
Despite the potential global reach of IT applications online, recent research illustrates that differences in location affect participation outcomes in IT-mediated crowds.
Limitations and controversies
At least six major topics cover the limitations and controversies about crowdsourcing:
Impact of crowdsourcing on product quality
Entrepreneurs contribute less capital themselves
Increased number of funded ideas
The value and impact of the work received from the crowd
The ethical implications of low wages paid to workers
Trustworthiness and informed decision making
Impact of crowdsourcing on product quality
Crowdsourcing allows anyone to participate, allowing for many unqualified participants and resulting in large quantities of unusable contributions. Companies, or additional crowdworkers, then have to sort through the low-quality contributions. The task of sorting through crowdworkers' contributions, along with the necessary job of managing the crowd, requires companies to hire actual employees, thereby increasing management overhead. For example, susceptibility to faulty results can be caused by targeted, malicious work efforts. Since crowdworkers completing microtasks are paid per task, a financial incentive often causes workers to complete tasks quickly rather than well. Verifying responses is time-consuming, so employers often depend on having multiple workers complete the same task to correct errors. However, having each task completed multiple times increases time and monetary costs. Some companies, like CloudResearch, control data quality by repeatedly vetting crowdworkers to ensure they are paying attention and providing high-quality work.
Crowdsourcing quality is also impacted by task design. Lukyanenko et al. argue that, the prevailing practice of modeling crowdsourcing data collection tasks in terms of fixed classes (options), unnecessarily restricts quality. Results demonstrate that information accuracy depends on the classes used to model domains, with participants providing more accurate information when classifying phenomena at a more general level (which is typically less useful to sponsor organizations, hence less common). Further, greater overall accuracy is expected when participants could provide free-form data compared to tasks in which they select from constrained choices. In behavioral science research, it is often recommended to include open-ended responses, in addition to other forms of attention checks, to assess data quality.
Just as limiting, oftentimes there is not enough skills or expertise in the crowd to successfully accomplish the desired task. While this scenario does not affect "simple" tasks such as image labeling, it is particularly problematic for more complex tasks, such as engineering design or product validation. A comparison between the evaluation of business models from experts and an anonymous online crowd showed that an anonymous online crowd cannot evaluate business models to the same level as experts. In these cases, it may be difficult or even impossible to find qualified people in the crowd, as their responses represent only a small fraction of the workers compared to consistent, but incorrect crowd members. However, if the task is "intermediate" in its difficulty, estimating crowdworkers' skills and intentions and leveraging them for inferring true responses works well, albeit with an additional computation cost.
Crowdworkers are a nonrandom sample of the population. Many researchers use crowdsourcing to quickly and cheaply conduct studies with larger sample sizes than would be otherwise achievable. However, due to limited access to the Internet, participation in low developed countries is relatively low. Participation in highly developed countries is similarly low, largely because the low amount of pay is not a strong motivation for most users in these countries. These factors lead to a bias in the population pool towards users in medium developed countries, as deemed by the human development index. Participants in these countries sometimes masquerade as U.S. participants to gain access to certain tasks. This led to the "bot scare" on Amazon Mechanical Turk in 2018, when researchers thought bots were completing research surveys due to the lower quality of responses originating from medium-developed countries.
The likelihood that a crowdsourced project will fail due to lack of monetary motivation or too few participants increases over the course of the project. Tasks that are not completed quickly may be forgotten, buried by filters and search procedures. This results in a long-tail power law distribution of completion times. Additionally, low-paying research studies online have higher rates of attrition, with participants not completing the study once started. Even when tasks are completed, crowdsourcing does not always produce quality results. When Facebook began its localization program in 2008, it encountered some criticism for the low quality of its crowdsourced translations. One of the problems of crowdsourcing products is the lack of interaction between the crowd and the client. Usually little information is known about the final product, and workers rarely interacts with the final client in the process. This can decrease the quality of product as client interaction is considered to be a vital part of the design process.
An additional cause of the decrease in product quality that can result from crowdsourcing is the lack of collaboration tools. In a typical workplace, coworkers are organized in such a way that they can work together and build upon each other's knowledge and ideas. Furthermore, the company often provides employees with the necessary information, procedures, and tools to fulfill their responsibilities. However, in crowdsourcing, crowd-workers are left to depend on their own knowledge and means to complete tasks.
A crowdsourced project is usually expected to be unbiased by incorporating a large population of participants with a diverse background. However, most of the crowdsourcing works are done by people who are paid or directly benefit from the outcome (e.g. most of open source projects working on Linux). In many other cases, the end product is the outcome of a single person's endeavor, who creates the majority of the product, while the crowd only participates in minor details.
Entrepreneurs contribute less capital themselves
To make an idea turn into a reality, the first component needed is capital. Depending on the scope and complexity of the crowdsourced project, the amount of necessary capital can range from a few thousand dollars to hundreds of thousands, if not more. The capital-raising process can take from days to months depending on different variables, including the entrepreneur's network and the amount of initial self-generated capital.
The crowdsourcing process allows entrepreneurs to access a wide range of investors who can take different stakes in the project. As an effect, crowdsourcing simplifies the capital-raising process and allows entrepreneurs to spend more time on the project itself and reaching milestones rather than dedicating time to get it started. Overall, the simplified access to capital can save time to start projects and potentially increase the efficiency of projects.
Others argue that easier access to capital through a large number of smaller investors can hurt the project and its creators. With a simplified capital-raising process involving more investors with smaller stakes, investors are more risk-seeking because they can take on an investment size with which they are comfortable. This leads to entrepreneurs losing possible experience convincing investors who are wary of potential risks in investing because they do not depend on one single investor for the survival of their project. Instead of being forced to assess risks and convince large institutional investors on why their project can be successful, wary investors can be replaced by others who are willing to take on the risk.
Some translation companies and translation tool consumers pretend to use crowdsourcing as a means for drastically cutting costs, instead of hiring professional translators. This situation has been systematically denounced by IAPTI and other translator organizations.
Increased number of funded ideas
The raw number of ideas that get funded and the quality of the ideas is a large controversy over the issue of crowdsourcing.
Proponents argue that crowdsourcing is beneficial because it allows the formation of startups with niche ideas that would not survive venture capitalist or angel funding, which areoftentimes the primary investors in startups. Many ideas are scrapped in their infancy due to insufficient support and lack of capital, but crowdsourcing allows these ideas to be started if an entrepreneur can find a community to take interest in the project.
Crowdsourcing allows those who would benefit from the project to fund and become a part of it, which is one way for small niche ideas get started. However, when the number of projects grows, the number of failures also increases. Crowdsourcing assists the development of niche and high-risk projects due to a perceived need from a select few who seek the product. With high risk and small target markets, the pool of crowdsourced projects faces a greater possible loss of capital, lower return, and lower levels of success.
Labor-Related Concerns
Because crowdworkers are considered independent contractors rather than employees, they are not guaranteed minimum wage. In practice, workers using Amazon Mechanical Turk generally earn less than minimum wage. In 2009, it was reported that United States Turk users earned an average of $2.30 per hour for tasks, while users in India earned an average of $1.58 per hour, which is below minimum wage in the United States (but not in India). In 2018, a survey of 2,676 Amazon Mechanical Turk workers doing 3.8 million tasks found that the median hourly wage was approximately $2 per hour, and only 4% of workers earned more than the federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. Some researchers who have considered using Mechanical Turk to get participants for research studies have argued that the wage conditions might be unethical. However, according to other research, workers on Amazon Mechanical Turk do not feel they are exploited and are ready to participate in crowdsourcing activities in the future. A more recent study using stratified random sampling to access a representative sample of Mechanical Turk workers found that the U.S. MTurk population is financially similar to the general population. Workers tend to participate in tasks as a form of paid leisure and to supplement their primary income, and only 7% view it as a full-time job. Overall, workers rated MTurk as less stressful than other jobs. Workers also earn more than previously reported, about $6.50 per hour. They see MTurk as part of the solution to their financial situation and report rare upsetting experiences. They also perceive requesters on MTurk as fairer and more honest than employers outside of the platform.
When Facebook began its localization program in 2008, it received criticism for using free labor in crowdsourcing the translation of site guidelines.
Typically, no written contracts, nondisclosure agreements, or employee agreements are made with crowdworkers. For users of the Amazon Mechanical Turk, this means that employers decide whether users' work is acceptable and reserve the right to withhold pay if it does not meet their standards. Critics say that crowdsourcing arrangements exploit individuals in the crowd, and a call has been made for crowds to organize for their labor rights.
Collaboration between crowd members can also be difficult or even discouraged, especially in the context of competitive crowd sourcing. Crowdsourcing site InnoCentive allows organizations to solicit solutions to scientific and technological problems; only 10.6% of respondents reported working in a team on their submission. Amazon Mechanical Turk workers collaborated with academics to create a platform, WeAreDynamo.org, that allows them to organize and create campaigns to better their work situation, but the site is no longer running. Another platform run by Amazon Mechanical Turk workers and academics, Turkopticon, continues to operate and provides worker reviews on Amazon Mechanical Turk employers.
America Online settled the case Hallissey et al v. America Online, Inc. for $15 million in 2009, after unpaid moderators sued to be paid the minimum wage as employees under the U.S. Fair Labor Standards Act.
Other Concerns
Besides insufficient compensation and other labor-related disputes, there have also been concerns regarding privacy violations, the hiring of vulnerable groups, breaches of anonymity, psychological damage including PTSD, the encouragement of addictive behaviors, and more. Many but not all of the issues related to crowdworkes overlap with concerns related to content moderators.
See also
Folksonomy
Models of collaborative tagging
References
External links
Collaboration
2006 neologisms
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Duncan%20%28artist%29
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John Duncan (artist)
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John Duncan is an American multi-platform artist whose body of work includes performance art, installations, contemporary music, video art and experimental film, often involving the extensive use of recorded sound. His music is composed mainly of recordings from shortwave radio, field recordings and voice. His events and installations are a form of existential research, often confrontational in nature. Duncan currently lives in (and operates out of) Bologna, Italy.
Early years
Duncan was born in Wichita, Kansas, to parents of English and Scottish ancestry. He was raised with a strict Calvinist upbringing where self-reliance, hard work, and the suppression of emotional suffering were considered virtues. Questioning authority was severely punished. In his teens he studied figure drawing and painting together with psychology and the physics of light. His first contact with experimental music was the Jacques Lasry LP Chronophagie, discovered in the record bins of the Wichita Public Library. In 1971 he applied for and received Conscientious Objector status. At 19 he left for Los Angeles to attend CalArts, where he studied under Allan Kaprow.
Los Angeles
In the mid-1970s, his Los Angeles performances, events and installations were influenced by the 'Poor Theatre' of Jerzy Grotowski, as well as the cathartic exposure of personal experiences seen in the work of Viennese actionist artist Rudolf Schwarzkogler and early feminist performance art. Several of his early events were held in private or in front of a small number of witnesses. Scare was an encouragement to examine the physical effects of fear. Duncan donned a disguise and fired a blank-loaded pistol at point-blank range at two carefully selected participants, Tom Recchion and Paul McCarthy, chosen “...because they were close friends who would not expect anything like this to happen to them and who would be able to appreciate the event as I intended it”. Bus Ride sexually stimulated unsuspecting passengers on a city bus with a liquid poured into the ventilation system in order to observe the results. Blind Date, involving intercourse with a female corpse followed by a vasectomy, both conducted in private, was presented as an audio-only event to an audience in a darkened warehouse, a demonstration of how men are conditioned to turn emotional suffering into rage. An untitled character-exchange event with McCarthy was held in private in McCarthy's studio, where Duncan recorded actions to video that McCarthy immediately erased.
Other events were presented to radio audiences, at once separated from each other and too large to gather in one place. No was Duncan's first public performance of a Reichian exercise (later known as bioenergetic analysis) broadcast live over Close Radio. Happy Homes, his last performance before leaving Los Angeles, was a telephone exchange with radio therapist Dr. Toni Grant, broadcast live throughout the United States over the ABC radio network. Duncan described several child-abuse cases he had personally witnessed as a Los Angeles city bus driver as he asked the therapist for advice.
His first films were shot in Super-8, silent or with separate audio, intended either as stand-alone works or as elements used in live events. The performance For Women Only is centered around a film intended to erotically arouse the all-woman audience, who were then invited to enter a back room and abuse Duncan sexually. The Secret Film was screened individually to eight viewers before the film itself and the room where it was shown were both destroyed by fire.
Together with McCarthy he co-produced Close Radio, a weekly series of live radio broadcasts over KPFK that provided airtime to artists working in sound, many of them for the first time. The Close Radio archive was donated to the Getty Center in 2007.
In 1978 he became closely associated with the Los Angeles Free Music Society (LAFMS), working on collaborations with Tom Recchion, Fredrik Nilsen and Joe Potts. His earliest recorded audio experiments were also made at this time, including work with Michael LeDonne-Bhennet, McCarthy, Recchion and Nilsen. His first solo LP Organic was released in 1979. His first solo recordings with shortwave radio were released in 1982 on the EP Creed which also included the complete broadcast of Happy Homes.
Tokyo
Duncan left the United States for Tokyo in 1982, where he continued his performance work, and expanded his experiments with recorded shortwave broadcasts and film. The music he produced in this period, including Kokka (National Anthem) with Cosey Fanni Tutti and Chris Carter, the solo LP Riot and Dark Market Broadcast, led to collaborations with a number of Japanese noise music artists, including Masami Akita, Keiji Haino and Hijokaidan. His solo recordings and live concerts from this period establish him as one of the early pioneers of Japanese noise; the first non-Japanese to work in the genre in Japan.
It was also here that he began to deliberately limit the exhibition of his visual art to public arenas, outside of established art galleries and institutions. His performances centered on Reichian breath exercises conducted onstage and in public, including Cast performed on the floor of the women's public toilet at the 'Second Annual Alternative Media Conference' in Tokyo in 1986. The collage series that he produced for display in strategically selected public men's toilets called The Toilet Exhibition combined graphic war-damage images from world events with commercial pornography to emphasize links between them, in private stalls frequented by men from government offices (Kokkai-gijidomae), the banking sector (Hibia) and the fashion industry (Shibuya), at moments of absentminded contemplation.
In the mid-1980s he began pirate radio and television broadcasts with portable custom-made transmitters built by Duncan himself, operating illegally from apartment block roofs in central Tokyo and an abandoned US Army hospital near Sagamihara, as well as periodic broadcasts made from his own home. Radio Code broadcasts featured the early live work of musician Keiji Haino and Butoh soloist Hisako Horikawa, which were also relayed throughout Tokyo via other pirate radio stations, particularly Radio Homerun in Shimokitazawa. TVC-1 television broadcasts were transmitted from central Tokyo rooftops, over the frequency assigned to NHK 1 after the station had concluded its broadcast day, limited to 12 minutes in order to avoid contact with Tokyo police.
His work in film and video included the Super-8 films Trigger with a solo soundtrack, Brutal Birthday with a live soundtrack performed by Duncan's group C.V. Massage, and a support film for the performance event Move Forward that included images from hardcore pornography and animated technical drawings of nuclear attack strategies.
He also directed a series of commercial adult videos for Kuki Inc. under the name John See, for which he also wrote the scripts, edited, composed soundtracks and occasionally acted in incidental roles. Several re-edited versions of John See videos were broadcast over TVC-1, also appearing in the 2003 video installation See.
Amsterdam
In 1988 Duncan moved to Amsterdam, where his work became more introspective, especially following a month-long stay at a Buddhist monastery in Chiang Mai, Thailand in 1993.
The Kick performance series of Reichian exercises was conducted before live audiences throughout Europe, from 1989 at Ars Electronica in Linz, Austria, to 1993. The final event was held on the altar of the Parochiale Kirche in Berlin, concluding a live solo concert.
His audio installation Stress Chamber consists of three independent motors vibrating the walls of a shipping container at its resonant frequency, remote-controlled from outside. Participants enter one at a time, nude, to be locked inside, allowing the vibrations to move at random around and through the participant's body. Stress Chamber was premiered in Amsterdam at the Absolute Threshold Machine Festival. Initially the festival organizers threatened to cancel the work due to its tendency to vibrate the grounds of the surrounding area to a 90-meter radius, concerned that it would become a 'torture device'. Finally the work was allowed, and the queue it created kept the entire festival open several hours longer than anticipated.
In 1988 and 1989 several of his films were broadcast over Rabotnik TV along with Anthem, a Reichian exercise performed for the Rabotnik TV camera in a derelict building used by heroin addicts. Location sound for Anthem was recorded by Andrew M. McKenzie.
Between 1990 and 1993, Radio Code FM broadcasts continued as weekly programs which he produced and hosted over pirate stations Radio 100 and Radio Patapoe.
The Maze event in June 1995 involved a group of seven volunteer participants, including Duncan and an infant child, locked naked and blind overnight in an Amsterdam cellar in order to directly experience workings of the mind in a situation of unexpected sensory deprivation. The event ended when several participants pried open the exit door with their fingernails and broke it down. The infant child slept through the entire event. A video created from infrared photos taken during the event was produced later that year at Contained in Linz, Austria.
Music from this period includes CD releases Contact with Andrew M. McKenzie, Send with tracks by McKenzie and Zbigniew Karkowski and The Crackling, composed with Max P. Springer in 1996 from field recordings made by Duncan at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. A 1997 review by Rob Young claimed The Crackling rendered the Stanford research facility '...perhaps the largest musical instrument ever created'.
Scrutto di San Leonardo
In 1996 he met Giuliana Stefani when she posed as a model for Duncan's photo project Icons. Her academic training in mathematics, work in photography and practice of meditation quickly catalyzed a bond between them. In autumn 1996 they left Amsterdam and set up a studio in Scrutto di San Leonardo, a village of fewer than 100 inhabitants in the Friuli-Venezia-Giulia province of Italy at the border with Slovenia. They were married in Scrutto di San Leonardo in 1998. Their collaborations include Charge Field and Palace of Mind. They agreed to separate amicably in 2005.
Art works from this period include the outdoor audio installation The Keening Towers (2003) for the 2nd Gothenburg Biennial composed with children's voices, played continuously for 90 days over speakers suspended 25 meters above the entrance to the Gothenburg Art Museum, as well as the performance event Voice Contact (1998–2000) where volunteer participants enter alone, nude and blind into an empty room as Duncan, also nude and blind, responds uniquely to each according to their movements within the space. The first Voice Contact event was held in a modified suite at the five-star Lydmar Hotel in Stockholm in 1998.
Video from this period includes The North Is Protected, based on the text with the same title written by Leif Elggren.
Duncan's work with radio continued and expanded. Cross Radio broadcasts were three-hour live experimental music programs produced and hosted by Duncan, aired weekly from 23:00 to 02:00 over Radio Onde Furlane in Udine, syndicated over Resonance FM in London, Radio Autonoma in Madrid, Radio Kinesonus in Tokyo and WPS1 in New York. Over Radio Onde Furlane, each show continued until 05:30.
Audio releases from this period include Crucible, Tap Internal, Palace of Mind (cited above), Nav with Francisco López, Fresh with zeitkratzer, Phantom Broadcast, Infrasound Tidal from sources by Densil Cabrera, Tongue with Elliott Sharp, Presence with Edvard Graham Lewis and Da Sich Die Machtgier... with sources by Asmus Tietchens.
Bologna
Duncan relocated to Bologna in 2005, setting up a studio near Porta San Vitale.
His first project here was the production of The Error, a 50-page hardbound book measuring 40 x 60 cm. of his writings and photographs, printed by letterpress in an edition of 10 copies. The Error was first included together with a DVD video version of the work in Dialogue 1 at Gallery Enrico Fornello in Prato, Italy, curated in 2006 by Simone Menegoi. Copies of The Error are in the collections of Niklas Belenius, Leif Elggren, Piergiorgio Fornello, Paul McCarthy, Giuliana Stefani and François Kaeser, who sponsored the production.
In 2006 he recorded Our Telluric Conversation with Carl Michael von Hausswolff and Nine Suggestions with Pan Sonic members Mika Vainio and Ilpo Väisänen. The audio installation The Garden with Valerio Tricoli was included in the 2006 edition of Eco e Narciso held at the IPCA Ecomuseum in the province of Turin, a deserted factory complex once infamous for production methods that directly caused the deaths of several thousand workers as well as hundreds of residents of the surrounding area. A DVD video The Garden based on the installation and shot at the IPCA site was produced in 2007.
In January 2007 Duncan performed Something Like Seeing in the Dark with Elggren, premiered at Palazzo Re Enzo, Bologna for the Netmage 07 festival. In August, his solo audio installation The Tolling was introduced at Smepp: Società Mezzi Portuali at the Piombino dockyards for Piombino eXperimenta 3.
In September, Duncan curated Cross Lake Atlantic with large-scale works by Scott Arford, Gary Jo Gardenhire, Kim Gordon and Jutta Koether, Brandon LaBelle, Teresa Margolles and Fredrik Nilsen at Gallery Enrico Fornello in Prato. In October, three pieces from The Plasma Missives, with texts written in Duncan's blood, and three pieces from his Distractions series, with his blood used as paint, were exhibited together with work by Elggren at Gallery Niklas Belenius in Stockholm.
In 2008, he began teaching Audio Art at l'Accademia di Belle Arti di Bologna.
Recent work
In February 2008 Duncan's audio installation The Gauntlet was held at Färgfabriken in Stockholm: a series of anti-theft alarms with infrared sensors, turned on at ten-minute intervals and triggered at random by visitors moving blindly through the darkened hall.
In June 2008 Ensemble Phoenix performed interpretations with acoustic instruments of Phantom Broadcast, scored and conducted by Duncan, in live concerts held at Gare du Nord in Basel and Dampfzentrale in Bern. The Dampfzentrale concert was recorded for broadcast in Switzerland over DRS2.
In May 2009 Ensemble Phoenix performed a modified interpretation of Phantom Broadcast in a live concert again conducted by Duncan, held at Teatro San Leonardo in Bologna for the Angelica 2009 Festival. In June, Duncan and Pasut performed an early version of their dance duet An Open Area Inside the Mountain at Teatro Dimora in Mondaino, Italy. 24 hours later, he and C.M. von Hausswolff performed Nocturnal Denizens in a concert for the Cut & Splice festival sponsored by the BBC held at Wilton's Music Hall, London.
Bibliography
Monograph:
John Duncan: Work 1975-2005 (Errant Bodies Press, 2006 ) with contributions by Daniela Cascella, Leif Elggren, Cosey Fanni Tutti, Mike Kelley, Brandon LaBelle, Paul McCarthy, Tom Recchion, Takuya Sakaguchi, Giuliana Stefani and Carl Michael von Hausswolff.
Critical and scholarly studies:
Thomas Bey William Bailey, Vox Stimuli included in "Micro-bionic", Creation Books 2008 p. 143-159
Kristine Stiles, Uncorrupted Joy included in "Out of Actions: between performance and the object 1948-1979" (1998) p. 240-241
Daniela Cascella, John Duncan: From noise, installations, shortwave radio, field recordings, one of the masters of experimentation of the last 20 years, "Blow Up" November 2000
Jim Haynes, Shock Treatment, "The Wire" May 2001
See also: interviews and comments
Discography
2016
Bitter Earth LP released in limited edition by IDEAL
2011
There Must Be A Way Across This River / The Abject LP w/ Michael Esposito and Z'EV released by Fragment Factory, DE
2009
John Duncan Live - Brussels CDr released in limited edition by Allquestions, IT
The Nazca Transmissions LP released by Alga Marghen, IT
2007
Untitled CD released by Die Stadt, DE
2006
Our Telluric Conversation CD w/C.M. von Hausswolff released by 23Five, USA
The Garden CD w/V. Tricoli released by Eco e Narciso, IT
John Duncan: Work 1975-2005 Monograph w/CD published by Errant Bodies Press, DK
John Duncan: First Recordings 1978-1985 3xLP and DVD released by Vinyl On Demand, DE
The Keening Towers (excerpt) 2xCD released by Institute of Contemporary Art, USA
2005
Conservatory CD w/P. Parisi released by Allquestions, IT
Nine Suggestions CD w/M. Vainio and I. Vaisanen released by Allquestions, IT
2004
Presence CD w/E.G. Lewis released by Allquestions, IT
Tongue CD w/Elliott Sharp released by Allquestions, IT
2003
Phantom Broadcast CD released by Allquestions, IT
Infrasound-Tidal CD released by Allquestions, IT
The Keening Towers CD released by Allquestions, IT
Stun Shelter CD released by Galleria Nicola Fornello, IT
The Gossamer Dispatch EP released by Die Stadt, DE
Da Sich Die Machtgier... CD released by Die Stadt, DE
The Scattering CD w/Peter Fleur released by edition ..., USA
2002
Fresh CD w/zeitkratzer released by Allquestions, IT
2001
Palace of Mind CD w/G. Stefani released by Allquestions, IT
Nav 2xCD w/Francisco López released by Allquestions, IT
2000
Tap Internal CD released by Touch, UK
1998
Seek CD released by Staalplaat, NL
The Elgaland/Vargaland National Anthem EP w/Z. Karkowsky released by Die Stadt, DE
Crucible CD released by Die Stadt, DE
1997
Split Second track on 5xCD Tulpas released by Selektion, DE
The John See Soundtracks CD released by RRRecords, USA
1996
The Crackling CD released by trente oiseaux, DE
Home: Unspeakable CD w/ B. Guenter released by trente oiseaux, DE
Change track on CD The Mind of a Missile released by Heel Stone, DE
Charge Field track w/G. Stefani on 2xCD Antiphony released by Touch, UK
Hymn track on 3xCD State of the Union released by Atavistic, USA
Trinity track on 2xCD A Fault In the Nothing released by Touch, UK
The Ruud E. Memorial Choir / Psychonaut EP released by Robot Records, USA
1995
Incoming CD released by Streamline, DE
1994
The John See Soundtracks LP released by RRRecords, USA
Send CD released by Touch, UK
River In Flames / Klaar 2xCD released by Staalplaat, NL
1993
Chapel Perilous and Kick tracks on Anckarström Live CD released by Staalplaat, NL
1991
KLAAR CD by Extreme, Australia
1990
Dark Market Broadcast CD released by Staalplaat, NL
Mirror Pulse Cassette released by Extreme, Australia
Riot / Brutal Birthday Soundtrack CD released by Dark Vinyl, DE
Contact CD w/A.M. McKenzie released by Touch, UK
1988-89
Radio Code Cassette released by AQM, NL
1986
Phantom Track on Video=Aleph Video Cassette released by Kakuseikobo Arts & Music, JP
1985
Dark Market Broadcast Cassette released by Cause & Effect, USA
Purge track on 4x cassette Journey Into Pain released by Beast 666, JP
Riposte Track on Morality cassette released by Broken Flag, UK
Probe Track on Assemblée Generale 4 cassette released by PPP, Paris
1984
Riot LP released by AQM, Tokyo
Pleasure-Escape Cassette/book released by B-Sellers, Tokyo
1983
Kokka EP released by AQM, Tokyo
1980
Creed EP released by AQM, Los Angeles
1979
Organic LP released by AQM, Los Angeles
1978
No Cassette released by AQM, Los Angeles
Station Event Cassette w/M. della Donne-Bhennet and T. Recchion released by AQM, Los Angeles
Two Solos Cassette released by AQM, Los Angeles
References
External links
http://www.johnduncan.org
http://www.ensemble-phoenix.ch
http://fargfabriken.se
https://web.archive.org/web/20080709084742/http://www.accademiabelleartibologna.it/
American experimental filmmakers
American industrial musicians
American performance artists
Artists from Los Angeles
Performance art in Los Angeles
California Institute of the Arts alumni
American installation artists
American noise musicians
American video artists
1953 births
Artists from Wichita, Kansas
Living people
American expatriates in Italy
Soleilmoon artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coming%20Home%20%28New%20Found%20Glory%20album%29
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Coming Home (New Found Glory album)
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Coming Home is the fifth studio album by American rock band New Found Glory. It was produced by the band along with Thom Panunzio and released on September 19, 2006 through Geffen Records. Written and demoed at the Morning View Mansion in Malibu, California during 2005, Coming Home is lyrically themed around being away from home and loved ones. The album marks a departure from the band's earlier work, implementing a more layered and mid-tempo sound that features various piano, keyboard, and string instrumentation more comparable to classic rock than their usual pop punk style.
Despite some backlash due to the change in musical style, Coming Home garnered positive reviews and retrospective commentary. Particularly noted for its matured outlook, the songs are considered the most "mellow" of New Found Glory's career.
One single, "It's Not Your Fault", was released. The album debuted at number eight on the Billboard Rock Albums chart and number nineteen on the Billboard 200. The album was the band's last release on a major label, as they left Geffen Records the following year before signing with independent labels Bridge Nine and the long running Epitaph Records.
Background
Following the release and prolonged touring of fourth album Catalyst (2004), which included a supporting slot on Green Day's American Idiot Tour, the band were left drained and sought an extended break. They were able to take two months off and regroup afterward, something they had not previously done during their career. The quintet decided to take on a new approach for the writing process of Coming Home, rather than the usual "tour bus and dressing room jams", they moved into a house together in Malibu, California called the Morning View Mansion to write and demo new material. Despite this, main composer and lead guitarist, Chad Gilbert took a book containing over 40 riff ideas that he had written during the previous tour into the mansion. Drummer Cyrus Bolooki explained that, "The whole idea is that we can be sitting around, watching TV, and suddenly be like, 'Hey, I've got an idea. Let's do this'. We've always wanted to do something like this, but we were never sure just how to do it. I know all the guys are really excited to get into the house, hang out and make some music." The band spent four months in Malibu with studio engineer and long-term friend Paul Miner, from August 2005 through November, eventually leaving with 14 finished demos to present to their record label.
Recording
The demos finalised in Malibu caught the attention of Thom Panunzio, who aside from his production work (Tom Petty, Bruce Springsteen, Ozzy Osbourne), served as an executive for Geffen Records. The band were flattered by Panunzio's interest, immediately agreeing to the collaboration. The quintet had decided against working with Neal Avron, who had produced the band's three previous albums, as they wanted to try something different. The band's frontman, Jordan Pundik explained that, "We love Neal. Neal's amazing and he's one of our really close friends. But after three records with him, after writing those records and a lot of other bands started to come out and get kind of popular, we kind of wanted to try something different." After hearing a demo of "On My Mind", Panunzio was keen to work on the project. Pundik recalled that, "one of the songs that really got him to say. 'OK, I want to do this' was that song 'On My Mind.' That song really got him. Thom's done everything from like the Go-Go's to Bob Dylan, so he's very well rounded in music."
The band entered Jackson Browne's private recording studio named Groovemasters in January 2006, after Panunzio had suggested it would be a suitable recording location. New Found Glory strove to achieve a "clean kind of classic guitar sound" when recording, using a Vox AC30 amp on almost the entire record. The amp, known for its "jangly" high-end sound, was used with several classic guitars in the studio including a Fender Tele, Les Paul, Gibson 335-S and a Rickenbacker. Gilbert enthused that, "It sounds huge. When you put our old records on and our new record, there's actually less guitars on our new album, but it sounds bigger." Jordan Pundik likewise accounted; "he [Panunzio] brought this classic vibe to it, especially with the tones he got. We learned we don't have to double-up 15 Mesa cabinets and make it all distorted to make it sound big." Pundik also spoke of the band's desire to challenge themselves musically; "Usually with every record we think, 'We’ve got to put the fast punk song on it or people won't like it', but this wasn't anything like that." He did admit that around thirty songs were written, including some fast-paced songs, but were excluded as, "(they) didn't really fit." Steve Klein, the band's principal lyricist and rhythm guitarist, also praised Panunzio for helping the band bring new elements to their sound. Describing the sessions as "best recording experience ever", he added, "It's this empty mansion where we were able to set up all our equipment, we just woke up and wrote songs. We were really relaxed and able to set our own pace. Everything about the record is way more classic rock sounding because Thom has done a bunch of classic rock records like Tom Petty and Bruce Springsteen and Ozzy, and the list goes on and on. He kind of brought this different element to our band. This disc is less guitar driven and more melody driven, more than any other of our records."
One track, the folk-tinged acoustic song "Too Good to Be", was not written until the latter part of recording, only being penned in minutes whilst in the studio. Jordan Pundik joked that, "the funny thing is, that's the song you'd think we wrote sitting on a beach around a fire." While all the songs were primarily written on guitar, Chad Gilbert also tracked melodies on piano, despite his limited ability on the instrument. Gilbert explained that, "When we wrote the songs a couple of songs started out on piano, like the melodies. So in pre-production, I did the piano. But I'm not very good, I can write melodies, but I just use two fingers, my pointer fingers." Panunzio subsequently brought in Benmont Tench (Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers) to play the keyboard, piano and organ parts throughout the album. Paul Buckmaster conducted string sections for "When I Die" and "Boulders", while indie rock band Eisley, comprising three sisters including Gilbert's then-fiancée Sherri DuPree, provided female backing vocals for seven tracks on the album. Once the process of mixing and mastering the record had finalised, the band asked Autumn de Wilde, best known for her portraiture and commercial photography of musicians, to shoot the cover art and liner photography for the album booklet. Chad Gilbert later declared that he was "really proud", citing the music as "the most uplifting" the band had ever written, while Pundik added that Coming Home would be "the one that will stand the test of time."
Composition
Music
Music critics agreed that Coming Home represents a more "mature" sound than previously heard from the band. The album's mellow tone and more layered sound is attributed to the inclusion of other musical instruments such as keys, piano, and strings, concurrent with their traditional rock-based setup of guitar, bass and drums. Many fans of the band were initially taken aback by the album's direction. Indeed, music journalist Nick Mindicino later reflected on how the band had "crafted something truly ingenious and unexpected: a somber, honest, polished and pop-alternative record." Andrew Sacher of BrooklynVegan noted how the band "traded their snotty pop punk for a warmer, softer, and often ballad-driven form of alternative rock" on Coming Home. In a 2014 article for Contactmusic, Joe DeAndrea likewise noted how the album had "a much tighter sound musically with a focus on melodies and "mature" lyrics as opposed to rockin’ pop-punk riffs." Most distinctive among the musical arrangements on Coming Home is that only three of the album's thirteen tracks ("Hold My Hand", "Taken Back by You", "Too Good to Be") contain high tempos of over 130 beats per minute. Unlike their earlier work, with fast-paced pop punk songs such as "My Friends Over You" and "Truth of My Youth" (both in excess of 150 bpm), various tracks such as "Oxygen", "Make Your Move", "When I Die", "Connected", and "Boulders" contain "moderately slow" tempos of no more than 80 bpm.
Prior to the album's release, Chad Gilbert explained, "The songs are all pretty different, sonically speaking" and said that lead single "It's Not Your Fault", has "big, full guitars and a piano line that goes throughout. It's pretty anthemic, and Jordan's voice has never sounded better." The guitarist also noted that the album's cleaner guitar sound was attributed to little distortion effects used in comparison to earlier albums, while describing "On My Mind" as "this modern New Found Glory twist on a classic rock song." Brendan Manley of Alternative Press called the album a "statement of sentiment that stands apart in the NFG discography", while The Palm Beach Post opined that, "Coming Home is similar, in spirit, to the 1990s crooning of Chicago's brilliant Smoking Popes. Jordan Pundik's vocal delivery curls into sweetness, rather than a snarl. Wrapped around journal-entry cute lines on the boppy, '80s-ish "Hold My Hand" and the earnestly protective pleadings of "It's Not Your Fault." Jack Foley of Indie London wrote "Gilbert’s guitars are crisp, lively and fresh, while the vocal melodies are strong enough to have everyone singing along at some point. Take the feel-good romp that’s "Too Good To Be" for example. It's vibrant in every sense, boasting some gloriously breezy guitar riffs and some fine vocal layering, with almost hand-clapping beats."
The Salt Lake Tribune said that the album "largely drops the punk-by-numbers that dominated past efforts to get a little more personal lyrically, thus becoming more approachable." Alan Sculley of The Daily Herald explained that, "Coming Home pretty much leaves any punk element behind. The songs still rock - just note the wallop delivered by "Hold My Hand" or "Connected." But the band pulls back on the tempos of virtually all of the songs." Scene Point Blank writer Chris Abraham noted, "Coming Home still encompasses the things that make New Found Glory great. Relatable lyrics, hooks so melodic and catchy that my hands are red from not buying a mitt, and, despite a mellower tone, I could still imagine myself going fucking nuts singing along to these songs live." AbsolutePunk founder Jason Tate warned that, "it's crucial you abandon any pre-conceived expectations for this album. If you're anticipating the band's previous albums re-hashed, you're going to be completely let-down. While the choruses and sing-a-long hooks could compete with the best on any of their previous albums - it's the slower melodic approach to the songs that truly makes the album come alive and fully breathe." Rae Alexandra of Kerrang! magazine called the album a "massive departure" and suggested that, "NFG are taking what will be, by far, the biggest gamble of their career. Some of you won't even recognise them immediately; it's not fast, it's not forced, but - in an entirely new way - it soars." In an earlier Kerrang! article discussing the album, Alexandra wrote that "It's Not Your Fault" displays "more maturity - and piano - than ever before", while "When I Die" is "low key with orchestral accents", making it "one of the most beautiful moments on Coming Home." Corey Apar of AllMusic was in agreement and stated that "from the album's packaging to the comfortable nature of the music, it actually feels more mature in a way that is catchy without seeming to care about radio accessibility."
Lyrics
Lyrically, the album is specifically about dealing with time apart in relationships and familial issues whilst on the road. The album's more serious tone has been attributed to the developing family life of the band (including new marriages and children). Alan Sculley of The Daily Herald explained that, "Catalyst marked a move toward slightly more mature and serious material about relationships and life issues That lyrical direction is even more pronounced on Coming Home." The band were particularly inspired by early Beatles records, seeing Chad Gilbert penning lyrics alongside Pundik and primary lyricist Steve Klein for the first time. Gilbert explained that, "I've always been a part of the music and I've always written the music for the band, but I've never been a part of the lyrics. This time I just kind of felt like in order to kind of have the best record, we had to do things different. That's what made it stand out like that." Regarding the album title, Gilbert detailed that the songs "are all sort of tied together by this theme of wanting to go home", while drummer Cyrus Bolooki said that the title track was one of the first songs written for the album and after assessing the lyrics "it was a phrase that sat well with we wanted the record to communicate."
Jordan Pundik later accounted, "I'm not comparing my band to the Beatles whatsoever, but their [early] records were simple songs about love and relationships, and people could relate to their songs because they understood what they were trying to say. That's what this record reminds me of. There's not weird metaphors. It's just straight up, wearing your heart on your sleeve." Steve Klein emphasised the shift in mood from their previous album by stating, "I think every record we make we try and capture a time period. When writing the songs for Coming Home it was more positive than negative. I felt on the last record, Catalyst, we were very negative lyrically. You can tell that by the titles "All Downhill From Here" and "This Disaster," it was a heavier record. Coming Home on the other hand takes you to a different place. It's the record I feel we’ve been waiting our whole career to do, taking everything people love about NFG and bringing it to the next level." Bassist Ian Grushka further explained, "We only really talk about personal things that have affected us first-hand, our songs are about emotions rather than some political agenda." The song, "When I Die" was written by Gilbert about the death of his father. When initially writing the bridge section for the song, Gilbert found the experience emotionally draining and had to leave the studio in order to compose himself. Despite this, he maintains that while song is "sad", it remains "a good sad." He reflected this in the album's liner notes by adding, "It is a song about accepting death and finding the bright side of the situation. I'm no longer afraid to die because I have my father there waiting for me on the other side."
Release and promotion
Coming Home was first announced in June 2006, with the band citing a scheduled release date of September, with lead single "It's Not Your Fault" preceding the album in July. "It's Not Your Fault" was released to radio on July 25; that same day, "Hold My Hand" was posted online. The music video for "It's Not Your Fault" would eventually make its worldwide debut on August 1 through Total Request Live. On August 29, the band revealed the album's track listing. A week prior to the album's release, the band posted a mock open letter to Lionel Richie, who was also about to release a new album of the same name the following week. The band jokingly threatened to name their next project Dancing on the Ceiling (Richie's 1986 album), writing, "Congrats this week on the release of your new CD Coming Home - what an awesome title! Sounds familiar though, where did we hear that before? Oh yeah, it's the name of our new CD which drops Tues. Sept. 19. Our new single and video is 'It's Not Your Fault.' Hey...we haven't heard your song yet...Send us a copy."
On September 11, 2006, Coming Home was made available for streaming via the band's PureVolume account. The album was released on September 13, 19 and 25 in Japan, North America and the United Kingdom respectively. Following the release, the band announced a 34-date tour of North America stretching from Cincinnati to Boston, with support from the Early November and Cartel. The band had initially planned to release either the title track "Coming Home" or "On My Mind" as the second single, however due to internal problems at Geffen Records, any further release plans were scrapped. Just after the album was released Jordan Schur, the labels president, lost his job. With no focus on the record in the immediate aftermath, Pundik recalls, "Everything fell apart and Coming Home was just forgotten about. The record didn't stand a chance." In November and December 2006, they embarked on a short UK tour with Say Anything. Later the label would offer the band a new contract under a subsidiary label called Octone Records, however the band declined and parted ways with the label in early 2007. Despite this, the band continued to tour in support of the album, touring with Fall Out Boy in January 2007. They toured Japan as part of the Punk Spring Fest and then Australia for a week with Paramore. In April 2007, they appeared at the Groezrock festival in Europe, and played The Bamboozle festival upon returning to the US. On September 6, 2022, Coming Home was released on vinyl for the first time ever through Take This to Heart Records and Parting Gifts Records. The first pressing was limited to 2000 copies which sold out in only one minute of being released. The second pressing was announced shortly after with another 2000 copies pressed. The second pressing sold out in the first day, making Coming Home officially the most successful and highest anticipated record release in the band's career. The second pressing is scheduled to ship in early 2023.
Critical reception
Coming Home garnered nearly universal acclaim from music critics upon its release and has become widely regarded as one of the band's best releases. Praise often centered on the album's "matured, nuanced songwriting" and slower musicianship. Seen as a departure from their previous work, the songs have been described as the most "mellow" of New Found Glory's career, yet still employing "the group's firmly established talent for writing strong melodies." The Daily Trojan writer Nick Mindicino has asserted that while the album is often overlooked in the band's discography, it remains "truly their best work." In a 2019 article ranking the top 100 pop punk bands, Consequence of Sound writer Killian Young stated "Sticks and Stones and Catalyst still represent the band’s commercial peak, but 2006’s Coming Home remains a gem in their mid-career discography. Buoyed by jubilant piano flourishes, the album features strong melodies and more refined love songs." AbsolutePunk founder Jason Tate paid compliment to the album's change in direction from earlier material, noting how "the album hits us as the summer months fade and the air bends to the onslaught of fall. Incidentally, the band's musical thermometer is still intact. Instead of an album full of summer-fist-pumping-anthems they've released the perfect music by which to watch the leaves fall from the trees." He went on to add that Coming Home "certainly has the qualities that could make it a classic in time". Corey Apar of AllMusic awarded the album a four star rating and praised the "at-ease spirit of Coming Home". He emphasised the new approach by adding, "the band is now in a position to simply enjoy itself without needing to forcibly shove saccharine-saturated hooks down the throats of anyone standing nearby. Make no mistake - this is a New Found Glory album through and through. It's full of melody, personality, and all the best attributes of their earlier work presented in a way that grows more memorable with each listen." Brendan Manley of Alternative Press was unanimously positive and awarded a perfect five-star rating. He noted that the album "extracts their finest qualities. Launching with the excellent "Oxygen", Coming Home boasts stuttering rhythms, full-bodied guitars and gold plated vocal harmonies. NFG have made the best album of their career." Paul Hagen of Big Cheese magazine awarded a four-star rating and commended the band's experimentation. He offered particular praise to the guitar work, of which he described as "rousing and memorable." He later summed up Coming Home as a "creative, earnest and emotive" record. Texas based newspaper, The Dallas Morning News also gave a favorable review and described the album as a "sober, but happy record that recalls the band's formative days in sound and spirit." Simon Vozick-Levinson, critic for Entertainment Weekly, awarded the album a "B" grade and noted the maturity found amongst the songs; "Like Green Day and Blink-182 before them, Florida-bred five-some New Found Glory has outgrown the bratty attitude that made them famous".
Alex Lai of Contactmusic likewise noted that, "Those who are familiar with the earlier work of NFG are in for a shock. Beginning in more relaxed fashion than expected, "Oxygen" is a grand love ballad, serious in tone but retaining the group's ability to produce a catchy hook. Far from being a one-off experiment, these are actually the characteristics to the album and like Blink-182 before going on hiatus, New Found Glory have allowed their music to mature." Jack Foley of Indie London, gave the album four stars out of five and described it as "utterly engaging". While mentioning standout tracks, he added, "The low-key "Make Your Move" drops some beautifully cascading riffs, while, the chiming piano chords that open "It’s Not Your Fault" give way into an effortlessly inspiring song." People magazine declared that Coming Home is "their best album yet", while Dan Aquilante of The New York Post awarded a score of three stars out of four and wrote that the album is "a smart, stylistic mix rich in vocal harmonies, it's driven by guitar and piano breaks. The notion of getting back to family, friends and better days connects the 13 tracks." British rock publication Kerrang! awarded the album a "great" four K! rating. Rae Alexandra opined that Coming Home "displays a new level of sensitivity and subtlety; a new take on harmonies and melodies." He noted that while the album isn't as immediate as previous material, it will "move you far more deeply in the long run. It's hopeful; learned; masterfully executed. It's everything New Found Glory have been leading to all this time; and it's everything we never knew they had in them. Absolutely stunning." Florida-based newspaper, The Palm Beach Post were also highly favorable and graded the album as an "A−". They wrote, "It's all written in beautifully vulnerable, snarkless, shout-it-out-loud terms, with an unself-conscious joy in the lyrics, the do-do-dos and the muted hand claps that find a sweet, genuine current of emotion without sacrificing edge. Pundik's delivery is never cloying, ironic or dumb. Underscored by drummer Cyrus Bolooki's strong beat, the songs are like a pre-made mix tape about the ups and downs of making yourself honestly vulnerable to another human being. Bravo." Rock Sound journalist Tim Newbound rated the album at nine out of ten and particularly praised the band's progression. Writing that, "New Found Glory have come of age. Their punchy punk-pop styling of old may have temporarily waned, but their knack of writing inducing melodies amid sincere delivery has only intensified. Pundik's nasal-edged vocals have now blossomed into a fuller pitch, perfectly complementing his band's more tuneful and matured musicianship. Top notch."
Accolades
Coming Home received recognition in year-end lists compiled by the music media. Alternative Press included the album in their end-of-year "Essential Albums" list, with editor Leslie Simon writing, "From the opening chords of "Oxygen" to the ethereal wafting of "Boulders," I admittedly fell in love with this album the first time I heard it." In AbsolutePunk's staff compiled "Top 30 Albums of the Year" feature, the album placed at number twelve, with Jason Tate noting, "Coming Home features a slick sound from Florida pop-punkers New Found Glory. They aren't shy about pulling out the ballads, nor are they shy about racking up the points in our list." While fellow AbsolutePunk staff writer Drew Beringer placed "Connected" from the album on his list containing his favorite tracks of 2006.
* denotes an unordered list
Commercial performance
Coming Home debuted at number eight on the Billboard Rock Albums chart and just inside the top twenty on the main Billboard 200 chart, at number nineteen, with sales of 83,123. The album also entered the Billboard Tastemaker Albums chart at number thirteen. The Tastemaker chart is not decided by record sales, but compiled by ranking new albums based on "an influential panel of indie stores and small regional chains." The album's sales fell quickly, and the album fell off the chart after 6 weeks. By 2008, the album had sold 145,000 copies in the US.
Overall, this marked a drop in performance in comparison to their previous two releases; Catalyst (2004) and Sticks and Stones (2002) debuted on the Billboard 200 at number three and four respectively, each going on to sell over 500,000 units. However, with just the sole single release of "It's Not Your Fault", the band have cited a lack of promotion and support from Geffen Records as a factor. Indeed, after leaving Geffen for the aforementioned reasons and signing with independent label Epitaph Records, the band's next release, Not Without a Fight (2009), topped the Billboard Independent Albums chart and entered the Billboard 200 at number twelve, despite a potentially damaging internet leak six weeks before its release.
Track listing
Personnel
The following personnel contributed to Coming Home, as adapted from the album's liner notes.
New Found Glory
Jordan Pundik – lead vocals, lyrics
Chad Gilbert – lead guitar, composer, lyrics
Steve Klein – rhythm guitar, lyrics
Ian Grushka – bass guitar
Cyrus Bolooki – drums, percussion
Additional musicians
Paul Buckmaster – conductor, string arrangement
Benmont Tench – organ, piano, keys
Eisley – all backing vocals
Jarett Grushka – triangle
Production
Thom Panunzio, New Found Glory – producers
Paul Miner – engineering
Tom Lord-Alge – mixing
Ted Jensen – mastering
J. Peter Robinson – art direction
Matt Taylor – design
Autumn de Wilde – photography
Charts
Release history
References
External links
Coming Home at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed)
2006 albums
New Found Glory albums
Geffen Records albums
Albums produced by Thom Panunzio
Albums produced by Chad Gilbert
Albums recorded at Groove Masters Studios
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courland%20Pocket
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Courland Pocket
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The Courland Pocket was an area of the Courland Peninsula where Army Group North of Nazi Germany and the Reichskommissariat Ostland were cut off and surrounded by the Red Army for almost a year, lasting from July 1944 until 10 May 1945.
The pocket was created during the Red Army's Baltic Offensive, when forces of the 1st Baltic Front reached the Baltic Sea near Memel (Klaipėda) during its lesser Memel Offensive Operation phases in October 1944. This action isolated the German Army Group North from the rest of the German forces, having been pushed from the south by the Red Army, standing in a front between Tukums and Libau in Latvia, with the Baltic Sea in the West, the Irbe Strait in the North and the Gulf of Riga in the East behind the Germans. Renamed Army Group Courland on 25 January, the Army Group in the Courland Pocket remained isolated until the end of the war. When they were ordered to surrender to the Soviet command on 8 May, they were in "blackout" and did not get the official order before 10 May, two days after the capitulation of Germany. It was one of the last German groups to surrender in Europe.
Background
Courland, with the rest of independent Latvia, had been occupied by the Soviets in June 1940. The Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic, along with the rest of the Baltic eastern coast and islands, was overrun by the German Army Group North during 1941. Army Group North spent most of the next two years attempting to take Leningrad, without success. In January 1944, the Soviet Army lifted the siege of Leningrad.
On 22 June 1944, the Red Army launched the Belorussian Strategic Offensive, codenamed Operation Bagration. The goal of this offensive was to recapture the Byelorussian SSR from German occupation. Operation Bagration was extremely successful, resulting in the almost complete destruction of Army Group Centre, and ended on 29 August. In its final stages (the Kaunas and Šiauliai Offensives), Operation Bagration saw Soviet forces strike deep towards the Baltic coast, severing communications between the German Army Group North and the remnants of Army Group Centre.
After Operation Bagration ended, the Soviet forces continued the clearing of the Baltic coast, despite German attempts to restore the front in Operation Doppelkopf. The Red Army fought the Memel Offensive Operation with the goal of isolating Army Group North by capturing the city of Memel (Klaipėda).
Battles of the Courland Bridgehead
On 9 October 1944, the Soviet forces reached the Baltic Sea near Memel after overrunning the headquarters of the 3rd Panzer Army. As a result, Army Group North was cut off from East Prussia. Hitler's military advisors—notably Heinz Guderian, the Chief of the German General Staff—urged evacuation and utilisation of the troops to stabilise the front in central Europe. However, Hitler refused, and ordered the German forces in Courland and the Estonian islands Hiiumaa (Dagö) and Saaremaa (Ösel) to hold out, believing them necessary to protect German submarine bases along the Baltic coast. Hitler still believed the war could be won, and hoped that Dönitz's new Type XXI U-boat technology could bring victory to Germany in the Battle of the Atlantic, forcing the Allies out of Western Europe. This would allow German forces to focus on the Eastern Front, using the Courland Pocket as a springboard for a new offensive.
Hitler's refusal to evacuate the Army Group resulted in the entrenchment of more than 200,000 German troops largely of the 16th Army and 18th Army, in what was to become known to the Germans as the "Courland Bridgehead". Thirty-three divisions of the Army Group North, commanded by Field-Marshall Ferdinand Schörner, were cut off from East Prussia and spread out along a front reaching from Riga to Liepāja, retreating to the more defensible Courland position, abandoning Riga.
Soviet forces launched six major offensives against the German and Latvian forces entrenched in the Courland Pocket between 15 October 1944 and 4 April 1945. The German two-phase withdrawals during the execution of the second stage of the Soviet Baltic Offensive (14 September – 24 November 1944), subsequent to the pocket being formed in the Baltic Offensive's first stage, the Memel Offensive Operation.
Timeline
From 15 to 22 October 1944 – Soviets launched the Riga Offensive Operation on the 15th at 10:00 after conducting a heavy artillery barrage. Hitler permitted the Army Group Commander, Ferdinand Schoerner, to commence withdrawal from Riga on 11 October, and the city was taken by the 3rd Baltic Front on 13 October. The front stabilised with the main remnant of Army Group North isolated in the peninsula.
From 27 October to 25 November – Soviets launched an offensive trying to break through the front toward Skrunda and Saldus including at one point initiating a simultaneous attack by 52 divisions. Soviet forces also attacked southeast of Liepāja in an attempt to capture that port. 80 divisions assaulted the Germans from 1 to 15 November in a front 12 km wide. The Soviet breakthrough stalled after roughly 4 kilometers.
The third phase of the fighting (also known as "the other Christmas Battle") started on 21 December with a Soviet attack on Germans near Saldus. The Soviet 2nd Baltic (northern sector) and 1st Baltic Fronts (southern sector) commenced a blockade, precipitating the German defence of the Courland perimeter during Soviet attempts to reduce it. In this battle, serving with the 2nd Baltic Front's 22nd Army, the Latvian 130th Rifle Corps faced their opposites in the Latvian 19th SS Division. The battle ended on 31 December and the front was stabilized.
On 15 January 1945, Army Group North was renamed Army Group Courland under Colonel-General Lothar Rendulic. In the middle of January Heinz Guderian got Hitler's permission to withdraw 7 divisions from Courland, however, Hitler refused to consider a total withdrawal. The 4th Panzer Division, 31st, 32nd, 93rd Infantry Divisions, 11th SS Division Nordland and the remnants of the battered 227th, 218th and 389th Infantry Divisions and 15th Latvian SS-Division were evacuated over the sea. On 23 January Soviet forces launched an offensive trying to break through the front toward Liepāja and Saldus. They managed to take the bridgeheads on Bārta and Vārtāja rivers but were once again driven off by the Germans.
The fifth battle started on 12 February with a Soviet attack against the Germans towards . Other attacks took place south of Liepāja where the Soviets massed 21 divisions, and south of Tukums where 11 divisions tried to break through the German front and take the town. On 16 February the Soviets started an offensive against the 19th Division.
Surrender
On 8 May, Germany's Head of State and President Karl Dönitz ordered Colonel-General Carl Hilpert – the Army Group's last commander – to surrender. Hilpert, his personal staff, and staffs of three Armies surrendered to Marshal Leonid Govorov, the commander of the Leningrad Front. At this time, the group still consisted of the remnants of 27 divisions and one brigade.
On 8 May, General Otto Friedrich Rauser succeeded in obtaining better surrender terms from the Soviet command. On 9 May, the Soviet commission in Peilei started to interrogate the captive staff of Army Group Courland, and general collection of prisoners began.
By 12 May, approximately 135,000 German troops surrendered in the Courland Pocket. On 23 May, the Soviet collection of the German troops in the Courland Pocket was completed. A total of about 180,000 German troops were taken into captivity from the Baltic area. The bulk of the prisoners of war were initially held at the Valdai Hills camps.
German Order of Battle (March 1945)
See also Army Group Courland
Army Group North (to 25 January 1945)
Army Group Courland (25 January 1945 to 8 May 1945)
Generaloberst Heinrich von Vietinghoff – from 10 March 1945 Generaloberst Lothar Rendulic – from 25 March 1945 Generaloberst Carl Hilpert
German 16th Army
General der Infanterie Carl Hilpert – from 10 March 1945 General der Infanterie Ernst-Anton von Krosigk (KIA) – from 16 March General der Gebirgstruppen Friedrich-Jobst Volckamer von Kirchensittenbach
XVI. Armeekorps – Generalleutnant Ernst-Anton von Krosigk – from 10 March Generalleutnant Gottfried Weber
81. Infanterie-Division – Generalleutnant Franz Eccard von Bentivegni
300. Infanterie-Division z. b. V. – Generalmajor Anton Eberth
21. Luftwaffen-Feld-Division – Generalleutnant Albert Henze, 16 February 1945 Generalmajor Otto Barth
VI. SS-Armeekorps – SS-Obergruppenführer Walter Krüger
24. Infanterie-Division – Generalmajor Harald Schultz
12. Panzer-Division – Generalleutnant Erpo von Bodenhausen, from 14 April 1945 Generalmajor Horst von Usedom
19. SS-Grenadier-Division – SS-Gruppenführer und Generalleutnant der Waffen-SS Bruno Streckenbach
XXXVIII. Armeekorps – General der Artillerie Kurt Herzog
122. Infanterie-Division – General der Infanterie Friedrich Fangohr, from 20 January 1945 Generalmajor Bruno Schatz
290. Infanterie-Division – Generalmajor Hans-Joachim Baurmeister, from 25 April 1945 Generalmajor Carl Henke, from 27 April 1945 Generalleutnant Bruno Ortler
329. Infanterie-Division – Generalleutnant Konrad Menkel, from 1 January 1945 Generalmajor Werner Schulze
German 18th Army
General der Infanterie Ehrenfried Boege
I. Armeekorps – General der Infanterie Friedrich Fangohr, from 21 April 1945 Generalleutnant Christian Usinger
218. Infanterie-Division – Generalleutnant Viktor Lang, from 25 December 1944 Generalmajor Ingo von Collani, from 1 May 1945 Generalleutnant Werner Ranck
132. Infanterie-Division – Generalleutnant Herbert Wagner, from 8 January 1945 Generalmajor Rudolf Demme
II. Armeekorps – General der Infanterie Johannes Mayer, from 1 April 1945 Generalleutnant Alfred Gause
263. Infanterie-Division – Generalleutnant Alfred Hemmann
563. Volksgrenadier-Division – Generalmajor Ferdinand Brühl, from 25 February 1945 Generalmajor Werner Neumann
X. Armeekorps – General der Artillerie Siegfried Thomaschki
87. Infanterie-Division – Generalmajor Helmuth Walter, from 16 January 1945 Generalleutnant Mauritz Freiherr von Strachwitz
126. Infanterie-Division – Generalmajor/Generalleutnant Gotthard Fischer, from 5 January 1945 Oberst/Generalmajor Kurt Hähling
30. Infanterie-Division – Generalmajor Otto Barth, from 30 January 1945 Generalleutnant Albert Henze
L. Armeekorps – General der Gebirgstruppe Friedrich Jobst Volckamer von Kirchensittenbach, from 11 April 1945 Generalleutnant Erpo von Bodenhausen
205. Infanterie-Division – Generalmajor Ernst Biehler, from 15 November 1944 Generalmajor Karl-Hans Giese
225. Infanterie-Division – Generalleutnant Walter Risse
11. Infanterie-Division – Generalleutnant Hellmuth Reymann, from 18 November 1944 Generalleutnant Gerhard Feyerabend
14. Panzer-Division – Generalmajor Oskar Munzel, from 25 November 1944 Generalmajor Martin Unrein, from 19 February 1945 Oberst Friedrich-Wilhelm Jürgen, from 22 March 1945 Oberst Paul Lüneburg, from 25 March 1945 Oberst Karl-Max Gräßel
Security Divisions
52nd Security Division : Festung Libau – Generalleutnant Albrecht Digeon von Monteton
201st Security Division – Generalmajor Anton Eberth
207th Security Division – only Staff
Luftwaffe
Jagdgeschwader 54 – Oberst Dietrich Hrabak
Marine
9. Marine-Sicherungsdivision
1. Minensuchflottille
3. Minensuchflottille
25. Minensuchflottille
31. Minensuchflottille
1. Räumbootsflottille – Kapitänleutnant Carl Hoff
17. Räumbootsflottille
3. Vorpostenflottille
9. Vorpostenflottille
17. Vorpostenflottille
3. Sicherungsflottille
14. Sicherungsflottille
13. Landungsflottille
21. Landungsflottille
24. Landungsflottille
3. U-Jagdflottille
11. U-Jagdflottille
1. Schnellboot-Schulflottille
2. Schnellboot-Schulflottille
3. Schnellboot-Schulflottille
Soviet Order of Battle
1st Baltic Front (Army General Ivan Bagramyan)
51st Army (Army General Yakov Kreizer)
6th Guards Army (Colonel General Ivan Chistyakov)
4th Shock Army (Army General Pyotr Malyshev)
42nd Army (Lieutenant General Vladimir Petrovich Sviridov)
1st Shock Army (Lieutenant General Vladimir N. Razuvaev)
10th Guards Army (Lieutenant General Mikhail Kazakov)
Historiography
Soviet and Russian accounts
The First Courland Battle was intended to destroy German forces. After that failure, official accounts ignore Courland, stating only that the Soviet goal was to prevent the Germans from escaping.
In this account, the Soviet actions in Courland were defensive blocking operations. Hostilities consisted of containing German breakout attempts, and the Red Army made no concerted effort to capture the Courland Pocket, which was of little strategic importance after the isolation of Army Group North, whereas the main offensive effort was required for the Vistula-Oder and Berlin Offensives. Soviet forces suffered correspondingly low casualties. The modern research of Grigoriy Krivosheev indicates a total of 160,948 Soviet casualties between 16 February and 8 May 1945": 30,501 "irrecoverable" and 130,447 "medical" losses.
According to the Russian historian Aleksei Isaev, Courland was a peripheral front for both the Soviets and Germans. The Soviet goal was to prevent the German troops there from being transported by sea to reinforce the defense of Berlin. Soviet operations intended to further isolate and also destroy the enemy, but the strength of the attacking troops was too low to make any significant progress in the difficult terrain. The Soviet commanders worked competently and as a result the reported casualties were low.
Western sources
Stalin had initially been intent on destroying the German forces in Courland, reporting in September 1944 that he was "mopping up" in the Baltics, and in November, that the Germans were "now being hammered to a finish." As late as March 1945, Stalin was still making claims that German forces in Courland would soon be defeated. This victory was necessary, in Stalin's eyes, to re-establish Soviet control over its 1941 frontiers following the annexation of the Baltic states.
The Soviets launched six offensives to defeat the German Army Group Courland. Throughout the campaign against the Courland pocket, Soviet forces did not advance more than 25 miles anywhere along the front, ending no more than a few kilometers forward of their original positions after seven months of conflict. The Soviet operations were hampered by the difficult terrain and bad weather.
The German army group reported inflicting heavy losses on the Soviets. However, in the absence of heavy weaponry and a near total lack of air support, total German casualties in Courland were heavy as well, and estimated to be over 150,000.
The withdrawal of Soviet units starting from December 1944 indicates that the Soviet command did not consider Courland to be as important as other sectors of the Eastern Front. Destroying the German forces there was not worth the effort and the goal was now to keep them from breaking out. The next three offensives were most likely intended to prevent the evacuation of German troops by sea. By the start of April 1945, the Soviets viewed the German forces in Courland as not much more than self-supporting prisoners.
Aftermath
On 9 May 1945, General Ivan Bagramyan accepted the surrender of German forces at Ezere Manor in southwest Latvia. According to Russian records, 146,000 German and Latvian troops were taken prisoner, including 28 generals and 5,083 officers, and taken to camps in the USSR interior and imprisoned for years. Current scholarship puts the count of those surrendering at about 190,000: 189,112 Germans including 42 generals—among them the German commander, Carl Hilpert, who died in Soviet captivity in 1947—and approximately 14,000 Latvians.
The Soviets detained all males between the ages of 16 and 60, and conducted widespread deforestation campaigns, burning tracts of forest to flush out resisters.
Notes
References
Literature
Dallas, Gregor., 1945: The War That Never Ended, Yale University Press, Yale, 2006
Richard P. Wade: "The Survivors of the Kurland Pocket 1944-1945". American Military University, Charlestown, West Virginia, 2015.
Military history of Latvia during World War II
Military operations of World War II involving Germany
Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War
Encirclements in World War II
1944 in Latvia
1945 in Latvia
Trench warfare
Battles in Latvia
Battles involving Latvia
Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic
Generalbezirk Lettland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-inch/38-caliber%20gun
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5-inch/38-caliber gun
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The Mark 12 5"/38 caliber gun was a United States dual-purpose naval gun, but also installed in single-purpose mounts on a handful of ships. The 38 caliber barrel was a mid-length compromise between the previous United States standard 5"/51 low-angle gun and 5"/25 anti-aircraft gun. United States naval gun terminology indicates the gun fired a projectile in diameter, and the barrel was 38 calibers long. The increased barrel length provided greatly improved performance in both anti-aircraft and anti-surface roles compared to the 5"/25 gun. However, except for the barrel length and the use of semi-fixed ammunition, the 5"/38 gun was derived from the 5"/25 gun. Both weapons had power ramming, which enabled rapid fire at high angles against aircraft. The 5"/38 entered service on , commissioned in 1934, the first new destroyer design since the last Clemson was built in 1922. The base ring mount, which improved the effective rate of fire, entered service on , commissioned in 1936.
Among naval historians, the 5"/38 gun is considered the best intermediate-caliber, dual purpose naval gun of World War II, especially as it was usually under the control of the advanced Mark 37 Gun Fire Control System which provided accurate and timely firing against surface and air targets. Even this advanced system required nearly 1000 rounds of ammunition expenditure per aircraft kill. However, the planes were normally killed by shell fragments and not direct hits; barrage fire was used, with many guns firing in the air at the same time. This would result in large walls of shell fragments being put up to take out one or several planes or in anticipation of an unseen plane, this being justifiable as one plane was capable of significant destruction. The comparatively high rate of fire for a gun of its caliber earned it an enviable reputation, particularly as an anti-aircraft weapon, in which role it was commonly employed by United States Navy vessels. Base ring mounts with integral hoists had a nominal rate of fire of 15 rounds per minute per barrel; however, with a well-trained crew, 22 rounds per minute per barrel was possible for short periods. On pedestal and other mounts lacking integral hoists, 12 to 15 rounds per minute was the rate of fire. Useful life expectancy was 4600 effective full charges (EFC) per barrel.
The 5"/38 cal gun was mounted on a very large number of US Navy ships in the World War II era. It was backfitted to many of the World War I-era battleships during their wartime refits, usually replacing 5"/25 guns that were fitted in the 1930s. It has left active US Navy service, but it is still on mothballed ships of the United States Navy reserve fleets. It is also used by a number of nations who bought or were given US Navy surplus ships. Millions of rounds of ammunition were produced for these guns, with over 720,000 rounds still remaining in Navy storage depots in the mid-1980s because of the large number of Reserve Fleet ships with 5"/38 cal guns on board.
Mark 12 5"/38 cal gun assembly
Each mount carries one or two Mk 12 5"/38cal Gun Assemblies. The gun assembly shown is used in single mounts, and it is the right gun in twin mounts. It is loaded from the left side. The left gun in twin mounts is the mirror image of the right gun, and it is loaded from the right side. The Mk12 gun assembly weighs . The Mark 12 Gun Assembly was introduced in 1934, where it was first used in single pedestal mounts on the s, but by the time of World War II they had been installed in single and twin mounts on nearly every major warship and auxiliary in the US fleet.
Characteristics
The major Mk12 Gun Assembly characteristics are:
Semi-automatic
During recoil, some of the recoil energy is stored in the counter-recoil system. That stored energy is used during counter-recoil to prepare the gun for the next round. The firing pin is cocked, the breech is opened, the spent propellant case is ejected, and the bore is cleared of debris with an air blast.
Hand loaded
A projectile-man and a powder-man are stationed at each gun assembly. Their job is to move the round, consisting of a projectile and a propellant case, from the hoists to the rammer tray projecting from the gun's breech, and then start the ram cycle. The powder case is placed first and the projectile rests against the powder case.
Power rammed
This gun used a electric-hydraulic power rammer that was designed to ram a , round (combined weight of projectile and propellant) into the chamber at any gun elevation in less than one second. The rammer's control box, hydraulic fluid tank and AC motor are bolted to the top of the slide (see the Gun Assembly picture above). The hydraulically driven rammer spade, called the power spade in that picture, is at the back of the rammer tray. If the multiple names of the "spade" are confusing, look at this footnote. Hand ramming was also possible in case of power failures with rate of fire approximately cut in half.
Vertical sliding-wedge breech block (see drawing)
The breech block closes the chamber behind the propellant case. It also contains the firing pin assembly.
Hydraulic recoil
Two hydraulic pistons in the housing absorb the major shock of recoil as the housing moves back inside the slide (see picture). They also buffer the end of counter-recoil for a soft return to battery.
Pneumatic counter-recoil
At the end of recoil, the counter-recoil system moves the housing forward again until it is back "in battery," and holds it there at any gun elevation. A chamber in the housing is filled with compressed air. At the rear of this chamber is a cylindrical hole with a chevron packing. Projecting through the hole is a movable piston that abuts the back of the slide (see picture). The air pressure in the chamber attempts to push the piston out of the chamber, but the piston can't move because of the slide. Therefore, since the piston can't go backwards, the air pressure in the chamber forces the housing forward. When the gun is in battery, the pressure in this chamber is about . During recoil, the pressure rises to about .
Barrel designation (5"/38 Caliber)
5" is the caliber of this gun. The term "caliber" used here is the artillery caliber definition, and its value is equal to the bore diameter as measured from land to land. Lands are the raised portions of the bore rifling, between the grooves. (note: artillery caliber and small arms caliber are not the same).
38 caliber means that the barrel from breech face to muzzle is 38 calibers in length. As this gun's caliber is 5 inches (127mm), its barrel length is 38 times 5 inches: .
Barrel description
Radially expanded monobloc steel alloy.
Weight:
The bore is chrome plated from the origin of rifling (forward end of the chamber) to the muzzle.
45 groove rifling with a full uniform right hand twist in 30 Calibers ().
Maximum bore pressure of a new gun firing an anti-aircraft common projectile: .
Barrel connected to the housing with a bayonet joint that allowed for its replacement by destroyer tenders in the theater of operation, without dismantling the breech mechanism or other parts.
Ballistics Maximum horizontal range with a projectile is . In the anti-aircraft role, the gun has a ceiling of at 85 degrees elevation.
Armor penetration with special common shell
5.0" (127 mm) belt armor at
4.0" (102 mm) at
3.0" (76 mm) at
2.0" (51 mm) at
1.0" (25 mm) deck armor at
with AA common shell: at
Range with AAC Mark 49 (792 mps)
10°
15°
20°
25°
30°
35°
40°
45°
AA Ceiling
The new gun initial muzzle velocity is , and the gun life average initial muzzle velocity is about .
US ships during World War II carried only small quantities of special common ammunition, as the anti-aircraft common was considered more useful, even if it meant achieving much less armor penetration. Bursting charges were explosive D composition A, the special common had only 0.9-1.2 kg due to its thicker walls (AP).
Loading
At the "LOAD" command, or if the mount is executing "RAPID" loading: (NOTE: Rapid loading means that, when the gun fires, the gun crew immediately reloads the gun without command until "CEASE FIRE" or "CHECK FIRE" is given.)
The Powder-Man:
Verifies that the RAMMER SPADE is at the rear of the "Rammer Tray" (see picture)
Slips the "Butterfly" primer protector off the base of the powder case that is sticking knee high out of powder hoist on the deck.
Throws the protector out of the mount.
Pulls the powder case out of the hoist, and lifts it into the rammer tray.
Verifies that the case is back against the rammer spade.
Clears his arms from the tray.
The Projectile-Man:
Verifies that the powder case is in the rammer tray.
Pulls the projectile out of the waist high projectile hoist.
Places projectile in front of the powder case in the tray.
Clears his arms from the tray.
Pulls down on the RAMMER CONTROL (see RAMMER CONTROL at the upper left corner of picture).
Rammer Load Cycle:
Pulling down on the Rammer Control lever opens hydraulic valves inside the Rammer Controller.
The opened valves port high pressure hydraulic fluid to the "Hydraulic Ram Cylinder" in the Slide behind the tray. The Ram Cylinder is connected to the "Rammer Cross Head". (The white horizontal bar behind the Spade in the picture.) The Cross Head supports the Rammer Spade as it moves in the tray. When the cylinder is pressurized, the Cross Head and Spade are driven forward in the Tray.
As the spade moves forward, it pushes the projectile and powder case into the chamber. The spade's time of travel, from the rear of the tray to the breech, is one second. As it approaches the breech, the Cross Head pushes through a spring latch that locks it there. At the same time, the Cross Head trips another lever connected to the Rammer Controller, and the Controller releases the hydraulic pressure to the Ram Cylinder.
When the powder case clears the top of the breech block, the block automatically rises.
The rising breech block displaces the rammer spade behind the powder case by pushing the spring-loaded spade up. This continues until the rammer spade is off the powder case, and the block has sealed the chamber.
The gun is loaded and ready to fire.
Firing
This gun can be fired either electrically or by percussion.
When the gun fires, the following automatic events happen in two seconds:
During Recoil:
The Rammer Crosshead is unlocked.
The Rammer Control is pushed to the up position by a cam on top of the rearward moving Housing.
With the Rammer Control up, the Rammer Controller ports high pressure hydraulic fluid to the retract side of the Rammer Cylinder, and the Rammer Crosshead and Spade drive back to the rear of the Rammer Tray.
During Counter-recoil:
The Firing Pin is cocked.
The Breech Block is lowered.
The spent Powder Case is ejected out of the Chamber, and back down the Rammer Tray. There it is caught by the gloved Hot Case Man, and thrown out of the mount.
Just before the housing finishes returning to "In Battery", a valve is opened for a second, and a blast of compressed air is sent down the bore to clean it out.
The gun is ready to be reloaded.
Gun mounts
Types
There are four basic mount types:
Twin
All sat on a base ring stand, and had an ammunition handling room, called the Upper Handling Room (as it was above the main magazine), below the mount.
They all had:
Horizontal periscopic sights with movable-prism sight setting.
Two powered, fuze setting, projectile hoists.
Two powered powder case hoists.
Powered training and elevating drives (in this context, "training" means rotating the mount on its stand).
This mount was the standard installation on battleships, cruisers, early destroyer leader (, ) classes (these mounts on the DL's were single-purpose/anti-surface ship only), and later destroyers (starting with the ). It was also used on the island (starboard) side of the s.
Enclosed single
All enclosed single mounts sat on a base ring stand, and had an upper handling room. The enclosed single mount was used on some early destroyer classes ( (1937) up to and including the (1942)), but by the end of World War II, it was mainly found on the many minelayers and auxiliaries which were developed from the older classes of destroyers, as well as on most of the destroyer escorts, and many large auxiliaries (repair ships, destroyer tenders, etc.).
Open single base ring mount
Open mount with Upper-Handling Room. Used on the port and starboard gangways, just below the flight deck, on s and through destroyers.
Open single pedestal mount
This was the first 5"/38cal type installed. It was put on the s in 1934 through to the (1937). Some of these mounts placed on ship's forecastles were partially enclosed to protect the crew against bow spray, but they were still considered an open mount. Since these mounts did not have Upper Handling Rooms, they could be installed on ships without extensive reconstruction. For that reason, they were frequently used on armed merchant ships.
Farragut and Mahan had only open mounts. The Gridley class introduced the enclosed single gun house, but not all of its guns were enclosed. The Benham class replaced all pedestal mounts with open base ring mounts later on. The Fletcher class was the first to only have enclosed guns (except for the Porter and Somers destroyer leaders).
There are several models of the 5"/38, differentiated by the word Mark (or its abbreviation MK) and a number. Variations to the basic design are called Modifications (or its abbreviation Mod). For instance, 5"/38 MK 21 is a single-barrel open pedestal mount widely used on amphibious ships, auxiliaries, and merchant ships. The 5"/38 MK 30 is a single enclosed base ring mount widely used on destroyer escorts. The 5"/38 MK 38 is a twin mount specifically designed for newer destroyers.
Ammunition delivery
Since this gun fires semi-fixed ammunition, each round is delivered to the gun in two piecesa projectile and a powder case.
Base ring mounts
The ready service ammunition is kept in the upper handling room just below the mount. The projectile travels up to the gun room (also called the gun house) through an electric-hydraulic hoist. It arrives next to the projectile-man nose down and waist high. If the projectile has a time fuze, the fuze is automatically set as it goes up the hoist, and the hoist maintains the ordered fuze setting from the fire control system as long as the projectile stays in the hoist. The powder case is sent up through a powder scuttle in the gun room's deck just next to the powder man's feet. It arrives with its base up, and the primer covered with a protector called the "Butterfly". The men in the upper handling room hand carry the projectiles and powder cases from the ready service racks to the lower ends of the hoists while avoiding the equipment hanging down from the rotating mount. In a twin mount executing "Rapid continuous fire" (the firing keys are held closed, and the gun fires as soon as the breech closes), the crew move 30 to 44 projectiles and powder cases per minute.
Pedestal mounts
The ready service ammunition is kept in lockers or compartments arrayed around the mount. The projectiles and powder cases are hand carried from ready service to the left side of the moving mount. The projectile is placed nose down in one of three Fuze Setter Mechanisms (commonly called fuze pots) on the mount. If the man is delivering a projectile with a mechanical time fuze, he then spins a hand crank just in front of that fuze setter mechanism. This would dial in the ordered fuze time into that projectile. The powder case is placed in a rack bolted to the mount's deck just behind the powder-man's feet.
Mount crew
Depending on the mount, a 5"/38 caliber gun could have a crew of 15 to 27 personnel in the gun room and upper handling room. This does not include the personnel needed in the magazines during extended actions. There were two modes of mount operation that the crew was trained and expected to know. The primary mode was "automatic control", where the mount was slaved to the fire control system. But if the fire control system was damaged, or if the ship's power was out, the mount could continue the action in "local control". In US service, most gun crews were US Navy personnel. Even the civilian Merchant Marine ships had a small detachment of the Navy Armed Guard on board to operate the 5"/38 and other guns. One exception to this was on ships with a Marine Detachment, where the Marines manned one of the mounts, usually decorated with the Marine emblem (see the USMC emblem on USS New Jersey's Mk 28, Mod 2 mount picture above).
Mount captain
A senior Petty Officer or Gunnery Sergeant who was in command of the mount. In enclosed mounts, he stood on an interior platform that was located half way up the back bulkhead of the enclosure. There was a hatch on the top of the enclosure where he could stick his head and shoulders out the mount's top. On some mounts, this hatch had a steel hood welded around the back and sides (see an example of this hood in the USS New Jersey picture). This hood protected the Mount Captain from the muzzle blasts of adjacent weapons. He was wearing a sound powered telephone so that he could receive action orders from the battery commander, and send mount status reports back. Covering the telephone headset, there was a helmet specially designed to fit over the phone. Around his neck, he had a pair of gunnery binoculars which had a reticle scaled in angular mils. By ducking his head down into the mount, he could see the entire interior of the mount from his platform. Next to him was a voice tube down to the upper handling room. At arms length, he had switches for controlling communication, emergency lighting, and battle lanterns. His duties during Automatic Control were to receive action orders from the battery commander (e.g., "Mount 51, plot. Surface action starboard. Target destroyer. Bearing 060. Range nine thousand, five hundred yards. Slow salvo."), give the appropriate orders to his Gun Room and Upper Handling Room crews (e.g., "Match pointers. Switch to automatic. Handling room fill the hoists with able able common and full service charge. Standby for slow salvo."), verify that his orders were being followed, and report his gun's status back to the battery commander (e.g., "Plot, mount 51 in auto. Bore clear."). In Local Control, he aimed and fired his mount's gun(s)sometimes without external help. With his gunnery binoculars, he estimated the range to the target, and its bearing rate. He then mentally converted these into range and deflection orders to his Sight Setter. After firing, he observed the fall of his shot, and made sight corrections to his Sight Setter if necessary.
Gun Captain
The Gunner's Mate(s) responsible for maintaining the mount. Daily, he went through a process of checking fluid levels, lubricating bearings, cleaning gun sights, cycling powered equipment, testing firing systems, checking gas pressures, and verifying that all the equipment that would be needed in an action was in his mount. In twin mounts, there would be a gun captain assigned to each gun assembly. The gun captain usually stood on his foot-high tool box that was welded to the mount's deck, and offset from the gun's centerline (see the man in black standing on the box in the MK21 open mount picture). This placed him high and aft of the rammer motor. From there, he could watch the actions of the powder-man, projectile-man, breech block, and rammer. He could verify that the gun returned to battery before the next round was loaded. If something went wrong, he was free to move around his gun to fix the problem. He knew everyone's job, and could step in if necessary. At the mount captain's command, he manually opened the breech block before the first round was loaded, and reported if the bore is clear. His duties were the same in automatic or local control.
Pointer
Controlled the mount's elevation and firing. He sat in the left front corner of the mount. In front of him were his optical sight, hand wheels, and elevation drive controls. To his right, about elbow high, was a large box called the Elevation Indicator Regulator (pictured). This box controlled the elevation power drive. Through a window on top of the box, he could see a set of dials that indicated the elevation of the gun, and the automatic elevation orders coming from the Fire Control System. Above the Indicator Regulator was the Electrical Fire Select Switch. It was a rotary switch with three positions: Off, Local, and Auto. Off disabled the electrical firing system on the mount. Local enabled the electric firing key on his right hand wheel. Auto enabled the off-mount electrical firing circuit from the Fire Control System. Just outside his right knee was the Percussion Select Lever. This mechanical lever had two positions: Safe, and Armed. When it was in the armed position, the mechanical linkage for percussion firing was enabled. His right footrest was at one end of this linkage, and the firing pin sear in the breech block was at the other. By rocking his right foot forward, he fired the gun. Electrical firing was the primary firing method. When the Mount Captain commanded "Match pointers. Switch to Automatic," he looked down at the dials on his Indicator-Regulator. The dials told him the difference between the gun's present elevation and the ordered elevation electrically coming from the Fire Control System by synchro. He changed the elevation of the gun, by moving his hand wheels, until the dial difference was zero. His dials were now "matched", and he switched the elevation drive into Auto. This disengaged his hand wheels, and gave elevation control to the Fire Control System. Then he moved the Electrical Fire Select Switch to "AUTO", and reported back to the Mount Captain, "Elevation in auto." He would now look through his sight, and if the Sight Setter had matched the sight-setter dial pointers, he would see the target in the cross-hairs. When the Mount Captain commanded "Switch to Local", he switched the elevation drive and the Electrical Fire Select Switch to local. In local control, he controlled the gun's elevation with his hand wheels to keep his sight's horizontal cross hair on the target. At the command of the Mount Captain, he fired the gun by squeezing the firing key on his right hand wheel.
Trainer
Controls the mount's train angle (bearing). He sits in the right front corner of the mount (see the far right man in the Mk21 open mount picture). In front of him, are his optical sight, hand wheels, and train drive controls. Between his knees is a large box called the Train Indicator Regulator. (pictured) This box controls the train power drive. On top of the box, is a window with a set of dials that indicate the train angle of the gun, and the automatic train orders electrically coming from the Fire Control System by synchro. When the Mount Captain commands, "Match pointers. Switch to Automatic.", he looks down at the dials on his Indicator-Regulator. The dials also tell him the difference between the gun's present train angle and the ordered train angle. He changes the bearing of the gun, by moving his hand wheels, until the dial difference is zero. His dials are now "matched", and he switches the train drive into Auto. This disengages his hand wheels, and gives train angle control to the Fire Control System. Then, he reports back to the Mount Captain, "Train in auto." He may now look through his sight, and if the Sight Setter has matched the sight-setter dial pointers, he will see the target in the cross-hairs. When the Mount Captain commands, "Switch to Local", he switches the train drive to local. In local control, he controls the gun's train angle with his hand wheels to keep his sight's vertical cross hair on the target.
Sight setter
Operates the sight setting equipment. In single mounts, he stands just behind the trainer (see the man with headphones in the Mk21 open mount picture), while in twin mounts he sits between the guns, just forward of the projectile hoists. The sight setter moves the sights' reticles relative to the barrel's axis. In early open mounts, this was done by moving the platforms to which the sights were bolted. Sights in enclosed mounts have movable prisms in their optical paths. The sight setter has three dials, and two hand cranks. (pictured) The two right dials and right hand crank control the elevation reticle offset (called Sight Angle). The upper right dial is scaled in minutes of arc, and the lower right dial is in yards. The left dial and hand crank control the reticle's left and right offset (called Sight Deflection), and the dial is scaled in angular mils. When the mount is in Automatic Control, he turns his hand cranks to keep index marks on his dials matched to lines on the central disks of the dials. These disks are electrically controlled by the Fire Control System by synchro. This is called matching the pointers, and it allows the sights to remain on the target while the mount is controlled by the Fire Control System. In local control, he takes sighting orders from the Mount Captain in yards of range and mils of deflection.
Fuze setter
He operates the equipment which sets the fuze time on projectiles with mechanical time fuzes. On a single enclosed mount, he sits below and just outboard of the Pointer's seat. Under the Pointer's seat, and in front the Fuse Setter, is the Fuse Indicator Regulator. (pictured) It is a box with a window, a hand crank, and a selector lever. On a twin mount, he and his Fuze Indicator Regulator sit next to the Sight Setter between the guns. When the mount is put in Automatic control, he flips the selector lever to Auto, and this electrically powered Fuze Indicator Regulator automatically follows the fuze setting orders sent from the Fire Control System by synchro. In Local Control, he follows the Mount Captain's fuze orders by spinning the hand crank until the dials in the window read the correct fuze time.
Powder-man
Slides the primer protector off the powder case, and then lifts the case from the powder scuttle at his feet to the gun's rammer tray.
Projectile-man
Moves the projectile from the hoist to the rammer tray in front of the just-placed powder case, and then he pulls the rammer lever to load the projectile and powder case into the chamber.
Hot case man
When the gun fires, he catches the ejected powder case and throws it out of the mount.
Check sight
He verifies that the mount is aiming at the target.
Ammunition
This gun uses semi-fixed ammunition. (Pictured) (Also called Separated Ammunition.) Each round consists of a projectile and a powder case. The two parts of the round are kept separate until they get to the gun. At the gun, they are first combined on the rammer tray, and then power rammed into the chamber together with one ram cycle. The powder case completely fills the volume of the chamber, and its length seats the projectile's rotating band into the bore's rifling. This is different from a naval bag gun. In a bag gun: (1) The projectile, by itself, is power rammed into the chamber until its rotating band is seated in the bore's rifling. (2) The rammer is retracted. (3) The powder bags are then rammed in. This is also different from some artillery field guns: (1) The projectile is hand rammed into the chamber with a ramrod until its rotating band is seated in the bore's rifling. (2) The ramrod is retracted. (3) Next powder is placed in the chamber either as a bag or primed canister with the required charge. Note that the single ram operation used in semi-fixed guns decreases the loading time, and therefore increases the firing rate on medium and large caliber guns. For example, each of the nine 8"(203 mm)/55 caliber Rapid-Fire guns installed on the used auto-loaded semi-fixed ammunition and had a firing rate of 10 to 12 rounds a minute. See also the 8"/55 caliber Mark 71 gun. 5” rounds were often used as weights for burials at sea.
Projectile
The Projectile (pictured) has three major parts: the body, the fuze, and the explosive charge.
Projectile body
The body is basically a machined steel tube with an ogive shape at one end. At the ogive and rear ends are threaded openings used to the install the shell's filler and hold the fuzes. Around the tube near the base is a copper alloy ring called the Rotating Band. This band has a diameter larger than the bore, and when the projectile and powder case are rammed into the chamber, the band is jammed into the grooves of the bore's rifling. It forms a gas seal between the projectile and the bore. Also, as the projectile travels down the barrel, the band grips the rifling to impart spin to the projectile.
Fuze
The Fuse detonates the projectile to cause maximum damage to the target. Different targets required different fuzes. The safety requirements of a fuze are that...
... it is safe to handle. (i.e.: It will not arm if dropped, rolled, or shaken.)
... it remains unarmed in the bore, and until the projectile is well clear of the firing ship to protect exposed personnel. Therefore, when the gun is fired, the following events take place:
14,000g acceleration from the burning propellant in the bore. This acceleration is used to setback (i.e.: Force to the rear.) some fuze parts from unarmed to armed positions due to their inertia.
Centrifugal force from the 12,360 rpm projectile rotation. This force causes other parts to move outward.
7.2g deceleration from aerodynamic drag after the projectile leaves the muzzle. Due to inertia, other movable parts will creep forward.
All of these events must take place in the correct order to arm the fuze.
List of fuze types:
Mechanical time fuze
A nose time fuze that detonates the shell after an adjustable time interval has elapsed since firing.
Base detonating fuze
A base impact fuze screwed into the rear of a projectile to protect the fuze during impact. It delays the shell's detonation about 25 ms after impact, allowing the projectile to penetrate the target prior to detonation.
Point detonating fuze
A nose impact fuze. Very fast detonation on the surface of the target.
VT fuze
The VT (Variable Time, this is a counter-espionage decoy designation) fuze is a proximity fuze. It is a nose electronic fuze that does not require impact to trigger. Designed to detonate close to the target. It was originally intended to be used against air targets. Now it is also used in shore bombardment and surface actions against fast boats. This is because the VT fuze has proved well suited for bursting the shell at the correct distance above the ground or water for maximum damage to lightly armored targets over a large area.
Auxiliary detonating fuze
In the projectile drawing, an Auxiliary Detonating Fuze is screwed onto the bottom of the Mechanical Time Fuze. This is because the time fuze primer does not have enough explosive shock to detonate the relatively insensitive Explosive "D". The Auxiliary fuze uses an intermediate explosive that is set off by the time fuze primer, and in turn, sets off the Explosive "D".
Powder case
The powder case is a brass or steel alloy cylinder closed at one end. It holds the propelling charge and a case combination primer. The charge is held packed around the primer by a wad, distance piece (not in clearing charge), and plug. When rammed in the chamber with the projectile, the Full and Reduced charge cases are designed to completely fill the volume of the chamber from the breechblock face to the base of the projectile when its rotating band is jammed into the bore's rifling. In other words, the powder case acts a rammer extension for the projectile. There are three types of powder cases:
Full service charge (pictured)
A 26.7 inch (679 mm) long, 12.3 pound (5.6 kg) brass case with 15.5 pounds (7.0 kg) of smokeless or flashless (used at night) powder. The Full Service Charge new gun initial velocity is . It is used in surface and anti-aircraft actions.
Reduced charge
The Reduced Charge uses the same case as the Full Service Charge, but with only of powder and a longer distance piece. The Reduced Charge new gun initial velocity is . It is used in shore bombardment to lob shells, like a mortar, over obstacles to hit targets on the opposite side, and for propelling star shells at a lower velocity to protect the parachute from being shredded while it is deployed.
Clearing charge (Pictured)
The clearing charge (also called, "the short round") is a short case; plugged just above the wad. The distance piece between the wad and plug is left out. Its powder charge is less than a full service charge. This case is essential for the safety of the mount because it is needed to clear a gun after a misfire. Due to its importance, it is kept in a special container in the mount whenever the ship is in a combat zone. A misfire is especially dangerous in semi-fixed guns. When the breech is opened after the misfire, the faulty powder case can be extracted, but the projectile will remain jammed in the rifling. Also, all or part of the extracted case's cork plug may still be wedged in the chamber behind the projectile. This "fouls" the chamber because it decreases the chamber's volume. And, since Full and Reduced charge cases take up the full volume of an unfouled chamber (see loaded Semi-Fixed round drawing above), any residue left from the previously extracted case will prevent them from fully loading into the chamber. Therefore, the clearing charge is made short so that it will fit into a fouled chamber.
After hand extracting the bad case from the chamber, the clearing charge is removed from its special container and is hand rammed into the chamber. With the clearing charge sealed in the chamber, the projectile is fired out the muzzle. It is important to clear the projectile through the muzzle because it is not easy nor safe pushing a bore rod down the barrel to force a fuzed projectile back through the chamber and into the gun house. Also, if the gun has fired a number of rounds just prior to the misfire, time is critical because the barrel may be hot enough to cook off the high explosive in the projectile. This would destroy the mount.
Deployment
(to be moved to a suitable page)
Aircraft carriers
3 8
8
24 12
Escort Carriers
50 1
19 2
Battleships
2 20
3 of 4 20
16
4 20
Heavy cruisers
12
12
8
14 12
3 12
3 12
Light cruisers
2 8
4 16
4 Atlanta (Oakland) 12
27 12
2 12
3 12
Destroyers
8 5
8 8
18 5
4 4
8 4
5 8
10 4
12 5
6 5
24 repeat-Bensons 4
18 5
48 repeat-Gleaves 4
175 5
58 6
12 6
98 6
Destroyer escorts
22 2
50 Rudderow-APDs 1
83 2
6 (launched as APDs) 1
Attack Transports
7 of 328 Type C2 ship
3 2
4 2
Attack Cargo
74 of 328 Type C2 ship
1
11 1
32 1
30 1
See also
List of naval guns
List of naval anti-aircraft guns
Naval gunfire
Weapons of comparable role, performance and era
QF 4.7 inch Mark XI gun : British equivalent dual-purpose gun.
QF 4.5 inch Mk I – V naval gun : British equivalent dual-purpose gun.
12.7 cm SK C/34 naval gun : German equivalent limited to low-angle fire.
12.8 cm FlaK 40 : Dedicated anti-aircraft, land-based German gun of equal calibre.
130 mm/50 B13 Pattern 1936 : Soviet equivalent naval and coastal gun.
Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1929 : French equivalent naval gun.
120 mm naval gun : Italian equivalent naval gun.
12.7 cm/50 Type 3 naval gun : Japanese equivalent naval gun mounted on most destroyers and competitive against surface targets
10 cm/65 Type 98 naval gun: Japanese naval gun mounted on destroyers, aircraft carrier and light cruiser , competitive in the anti-aircraft role
Weapons of comparable role in successive U.S. Navy service
5"/54 caliber Mark 16 gun : 1945
5"/54 caliber Mark 42 gun : 1953
5"/54 caliber Mark 45 gun : 1971
Notes
External links
Detailed description and history 5"/38 including ammunition and Mark data
Illustrated descriptions of MK 30 & MK 38, list of ammunition for all Marks
Illustrated description of MK 38
Illustrated Operating Instructions for MK XXI model
Photos of 5"/38 ammunition
Naval Ordnance and Gunnery, 1957 Volume 1 Naval Ordnance NavPers 10797-A
5 inch
World War II naval weapons
Naval guns of the United States
127 mm artillery
Military equipment introduced in the 1930s
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Schatz
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Brian Schatz
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Brian Emanuel Schatz ( ; born October 20, 1972) is an American educator and politician serving as the senior United States senator from Hawaii, a seat he has held since 2012. A member of the Democratic Party, Schatz served in the Hawaii House of Representatives from 1998 to 2006, representing the 25th legislative district; as the chairman of the Democratic Party of Hawaii from 2008 to 2010; and as the 12th lieutenant governor of Hawaii from 2010 to 2012.
Schatz also worked as chief executive officer of Helping Hands Hawaii, an Oahu nonprofit social service agency, until he resigned to run for lieutenant governor of Hawaii in the 2010 gubernatorial election as Neil Abercrombie's running mate. He served as lieutenant governor until December 26, 2012, when Abercrombie appointed him to serve the rest of Daniel Inouye's U.S. Senate term after Inouye's death. Schatz was the youngest U.S. senator in the 112th Congress. He won the 2014 special election to complete the remainder of Inouye's Senate term with just under 70% of the vote, was reelected in 2016 with 73.6%, and again in 2022 with 71.2%.
Early life
Brian Schatz was born into a Jewish-American family in Ann Arbor, Michigan, along with an identical twin brother, Steve. He is the son of Barbara Jane (née Binder) and Irwin Jacob Schatz, a cardiologist and native of Saint Boniface, Manitoba.
Schatz's father was the first to complain about the ethics of the Tuskegee syphilis experiment, in a 1965 letter. The letter was ignored until the problem finally came to public attention in 1972. Irwin Schatz wrote that he was "astounded" that "physicians allow patients with potentially fatal disease to remain untreated when effective therapy is available." Brian Schatz said that his father didn't talk about the letter, but that it influenced him to pursue the public good.
When Schatz and his brother were two years old the family moved to Hawaii, where Schatz graduated from Punahou School. Schatz enrolled at Pomona College in Claremont, California; he spent a term studying abroad in Kenya on a program of the School for International Training (SIT). As a U.S. senator, Schatz is one of Pomona's highest-profile alumni; Pomona invited him to be the commencement speaker for its Class of 2017. After graduating in 1994 with a B.A. in philosophy, he returned to Hawaii, where he taught at Punahou before taking on other jobs in the nonprofit sector. He was briefly a member of the Green Party.
Early career
Schatz became active in the community as a teenager through his involvement in Youth for Environmental Services. He then served as CEO of Helping Hands Hawaii and director of the Makiki Community Library and of the Center for a Sustainable Future. In March 2010, Schatz stepped down from Helping Hands to run for lieutenant governor. He was a member of the 2007 class of the Pacific Century Fellows.
Hawaii House of Representatives (1998–2006)
In 1998, Schatz challenged the incumbent State Representative of the 24th district of the Hawaii House of Representatives, Republican Sam Aiona, and won, 53%–47%. In the 2000 rematch he was reelected, 57%–43%.
In 2002 he ran in the newly redrawn 25th House district, and defeated Republican Bill Hols, 69%–31%. In 2004 he defeated Republican Tracy Okubo, 64%–36%. The 25th district includes Makiki and Tantalus on Oahu.
Subsequent political career (2006–2010)
2006 congressional election
Schatz ran for , vacated by Ed Case, who had decided to run for the U.S. Senate against incumbent Daniel Akaka. The Democratic primary featured 10 candidates, seven of whom served in the Hawaii Legislature. Mazie Hirono, the lieutenant governor, was the only one who had held statewide office and thus enjoyed the most name recognition. She also raised the most money, mostly because of the endorsement of EMILY's List, and lent her own campaign $100,000. She won the primary with 22% of the vote, just 845 votes ahead of State Senator Colleen Hanabusa. Schatz finished sixth with 7% of the vote, behind Hirono and four state senators.
Support for Obama
One of the earliest supporters of Barack Obama for president, Schatz founded a group with other Hawaii Democrats in December 2006 to urge Obama to run, saying, "For the last six years we've been governed by fear, fear of terrorists, fear of other countries, even fear of the other party...everyone is governing by fear and Barack Obama changes all of that. He wants to govern the United States by hope." In 2008 Schatz worked as spokesman for Obama's campaign in Hawaii.
State chairman
In April 2008, Schatz began running for the position of chairman of the Democratic Party of Hawaii, and won the job at the state convention the following month. During his tenure, the Democrats increased the number of active party members and delivered Obama's best performance of any state in the country. Hawaii native Obama won the state with 72% of the vote; just 54% of the state voted for Democratic nominee John Kerry in 2004. Schatz stepped down as party chairman on January 9, 2010.
Lieutenant Governor (2010–2012)
2010 election
On January 10, 2010, Schatz announced his candidacy for lieutenant governor of Hawaii. His campaign priorities included the creation of clean-energy jobs, public education, and technological improvements in the public sector. He also declared his support for Hawaii House Bill 444, which would have allowed same-sex civil unions in Hawaii but was vetoed by Republican Governor Linda Lingle. A number of Hawaii labor unions endorsed Schatz for lieutenant governor in the Democratic primary, held on September 18, 2010. Schatz won the nomination with 34.8% of the vote, and thus became Neil Abercrombie's running mate in the November general election.
Tenure
On December 6, 2010, Schatz was inaugurated as Hawaii's 11th lieutenant governor alongside Abercrombie, who had defeated Republican incumbent Lieutenant Governor Duke Aiona in the gubernatorial election. Hawaii State Supreme Court Associate Justice James E. Duffy, Jr. administered the oath of office at the Coronation Pavilion on the grounds of ʻIolani Palace.
U.S. Senate (2012–present)
Appointment
Shortly before Senator Daniel Inouye died on December 17, 2012, he dictated a letter to Governor Neil Abercrombie asking that U.S. Representative Colleen Hanabusa be appointed to finish his term.
Hawaii law on interim appointments to the U.S. Senate requires the governor to choose from three candidates selected by the party of the previous officeholder. On December 26, 2012, the Hawaii Democratic Party nominated Schatz, Hanabusa, and deputy director of the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources Esther Kia'aina. The same day, Abercrombie appointed Schatz, despite Inouye's request. Later that night, Schatz accompanied President Barack Obama back to Washington, D.C. on Air Force One. On December 27 Schatz was sworn in as a senator by Vice President Joe Biden.
Schatz's appointment to Inouye's seat on December 27, 2012, made him the senior senator from Hawaii (Mazie Hirono, who had been elected to the other Senate seat that November to replace retiring Senator Daniel Akaka, took office one week later on January 3, 2013). He became only the sixth person to represent Hawaii in the U.S. Senate, and only the second who was not Asian American, after Oren E. Long (1959–1963).
Elections
2014
Schatz announced his intention to run for election in the special election to be held in 2014 for the balance of Inouye's ninth term. In April 2013 Hanabusa announced she would challenge Schatz in the primary. The core of the Schatz campaign was climate change and renewable energy. Schatz defeated Hanabusa by 1,782 votes (0.75%) in a primary delayed in two precincts by Hurricane Iselle.
As expected in heavily Democratic Hawaii, Schatz went on to win the general election, defeating Republican Campbell Cavasso with about 70% of the vote.
2016
In 2016, Schatz ran for and easily won his first full six-year Senate term against only nominal opposition.
According to New York magazine, Schatz had a low-profile but highly influential effect on the Democratic primary for the 2020 presidential election by pushing fellow Democrats to commit to progressive positions on issues such as healthcare, climate, college affordability and Social Security.
2022
Schatz announced he intended to run for reelection for a second full term. He was challenged by Republican state representative Bob McDermott. Schatz won overwhelmingly, earning 69.4% of the total vote.
Tenure
During his time in the Senate, Schatz has developed a reputation as a liberal Democrat. He tends to vote with his party on both policy and procedural issues most of the time. GovTrack ranks Schatz as a more moderate member of his caucus. Schatz has been a part of numerous pieces of bipartisan legislation. He has co-sponsored 48 bills that have become law, including the bipartisan Veterans' Compensation Cost-of-Living Adjustment Act of 2021 and the John D. Dingell, Jr. Conservation, Management, and Recreation Act. He has been the primary sponsor for seven bills, including the Native American Veterans' Memorial Amendments Act of 2013 and the NIST Small Business Cybersecurity Act. His primary areas of focus include healthcare, education, government operations, and national security. Schatz was instrumental in increasing the minimum smoking age to 21 and securing paid family leave for federal workers. He has also led efforts to expand telehealth services.
Schatz has also brought a large amount of federal funding to Hawaii. He secured reservation funding and transportation funding.
Schatz was participating in the certification of the 2021 United States Electoral College vote count when Trump supporters stormed the United States Capitol. He called the storming "despicable." Schatz called for Trump's removal from office through both the invocation of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the impeachment process. He called Trump a "danger to democracy itself". Schatz twice voted to impeach Trump.
Leadership positions
Chief Deputy Whip
Co-chair, Senate Climate Change Task Force
Chair, Senate Democratic Special Committee on the Climate Crisis
Member, Board of Trustees for the Harry S. Truman Scholarship foundation
Committee assignments
Committee on Appropriations
Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies
Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies
Subcommittee on Defense
Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education, and Related Agencies
Subcommittee on Military Construction and Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies
Subcommittee on Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies (Chair)
Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation
Committee on Foreign Relations
Committee on Indian Affairs (Chair)
Select Committee on Ethics
Caucus memberships
Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus
Congressional NextGen 9-1-1 Caucus
Expand Social Security Caucus
Political positions
According to New York magazine, Schatz is a progressive but not a "Sanders-style bomb-thrower." He was characterized as a low-profile yet highly influential senator in pushing fellow Democrats to adopt progressive policy positions. The American Conservative Union gave him a 3% lifetime conservative rating in 2013.
Abortion
Schatz is pro-choice. He supports access to legal abortion without restrictions. NARAL Pro-Choice America gave him a 100% rating.
Budget and economy
Schatz supports income tax increases to balance the budget and federal spending to support economic growth.
LGBTQIA+ rights
Schatz supports same-sex marriage. He sponsored legislation in 2015 to allow married gay couples to have equal access to the veterans benefits and Social Security they have earned. Schatz supports LGBTQIA+ rights and same-sex marriage. He received a 100% rating from the Human Rights Campaign. Schatz supports transgender rights.
Drugs
Schatz stopped short of calling for the legalization of marijuana in Hawaii in 2014, and has called for the criminalization of date-rape drugs. In 2016, he advocated for immunity for banks offering services to marijuana businesses.
Economy
To encourage tourism in West Hawaii, Schatz proposed that customs begin in Japan so that planes can arrive in West Hawaii as domestic flights.
Environment
In March 2014, Schatz was a lead organizer of an overnight talkathon devoted to discussing climate change. The gathering of over two dozen Senate Democrats took place on the Senate floor. The League of Conservation Voters supported the talkathon and ran campaign ads on Schatz's behalf. He has received a perfect score from the League of Conservation Voters.
In 2019, Schatz voiced his support for both a Green New Deal and a carbon tax as means to reduce emissions, saying that the two proposals are "perfectly compatible" with each other.
Schatz believes that climate change is a threat and has supported clean energy initiatives. In 2013, he wrote an op-ed promoting subsidies for wind turbines. He has advocated for 50% clean and carbon-free electricity by 2030. He opposed the Keystone Pipeline.
Along with Martin Heinrich and Sheldon Whitehouse, Schatz is one of the "Three Climateers" of the Senate, driving and negotiating legislation to address climate change, culminating in the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022.
Foreign policy
Schatz criticized China's island-building activities, saying that "China's outsized claim to the entire South China Sea has no basis in international law."
In October 2017, Schatz condemned the genocide of the Rohingya Muslim minority in Myanmar and called for a stronger response to the crisis.
Schatz spearheaded a nonbinding resolution in July 2018 "warning President Trump not to let the Russian government question diplomats and other officials". The resolution states the United States "should refuse to make available any current or former diplomat, civil servant, political appointee, law enforcement official or member of the Armed Forces of the United States for questioning by the government of Vladimir Putin". It passed 98-0.
Gun law
Schatz supports gun control legislation. He voted for a 2013 bill banning high-capacity magazines of over 10 bullets, and co-sponsored legislation requiring background checks for every firearm sale in 2019. As of 2010, the National Rifle Association had given Schatz a "C" rating for his mixed voting record regarding gun law.
Schatz participated in the Chris Murphy gun control filibuster in 2016. He expressed disappointment when both the Democrat-proposed Feinstein Amendment (making the sale of firearms to individuals on the terrorist watchlist illegal) and the Republican-supported background check changes and gun sale alert system did not pass the Senate. He said:
More than 90% of Americans demand we take action on gun violence, but again Senate Republicans refuse to act. It's unacceptable. Right now, known terrorists are banned from getting on an airplane, but they are still allowed to buy military-style weapons. It is absolutely insane. After one of the most horrific mass shootings in our history, we saw people across the country courageously stand up against gun violence and hatred. When will Republicans in Congress finally do the same?
In response to the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, Schatz said, "We can do more than lower the flag to half-mast. We can take a stand against gun violence by passing common-sense gun safety laws."
Health care
Schatz supports Sen. Bernie Sanders' single-payer proposal, but also introduced his own proposal which would allow states to expand Medicaid into a universal system. Schatz supports the Affordable Care Act but supported a religious exemption from its individual mandate.
Housing
In April 2019, Schatz was one of forty-one senators to sign a bipartisan letter to the housing subcommittee praising the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development's Section 4 Capacity Building program as authorizing "HUD to partner with national nonprofit community development organizations to provide education, training, and financial support to local community development corporations (CDCs) across the country" and expressing disappointment that President Trump's budget "has slated this program for elimination after decades of successful economic and community development." The senators wrote of their hope that the subcommittee would support continued funding for Section 4 in Fiscal Year 2020.
In 2021, Schatz and Senator Todd Young co-authored the Yes in My Backyard (YIMBY) Act, which created a federal fund that encourages new home construction and less restrictive local zoning laws. The bill passed as part of the $1.7 trillion spending bill (H.R. 2617) on December 20, 2022.
Privacy rights
In one of his first Senate votes, Schatz voted against the FISA Amendments Act Reauthorization Act of 2012. On April 17, 2013, he voted to expand background checks for gun purchases.
Schatz voted for the Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act, a bill many civil liberties groups opposed.
Personal life
Schatz is married to Linda Kwok Kai Yun. They have two children.
Schatz has three brothers, including an identical twin brother, Steve. Steve is executive director of Hawaii P-20 Partnerships for Education, an interagency educational partnership at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. He formerly ran the Hawaii Department of Education's Office of Strategic Reform.
Electoral history
References
External links
Senator Brian Schatz official U.S. Senate website
Brian Schatz for Senate campaign website
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20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
Democratic Party United States senators from Hawaii
Jewish United States senators
Jewish American people in Hawaii politics
Lieutenant Governors of Hawaii
Democratic Party members of the Hawaii House of Representatives
State political party chairs of Hawaii
Pomona College alumni
Punahou School alumni
American twins
Identical twins
21st-century American Jews
1972 births
Living people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseas%20Androutsos
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Odysseas Androutsos
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Odysseas Androutsos (; 1788-1790 – 1825; born Odysseas Verousis ) was an Arvanite armatolos in eastern continental Greece and a prominent figure of the Greek War of Independence.
Born in Ithaca, the son of an Arvanite klepht and privateer from Roumeli and a mother from a family of notables from Preveza in the Ionian islands. He joined the court of his father's old friend, the Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha of the increasingly independent Pashalik of Yanina, became one of his commanders and was appointed armatolos of Livadeia in 1816. In 1818 or 1820 he became a member of the Greek revolutionary organization Filiki Eteria.
When Ali Pasha rebelled against the Sultan, Androutsos initially supported Ali, but he abandoned besieged Yannina for the Ionian islands in October 1820. He joined the Greek War of Independence in 1821, and he was distinguished as a commander in the Battle of Gravia Inn in May 1821. As a result of the battle, he was appointed military commander of eastern mainland Greece by the Greek revolutionary government. Androutos was twice accused by the Greek revolutionary government of treachery owing to his negotiating initiative with his Albanian enemies as a means of effective distraction when he could not repel them. In 1824 Androutsos did not take sides in the Greek civil war. After falling out with the rebels in 1825, he asked for and received amnesty from the Imperial court, switching allegiances permanently and joining the army of the Ottoman Albanian ruler Omer Vrioni, pasha of Ioannina. In a battle near Livadeia, he was captured by the units of the revolutionary army and executed a few days later.
Scholars have variously described him as a hero or a traitor to the Greek cause in the Greek War of Independence. In Greece he is today considered one of the most prominent heroes of the Greek War of Independence.
Early life
Androutsos born in Ithaca between 1788 and 1790. His father was Andreas Verousis (, ), an Arvanite and klepht from Livanates, in Phthiotis prefecture, who sought to become armatolos of Livadeia and later cooperated with Ali pasha, became again a klepht and finally joined Lambros Katsonis () as a privateer in the Greek insurrection of 1770. He was raised by his mother Akrivi Tsarlampa (), from Preveza. His godparents were Maria Sofianou, Katsonis's wife, and Ioannis Zavos, a notable of Ithaca, who gave him a name that relates to the reappropriation of antiquity by Orthodox Christians in the context of the modern Greek Enlightenment.
Odysseas did not get to know his father, who was captured in 1792 and committed to an Ottoman jail, where he died. He was raised by his mother's family of wealthy notables from Preveza, who also moved in Lefkada and Ithaki. In the Ionian islands, ruled by Western powers at the time, he grew up in a social environment that received modern ideas, including the reevaluation of Greek antiquity by Greek Enlightenment scholars. After his mother's family participated in the failed defense of Preveza against the attack of Ali Pasha in 1798, they sought refuge to Lefkada, where Odysseas was raised for two years along with future poet Ioannis Zambelios.
Ali Pasha era
As his family probably faced economic difficulties, influenced by his father's fame and, as per his biographers, due to his father's old acquaintance with Ali Pasha, at a certain point between 1805 and 1810 Odysseas opted to follow a career as a man of arms and decided to join Ali's army in Ioannina, signifying a shift of his family's orientation towards the only stable power of the area. Odysseas is recorded to have taken part and displayed his military qualities in Ali's campaign against Berat, Gjirokastër and the Christians of Kardhiq. Androutsos was among Ali's closest military personnel, who also became members of his personal guard. In March 1814 he had become the leader of Ali's personal guard. In Ali's court Androutsos became one of his distinguished armatoles. Most of the armatoles had learned their military skills among the Christian Albanian Souliotes and other Albanian groups who had a renowned tradition in irregular warfare. Androutsos also managed to learn Italian fluently. Androutsos was influenced by Ali Pasha's political attitudes and behavior: as such Androutsos became later particularly notorious for his brutality, suspiciousness and personal ambition. Androutsos was soon found in antagonism with Ali's men, as such Ali had ordered his execution but was saved after intervention by Alexis Noutsos. While at Yanina, Odysseas, influenced by the religiously liberal environment of the city and probably in an effort to enter a support network, joined the Bektashi order, as Ali pasha is also said to have. Religion was not a determinant factor for Odysseas and, even during the Greek Revolution, two of his most trusted lieutenants were Muslim.
In 1816 Ali Pasha positioned him as armatolos of Livadeia in eastern central Greece. In a short time Odysseas managed to restore security in his region, with minor klephts, like Yannis Gouras, joining his tayfa and stronger, like Dimitrios Panourgias, being forced to submit, and implemented Ali's policy and traditional armatole practice of raids in neighboring areas, namely Athens and Evia. With Ali's support and using despotic methods, he came into conflict with Christian and Muslim notables and succeeded in curbing their power. While an armatolos, he used his authority to increase his economic power, formed a close circle of trusted lieutenants, like Gouras and Angelis Govginas, amassed considerable mobile property, married Eleni Kareli, daughter of a notable of Kalarrytes, and emerged as the most powerful man of arms in eastern Central Greece. It seems that he was promoted to general derven-aga of eastern Central Greece, a superintendent of the region's armatoloi.
Along with Athanasios Diakos, Androutsos became a member of the Filiki Eteria, an organisation that aimed at the independence of Greece, in 1818 or 1820. At the time, the Eteria was drafting members without requesting full agreement to its revolutionary, military and political program, which, besides, had not been yet finalised. In a council of Ali's armatoloi in spring 1820, when military conflict with the Sultan seemed impending, Androutsos was tasked with the defense of Livadeia. In June 1820 Androutsos and other Ali Pasha's advisors urged him to convert to Christianity arguing that this would bind the Greeks more solidly to his cause. When in June or July the Sultan's army reached Livadeia, Odysseas, whose course and interests were identical to those of Ali, sought to combat against the Sultan, but the armatoloi of his band and the local notables, who wished to get rid of his despotic rule, chose to submit and Androutsos lost the armatolik of Livadeia to Athanasios Diakos, his thitherto first lieutenant, and went to Yannina.
In late 1820, the Ottomans sent an army to remove Ali Pasha from power in Yannina. Androutsos, who was aware of the plans of the upcoming Greek revolts, met on 1 September 1820 with Albanian commanders from Ali Pasha's court who had defected to the Ottomans – including Omer Vrioni, Ali Pasha's steward. He condemned their betrayal of Ali Pasha and after negotiations they all signed an agreement, which stipulated that in the upcoming revolt in Greece they would not send their troops against the rebels, but revolt in favor of Ali Pasha. When during autumn the Sultan seemed to gain the upped hand, Androutsos abandoned besieged Yannina for the Ionian islands in October. In the January of 1821 Androutsos together with the other armatoli of Rumeli among them Georgios Varnakiotis, Dimitrios Panourgias, Dimitrios Makris, Georgios Karaiskakis, gathered at Lefkada and agreed to join the upcoming Greek revolution.
Greek Revolution
In March 1821 Androutsos went to western Continental Greece, where he tried to organise local chieftains, notables and Albanian agas against the Sultan and made a failed attempt to force the region's armatoloi to revolt by attacking Ottomans in Tatarna of Evritania. In May 1821, Omer Vrioni, now the commander of the Ottoman army, advanced with 8,000 men, after crushing the resistance of the Greeks at the river of Alamana and putting Athanasios Diakos to death, headed south into the Peloponnese to crush the Greek uprising.
With Diakos, his opponent, dead, the field was now auspicious for Androutsos to return to Livadeia and assume a leading position in eastern Central Greece. With a band of 100 or so men, he took up a defensive position at an inn near Gravia, supported by Panourgias and Diovouniotis and their men. Vrioni attacked the inn but was repulsed with heavy casualties of over 300 dead. Finally, he was forced to ask for reinforcements and artillery, but the Greeks managed to slip out before the reinforcements arrived. Androutsos lost six men in the battle and earned the title of Commander in Chief of the Greek forces in Central Greece.
Androutsos sought to establish his power base in Attica and Euboea and sent his bands to the region in 1822. In April 1822, Androutsos, in cooperation with other revolutionary leaders, attempted to thwart Dramali’s expedition in Phthiotis. His plan failed, however, because the Greek Government did not provide him with the war supplies that he had requested. Androutsos's failure in Phthiotis was used as a pretext by the Government to degrade him, and two other revolutionaries, Christos Palaskas and Alexios Noutsos, were sent to replace him. Palaskas was to relieve him of the military command and Noutsos was to take over the taxation apparatus, but Androutsos had both men killed. The regional assembly, fearing for their lives, fled to other areas and the army of Dramali passed through his area of command virtually untouched. In the consequent clash with his political opponent Ioannis Kolettis and the Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece, he was accused of collaboration with the Ottomans and the government dismissed him from his commanding duties. However, he was soon restored and kept his command in Eastern Central Greece. In September 1822, at the insistence of the Athenian municipal authorities, Androutsos, Yannis Gouras, and Yannis Makriyannis took control of the Acropolis of Athens, which had been surrendered in June. To ensure the occupation he had a bastion built to protect the ancient Klepsydra spring, which had just been rediscovered by chance on the north-western slope of the rock. Androutsos made himself general-in-chief of Attica, and sent his men to plunder the wealthy villages of the region.
In late 1822 Androutsos contacted the Ottomans and offered to sign a secret agreement under which he would recognize their authority if they gave him a hereditary title of armatoliki. Androutsos (referred to as Kapudan (Captain) Disava in Ottoman Archival Documents) explained his position in a letter to the Ottoman government in November 1822, where he presented the Greek revolt not as a national revolution, but as the result of social grievances which could be resolved if he was to be appointed to the right position. In 1822-25 his military campaigns deteriorated and a series of military failures followed: the two sieges of Chalkis and the battle of Agia Marina. Those initiatives had not the appropriate support by the revolutionary government. His energy was consumed by the exigencies of the internal strife among the faction of the Greek administration however he retained his high profile as a warrior and his strong influence among the peasants.
In his letters to the Greek chieftains and to the kodjabashis of Hydra, however, Androutsos claimed that the agreements made with the Ottomans were a ruse so that the revolutionaries would have time to transfer their people to more secure areas. In a letter to Demetrios Ypsilantis, the president of the Greek Legislative Corps, Androutsos also reports that he attempted to lure the Ottomans under the command of Köse Mehmed Pasha into a trap, to no avail. Eventually, Odysseas Androutsos completely paralyzed Köse Mehmed's operations in Central Greece.
Downfall
In early 1825, as the Greek Government still wanted to take the command and replace him, Androutsos, in anger, began a correspondence with Omer Pasha of Karystos, offering to hand over the Acropolis if aided by Ottoman troops and placed in control of the districts of Livadia, Thebes, and Atalanti. Though the terms of their agreement are not preserved in Ottoman archives, Androutsos was sent a firman granting him amnesty on 31 March. In the following days, the locals from Livadeia, Thebes, and Atalanti asked for amnesty from the court. He joined forces with the Ottoman army to defend the villages around Livadia. After promised reinforcements failed to arrive, he wanted to retreat towards Megara but was captured by Greek insurgents.
The provisional government accused Androutsos of collaboration with the Ottomans and imprisoned him in the Frankish Tower of the Acropolis of Athens. He was not given a trial due to the belief that his democratic character could turn the people against the government.
Once he was imprisoned, Androutsos was tortured and ultimately executed. The execution came at the order of Ioannis Gouras, who was once Androutsos' second in command. His execution took place on 5 June 1825 and was carried out by Ioannis Mamouris and two others. This treatment by Gouras is often viewed negatively. Androutsos' body was thrown from the Acropolis and was buried at its base on the north side.
Androutsos' sister Tersitsa married Edward John Trelawny, who had commanded Androutsos' forces in his absence.
Posthumous recognition
In 1865, his body was recovered from the base of the Acropolis and given a proper funeral at the Metropolitan Cathedral of Athens. He was buried in the First Cemetery of Athens, where he remained for just over a century. On 15 July 1967, his bones were moved to an ossuary beneath a statue of himself in the central square of Preveza.
Legacy
Popular tradition in Greece considers him a tragic hero. According to some scholars, Androutsos is listed among the main Greek military figures and heroes of the Greek war of Independence. According to others, he was a traitor to the Greek cause.
Among those who lived in the same period, Edward Trelawny who was married to his half-sister presents him as a noble figure, while Thomas Gordon calls him a "physically imposing man" who was "bloodthirsty, vindictive and as treacherous as an Arnaut" and "guilty of barbarious acts". Roessel says that through his connection with Trelawny, the traitor Androutsos became in England a hero of the Greek War of Independence. According to Thanos M. Veremis, Androutsos was among those Greek freedom fighters who became heroes in a West lacking its own similar heroes at the time. G. Finlay files him in his index as "Odysseus, a partisan of Ali's" providing for his character the description: "his ambition was to ape the tyranny of Ali in a small sphere". Finlay called Androutsos' agreement with the Ottomans "the most celebrated instance of treachery among the Greeks during their Revolution".
Many klephts, such as Androutsos, fought only when it suited them. As a matter of policy, they also made temporary agreements with the enemy. This was not considered treason to the infant Greek nation, because the notion of nationhood was not known to them. Long-lasting negotiations with the Ottomans, that were conducted by Androutsos and many other chieftains during the revolution, had benefited the Greek cause multiple times and were often arranged for tactical reasons. Such negotiations were providing the revolutionaries enough time to save Christian populations from plunder and murder by the Ottoman armies, rally troops and, later, fight and defeat their enemies in numerous engagements.
Apart from his military nature Androutsos also correspondent with representative of the modern Greek enlightenment such as Adamantios Korais and Neophytos Vamvas, whom he invited in 1823 to come to Athens in order to "teach the children of the Greeks the virtue, the patriotism, and the wisdom of our ancestors." Androutsos also founded a number of schools (1824-1825), started a chraritable society and preserved Greek antiquities. His style generally displayed that of the noble brigrand. According to Bruce Merry, in his speeches and letters Androutsos expressed extraordinary patriotic feelings for the Greek national cause. According to William St Clair, Androutsos' higher ambition was only to be a local chieftain and he certainly did not care for any concept of Greece, or regeneration, or the typical Greek and Philhellenic myths. As such St Clair states that Androutsos was a typical Greek of his time but his perspective was incosistent to many Philhellenes who were struggling to comprehend the Greek political scene. For them Androutsos had to be inserted into some philhellenic ideal because to them he was a "true Greek", who dwelled in the mountains and was a "colourful" and "powerful" figure with a prominent Greek-sounding name. Stanhope even viewed Androutsos as the hope of restoring a constitutional republic in Greece, which is probably the most misconstrued of all views of Androutsos' character.
Androutsos has been held up as a symbol of innate Greek values and freedom, in particular by the Greek left wing in times of political repression.
Arts
Poems dedicated to Androutsos have been written by various Greek poets: Georgios Zalokostas, Spyros Zampelios, Parashos, Kostis Palamas, Georgios Stratigis and Zacharias Papantoniou. In Nikos Engonopoulos Bolivar, a Greek poem (1944) Androutsos is the main protagonist together with southern-Central American revolutionary, Simón Bolívar.
Odysseas Androutsos (1928) by Dimitris Kaminakis became the first Greek movie dedicated to events of the Greek War of Independence.
Sports
The soccer team of the town of Gravia, Odysseas Androutsos F.C. is named after him, as is the cultural association of his ancestral village of Livanates.
See also
Battle of Gravia Inn
References
Sources
1788 births
1825 deaths
Arvanites
Greek revolutionaries
Greek military leaders of the Greek War of Independence
People from Ithaca
Executed Greek people
Burials at the First Cemetery of Athens
People executed for treason against Greece
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20B%C3%B6ll%20Foundation
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Heinrich Böll Foundation
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The Heinrich Böll Foundation (, HBS) is a German, legally independent political foundation. Affiliated with Alliance 90/The Greens, it was founded in 1997 when three predecessors merged. The foundation was named after German writer Heinrich Böll (1917–1985).
Mission statement and structure
The Heinrich Böll Foundation is part of the global Green political movement that has developed since the 1980s. It describes itself as an agency for green visions and projects, a think tank for policy reforms, and an international network. In its mission statement the foundation defines its aims as follows:
With the approval of the Böll family and Alliance 90/The Greens, the foundation carries the name of the writer Heinrich Böll. According to its mission statement, Böll personified what the foundation stands for: The courage to stand up for one's beliefs; inspiring people to meddle in public affairs; and unconditional support of human dignity and human rights. Böll encouraged others to be politically active and get involved in political matters, famously stating: "Meddling is the only way to stay relevant."
The Heinrich Böll Foundation also has a scholarship programme for university and PhD students, as well as a research archive with a focus on new social movements, Green politics, and a special section for political activist Petra Kelly.
The foundation, with headquarters in Berlin, operates 30 offices on four continents and has branches in each of Germany's 16 states. Since 2002, Ralf Fücks and Barbara Unmüßig have led the executive board; Steffen Heizmann is the current CEO. In November 2016 Barbara Unmüßig was re-elected and Ellen Ueberschär was elected to succeed Ralf Fücks in July 2017.
The German state did subsidize the work of the foundation with 63 million Euros in 2018.
In addition, the association has been accused by both the Turkish government and some opposition circles, including some prominent intellectuals of trying to design Turkish politics.
History
In what was then West Germany, state-level foundations affiliated to the Green Party were set up in the early 1980s. In 1983, an effort to create a national foundation came to nothing, yet later in the 1980s three different nationwide foundations were established, reflecting the different political strands within this rainbow coalition. They were the feminist Frauenanstiftung, the Buntstift federation of regional foundations, and the Cologne-based Heinrich Böll Foundation. Later, an umbrella organisation, Regenbogen, was created whose task it was to co-ordinate the activities of the three separate foundations. In 1988, the Green Party recognised Regenbogen as the foundation allied to the party thus making it eligible for government funding.
In March 1996, a Green Party convention demanded that the separate foundations become one and the motion was passed with a large majority. The statutes drafted for this new unified foundation defined gender democracy and issues related to migration and diversity as key fields of activity. After some further debate, the new foundation took the name of one of its predecessors – Heinrich Böll Foundation. On 1 July 1997, the newly founded Heinrich Böll Foundation began its operations at headquarters located in Berlin's Hackesche Höfe. In 2008 the foundation moved to its current headquarters in Berlin's government district. The new, energy-efficient building was designed by Zurich-based e2a eckert eckert architekten and its design inspired by two Mies van der Rohe projects, Farnsworth House and the Seagram Building.
In May 2022, Russia designated Heinrich Böll Foundation as an "undesirable organisation"; earlier that year, the Russian Ministry of Justice had delisted the foundation from the NGO affiliates registry.
Fields of activity
The Heinrich Böll Foundation works on a range of issues, some long-term, some short-term. The following areas figure large in many of its projects and publications:
Climate Change: The foundation focuses on the concept of Greenhouse Development Rights (GDRs), arguing that the impasse between the climate crisis on the one hand and development on the other has to be overcome by making the protection of "development dignity" part of the climate protection agenda. Recent publications in this field include the Coal Atlas that focuses on the environmental and health impacts of coal mining and use.
Resource Policy: The foundation advocates a responsible use of resources and accordingly advises governments, political actors, and interest groups in Germany and abroad. An example for this is the memorandum Resource Politics for a Fair Future. In 2014, a widely reviewed publication titled The Meat Atlas presented a wide range of data demonstrating that the present amount of international meat consumption is unsustainable.
European Policy: The foundation supports the democratic reform of European institutions and is committed to a further expansion of the European Union and the integration of new member states.
Gender Policy and LGBTI Rights: From its very beginning, gender politics and gender democracy have been priorities for the foundation, and its organisational development, which is based on gender equity, has become a template for many other institutions. The foundation's work on LGBTI rights has garnered national as well as international attention.
Scholarship Programmes: The foundation awards scholarships to outstanding students in Germany, be they German citizens, EU nationals, or from other parts of the world. It encourages the integration of non-German students into the programme. In addition, there are specific programmes for journalists, as well as sur-place-scholarship programmes in Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia and in Central America and the Caribbean.
Organisation
Headquarters and offices in Germany
The foundation's present headquarters (since 2008) in the centre of Berlin provide approximately 7,000 square metres of floor space with modern offices for ca. 185 employees. The conference centre seats up to 300 people in varying configurations, making it possible to hold large multi-day conferences.
The foundation claims that its headquarters are in the "ecological vanguard" of modern office and conference centre design. At 55.7 kWh/m2 the building's energy consumption is less than half the legal maximum. In partnership with Grammer Solar, a photovoltaic system has been installed on the roof. This has an annual energy yield of some 53,000 kWh and feeds into the district heating system. In addition, the building uses an adiabatic recooler to climatise its offices. Outlet slits run at sill level along the glazing in every office. The sill casing houses high-performance heat-exchangers, through which water at a temperature of 20 °C circulates in the summer. A small ventilator inside ensures that cooled air is distributed throughout the room. Even when the temperature outside is over 30 °C, the room temperature does not rise above 25°. This system uses approximately ten times less energy than a conventional air conditioning system. The building uses the heat created by the computer network servers to heat its rooms. In recognition of this innovative project that significantly improves the energy efficiency of IT systems the foundation was presented with the Green CIO Award. Lastly, the atrium and internal courtyard create natural convection currents that serve to ventilate the building all year long.
The Heinrich Böll Foundation has regional offices in each of Germany's 16 states. These regional offices, which are organised as independent, associated units, implement community and regional programmes to do with ecology, democracy, migration, and gender democracy. Such activities, however, are not limited to regional or national issues and some co-operation projects are international in scope. Although legally independent, all 16 offices are part of the foundation's overall structure and are bound by the statutes of the Heinrich Böll Foundation (e.g. they have to serve the public interest and have to meet the quota for female employees).
International offices
The Heinrich Böll Foundation currently operates 32 international offices. Projects overseen by individual offices are frequently not limited to the country where an office is located as many have regional responsibilities. Overall the foundation conducts and supports over 100 projects in 60+ countries.
Even before 1997, when the current Heinrich Böll Foundation was created, some of its predecessors operated international offices, which were then absorbed into the new foundation. The very first office was the one in Prague, which opened its doors in August 1990. The second one was, in 1993, the Pakistan office, followed in 1994 by Turkey and Cambodia, and by Russia, Nigeria, and the Central America office in El Salvador (all in 1995).
Over the course of the years, the only office that has been closed is the one in Ethiopia. According to the foundation it discontinued its activities there in 2012, as the conditions dictated by the Ethiopian government "in April 2012 confirmed that independent political work would not be possible (...) and the Heinrich Böll Foundation would remain extremely restricted in its activities. (...) Under these circumstances, the Ethiopian office of the Heinrich Böll Foundation cannot, in the foreseeable future, fulfil its mission of promoting democratisation, gender justice and sustainable development. (...) The closure of the Foundation's office in Ethiopia should therefore also be taken as a sign of protest against the ongoing restriction of human rights and democratic development in the country."
In early 2013, the head of the foundation's Afghanistan office was recalled for security reasons. Office activities continue however with the support of local staff.
International offices are, as a rule, headed by a German citizen posted to the country in question. They are supported by local staff and, in some cases, by additional German experts. Well-known office heads include Milan Horácek (Prague) and Kerstin Müller (Tel Aviv).
The Washington, DC office
In 1998, the Heinrich Böll Foundation opened its office in Washington, D.C. The office focuses on five programme areas: climate & energy, foreign & security policy, democracy & society, economic governance & G20, and gender. Through organising events and inviting international visitors, the office promotes the exchange of ideas and concepts between North America and the rest of the world.
Scholarship programme
In addition to its political and cultural work, the Heinrich Böll Foundation also offers scholarships for university and PhD students. Scholarships are available for all academic disciplines, with around 1000 scholarships per year. The candidates selected are expected to achieve a high degree of academic excellence, serve their communities, be interested in politics and social issues, and support the ideals the foundation stands for.
In its Annual Report the foundation states:
In addition to the scholarship programme for students at German universities, the Heinrich-Böll-Foundation also offers three sur-place-scholarship programmes for non-German undergraduate and postgraduate students in Russia, the Southern Caucasus region (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia), and in Central America and the Caribbean. Funding for these programmes comes from the Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and the German Foreign Office.
Gunda Werner Institute
The Gunda Werner Institute for feminism and gender democracy was created in 2007 when the foundation's Feminist Institute and Joint Taskforce for Gender Democracy merged. The Institute focuses on women's rights as human rights, the politicisation of gender issues, the reflection of feminism and gender democratic approaches, and the discourse between science, politics, and civil society.
Through conferences and publications the institute's programmes address issues such as the nexus between human security and women's security; the evolving role of UN Resolution 1325 on "women, peace and security"; gender-political aspects of transitional justice in post-conflict societies; debates surrounding gender and science; and issues to do with sexual and reproductive rights.
Research archives
The Heinrich Böll Foundation operates two archives in Berlin, the Archiv Grünes Gedächtnis (Green Memory Archive) and the Petra Kelly Archive; in addition, it supports the Cologne-based Heinrich Böll Archive.
Grünes Gedächtnis collects documents about the history of the German Green Party and the new social movements in Germany, including materials concerning West Germany's environmental, anti-nuclear, feminist, and peace movements after 1968, as well as East Germany's civil-rights movement. In addition to official documents of political parties and documents donated by activists or their estate, the archive has a substantial collection of campaign posters, photographs, web content, and voice and video recordings.
The Petra Kelly Archive collects and preserves the political legacy of activist and politician Petra Kelly, including materials concerning international movements against nuclear weapons and for disarmament, peace, human rights, and emancipation.
The Heinrich Böll Archive collects and documents everything to do with the life and works of German Nobel laureate in literature Heinrich Böll. In collaboration with the Historical Archive of the City of Cologne and members of the estate of Heinrich Böll it collects and indexes all works of Heinrich Böll as well as publications about him. Since 2002, the archive has been one of the co-editors of the critical edition of the works of Heinrich Böll.
GreenCampus
GreenCampus is the Heinrich Böll Foundation's academy for political training and continuing education. Founded in 2006, the academy offers training in political management and on diversity and gender issues for volunteers and political activists as well as professional organisers and politicians.
Awards
The Heinrich Böll Foundation sponsors a number of awards, among them
the Petra Kelly Prize (biannual)
The Petra Kelly Prize is awarded since 1998 to people and civil society organisations for their exceptional commitment to human rights, non-violent conflict resolution, and the environment. The prize is endowed with €10,000. Awardees include the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO), Ingrid Betancourt, Wangari Maathai, and Zhang Sizhi.
the Hannah Arendt Award (annual)
Since 1995 the Hannah Arendt Award, named after Hannah Arendt, goes to individuals who uncover and analyse important, yet largely overlooked aspects of current political developments and who engage in public debate. The award is endowed with €10,000 and funded by the government of the state of Bremen and the Heinrich Böll Foundation Bremen. Awardees include Ágnes Heller, François Furet, Massimo Cacciari, Michael Ignatieff, Julia Kristeva, Tony Judt, Timothy D. Snyder, and Roger Berkowitz.
the Peace Film Prize (each year as part of the Berlin Film Festival)
Since 1986 the Peace Film Prize is part of the Berlin Film Festival – and the only peace award that is part of one of the major film festivals. The price is endowed with €5000 and the awardee is also presented with a bronze created by Otmar Alt. Awardees include Marcel Ophüls for Hôtel Terminus: The Life and Times of Klaus Barbie, Michael Winterbottom for In This World, and Bille August for Goodbye Bafana.
the Anne Klein Women's Award (annual)
The Anne Klein Women's Award was created in 2012 im memory of feminist lawyer and politician Anne Klein (1950–2011) and is funded thanks to a generous gift provided by Anne Klein in her will. The award goes to women whose outstanding commitment has helped make gender democracy a reality and who have fought against gender-based discrimination and anti-gay resentments. As an example, the 2017 Anne Klein's Women's Award went to South African activist Nomarussia Bonase who, with the Khulumani support group, is campaigning for reparations for over 100,000 victims of apartheid.
Selected publications
Books
Soil Atlas: Facts and figures about earth, land and fields. Published in 2015 in collaboration with the Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies, the Soil Atlas traces the interrelations between our growing demand for food and the depletion of soils.
Julie-Anne Richards, Keely Boom: Big Oil, Coal and Gas Producers Paying for their Climate Damage. This book, published in collaboration with the Climate Justice Programme (CJP) proposes a new way to finance climate change adaptation – a tax on fossil fuel extraction that will have to be paid by the top 90 polluters who are responsible for two-thirds of all carbon emissions.
Ina Praetorius: The Care-Centered Economy. Rediscovering what has been taken for granted.
The Meat Atlas is an annual report on meat consumption and the meat industry published in co-operation with BUND, Friends of the Earth and .
Series / magazines
Perspectives Africa
Perspectives Asia
Perspectives Middle East
Perspectives Southeastern Europe
Perspectives Turkey
See also
Konrad Adenauer Foundation (CDU)
Friedrich Ebert Foundation (SPD)
Friedrich Naumann Foundation für die Freiheit (FDP)
Hanns Seidel Foundation (CSU)
Rosa Luxemburg Foundation (Die Linke)
Desiderius-Erasmus-Stiftung (AfD)
References
External links
Heinrich Böll-Foundation North America
Foundations based in Germany
Political and economic think tanks based in Germany
Alliance 90/The Greens
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%20Imperial%20Harem
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Ottoman Imperial Harem
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The Imperial Harem (, ) of the Ottoman Empire was the Ottoman sultan's harem – composed of the wives, servants (both female slaves and eunuchs), female relatives and the sultan's concubines – occupying a secluded portion (seraglio) of the Ottoman imperial household. This institution played an important social function within the Ottoman court, and wielded considerable political authority in Ottoman affairs, especially during the long period known as the Sultanate of Women (approximately 1533 to 1656).
Historians claim that the sultan was frequently lobbied by harem members of different ethnic or religious backgrounds to influence the geography of the Ottoman wars of conquest. The utmost authority in the Imperial Harem, the valide sultan, ruled over the other women in the household. The consorts of the sultan were normally of slave origin, including the valide sultan.
The Kizlar Agha (, also known as the "Chief Black Eunuch" because of the Nilotic origin of most aghas) was the head of the eunuchs responsible for guarding the Imperial Harem.
Etymology
The word harem is derived from the Arabic or , which give connotations of the sacred and forbidden.This term further emphasizes that only women household members, and some related male family members were able to enter these areas. The word has also been traced back to meaning ‘sanctuary,’ reflecting the communal and honored aspect of the .
The harem as a social and political institution
As the sultan became increasingly sedentary in the palace, his family members, previously dispersed between provincial capitals, were eventually relieved of their public duties and gathered in the imperial capital. The official move of members of the Ottoman dynasty to the harem at Topkapi Palace in the sixteenth century gradually transformed the imperial harem into a well-organized, hierarchical, and institutionalized social and political structure, with rigid protocols and training. At the end of the sixteenth century, except for the sultan himself, no member of the royal family, male or female, left the capital. Both children and mothers were permanent occupants of the inner world of the palace. The harem was the ultimate symbol of the sultan's power. His ownership of women, mostly slaves, was a sign of wealth, power, and sexual prowess. The emphasis on seclusion of the harem and dynastic life from the public gaze also communicated his power, as only those closest to him had the privilege to interact with him privately. The only person in the harem who had access to public only with "ritual and retinue appropriate to her status," was the valide sultan. The institution was introduced in the Turkish society with adoption of Islam, under the influence of the Arab caliphate, which the Ottomans emulated. To ensure the obedience of the women, many of them were bought and kept into slavery. However, not all members of the harem were slaves. The main wives, especially those taken into marriage to consolidate personal and dynastic alliances, were free women. This was the exception, not the rule.
The imperial harem also served as a parallel institution to the sultan's household of male servants. The women were provided with an education roughly equal to with that provided to male pages. At the end of their respective educations, the men and women would be married off to one another and "graduated" from the palace to occupy administrative posts in the empire's provinces. There was a distinct hierarchical structure within the harem, founded on family-based relationships among the women. This family was not limited to blood connections but included the whole royal household, consisting mainly of slaves for the majority. Following the evolution of the imperial harem from the sixteenth century onward shows that, while the organizational structure of the harem was never static and the numbers and roles of servants within the palace was constantly fluid, there was a strong sense of institutional continuity and unchangingly rigid hierarchies within the harem. The valide sultan, the sultan’s mother, held power over the harem and this power sometimes extended over society. She was the custodian of imperial power, and worked to consolidate both her son’s rule and continuation of the dynasty. She resided at the top of the female hierarchy. Next in line were the sultan’s daughters, who were also called sultans. These princesses were admired and could rival their father for popularity and recognition. They were also useful for the political alliances that their marriages secured for the empire. These women were known throughout the empire and had an important reputation to uphold. Consequently, only a small fraction of the women in the harem actually engaged in sexual relations with the sultan, as most were destined to marry members of the Ottoman political elite, or else to continue service to the valide sultan. Within the harem, the valide sultan and the sultan's favorite concubine or concubines were more effectively able to create factional support for themselves or their sons, creating a bridge between the palace and the outside world. Harem politics revolved around the establishment of matrilineal legacies and finding ways to garner alliances and support from the greater Ottoman world outside of the harem walls.
Harem quarters
The Imperial Harem occupied one of the large sections of the private apartments of the sultan at the Topkapi Palace which encompassed more than 400 rooms. The harem had been moved to Topkapi in the early 1530s. After 1853, an equally lavish harem quarter was occupied at the new imperial palace at Dolmabahçe. The structure of the imperial palace was meant to communicate “both the identity of the sovereign’s residence as the central arena of the empire and the difficulty of obtaining access to the sovereign within that arena.”
Topkapı Palace
The Architectural Layout of Topkapi Palace
The strategic location and architectural design of the harem quarters within Topkapi Palace reflected a vital shift in the Harem’s newfound influence and power within the palace. In previous palaces, the harem quarters were always located in the far back of the palace, hidden away from much of the palace population. In the layout of the Topkapi Palace, the Harem was located in the right wing just behind the imperial council building; for the first time in Ottoman history, the imperial harem was central and visible in Ottoman political life. The centralization of the harem’s living quarters in Topkapi Palace reflected a changing in power dynamics between the men of the palace and the women of the harem.
The Topkapı Palace served as the royal residence of the Ottoman sultan for four centuries. There is a wealth of sources about this structure making it one of the most fully documented buildings in the Islamic world. The architectural structure of the harem changed over time due consecutive sultans' renovations. During the time of Murad III (1574-1595) each of his 40 wives had separate quarters within the Topkapı harem. Young slave girls, on the other hand, inhabited a large dormitory. At this time, women's sexual relations with the sultan determined their living quarters. Once a slave girl had sex with the sultan she received her own chamber, attendants, kitchen maids, a eunuch, and pay. All of these were increased if she became pregnant. If she bore a child she might be moved into an even larger apartment. Sultan Murad III alone tripled the size of the Imperial Harem from 1574 to 1595.
By the mid 18th century an Imperial hall, also known as the "privy chamber," took on Europeanizing decorations and inscriptions dating from the renovations made by Osman III. This was a spacious, domed hall that overlooked the garden and was the place where official ceremonies and festivities took place. The Queen Mother's quarters during this time consisted of a suite with a bedroom, throne room, bath, rooms for her servants, a bakery, commissary, and kitchens which were all grouped around the largest court of the harem, known as the Queen Mother's Court.
Over the course of the sultans' residences at Topkapı Palace the harem was first a residence for slave girls, then became an area of the palace run by the sultan's favorite wife, then finally a spacious area focused on the sultan's family and run by the Queen Mother. The rank of individuals residing in the harem is reflected in its architecture and the quarters were continuously remodeled according to new requirements and changing fashions. This resulted in the space being a collection of ever more fragmented spaces.
Dolmabahçe Palace
In 1842, the Dolmabahçe Palace started to be built. It was created for entertainment and "relaxation" purposes for the sultans and their families. In 1856, the palace became available to the sultans, their families, and the harem. The imperial harem chambers were placed at the back of Dolmabahçe Palace, and functioned much the same as within Topkapi up until the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in 1922.
Yıldız Palatial Complex
Though the history of the Yıldız Palace begins in 1795 when Selim III built a pavilion there for his mother (Selim III), marking a moment when the valide sultans began managing and inhabiting their own hilltop estates, the complex is widely known as having been the residence of the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II beginning in 1880. The palatial complex is demarcated by the Çırağan Palace on the waterfront and extending up to a valley between Besiktas and Ortaköy.
After assassination attempts, Abdülhamid II moved his immediate family to the Yıldız Palace to live in an already standing two-story mansion known as the Şale Kiosk. This became the new harem quarters following its location at the Dolmabahçe Palace. Given that this new site did not have enough space to support the number of women in the imperial harem, it was downsized with wives, unmarried sisters, and servants being moved elsewhere.
In 2014 a project began to restore and refurbish the harem of the Yıldız Palace in order to open the space up for tourism. Following this project scholars and others began to research and learn more about the harem architecture, ornate decor, furnishings, and everyday lives of its inhabitants. Much of this work has yet to be published.
Roles and Positions of the harem
Role of the
The mother of a new sultan came to the harem with pomp and circumstance and assumed the title of valide sultan or sultana mother upon her son's ascension. She would become a prominent leader, whose power extended over the harem as well as the members of the dynasty. The who influenced the political life of the Ottoman Empire during various periods of history (such as the Sultanate of Women in the 16th and 17th centuries) had the authority to regulate the relations between the sultan and his wives and children. When a prince left the capital for his provincial governorate, he was accompanied by his mother. In this way, she was able to fulfill her duty of directing the prince’s domestic household through training and supervision. At times the acted as regent for her son, particularly in the seventeenth century, when a series of accidents necessitated regencies that endowed the position of valide sultan with great political power.
The influenced the way that the Ottoman sultans waged wars of conquest. Ottoman conquests were mostly in the West until the mid-1500s. Given that the succession of the Ottoman throne was a deliberately non-institutionalized and highly random event, there was a great deal of variation in the ethnic and religious backgrounds of the Ottoman valide sultans, and the ethnic background of the valide sultan was a major determinant of whether military conquests would be for North Africa, the Middle East, or Europe. The sultans were more likely to be mindful of their matrilineal descent as the princes’ mothers were primarily responsible for their upbringing and highly socialized them into their customs and ethnic backgrounds. Matrilineal background was so important that a European maternally descended sultan was more than 70 percent less likely to orient the empire’s imperial conquests towards the West. That said, Ottomans' military ventures in Europe were generally reinforced by a Muslim matrilineal genealogy. Regardless of how the Ottoman harem had developed over time as an organization, the main observation is that the royal mothers had the most direct and sustained interaction with the future sultans of the Ottoman Empire and left an indelible mark on the reigns of their sons.
Role of the court ladies
For the perpetuation and service of the Ottoman dynasty, slave girls were either captured in war, given as gifts to the Sultan and the dynastic family on special occasions, recruited within the empire, or procured from neighbouring countries to become imperial court ladies (cariyes). The number of female slaves within the harem varied over time, and the harem itself was regularly renewed as a result of the practice of manumission. Manumission of the previous sultan’s concubines was especially common upon the enthronement of a new sultan. Most enslaved girls were Christian, and came from various countries, regions, and ethnic groups, including Circassia, Georgia, Russia, and Africa. There was no standard practice that determined what age girls entered the harem. Some arrived as children, while others entered at a later age. This slave trade was formally banned in 1854 but the ban was on paper only. After 1854, almost all court lady-slaves were of Circassian origin; the Circassians had been expelled from Russian lands in the 1860s and the improverished refugee parents sold their daughters in a trade that was formally banned but tolerated.
Upon arrival at the palace, all of the women and girls began a transformation process to accord with their new life. They were converted to Islam through recitation of the core Islamic creed, and were given new names that accorded with their physical appearance or personality. They were prevented from contacting their families and were trained in court manners and activities, on the Islamic religion, and the Turkish language to prepare for life at court.
Odalisque, a word derived from the Turkish Oda, meaning chamber: thus connoting odalisque to mean chamber girl or attendant, was not a term synonymous with concubine; however, in western usage the term has come to refer specifically to the harem concubine.
The s, often introduced into the harem at a young age, were brought up in the discipline of the palace. This was the largest group of women within the harem. Inexperienced female slaves who newly entered the imperial palace were called acemi (novice), and their early period of service and training was known as acemilik (novitiate) before they were eligible to gain promotions within the system. There was a strict hierarchical system of status and role within the harem and s. They were promoted according to their capacities, intellect, and skill. The harem was broken down into two main groups: those who directly served the sultan as consorts and those who worked in the service of the sultan, the dynasic family, and other high-ranking members of the harem. All women and girls would enter the harem as acemi cariyes, and work their way up to acemilik, then sakird (apprentices), in hopes of eventually being promoted to the role of a gedikli (directly waited on the sultan), usta (mistress), or even kadin (consort) if they were lucky enough.
The s with whom the sultan shared his bed became a member of the dynasty and rose in rank to attain the status of ('the favorite'), ikbal ('the fortunate') or kadin ('the woman/wife'). The highest position was the , the legal mother of the sultan, who herself used to be a wife or a concubine of the sultan's father and rose to the supreme rank in the harem. No court lady could leave or enter the premises of the harem without the explicit permission of the . The power of the over concubines even extended to questions of life and death, with eunuchs directly reporting to her.
The court ladies either lived in the halls beneath the apartments of the consorts, the and the sultan, or in separate chambers. The s, who numbered up to four, formed the group who came next in rank to the . Right below the s in rank were the s, whose number was unspecified. Last in the hierarchy were the s.
During 16th and 17th centuries, chief consort of the sultan received the title haseki sultan or sultana consort. This title surpassed other titles and ranks by which the prominent consorts of the sultans had been known (hatun and kadın). When the position of was vacant, a could take on the 's role, have access to considerable economic resources, become chief of the Imperial Harem, become the sultan's advisor in political matters, and even have an influence upon foreign policy and international politics. Such cases happened during the eras of the Hürrem Sultan and Kösem Sultan.
Royal concubines of non- status
In the century following the deaths of Suleyman and Hurrem, concubines who were not favorites of the sultan would become forgotten women of the harem. The only ones remembered are those that were brought into the public eye by the question of succession. Their status was inferior to the preferred concubines. They were also not identified among the family elite of the harem.
The court ladies had contact with the outside world through the services of intermediaries such as the Kira. However, the harem was intentionally very cloistered and hidden away from the public eye, so contact with the outside world was very limited. The harem was kept inaccessible to both the Ottomans and foreign visitors to preserve the privacy and sanctity of the consorts, future sultans, and harem at large.
The legacy of Hurrem Sultan
Hurrem Sultan, also called Roxelana, was a female concubine who completely transformed the harem system and left a lasting impact on the Ottoman Empire. Roxelana is believed to have been kidnapped from Ruthenia or “Old Russia” located in modern-day Ukraine and renamed Hurrem “the cheerful one” upon her arrival in Istanbul. As a concubine, Roxelana somehow caught the attention of Sultan Suleiman I and he continued to call for her to return to his bed. Roxelana bore her first son, Mehmed, in 1521, after the sultan’s first two sons passed away, and the two soon had more children. That Roxelana was allowed to give birth to more than one son was a stark violation of the old royal harem principle of “one concubine mother — one son,” and it signaled to the outside world that a powerful woman was emerging in Suleiman’s court. Sometime around 1533-1534, Suleiman declared Roxelana a free woman and married her, violating yet another 300-year-old custom of the Ottoman harem in which sultans were not to marry their concubines and marking the first time a former harem slave was elevated to the powerful role of spouse. No other children were born to Suleiman from another concubine during his entire reign. Suleiman wrote love poetry for her and letters while he was away at war. He even had grand monuments built for her to exhibit his love. She became known as Haseki, “the favorite,” but some accused her of seducing Suleiman with sorcery. Many in the Ottoman public did not appreciate Suleiman’s total devotion to one woman and the ensuing radical changes in the harem hierarchy, but Roxelana’s great perseverance, intelligence, and willpower gave her an edge over other women in the harem.
Roxelana became Suleiman’s most loyal informant when he was away and after his mother’s death. Roxelana has become known as “one of the most legendary women of early modern history.” She dedicated grand foundations to the needy and showed special compassion towards slaves. She also ensured that the talented women of the harem left the palace service to marry a deserving partner. She transformed the royal harem at Topkapi Palace into a political institution, meaning royal women lived and worked at the center of the government. Roxelana completely changed the way in which women were treated within the harem and was largely responsible for modernizing the Ottoman Empire.
Role of the eunuchs
At Topkapı Palace, at the court of the Ottoman sultans, the harem staff included eunuchs. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, the corps of harem eunuchs numbered between 800 and 1,200. This was, and would remain, the highest number of eunuchs ever employed at the harem. These were Nilotic slaves captured in the Nile vicinity. The sultans were able to obtain these slaves because of their conquest of Egypt in 1517, which gave direct access to slave caravans who used those routes. The conquest of northeastern Sudan in the 1550s continued to expand the empire's reach and access to slave caravans that used trade routes through Sudan. The castrated servicemen in the Muslim and Turkish states in the Middle Ages were recruited to serve in the palace from the times of Sultan Mehmed I onwards. These eunuchs who were trained in the palace and were given the charge of guarding the harem rose in rank after serving in many positions. The harem eunuchs and the harem organization were under the command of the chief harem eunuch, who was also called the Master of the Girls () or chief black eunuch. They supervised the quarters where the female population of the palace lived. They had influence on the palace and later on the state administration in the 17th and 18th centuries as they had access to the sultan and the sultan's family and became very powerful.
The office of the chief harem eunuch was created in 1574. The chief black eunuch was sometimes considered second only to the grand vizier (head of the imperial government, but often working in his own palace or even away, e.g., on military campaigns) in the confidence of the Sultan, to whom he had and arranged access (including his bedchamber, the ne plus ultra for every harem lady), also being his confidential messenger. Some of their basic duties was to watch over the women in the harem, negotiating and speaking to both the sultan and their relatives, and supervising the palace and keeping everyone safe.
Meanwhile, the chief white eunuch (), was in charge of 300 to 900 white eunuchs as head of the 'Inner Service' (the palace bureaucracy, controlling all messages, petitions, and State documents addressed to the Sultan), head of the Palace School, gatekeeper-in-chief, head of the infirmary, and master of ceremonies of the Seraglio, and was originally the only one allowed to speak to the Sultan in private. In 1591, Murad III began to give a higher and more meaningful position to black eunuchs due to an increase of crime by white eunuchs. Despite all of this, many black eunuchs suffered oppression from white eunuchs because of their physical bodies and race.
During the Sultanate of Women (), eunuchs increased their political leverage by taking advantage of minor or mentally incompetent sultans. Teenage sultans were "guided" by regencies formed by the queen mother (), the grand vizier and the 's other supporters – and the chief black eunuch was the queen mother's and chief consorts' intimate and valued accomplice. Kösem Sultan, mother of Sultan Ibrahim (r. 1640-1648) and grandmother of Sultan Mehmed IV (r. 1648-1687), was killed at the instigation of the mother of Mehmed IV, Turhan Sultan, by harem eunuchs in 1651.
: The kızlar ağası was the chief black eunuch of the Ottoman seraglio. The title literally means 'chief of the girls', and he was charged with the protection and maintenance of the harem women.
: Whereas the was responsible for guarding the virtue of the odalisques, the kapı ağası was a chamberlain to the ladies. His name means 'lord of the door', and he was the chief of the white eunuchs, acting as a chief servant and procurer.
: The valide sultan was the mother of the reigning sultan and the most powerful woman in the harem, not to mention the empire. She was the absolute authority in the seraglio, and she, with the help of the and the , often her confidantes, or even men she herself had chosen upon her accession, had a finger in every aspect of harem life.
: This was the title reserved for the favorite chief slave consort of the Ottoman sultan. A haseki sultan had an important position in the palace, being the most powerful woman and enjoyed the greatest status in the imperial harem after the and usually had chambers close to the sultan's chamber. The had no blood relation with the reigning sultan but ranked higher than the sultan's own sisters and aunts, the princesses of the dynasty. Her elevated imperial status derived from the fact that she was the mother of a potential future sultan. This term haseki sultan was given to any woman who entered the sultan’s bed. Hurrem Sultan was the first to hold this title after she became legally married to Suleiman the Magnificent, the first instance of a sultan marrying one of his slaves. The last was Rabia Sultan, the of the sultan Ahmed II. Over time, the term haseki was no longer used because, it became very apparent that it didn't support the custom of honoring the valide sultan.
: Among the women of the Imperial Harem, the was the slave woman (or women) who had given the sultan a child, preferably a son. The kadıns, or official concubines, were individually ranked by the sultan in order of preference. Most sultans kept four kadıns. These women had the social, but not legal, status of wife. The first reported was during the reign of Mehmed IV.
: The first/most senior slave consorts were called baş kadın or . The consort who held the title was in the second rank and most powerful after the in the harem. She had a great influence in the harem. Before the creation and after the abolition of the title , the title was the most powerful position among the sultan's consorts. A sultan did not have more than four s (the same law used for legal wives in Islam). Their position as the possible mother of a future sultan gave them much influence and power in the harem.
: These slave women needed not necessarily to have given a child to the sultan, but simply needed to have taken his fancy. Ikbals were women who were chosen to become the new Kadin. Many of these women were referred to as (meaning 'favorite'), or 'in the eye', having done just that: caught the eye of the sultan. In some cases, they were also concubines. They, too, were ranked among one another by the sultan in order of preference.
Cariye: These were the slave women who served the , 's, 's and the sultan's children. They could be promoted to s which meant they earned wages, otherwise they were the property of the sultan and would reside in the harem. Newly arrived slave girls were called Acemi (novice) and Acemilik (novicitiate), and then Sakird (apprentice). Gedikli were the personal maidservants of the sultan. Cariye-women were manumitted to go after nine years of service, after which a marriage was arranged for them.
The number of women in the harem is contested and only possible to estimate during some periods. Contemporaries claimed that in 1573, there were 150 women in the New palace and 1,500 in the Old Palace, and that there were 1,100 - 1,200 in 1604-1607, but these numbers are likely overestimated. The actual number of women are estimated to have been 49 in 1574 and 433 in 1633.
In the 18th- and 19th-century, the official mevacib register is sometimes preserved, and notes that the harem contained 446 slave women during the reign of sultan Mahmud I (r.1730-1754), 720 during sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1808), and 473 during sultan Mahmud II (r.1808-1839).
Western perceptions of the harem
The Ottoman Imperial Harem, like other aspects of Ottoman and Middle Eastern culture, was depicted by European artists, French artists, writers, and travelers. As Leslie Peirce writes, Europe found that all the power that the Ottoman Empire had was established in the Harem. Through their depictions of the Harem, members of European imperial powers imposed their constructions of social organization onto other cultures, assuming their social hierarchies as “part of the natural or divine order,” that all other societies must work towards achieving. In particular, European notions of race, sexuality, and gender heavily influenced their perception and depictions of life and politics in the Ottoman empire. The West’s assumed social organization was that of “public/commonwealth/male and private/domestic/female.” Conversely, in Ottoman society, politics and imperial activity occurred in private. Seclusion was not as actively gendered in a strict binary, because the privacy of both male and female members of the imperial family symbolized their power over the rest of society. Western depictions of the imperial harem also worked to gender the meaning of the title sultan. Western tradition made this term synonymous with the male ruler of the empire, while the Ottomans themselves utilized this term to denote the power of prominent male and female members of the imperial household.
Orientalist paintings reflected Europe's eroticized view of Islam with luxury, leisure, and lust being common motifs. Similarly, writers focused on slavery and sexuality, and frequently compared Ottoman practices with those of the West. French artists such as Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and Fernand Cormon painted some of the most recognizable orientalist artwork based on the imperial harem. The Turkish Bath and Harem, (both pictured), are two such examples. These images constituted the "imaginative geography" outlined in Edward Said's Orientalism. There was a prevalence of nudity in the bath scenes and the depiction of polygyny with multiple women and usually one man in the paintings. The women in these paintings were often portrayed as fair-skinned while the men were often painted as darker. The portraits of notable imperial harem women were less sexualized with many of them resembling traditional European portraits in their dress and physical features. Italian artist Titian's paintings of Hurrem Sultan and her daughter Mihrimah Sultan are extremely similar to his popular Portrait of a Lady, with the only notable difference being the Ottoman headdress. Of the artists who illustrated the Ottoman Imperial Harem, very few actually visited the empire, and all were male, so it is highly possible that these depictions were neither accurate nor authentic.
There were quite a few women who traveled to the Ottoman Empire and published their opinions on the harem. Lady Mary Montagu, an early eighteenth century English aristocrat and writer, was one such woman. Her husband served as the British Ambassador to Turkey, allowing her to spend time in the Ottoman Empire and write extensively about her experiences there. In her writings, she explained that the Ottoman women did not lack in their privileges due to their control over property, autonomy in the harem, and sexual liberty through the wearing of veils. Montagu admired Ottoman slave institutions and actively defended them, which was uncommon among British authors at that time. Montagu believed that conditions were worse for women in Europe than they were for women in the harem. In championing the way in which Ottoman women were treated, it appears Montagu may have been trying to bolster the feminist agenda in England. Like other female writers, Lady Mary also focused on the appearance of the women and their homes as markers of social status: ornate decoration, detailed dresses, and an abundance of jewels reflected higher social status. Lady Mary compares the beauty and manners of Fatima, a Turkish woman, to that of European women. Fatima would be considered beautiful “either in England or Germany” and could be “suddenly transported upon the most polite throne of Europe nobody would think her other than born and bred to be a queen, though educated in a country we call barbarous.”
Grace Ellison was another woman who traveled to the Ottoman Empire and wrote of the imperial harem. In An Englishwoman in a Turkish Harem published in 1915, Ellison sought to “correct” the prejudice and hatred that dominated the British national attitude towards Turkey. She wrote of the beauty and grandeur of the Ottoman Empire and of the great friends she had made there. She spoke highly of the progressive movements in Turkey and claimed that rights for women were increasing. Ellison claimed the English should attempt to better understand the Turkish woman. She wrote that the Turkish woman is “proud” and “insists that her dignity be respected.” Ellison also spoke extensively on the institution of slavery in the Ottoman Empire and voiced her desire to save the women in the harem. She “longed to break down for them the lattice-work which is always there between them and the sun,” and lamented about the women’s ignorance of life outside the harem: “If they stay it is because they wish to stay, and are therefore happy. Their existence, however, seems a most heartrending waste of human life.” Her analysis of cruel and antiquated Ottoman practices was not limited to the concubines, as she described her interaction with eunuchs: “It is difficult for me, however, to remember that these poor mutilated anachronisms are great personages at the Ottoman Court.” Ellison condemned the act of veiling as form of “slavery”.
In 1868, Empress Eugénie of France visited the Imperial Harem, which had significant consequences. She was taken by Sultan Abdülaziz to greet his mother, Valide Sultan Pertevniyal Sultan. Reportedly, Pertevniyal became outraged by the presence of a foreign woman in her harem, and so she slapped the empress in the face, almost provoking an international incident. The visit of the empress, however, did lead to a dress reform in the harem. Western fashion grew popular among the harem women, who continued to dress according to Western fashion from then on. However, women from the west also started to become more curious about the fashion of the harem women. Lady Montagu was one of the women who became very passionate about the wardrobe of the ottoman women, and began to dress the same as they did.
See also
Abbasid harem
Safavid imperial harem
Qajar harem
Circassian beauties
List of Orientalist artists
List of Ottoman titles and appellations
Orientalism
Ottoman Sultans' concubines
Women in the Ottoman Empire
References
Citations
Other sources
İlhan Akşit. The Mystery of the Ottoman Harem. Akşit Kültür Turizm Yayınları.
Leslie P. Peirce. The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire. Studies in Middle Eastern History. Oxford University Press, 1993.
Further reading
External links
Channel 4 History | The sultanate of women
Topkapı Palace Harem Museum | Official Website
Topkapı Palace
Slavery in the Ottoman Empire
Concubines from the Ottoman Empire
Harem
Concubinage
Sexuality in the Middle East
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-exposure%20prophylaxis
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Pre-exposure prophylaxis
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Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is the use of medications to prevent the spread of disease in people who have not yet been exposed to a disease-causing agent, usually a virus. The term typically refers to the use of antiviral drugs as a strategy for the prevention of HIV/AIDS. PrEP is one of a number of HIV prevention strategies for people who are HIV negative but who have a higher risk of acquiring HIV, including sexually active adults at increased risk of contracting HIV, people who engage in intravenous drug use (see drug injection), and serodiscordant sexually active couples.
When used as directed, PrEP has been shown to be highly effective, reducing the risk of acquiring HIV by up to 99%.
The first form of PrEP for HIV prevention - tenofovir disoproxil and emtricitabine (TDF/FTC; Truvada) - was approved in 2012. In October 2019, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the combination of emtricitabine and tenofovir alafenamide (F/TAF; Descovy) to be used as PrEP in addition to Truvada, which provides similar levels of protection. Descovy, however, is only currently approved for cisgender men and transgender women - efficacy has not been assessed in people at risk through receptive vaginal sex (i.e., cisgender women and transgender men).
The World Health Organization (WHO) began recommending oral PrEP in 2015; as of their 2021 guidelines, the WHO recommends multiple forms of PrEP for HIV prevention:
Oral PrEP using TDF-containing compounds for anyone at substantial risk of HIV infection;
Event-driven PrEP for cisgender men who have sex with men; and
The dapivirine vaginal ring for cisgender women at substantial risk of HIV infection.
In December 2021, the FDA approved cabotegravir (Apretude), which is an injectable form of PrEP manufactured by ViiV, a pharmaceutical company that specializes in HIV drugs. Regulators believe it will improve medication adherence because it only has to be taken once every two months, and will also widen adoption as it eliminates the need to hide pills or pharmacy visits for discretion.
Medical uses
Indications for use
United States
In the United States, federal guidelines updated in 2021 now recommend healthcare providers discuss and provide information on the use of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV prevention for all sexually active adults and adolescents. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends providers take a targeted sexual history of their patients to assess specific risk for HIV acquisition and suggest PrEP to the following patients:
Sexually active adults and adolescents who have had anal or vaginal sex in the past 6 months and any of the following:
1 or more partner(s) with unknown HIV status and inconsistent condom use;
An HIV-positive sexual partner (especially if they have an unknown or detectable viral load);
A bacterial sexually transmitted infection (STI) in the past 6 months.
Patients reporting injection drug use within the last 6 months and any of the following:
An HIV-positive injecting partner;
Shared injection equipment.
Additionally, these updated guidelines recommend providers prescribe PrEP to any patient that requests it, regardless of their stated risk factors.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom the BHIVA/BASHH guidelines on the use of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) 2018 recommend:
On-demand or daily oral Tenofovir – emtricitabine (TD-FTC) for HIV-negative MSM who are at elevated risk of HIV acquisition through unprotected anal sex in the previous six months and ongoing unprotected anal sex.
On-demand or daily oral TD-FTC for HIV-negative MSM having unprotected anal sex with partners who are HIV positive, unless the partner has been on ART for at least six months and their plasma viral load is <200 copies/mL.
Tenofovir (TDF) alone should not be offered to MSM.
Daily oral TD-FTC for HIV-negative heterosexual men and women having unprotected sex with partners who are HIV positive, unless the partner has been on ART for at least six months and their plasma viral load is <200 copies/mL.
Daily oral TD-FTC for heterosexual men and women on a case-by-case basis with current factors that may put them at increased risk of HIV acquisition.
TDF alone can be offered to heterosexual men and women where FTC is contraindicated.
PrEP is not recommended for people who inject drugs where needle exchange and opiate substitution programs are available and accessed by the individual.
PrEP with daily oral TD-FTC for HIV-negative trans women who are at risk of HIV acquisition through unprotected anal sex in the previous six months and ongoing unprotected sex.
Daily oral TD-FTC for HIV-negative trans women and trans men who have unprotected sex with partners who are HIV positive, unless the partner has been on ART for at least six months and their plasma viral load is <200 copies/mL.
Other Countries
Other government health agencies from around the world have devised their own national guidelines for how to use PrEP to prevent HIV infection in those at high risk, including Botswana, Canada, Kenya, Lesotho, South Africa, Uganda, the Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
Eligibility, Follow-up Care, Dosage
Often, laboratory testing is required before starting PrEP, including a test for HIV. Once PrEP is initiated, individuals are asked to see their healthcare provider at least every three to six months. During those visits, providers may want to repeat testing for HIV, test for other sexually transmitted infections, monitor kidney function, and/or test for pregnancy. Individuals must test negative for HIV prior to PrEP initiation because persons infected with HIV taking PrEP medication are at risk for becoming resistant to emtricitabine. Consequently, people with HIV infection and resistance to emtricitabine will have fewer options for selecting HIV treatment medications.
PrEP has been shown to be effective at reducing the risk of acquiring HIV in individuals at increased risk. However, PrEP is not 100% effective at preventing HIV, even in people who take the medication as prescribed. There have been several reported cases of people who acquired HIV despite taking PrEP. People taking PrEP may use combination prevention strategies along with PrEP, like condoms. If someone on PrEP acquires HIV, they may experience the signs and symptoms of HIV/AIDS.
PrEP is typically taken continuously and daily following potential exposure. The CDC recommends follow-up visits at least every three months to provide HIV tests, medication adherence counseling, behavioral risk reduction support, side effect assessment, STI symptom assessment, and STI testing for sexually active individuals with symptoms of a current infection. Pregnancy tests should also be done every three months for woman who may become pregnant. At three months and every six months thereafter, renal function and presence of bacterial STI is assessed. Effectiveness of PrEP is associated with adherence, with effectiveness decreasing with suboptimal adherence.
Event-driven PrEP
Although the daily, oral dosing schedule is still recommended for all individuals taking PrEP medication for HIV infection prevention, event-driven pre-exposure prophylaxis, or ED-PrEP, is an option for men who have sex with men. ED-PrEP is also referred to as "2+1+1" dosing, because the dosing regimen involves a person taking two pills two to twenty-four hours prior to sex, one pill twenty-four hours after taking the first two pills, and a last pill taken forty-eight hours after taking the first two pills. This dosing regimen was first proven effective to reduce the relative risk of HIV infection by 86% in the IPERGAY randomized clinical trial performed in Canada and France in 2015. This has only been evaluated with Truvada and not other drugs. According to the WHO, ED-PrEP should be considered for HIV infection prevention in men who have sex with men who have relatively infrequent sex, who are able to plan sex or delay sex for about two hours, and who find this dosing schedule convenient. ED-PrEP is not recommended for use in other populations, such as cisgender or transgender women and men who have vaginal and/or anal sex with women, due to the lack of safety and efficacy data available studying ED-PrEP in these populations. ED-PrEP can be beneficial to help reduce the pill burden for people and decrease costs, as fewer pills are needed.
PrEP During Pregnancy and Postpartum
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations support the use of PrEP in pregnant and breastfeeding people who are at substantial risk of HIV infection. A growing body of evidence demonstrates the safety of TDF-containing oral PrEP during pregnancy and breastfeeding. This is an important time for prevention, as acquiring HIV during pregnancy increases the risk of transmission to the infant. However, global PrEP accessibility for women, including those who are either pregnant or breastfeeding, is limited. Efforts to increase accessibility to women who are at risk for HIV are necessary for reducing rates of global HIV infections.
Contraindications
Truvada and Descovy
Truvada and Descovy are contraindicated for use as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) in individuals who have an unknown or positive HIV status. HIV positive or negative status must be determined before someone begins the use of either of these medications as PrEP. Additionally, any hypersensitivity or severe allergy to any ingredient, emtricitabine, tenofovir disoproxil, or tenofovir alafenamide is a contraindication for continued use of these medications.
Side effects
Research shows that pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is generally safe and well tolerated for most individuals, although some side effects have been noted to occur. Some people experience a "start-up syndrome" involving nausea, headache, and/or stomach issues, which generally resolve within a few weeks of starting the PrEP medication. Research has shown that the use of Truvada as PrEP has been associated with mild to moderate declines in kidney function, mostly associated with older people over 50, those with predisposing conditions such as diabetes, or glomerular filtration rate lower than 90. These declines were usually of no concern, stabilized after several weeks of being on the drug, and reversed once the drug was discontinued. However, these side effects were serious enough for several people on PrEP to file lawsuits against the makers of Truvada as well as the makers of other similar drugs.
Osteopenia or bone loss has been reported in clinical studies. Bone loss was not seen as a major concern for ending the service since bone loss was considered minimal and did not lead to osteoporosis. When comparing bone fractures between active participants and control there was no major difference in bone fractures.
Fat redistribution and accumulation was more commonly seen in individuals receiving antiretroviral therapy, particularly older antiretrovirals, for the treatment of HIV. No significant changes in fat redistribution or change in fat had been noted when used as a pre-exposure prophylaxis. Research and study outcome analysis suggests that emtricitabine/tenofovir does not have a significant effect on fat redistribution or accumulation when used as pre-exposure prophylaxis in HIV negative individuals. As of early 2018 these studies have not assessed in detail subtle changes in fat distribution that may be possible with the drug when used as PrEP, and statistically significant – though transient – weight changes have been attributed to detectable drug concentrations in the body.
Other potential serious side effects of Truvada include acute exacerbations of hepatitis B in individuals with HBV infection, lactic acidosis, and severe hepatomegaly with steatosis.
Descovy research and data from public use has shown similar "start-up" effects; however, some data indicate that Descovy is better for one's kidneys and for those with a diagnosis of osteoporosis. The DISCOVER trial that compared descovy versus truvada for PrEP showed that descovy produced safer kidney and bone outcomes.
Boxed warnings
Both Truvada and Descovy carry a black box warning for the combination of emtricitabine/tenofovir, as this combination of drugs can result in the acute worsening of hepatitis B infection when discontinued. This combination of drugs is also known to increase HIV resistance to these medications when used as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) in individuals who have already (recently) been infected with HIV. It is recommended that individuals continue to periodically get tested to determine their HIV status to ensure proper continuing use of these medications for PrEP.
Society and culture
Access and adoption
Approval for use
Truvada was previously only approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat HIV in those already infected. In 2012, the FDA approved the drug for use as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), based on growing evidence that the drug was safe and effective at preventing HIV in populations at increased risk of infection. The FDA has approved two additional medications for PrEP since then, approving Descovy in 2019 and cabotegravir (Apretude) in 2021.
In 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued guidelines for PrEP and made similar recommendations for its use among men and transgender women who have sex with men. The WHO noted that "international scientific consensus is emerging
that antiretroviral drugs, including PrEP, significantly reduce the risk of sexual acquisition and transmission of HIV regardless of population or setting." In 2014, on the basis of further evidence, the WHO updated the recommendation for men who have sex with men to state that PrEP "is recommended as an additional HIV prevention choice within a comprehensive HIV prevention package." In November 2015 the WHO expanded this further, on the basis of further evidence, and stated that it had "broadened the recommendation to include all population groups at substantial risk of HIV infection" and emphasized that PrEP should be "an additional prevention choice in a comprehensive package of services."
, numerous countries have approved the use of PrEP for HIV/AIDS prevention, including the United States, South Korea, France, Norway, Australia, Israel, Canada, Kenya, South Africa, Peru, Thailand, the European Union and Taiwan.
New Zealand was one of the first countries in the world to publicly fund PrEP for the prevention of HIV in March 2018. Funded access to PrEP will require that people undergo regular testing for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections, and are monitored for risk of side effects. People taking funded PrEP will receive advice on ways to reduce the risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infections.
In Australia, the country's Therapeutic Goods Administration approved the use of Truvada as PrEP in May 2016, allowing Australian providers to legally prescribe the medication. On March 21, 2018, the Federal Minister for Health announced that PrEP will be subsidized by the Australian Government through the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) from April 1, 2018.
Availability and pricing in the United States
Within the United States, Truvada and Descovy are brand name products of Gilead Sciences that cost around $2200/month (a 30-day supply) at wholesale price. In other countries around the world, generic Truvada is available for a much lower price. Expected fall of 2020, Teva Pharmaceuticals will begin producing a generic version of Truvada within the United States; however, it has been reported that the details surrounding the rights to the patent are unclear, which makes it difficult to predict if this will increase access to the medications. In the meantime, there are several assistance programs at the local, state, and national level for gaining access to PrEP at reduced costs. Gilead has an "advancing access" co-pay coupon program that can be accessed by individuals and providers alike to help cover some of the monthly costs of these medications. It is recommended to discuss other available options with a community pharmacist or physician.
In December 2019, the U.S. announced the Ready, Set, PrEP program to provide free PrEP to the uninsured through major drugstore chains. The Ready, Set, PrEP program is led by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and allows qualifying individuals to fill their prescription for PrEP medication free of cost at their choice of participating pharmacies or through the mail.
NPIN PrEP Provider Data and Locator Widget was launched on the CDC website to provide a comprehensive, national directory of public and private providers in the U.S. that offer pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to prevent HIV infection. The database includes over 1,800 PrEP providers from all 50 U.S. states as well as U.S. territories.
Beginning in January 2020, after California Governor Gavin Newsom signed Senate Bill 159 (SB159) in late 2019, licensed pharmacists in California are authorized to initiate and dispense a 30 to 60 day supply of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) or the full course of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) without a doctor's prescription, given certain clinical criteria of the individual are met. The bill acts as an extension of Medi-Cal benefits (the Medicaid program in the state of California). The law is recognized by pharmacist organizations, health providers, legislators, and the general public to be the removal of a barrier to direct and time-dependent access to these medications, especially for those in communities most affected by HIV/AIDs.
Politics and culture
Since the FDA approval of PrEP for the prevention of HIV, moves toward greater adoption of PrEP have been met some issues, especially around the overall public health effect of widespread adoption, the cost of PrEP and associated disparities in availability and access. Many public health organizations and governments have embraced PrEP as a part of their overall strategy for reducing HIV. For example, in 2014 New York state governor Andrew Cuomo initiated a three-part plan to reduce HIV across New York that specifically emphasized access to PrEP. Similarly, the city of San Francisco launched a "Getting to Zero" campaign. The campaign aims to dramatically reduce the number of new HIV infections in the city and relies on expanding access to PrEP as a key strategy for achieving that goal. Public health officials report that since 2013 the number of new HIV infections in San Francisco has decreased almost 50% and that such improvements are likely related to the city's campaign to reduce new infections. Additionally, numerous public health campaigns have been launched to educate the public about PrEP. For instance, in New York City in 2016 Gay Men's Health Crisis launched an ad campaign in bus shelters across the city reminding riders that adherence to PrEP is important to ensuring the regimen is maximally effective. In Washington, D.C., a PrEP campaign was launched to increase the number of D.C. residents taking PrEP. Social media pushes, such as an ad campaign called "PrEP for Her", targeted African-American women, who, along with gay and bisexual African-American men, are at high risk of infection in the district. Other states and cities that have initiated "Getting to Zero" campaigns include Massachusetts, Connecticut, Illinois, San Diego, Silicon Valley/Santa Clara, and Miami-Dade.
Despite those efforts, PrEP remains controversial among some who worry that widespread PrEP adoption could cause public health issues by enabling risky sexual behaviors. For instance, AIDS Healthcare Foundation founder and director Michael Weinstein has been vocal in his opposition to PrEP adoption, suggesting that PrEP causes people to make riskier decisions about sex than they would otherwise make. Some researchers, however, believe that there is insufficient data to determine whether or not PrEP implementation has an effect on the rate of other sexually transmitted infections. Other critics point out that despite implementation of PrEP, significant disparities exist. For example, some point out that African Americans bear a disproportionate burden of HIV infections but may be less likely than whites to access PrEP. Still other critics of PrEP object to the high cost of the regimen. For example, the U.K.'s NHS initially refused to offer PrEP to individuals citing concerns about cost and suggested that local officials ought to bear the responsibility of paying for the drug. However, following significant advocacy efforts, the NHS started to offer PrEP to people in the UK in 2017.
Impact on the culture of men who have sex with men
PrEP is used predominantly by men who have sex with men, often as an alternative to condoms. For the first time since the outbreak of the AIDS crisis, PrEP makes somewhat HIV-protected sex without condoms possible, and since its availability, sex without condoms has increased. PrEP does not prevent the transmission of sexually transmitted infections other than HIV, and is not 100% effective.
Barriers to use
PrEP is underused. A systematic review of 76 peer-reviewed articles and 28 conference abstracts of values and preferences among global populations who might benefit from PrEP found that awareness of PrEP is low, but individuals were receptive to use when presented with information. Common barriers to PrEP use include lack of communication between an individual and their doctor, stigmatization, concerns about safety, side effects, and cost and effectiveness. Transgender women are disproportionally affected by HIV/AIDS, and PrEP is often underused. Barriers for PrEP use and access for transgender women include concerns about side effects, cost, hormone therapy, adherence, PrEP-related stigma and interaction with healthcare workers.
Studies evaluating PrEP efficacy to reduce risk of HIV infection found a linear relationship between adherence and effectiveness of medication. This means that the more closely people follow recommended dosing of PrEP, the more effective the medication is at preventing infection.
Research
Most PrEP studies use the drug tenofovir or a tenofovir/emtricitabine combination (Truvada) that is delivered by mouth. Initial studies of PrEP strategies in non-human primates showed a reduced risk of infection among animals that receive ARVs prior to exposure to a simian form of HIV. A 2007 study at UT-Southwestern (Dallas) and the University of Minnesota showed PrEP to be effective in "humanized" laboratory mice. In 2008, the iPrEx study demonstrated 42% reduction of HIV infection among men who have sex with men, and subsequent analysis of the data has suggested that 99% protection is achievable if the drugs are taken every day. Below is a table summarizing some of the major research studies that demonstrated PrEP with Truvada to be effective across different populations.
PrEP approaches with agents besides Truvada are being investigated. On December 20, 2021, the FDA approved cabotegravir (Apretude), which was the first injectable drug for PrEP that's taken every two months. There has been some evidence that other regimens, like ones based on the antiretroviral agent Maraviroc, could potentially prevent HIV infection. Similarly, researchers are investigating whether drugs could be used in ways other than a daily pill to prevent HIV, including taking a long-acting PrEP injection, PrEP-releasing implants, or rectally administered PrEP. However, it is important to keep in mind that , major public health organizations such as the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend only daily Truvada for use as PrEP.
Data on efficacy and safety of PrEP in adolescents are insufficient. Risks and benefits of PrEP use should be considered for adolescents.
Possibility of increased risk-taking
While PrEP appears to be extremely successful in reducing HIV infection, there is mixed evidence that there might be a change in use of condoms in anal sex, raising risks of spreading sexually transmitted infections other than HIV. In a meta-analysis of 18 studies, researchers found that rates of new diagnoses of STIs among MSM (men who have sex with men) given PrEP were 25.3 times greater for gonorrhea, 11.2 times greater for chlamydia and 44.6 times greater for syphilis, compared with the rates among MSM not given PrEP. Unlike HIV, these three STIs can be cured with antibiotics. However, the increased rates of such infections and their treatment can lead to antibiotic-resistant mutations of the pathogens; antibiotic-resistant gonorrhea is already a major concern.
A systematic review conducted in 2019 was unable to find conclusive evidence that PrEP use increases sexual risk behaviors, and found that PrEP may provide an opportunity for MSM to access sexual health care, testing, treatment and counselling services.
Emerging treatments
Although HIV PrEP medications are only available in oral tablet and injectable formulations, other formulations are being developed and studied. The emerging treatments expand HIV prevention strategies for women. For example, a vaginal gel formulation of tenofovir and an intravaginal ring releasing dapivirine are under investigation for efficacy. Out of three completed trials evaluating safety and efficacy of tenofovir vaginal gel, only the CAPRISA 004 trial showed the drug to be efficacious in decreasing the risk of HIV infection. However, the demonstrated effectiveness of tenofovir vaginal gel was deemed not significant enough to move forward with the product. In contrast, the ASPIRE study and The Ring Study evaluating the dapivirine-releasing intravaginal ring have demonstrated efficacy in reducing incidence of HIV infection. In addition to these two treatments, an injectable form of cabotegravir is being evaluated for efficacy in the HPTN 03 and HPTN 04 trials.
See also
Chemoprevention
Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP)
National AIDS Trust v NHS Service Commissioning Board
References
External links
PrEPWatch PrEP Watch homepage
CDC Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
CM Mediclinic Thailand What is PrEP?
The Game Changer Project Prep HIV
Medical treatments
Prevention of HIV/AIDS
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Boniface%27s%20Catholic%20College
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St Boniface's Catholic College
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St Boniface's Catholic College is a secondary school for boys, under the direction and trustees of the Roman Catholic Community in the Plymouth area in the South West of England. Founded in 1856 as an independent boarding and day school for "young Catholic gentlemen" in the West Country, it is now a comprehensive school. The College is named for St Boniface who was born in Crediton, Devon and is the patron saint of Germany. The school has a list of distinguished former pupils including Air Chief Marshal Sir John Gingell GBE KCB KCVO, the writer and intelligence agent Alexander Wilson, and Sir Julian Priestley KCMG, Secretary General of the European Parliament from 1997 to 2007.
The College is a five-form entry college of 528 students between the ages of 11 and 18, taught by a full-time staff of 24. Its main campus is at Manadon Park with sports facilities at Marsh Mills. Its sister school is Notre Dame Catholic School. It is colloquially known as "Bonnies" or abbreviated as SBCC. The school is situated on the west side of the A386, north of the A38 interchange – between the A38 and the B3413.
History
Foundation
St Boniface's College was founded in 1856 as a school for "young Catholic gentlemen" by the great, if austere, first Roman Catholic Bishop of Plymouth, Dr Errington (1804–1886). As a result of Bishop Errington's appointment as Coadjutor Archbishop of Westminster in 1855, the College was almost immediately placed under the patronage of his successor as Bishop of Plymouth, The Right Reverend William Vaughan (1814–1902). The College's first school building was in Wyndham Square, Plymouth.
Early history
In 1863, the school was renamed "St Boniface Boys' Catholic School" and relocated to a larger building to Melbourne Street, and later to North Road with Mr Clarke, an old boy of the Christian Brothers' School in Gibraltar, as Head Master. From the beginning both boarders and day boys were catered for.
Mr Clarke resigned his post in 1883, but in September of the same year the Basilian Fathers, exiled from France, bought over the property at Beaconfield, Plymouth. This was at the time a considerable distance from the city's residential area and the efficient transport system of today did not exist. Hence, whilst the boarders were accommodated at the residence at Beaconfield a small school for day boys was opened at Grosvenor Street near the centre of Plymouth. It was known as the Catholic Institute and was staffed by teachers from Beaconfield. Mr Clarke who apparently could not suppress his vocation to teach, again took over the school at Grosvenor Street and a little later transferred the pupils to his own residence at Wyndham Square where he carried on his valuable work until 1891. The boarding school at Beaconfield continued under the management of the Basilian Fathers until July 1899, when, under the stress of financial difficulties, they resolved to close the school.
The following year the diocesan authorities purchased premised at Wyndham Square, and the school was placed under the patronage of St Boniface. It was staffed by the diocesan clergy under the headmastership of Provost Burns.
The De La Salle Brothers were invited to take over the management of the school in 1911, but on the outbreak of World War I were recalled to France. Their places were taken by the Presentation Brothers who found the premises at Wyndham Square inadequate, and gave up in 1931.
In September of that year the Christian Brothers accepted the invitation of Barrett to re-open the school at Beaconfield. The buildings had been erected in 1910 as a convent boarding school, provided excellent accommodation for the 127 day boys and fifteen boarders who opened a new era in the schools chequered career.
With the outbreak of World War II the College was evacuated to Buckfast Abbey between 1941 and 1945. The Abbey was instrumental in assuring the school continued during those difficult war years. During this period, the school buildings in Plymouth were used as strategic operation bases for the Admiralty and continued to be used even after the students returned to Beacon Park.
Direct Grant Grammar School
In 1946 the College was encouraged to become one of the 179 direct grant schools where fees for selected day pupils from lower income families were partly or fully paid by the local authority. The College retained autonomy from the local authority and remained members of the Headmasters' Conference. Situated in Beacon Park, it had 450 boys in the 1970s.
Comprehensive
When the Labour Government withdrew funding from direct grant schools in 1976, the College, like Manchester Grammar School and others, was forced to decide between reverting to a fully independent school or becoming a Voluntary-Aided school. After a period as an independent school, in 1981 St Boniface's Catholic College and Bishop Vaughan Catholic School were amalgamated into a Voluntary-Aided boys' Comprehensive school at Crownhill, which then became the Grant Maintained St Boniface's Catholic College. Notre Dame High School became a state school at the same time. In 1999 the College reverted to Voluntary Aided status.
On 13 October 2002 an arson attack created £100,000 of damage. Fortunately, only a temporary classroom block was destroyed.
In 2007 Teachers' TV produced a programme about the use of video feedback to teachers by pupils. "Action! Pupil Video: Look What You've Started" is available for download on the Teachers' TV website. Also in 2007, St Boniface's won the Schools Herald Team of the Year award and on Thursday 13 March 2008 pupils of the College produced the news for the BBC's School Report project. Long standing Headteacher David Kavanagh, having served at the College for over 20 years, retired in July 2007. The Board of Governors were unable to find an immediate replacement so then Deputy Head, Jim Murphy, had taken on the role until the end of the academic year 2009. Peter Fairweather is the Chair of the Governing Body. The current Acting Head Teacher is Mr Andrew Davies.
On 1 January 2008 the College was renamed and readdressed as "St Boniface's Catholic College" at 21 Boniface Lane, Manadon Park, Plymouth.
In 2010 the College participated in BBC News School Report, with some students reading the news on the local BBC Spotlight news programme. Head Boy Luke Garside was chosen as one of 100 Prime Minister's Global Fellows. The programme saw Luke representing the UK as an ambassador in China through the summer of 2010.
The school marked its sesquicentennial in September 2013.
Academy
Previously a voluntary aided school administered by Plymouth City Council and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Plymouth, St Boniface's Catholic College converted to academy status on 1 April 2014. The school is now sponsored by the Catholic and Anglican Schools Trust; however, the school continues to coordinate with Plymouth City Council and the Diocese of Plymouth for admissions.
Academic performance
At GCSE the College performs above the England average and about average for Plymouth Local Authority, but at A level it is below the England average.
Motto and Badge
The College motto is Bona Facite, usually translated as Do Good, and, while being a linguistic play on the name of St Boniface, is possibly taken from Chapter 35, Verse 15 of Jeremiah, "Misique ad vos omnes servos meos prophetas, consurgens diluculo mittensque, et dicens: Convertimini unusquisque a via sua pessima, et bona facite studia vestra: et nolite sequi deos alienos, neque colatis eos, et habitabitis in terra quam dedi vobis et patribus vestris: et non inclinastis aurem vestram, neque audistis me" (And I have sent to you all my servants the prophets, rising early, and sending and saying: Return ye every man from his wicked way, and make your ways good: and follow not strange gods, nor worship them, and you shall dwell in the land, which I gave you and your fathers: and you have not inclined your ear, nor hearkened to me).
The College badge proclaims the school's origins. The cross of St Andrew represents the Old Cathedral Church of Plymouth, the Bishop's staff represents the patronage of St Boniface; and the cross keys of St Peter represent the Catholic Church, towards which the College owes its allegiance. The badge's blue background echoes the College's connections with the sea.
The school tie is mainly purple to represent the Bishop. The diagonal silver band flanked with gold on either side denotes loyalty to the Holy See, whilst the thin red lines between purple and gold commemorates the martyrdom of St Boniface.
Uniform
The College uniform has changed very little in almost a century. Though shorts and caps are no longer required, the following remain:
Black blazer with the school badge on the pocket
White shirt
Black/charcoal grey trousers
Black socks
Black leather lace-up shoes with a heel
Blue school tie
Until the 1980s, the College blazer and cap were purple for students in First Form (Year 7) - Fifth Form (Year 11), with Sixth Form wearing a black version of the blazer. This was eventually adopted as the main school uniform.
In 2006 an optional black waterproof Gore-Tex jacket was introduced to modernise the uniform.
In 2009 house coloured silicon bands were introduced to identify which house each student belonged to, whilst Diploma students were issued a grey version of the school jacket.
In 2014, a new sports kit was launched.
House system
The College has a long-standing House System. Originally it hosted three Houses - named for local areas: Devon, Edgcumbe and Peverell. In 1951 the College felt it was time to increase the number of houses to four to "facilitate the organisation of inter-house competitions." The new Houses were named to bear "some relation to the history and progress of Catholic secondary education in the city." The houses were: Abbey (Buckfast Abbey), Grosvenor (Grosvenor Street), Melbourne (Melbourne Street) and Wyndham (Wyndham Square).A fifth house, named Beacon was subsequently added. Boarders were all members of School House. Then in 1981 the Houses were renamed for Plymouth Bishops, being Barrett, Grimshaw, Keily and Vaughan. To accommodate increasing intake numbers, a fifth house was added in September 1995, also named for a Bishop; Errington House. These five houses remain until 2015 going back to just the first four houses.. In July 2009 the House System was relaunched with the current Heads of Year becoming Heads of House. During the mid-1950s School House was established. Its membership was confined to the Boarders.
Sport
The College has a long tradition of playing rugby, cricket and athletics to a very high standard, consistently challenging the strongest school opponents in the west country and further afield. In more recent years hockey has also been played to a very high standard.
Since 1904 St Boniface's has seen a good number of its First XV selected to play for the England Schools Rugby Union (ESRU).
in 2009 the Year 7 Rugby Team reached the final of the Cunningham Cup against Kelly College and drew the game, though came second in the competition because of points difference. The Year 9 Rugby team, who themselves had been Cunningham Cup winners when in Year 7, went on to win the West Devon 7's and reached the final of the Devon 7's. The Year 7 rugby teams of 2015/16 & 2016/17 also claimed the Cunningham Cup later.
In 2009 the College's junior hockey team were placed in the "elite" league playing against much more experienced sides because of their exceptional performance in the previous season.
Although traditionally a rugby orientated school, St Boniface have a produced a number of talented footballers such as former Plymouth Argyle striker Mickey Evans and former Cardiff City striker Joe Mason.
The school have collected a number of football honours over years and dominated the Plymouth Schools competitions in the late 1980s and have done so again more recently. In March 2012 the Year 11 team, coached by Head of PE Chris Mather, won the Plymouth Schools Cup for the third year in succession, defeating Devonport High School for Boys 3-1 after extra time with goals from Merveille Ramazani, Lewis Sutton and Oliver Price. In the same year the side reached the last 16 of the National Schools FA Cup, losing on penalties and also reached the final of the Devon Schools FA Cup.
St Boniface Arena
The College owns St Boniface Arena, home to the Plymouth Devils speedway team. The land was used as playing fields for 25 years, until in 2006, the Local Authority approved temporary planning permission to Mike Bowden to build a stadium for the Plymouth Devils. In 2007, the planning permission was made permanent.
There is still one playing field for the school to use. The field is also used by Plymouth Victoria Rugby Club for fixtures in the Devon 1 SW league.
The Corps (OTC/ACF/CCF)
The College operated an Army Cadet unit, or The Corps as it was more familiarly known, from an early date until becoming a voluntary-aided school in 1981. In 1908, when the Territorial Army was formed, the College unit became part of the Officer Training Corps, and in 1914, when all independent Cadet units were taken under control by the War Office, it became part of the Army Cadet Force.
In 1923 all Governmental and Military support for the ACF was withdrawn as a result of Defence cutbacks (the Geddes Axe), and this led to the forming of the British National Cadet Association (BNCA) by notable figures such as Lord Allenby who were keen to maintain the ACF and lobby for Government funding.
In 1942 the ACF was re-formed as a support to the Home Guard and in 1948 the College Corps, along with other independent school units, became part of the newly formed Combined Cadet Force (CCF). The Corps, which had its own building including a rifle range, had a long association with The Devonshire Regiment, which became The Devonshire and Dorset Regiment in 1958, and wore its regimental cap badge as part of the Cadet uniform. The College provided a steady stream of officers to both regiments from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century.
Online Archive
The College has an extensive photographic and digital document archive, hosted with flickr to allow students, parents, Old Bonifacians and the press access to photographs of the school and its events. Images date back as far as 1911.
School song
Rise, rise and sing aloud proclaim
The School's renown and cherished name
Long years to come her beacon bright
Shine still undimmed, our guiding light
Enduring be the Faith we own, with zeal, as Boniface, to cast
The seed abroad of truth unknown and evil to things to crush at last
Then, Bonifacians, sing her praise:
In strength and grace through all her days
In strength and grace through all her days
And when to manhood we attain
We shall recall with pride again
Green fields where we her fame assured
Her sterner classroom tasks endured
Mid other scenes and joys newfound
Recall, while heart with pleasure fills
The View to South of Plymouth Sound
To North the rolling Devon Hills
Then, Bonifacians, sing her praise:
In strength and grace through all her days
In strength and grace through all her days
Long Live! Long live! The School!
Long Live! Long live! The School!
Head Teachers
Mr Clarke (1863–1883) Melbourne Street
Basilian Fathers (1883–1899) Beaconfield
Mr Clarke (1883–1899) Grosvenor Street/Wyndham Square
Provost Michael John Burns (1900–1911) Wyndham Square
Presentation Brothers (1911–1931) Wyndham Square
Br J H Dudley McDonald (1931–1944) Beaconfield
Abbot Bruno Fehrenbacher (1941–1945) Buckfast Abbey
Br B P Dolan (1944–1950) Beaconfield
Br P C Curran (1950–1954) Beaconfield
Br Harry A Grice (1954–1960) Beaconfield/Beacon Park
Br B D McHugh (1960–1966) Beacon Park
Br Tom Coleman (1966–1971) Beacon Park
Br Darcy (1971–1972) Beacon Park
Br Cornelius John Sreenan (1972–1987) Beacon Park/Crownhill
Br David Kavanagh (1987–1995) Crownhill
Mr David Kavanagh (1995–2007) Crownhill
Dr James Lawrence Murphy (2007–2009) Crownhill/Manadon Park
Mr Peter Eccles (2009 - 2013) Manadon Park
Mr Andrew Davies (2013 - 2014) Manadon Park
Mr Frank Ashcroft (2014 - 2016 ) Manadon Park
Mr Neil Maslen (2016 - 2018) Manadon Park
Mrs Mary Cox (2018 - 2020) Manadon Park
Mrs Katherine White (2020 - 2023) Manadon Park
Mr Michael Antram (2023 -) Manadon Park
Notable former pupils
Voluntary aided school
Mickey Evans (1983–1989) - former footballer, Plymouth Argyle
Liam Mooney (1983-1990) - former rugby player, London Irish, Exeter Chiefs, Ireland Wolfhounds (formerly Ireland A) and Barbarian F.C.
Alex Meechan (1991–1996) - former footballer, Swindon Town
Luke Arscott (1995–2000) - rugby player, Exeter Chiefs
Tom Arscott (1998–2003) - rugby player, Worcester Warriors
Jack Gilding (1999–2004) - rugby player, Edinburgh
Joe Mason (2003–2008) - footballer, Cardiff City
Direct Grant Grammar school
Malcolm S W Ashworth (1939–1944), Chairman of Crawford's Advertising Agency
Air Chief Marshal Sir John Gingell GBE KCB KCVO - Senior Royal Air Force commander. Retired in 1984, then served as Black Rod in the Houses of Parliament until 1992
Dr Bernard MacManus, Vice-Chancellor from 1992 to 1994 of Bournemouth University, and Director from 1983 to 1991 of the Dorset Institute for Higher Education and from 1991 to 1992 of Bournemouth Polytechnic
Stefan Nahorski, Professor of Pharmacology from 1984 to 2006 at the University of Leicester
Peter Nolan CBE, Sinyi Professor of Chinese Management since 1997 at the Judge Business School, University of Cambridge
Sir Julian Priestley KCMG (b. 1950), Secretary General of the European Parliament from 1997 to 2007 and author.
Controversy
In 2013, the Headmaster, Peter Eccles, was suspended following allegations, which did not relate to pupils, concerning his private life. At the same time a former bursar was facing charges of fraud but later those charges were dropped to lack of evidence and it was revealed that 33 members of staff had left since Mr Eccles became head in 2009.
In August 2016 a former Teacher, Paul Kelly, was sentenced to ten years imprisonment by the High Court in Glasgow upon conviction of the physical and sexual abuse of boys between the years 1979 and 1983 at St Ninian's Orphanage, Falkland, Fife. Kelly was at the time a member of the Irish Christian Brothers.
See also
Buckfast Abbey
Roman Catholic Diocese of Plymouth
Notre Dame Catholic School
Bishop Errington
Saint Boniface
Plymouth Devils Speedway Team
St Boniface Arena
List of direct grant grammar schools
References
External links
Official site
Fire in October 2002
Newsround April 2006
EduBase
Catholic secondary schools in the Diocese of Plymouth
Educational institutions established in 1856
Secondary schools in Plymouth, Devon
Defunct grammar schools in England
1856 establishments in England
School buildings in the United Kingdom destroyed by arson
Academies in Plymouth, Devon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%A1Alfaro%20Vive%2C%20Carajo%21
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¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!
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¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo! (AVC) (), another name for the Fuerzas Armadas Populares Eloy Alfaro (), was a clandestine left-wing group in Ecuador, founded in 1982 and named after popular government leader and general Eloy Alfaro.
The group was labeled as a terrorist organization for the Ecuadorian state during the period of the former president León Febres Cordero, existing between 1983 and 1991, years where they carried out various armed actions and criminal acts in Ecuador, with Colombian (M-19) and Nicaraguan (Nicaraguan Revolution) influence. The group was initially formed sometime in the 1970s, but was not active militarily for the first few years of the 80's.
An openly leftist organization, but not Marxist, they identified with the Democratic Left coalition. The AVC first received national attention in 1983, when it broke into a museum and stole swords used by former president and leader of the liberal revolution, Eloy Alfaro. Some of the group's leaders were thought to be affiliated with Cuba, Libya and Nicaragua, and the group itself was linked to militant groups in other Latin American countries, such as M-19 and the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement, establishing a group of joint operations called America Battalion with these two groups. Between 1986 and 1987, AVC carried out several kidnappings, robbed banks and a factory, seized several radio stations to broadcast their manifesto, and killed four policemen while retrieving a member of the group from police custody. At its height, the AVC had between 200 and 300 members. The AVC did not carry out attacks against the population or large-scale attacks since according to Santiago Kingman, the main ideologue of the AVC ...any bomb exploding alone, senseless... any killing of an unarmed person was stupid.
In response to this activity, the government began conducting raids against the group. The group's leader, Arturo Jarrin, was killed during a shootout against government forces in October 1986. By 1987, a large number of AVC leaders and members had been killed or arrested. In 1989, the Ecuadorian government reached an agreement with the AVC, and the group agreed to end its violence. In 1991, the group was officially reformed as a legitimate political party. A year later, eight members of the group made an illegal but non-violent entry into the British embassy in Quito, demanding the release of a group leader who was later imprisoned by the Ecuadorian government.
They were responsible for several criminal actions, armed robberies to banks, robberies, and kidnappings; highlighting the kidnapping of Nahim Isaías Barquet, general manager of the bank Filanbanco, in September 1985, who died during the intervention for his rescue carried out by the Anti-Terrorist Unit of the Special Forces Brigade of the Ecuadorian Army, ordered by the then president León Febres-Cordero.
Due to the death in 1986 of its leader, Arturo Jarrín, arrests and the death of several other members in the same year as a result of the actions carried out by the security forces of the Ecuadorian State, AVC lost strength and was practically eliminated. According to the book The remnant of AVC it formally handed over its weapons in 1991. The balance of the AVC campaign between 1983 and 1988 was: 16 AVC members, six members of the M-19, 14 police officers killed, more than 20 injured.
Background
AVC arose during an economic crisis in the 1980s. During the 1970s Ecuador experienced an annual economic growth rate of 8.1% due in part to high oil prices. In 1982 the economy stagnated due to the fall in the price of oil and the simultaneous rise in interest rates in international markets. The middle and upper classes were the ones who benefited the most from the oil boom, but the popular classes were the ones who suffered the costs of the economic adjustment when the boom ended.
Beginning with President Osvaldo Hurtado (1981-1984) the government of Ecuador applied measures dictated by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to restructure the economy. These measures included: reducing fiscal spending, devaluing the local currency, and raising prices. The Febres-Cordero government (1984-1988) exacerbated the economic crisis. With the lowest oil price ever recorded in 1986.
His economic team was made up of three economists fully identified with the business sector: Carlos Julio Emanuel, Francisco Swett and Alberto Dahik. They devalued the Sucre, promoting agricultural exports and favoring economic groups. At the same time, they eliminated price controls and reduced the gasoline subsidy, increasing the price of gasoline by 70 percent. The impact of the crisis on the popular sectors increased unemployment and the inflation and reduced consumption. The crisis was felt particularly in the poor sectors of the cities with an average fall in real urban income of 8.7 percent per year from 1981 to 1989, the most large among Latin American countries.
Conformation
AVC was formed mainly by middle-class students with an urban guerrilla focus. It formed part of other revolutionary organizations such as the Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria (MIR). The MIR had student leaders, such as:
Fausto Basantes and Ricardo Merino of the Mejía National Institute of Quito
Arturo Jarrin. and Hamet Vásconez from La Salle College of Quito (currently La Salle-Conocoto)
Juan Cuvi and Juan Carlos Acosta from American College of Quito
Edgar Frías from the José Joaquín de Olmedo School, in Guayaquil.
There were also alumni from the Colegio Nacional Juan Pío Montúfar, Benalcázar and Cardenal Spellman schools in Quito.
Arturo Jarrín entered the Central University of Ecuador in Quito, to study sociology, leaving it during his fourth year, after participating in popular organization activities in the Ciudadela Ferroviaria de Quito, he joined AVC, becoming the leader of the organization being elected at The First AVC National Conference held in Esmeraldas in February 1983, attended by around 60 guerrillas. In it, the Central Command formed by three people, including Jarrín. Prior to this, in January Jarrín and other guerrillas assaulted the Banco de Fomento. AVC called all bank robberies "financial recoveries," which were the organization's primary means of financial support.
Assaults
The following is a partial list of armed robberies of banking institutions carried out by AVC members with the respective amounts stolen. The amounts in US dollars are approximate with the price of the year in which they occurred.
History
The group was initially formed some time in the 1970s but was not militarily active for the first several years of its existence. An avowedly leftist but non-Marxist organisation, they identified with the Democratic Left coalition. AVC first received national attention in 1983, when it broke into a museum and stole swords which had been used by Eloy Alfaro. Some of the group's leaders were thought to be affiliated with Cuba, Libya and Nicaragua, and the group itself was linked to militant groups from other Latin-American countries, such as the M-19 and the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement, establishing a joint operations group called America Battalion with these two groups. From 1986 to 1987, AVC carried out several kidnappings, robbed banks and a factory, took over a number of radio stations in order to broadcast their manifesto, and killed four police officers while retrieving a group member from police custody.
In response to this activity, the government began carrying out raids against the group. The group's leader Arturo Jarrin was killed during a shootout with government forces in October 1986. By 1987, a large number of AVC's leaders and members had either been killed or arrested. In 1989, the government of Ecuador reached an agreement with AVC, with the group agreeing to end its violence. In 1991, the group officially reformed as a legitimate political party. One year later, eight group members made an illegal, but non-violent entry into the British Embassy in Quito, demanding the release of a group leader who was then imprisoned by the Ecuadorian government.
Robbery of the sword of Eloy Alfaro
The first operation to receive extensive media coverage was the theft of the swords of Eloy Alfaro and Pedro José Montero from the Municipal Museum of Guayaquil, on August 11. In January 2012, Rosa Mireya Cárdenas, who served as Secretary of Peoples, as a delegate of former AVC members, she returned the swords to the then President of Ecuador Rafael Correa.
1983-1985
Since the beginning of 1983, the AVC carried out a large number of operations, which included actions such as bank robberies and graffiti, seeking in this way to achieve loudness in the media, which according to the AVC, were controlled by the "right".
The first National Conference is held between February 12 and 14, 1983 in Tonsupa Esmeraldas, where the "Eloy Alfaro People's Revolutionary Forces" are constituted, under the Slogan "Alfaro Lives, Dammit". On March 11, an attempt was made to assault the payer of Casa Baca (Quito), as a result of which Ricardo Merino and Vicente López were arrested. On July 8, the Bust of Eloy Alfaro was stolen from the headquarters of the Supreme Liberal Junta in Quito
On September 22, at the Pululahua resort (Pichincha), Jarrín, Mireya Cárdenas and Edgar Frías held a press conference in which they announced the existence of the organization. On November 2, the facilities of the radio stations: Noticia, La Fabulosa and Universal de Guayaquil were seized to condemn the intervention of United States in Nicaragua.
At the end of 1983 Jarrín and about twenty guerrillas traveled to Libya to receive military training in one of the camps sponsored by Muamar el Gaddafi. Basantes and Frías temporarily assumed control of AVC. In October, during training near Esmeraldas, Basantes and Cárdenas were arrested for illegal possession of weapons.
In April 1984, after the return of Jarrín from Libya and the release of Basantes from prison, the members of the AVC met and elected a Central Command made up of Jarrín, Basantes and Frías. On May 4, the AVC occupied the offices of the Ecuadorian News Agency (ANE) in Guayaquil to send a message against León Febres-Cordero, then a candidate for the presidency of Ecuador, and in support of Rodrigo Borja. On May 29, AVC militants abandoned pamphlets and detonated a low-power explosive in the Metropolitan Cathedral of Quito.
On June 12, the brothers Ricardo and Lilian Jarrín (both disguised as religious) assaulted the Banco de los Andes in Quito. On June 14, Jarrín along with half a dozen guerrillas assaulted the Banco del Pacífico, also in Quito. After the robbery, Jarrín and other guerrillas took refuge in the house of Consuelo Benavides, a worker at the Ministry of Industries and an AVC sympathizer. The police captured and tortured them. After the arrest of his sister and the threat of arrest of their parents by the police, Jarrín confessed his identity, his membership of the AVC and his participation in the robbery of Banco del Pacífico. Benavides for her part remained detained for months, accused of illicit association. She was released on April 14, 1985, after which she contacted the AVC in a rural area of Esmeraldas.
On August 10, the day that Febres-Cordero assumed the presidency of Ecuador, the AVC took over several radio stations to announce its opposition to the incoming government. In December, the AVC stole toys from a Quito factory and then distributed them among the residents of the poor neighborhoods of the city. At the end of that month Hamet Vásconez, who had been in El Salvador, arrived in Ecuador and joined the AVC Central Command, replacing Jarrín, who was detained in the García Moreno Prison in Quito.
Months later on November 1, they seized the newspaper Hoy and forced to include in its edition two pages with information about the group. On November 8, they kidnapped a reporter from the newspaper Meridiano de Guayaquil to force an interview with Fausto Basantes Borja.
On January 2, 1985, they assaulted an armored vehicle of the Banco de Descuento in Guayaquil, resulting in the death of a guerrilla Jorge Lima Trujillo and the arrest of another.
On March 12, they attacked the weapons warehouse of the National Police at the headquarters of the Central de Radiopatrullas. Seven guerrillas dressed as policemen, one with lieutenant's insignia, overpowered the five policemen on duty, cut the telephone lines, disconnected the radio system; stealing 631 38 caliber revolvers, 40 carbines and several boxes of bullets. Days later the police found part of the weapons in a vacant lot. In April Hamet Vásconez was arrested and his position in the AVC Central Command was taken over by Pedro Moncada. Colombian M-19 guerrilla member Fernando Carmona was also detained.
On April 29 of the same year, the director of the now-defunct José Franco Piedra Institute for Agrarian Reform and Colonization was kidnapped. In an anonymous call, the Alfaro Vive group claimed responsibility for the kidnapping. On May 10, they seized radio station Iris from Esmeraldas to broadcast an AVC proclamation. On May 21, they assaulted the Continental Bank of Guayaquil. On May 24 they took over the stations Z-1, 11-Q and Radio Uno from Guayaquil. On May 29 they took over Radio Continente.
On August 2, they assaulted a Filanbanco armored vehicle in Guayaquil, where Enrique Mejía and Joel Vargas were arrested. On August 9, they assaulted a PRONACA factory on the road to El Quinche where they were arrested three members. On August 30, during a police operation in the Alborada citadel in Guayaquil, a member died and four others were arrested.
On October 16, they seized the embassy of Mexico in response to the rupture of their diplomatic relations with Nicaragua. The same seized Radio Visión to force them to conduct an interview with Arturo Jarrín. On October 25, they assaulted the Citibank agency in Quito disguised as nuns and lottery sellers.
On December 7, they attacked an ENPROVIT warehouse in Durán.
Escape from the prison
At dawn on April 28, the AVC launched an operation to free Jarrín and Vásconez from Penal García Moreno. From a nearby commercial premises they dug a tunnel through which Jarrín, Vásconez and two other members of the AVC escaped, taking advantage of the guards' shift change. The tunnel ended in the courtyard of the Prison, where the members of the AVC carried out exercises. The construction of the tunnel was supervised by Marco Troya, a former miner.
Nahim Isaís kidnapping
The first kidnapping staged by AVC occurred in August 1985, when Nahim Isaías, owner of Filanbanco, was kidnapped for 26 days, dying in the operation that tried to free him.
The AVC wanted 5 million dollars for his ransom with whom he planned to train guerrillas together with the Colombian M-19 and form a rural guerrilla in Ecuador. A secondary objective was to make a political statement, being part of the Ecuadorian banking and commercial oligarchy. Thinking that the government would not put Isaías's life at risk and they would negotiate a financial bailout.
Juan Cuvi, Juan Carlos Acosta and Colombian guerrillas from the M-19 followed Isaías' activities for months until they found a weakness in his security measures. On August 7 they executed his plan, when Isaías arrived at his country house, known as "Las Alturas", 8 kilometers from Guayaquil on the road to Daule.
Their plan was to take him to a safe house in Manta. After the kidnapping, the guerrillas left Isaías' house in two cars: one carried the kidnapped with guerrillas and the other Juan Cuvi and Juan Carlos Acosta. Cuvi and Acosta's vehicle stopped at a gas station in Nobol where a police unit patrolling the area arrested them. The guerrillas from the second vehicle exchanged fire with the police and fled to Guayaquil, where they had to take Isaías to a house in the La Chala neighborhood.
Both Cuvi and Acosta were tortured by the police and by members of military intelligence. Acosta died on August 28 in a hospital after being severely tortured. Acosta was reportedly denied medical attention until his family intervened (his father was a former foreign minister), according to the official version he was injured during his detention after he shot members of the police. The President of the Republic assured that he had personally intervened in the case in order to save his life. According to his mother, Laura Coloma de Acosta, who visited him in the hospital earlier his body was covered in bruises and his testicles were mangled.
Isaías remained kidnapped in the house in the La Chala neighborhood until August 31, when the police surrounded the house. To free him, a ransom of $10 million and a plane to leave Ecuador were demanded. In accordance with the state policy of not negotiating with terrorists, on September 2 at 03:26 the Anti-Terrorist Unit of the Special Forces Brigade of the Ecuadorian Army was ordered to carry out a rescue operation. According to the government, members of the Isaías family were present when the operation was ordered. As a result, both Isaiah and his kidnappers died.
The failure of this operation collapsed the AVC's first attempt to generate an economic base.
Eduardo Granda kidnap attempt
On December 18 the AVC unsuccessfully tries to kidnap Eduardo Granda, heir to the family then owner of the television channel Teleamazonas, the plan was to capture him before entering his home, in the north of Quito, but he defended himself with a gun, wounding a woman guerrilla, who would be captured in a hospital where his wound was treated.
1986
During 1986 the actions carried out by the government almost completely neutralized the AVC, seeking mainly to eliminate its leaders (Jarrín, Basantes and Vásconez). The government had the support of an informant within the AVC, Fernando Flores, who agreed to help in exchange for a US visa. He helped police set up an ambush on Avenida de la Prensa in Quito in which Basantes was killed on January 4.
On January 31, they tried to blow up towers 3 and 4 of the National Interconnected System on the Panamericana Sur, km. 11–12, with dynamite charges. On February 4, a pamphlet bomb was detonated in the IESS hall in Quito.
In popular culture
The group is the subject of a 2007 documentary film titled ¡Alfaro vive carajo! Del Sueño Al Caos.
The post-hardcore rock group At The Drive-In has an EP named ¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!
Notes
References
Paramilitary organisations based in Ecuador
Left-wing militant groups
Guerrilla movements in Latin America
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah%20Utes
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Utah Utes
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The Utah Utes are the intercollegiate athletics teams that represent the University of Utah, located in Salt Lake City. The athletic department is named after the Ute tribe of Native Americans. The men's basketball team is known as the Runnin' Utes; the women's gymnastics team is known as the Red Rocks
Currently Utah competes in the Pac-12 Conference, after it was announced on June 17, 2010, that the Utes would join the conference in all sports, beginning in the 2011–2012 academic year. They are the third Pac-12 member to have previously spent time in the Western Athletic Conference (WAC), joining old conference rivals Arizona and Arizona State. They are also the first school to leave the Mountain West Conference (MW) since it was formed in 1999. On August 4, 2023, Utah accepted an invite to join the Big 12 Conference effective July 1st, 2024
Utah offers a total of 19 varsity sports—seven for men, 11 for women, and one coeducational. Baseball, football, golf, and lacrosse are sponsored for men only. Beach volleyball, cross country, gymnastics, indoor track & field, indoor volleyball, outdoor track & field, soccer, and softball are sponsored for women only. Basketball, swimming & diving, and tennis are sponsored for both sexes. The coeducational sport is skiing; while schools have separate men's and women's squads, the NCAA awards a single national team championship. Utah's newest varsity sport is men's lacrosse, which played its first season in 2019 (2018–19 school year).
Varsity sports
Baseball
The baseball team is made up of 32 Division I players from across the country and the world. 14 players are from Utah, 8 from Arizona, 4 from California, 2 from Nevada, and 1 from Louisiana, Oregon, Idaho, and the Netherlands. The Utes call Smith's Ballpark their home field. Smith's Ballpark was previously known as Franklin Covey Field but was changed in 2009 to Spring Mobile Ballpark, and again in 2014 than its present name. Smith's Ballpark is also the home of the Salt Lake Bees, Triple-A affiliate of Major League Baseball's Los Angeles Angels.
The Utah baseball team has won 1 Mountain West Conference Championship, occurring in 2009. This gave the Utes a regional berth for the first time since the 1960s. In the past 3 years Utah baseball has seen 6 of their players get drafted in the annual Major League Baseball draft, including C. J. Cron, first baseman for the Colorado Rockies.
Men's basketball
The Runnin' Utes basketball program has the 9th-most wins among college basketball programs. The Utes have made 27 NCAA Tournament appearances, which ranks 7th all-time, while the Utes 10 outright conference championships (28 championships overall) is the 5th best in NCAA history. In March 2021, Craig Smith was named head coach of the Utes.
Andrew Bogut was selected #1 in the 2005 NBA draft by the Milwaukee Bucks, making the University of Utah the only school in NCAA history to produce the #1 draft pick in both the NBA and NFL in the same year (Alex Smith). Other notable players that have gone on to play in the NBA are Delon Wright, Andre Miller, Keith Van Horn, Michael Doleac, Danny Vranes and Tom Chambers. The Utes have also been coached by several top NCAA coaches, including Vadal Peterson – the winningest coach in Utah basketball history, hall of fame coach Jack Gardner, Bill Foster and Rick Majerus.
Wataru Misaka — who led the Utes to the 1944 NCAA and 1947 NIT championships — later became the first person of color to play in modern professional basketball when he joined the New York Knicks, just months after Jackie Robinson had broken the color barrier in Major League Baseball for the Brooklyn Dodgers.
The Utes have played in four Final Fours, winning the 1944 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship. Utah also added an NIT title in 1947. Jerry Chambers was named MVP of the 1966 Final Four in which Utah lost to eventual champion Texas Western (UTEP) and the legendary coach Don Haskins. They also played for the 1998 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship, losing to the Kentucky Wildcats.
Women's basketball
The team is coached by Lynne Roberts, who came to Utah from Pacific after the firing of previous Utes head coach Anthony Levrets following the 2014–15 season. The Utes have gone to the NCAA Women's Division I Basketball Championship tournament 15 times, and former coach Elaine Elliott has a 536–212 record (.717). The program's most successful season came in the 2005–2006 campaign. The Utes, who finished in 2nd place in the Mountain West Conference, won the conference tournament championship and advanced to the NCAA Tournament for the 14th time in school history. After getting by Middle Tennessee in the first round of the 2006 Women's NCAA Tournament, Utah surprised the 4th seeded Arizona State Sun Devils to advance to the Sweet 16 for only the second time in school history. There the Utes faced 8th seeded Boston College and gutted out a 3-point win, advancing to the Elite Eight for the first time in school history. Making the regional finals, Utah became the first women's team in Mountain West Conference history to ever do so. In doing so, the Utes would go on to play 2nd seeded, and eventual national champion, Maryland. The game went into OT, but Maryland prevailed and Utah's amazing run came to an end.
In the 2006 WNBA draft Utah guard Shona Thorburn was selected by Minnesota Lynx with the 7th pick and Kim Smith, a forward for the Utes, was selected 13th overall by the Sacramento Monarchs.
Football
The University of Utah college football program began in 1892. Their current home stadium, Rice-Eccles Stadium, was built in 1998 on the site of their former home, Rice Stadium. The Utes have a record of 13–4 (.765) in bowl games, which is the highest percentage in the nation for teams who have been to more than ten bowls. They have won twenty-four conference championships, including six in a row from 1928 to 1933 when they were part of the Rocky Mountain Athletic Conference.
After a twenty-eight year stretch of not playing in a bowl game, Utah football experienced a resurgence in the early 1990s under head coach Ron McBride. The Utes played Washington State in the 1992 Copper Bowl, losing to the Cougars 31–28, and reached their peak under McBride when they finished the 1994 season ranked 10th in the Associated Press Top 25 poll and recorded a 16–13 victory over Arizona in the Freedom Bowl. The team was the first Mountain West Conference team, as well as the first team from a BCS non-AQ conference, to play in and win a BCS bowl.
The Utes have a 171–89 (.658) record since the beginning of the 2000 season. Along the way, Utah engineered an eighteen-game winning streak. They produced an undefeated season in 2004, when the Utes were 12–0 and became the first school from a Bowl Championship Series non-AQ conference to play in a BCS bowl game, earning them the title of BCS Busters. The Utes played the Big East Conference champion Pittsburgh Panthers in the 2005 Fiesta Bowl, winning 35–7. The Utes finished the season ranked #4 in the AP poll. Later that year Alex Smith, who was Utah's quarterback for the 2003 and 2004 seasons, was drafted #1 by the San Francisco 49ers in the 2005 NFL Draft. He became the first player in the state of Utah to ever be drafted first. This culminated in the University of Utah becoming the first school in history to produce two #1 professional draft picks in the same year when Andrew Bogut became the #1 pick in the 2005 NBA draft.
Utah is currently coached by Kyle Whittingham, who took over for Urban Meyer after Meyer left Utah for Florida after two seasons with the Utes. During the 2008 season, Utah again went undefeated with a 13–0 record, which included a 31–17 victory over the Alabama Crimson Tide in the 2009 Sugar Bowl. The Utes finished the season ranked #2 in the AP poll. During Utah's tenure in the MWC, Whittingham's Utes had gone 58–20 (.744) overall, 35–13 (.729) in conference play, and had won seven bowl games (the Fiesta Bowl, the Emerald Bowl, the Armed Forces Bowl, the Poinsettia Bowl (twice), the Sugar Bowl, and the Las Vegas Bowl). After having moved to the Pac-12, Whittingham's Utes had gone 86–50 (.632) overall, 54–44 (.551) in conference play, and won five bowl games (the Sun Bowl, the Las Vegas Bowl (twice), the Foster Farms Bowl, and the Heart of Dallas Bowl).
On June 17, 2010, the University of Utah officially accepted an invitation to join the Pac-12.
Notable players to have played for the University of Utah are Pro Football Hall of Fame member Larry Wilson, Super Bowl Head Coach Winner George Seifert, Manny Fernandez, Marv Bateman, Norm Chow, Scott Mitchell, Kevin Dyson, Andre Dyson, Chris Fuamatu-Ma'afala, Luther Elliss, Jamal Anderson, Mike Anderson, Bob Trumpy, Roy Jefferson, Paul Soliai, Barry Sims, Sione Pouha, Koa Misi, Chris Kemoeatu, Maake Kemoeatu, Jonathan Fanene, Jordan Gross of the Carolina Panthers, Steve Smith Sr. with the Panthers and Baltimore Ravens, Alex Smith of the Kansas City Chiefs and the Washington Football Team, Sean Smith of the Oakland Raiders, Robert Johnson of the Tennessee Titans and Eric Weddle of the San Diego Chargers.
Women's gymnastics
The women's gymnastic team, the Red Rocks, has won the national gymnastics championship title 10 times, beginning with an AIAW national championship title in 1981, more than any other university except the University of Georgia, to whom they finished second from 2006 to 2008. In the years when Utah does not place first, they are almost always #2 or #3. The ten-time national champion Utah gymnastics team has qualified for a record 31st-consecutive national championship. Utah is the only program to qualify for all 25 NCAA Championships. The Utes won the 2006 women's gymnastics attendance title, averaging 12,747 spectators to their six regular season home meets. It marked the second-highest attendance average in Utah and NCAA gymnastics history. Utah has won twenty-two of the last twenty-five gymnastics attendance titles. This is also one of the highest attendance averages for any women's college sport in the nation.
Skiing
The Utah men's skiing team won a national championship in 1981; the women, 1978. The teams won the combined national championship in 1983, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1993, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2017, 2019, 2021, 2022 and 2023.
Women's soccer
Utah's women's soccer team has appeared in the NCAA tournament six times, most recently in 2016. That season, the Utes managed the program's best-ever tournament result, progressing to the Round of 16 where they lost 1–0 to round hosts and eventual national champions USC.
Softball
Utah's softball team has appeared in six Women's College World Series, in 1976, 1982 (AIAW), 1985, 1991, 1994, and 2023.
Men's lacrosse
Utah's lacrosse team officially became a Division I lacrosse team in its 2019 inaugural season. After playing their first three seasons as an independent, the Utes joined the newly reinstated men's lacrosse league of the ASUN Conference in July 2021, and winning the regular season titles in both 2022 and 2023.
Notable non varsity sports
Rugby
Utah rugby plays in Division 1 in the Pacific Athletic Conference, and plays its postseason in the Varsity Cup Championship.
Utah has consistently fielded one of the top college rugby teams in the country, reaching the national championship game in 2002 and 2005, losing to rivals Cal both times, and reaching the national semifinals in 2006 and 2011. Utah finished the 2010 regular season ranked #2 in the nation. The success of the Utah rugby program has led to commercial success, with Utah rugby securing sponsorships from national companies such as Under Armour and New York Life. Utah rugby has been led since 2008 by head coach Blake Burdette, who played for the US national team at the 2007 Rugby World Cup.
Utah's rugby program has also been successful in rugby sevens. Utah has twice played in the Collegiate Rugby Championship, a tournament broadcast live on NBC every year. Utah won the inaugural 2010 tournament by defeating Cal in sudden death extra time. Utah placed third in the 2011 tournament, but narrowly failed to qualify for the 2012 tournament, losing 17–12 to Life University in the finals of the 2012 Las Vegas Invitational qualifying tournament. Utah finished second to Cal at the 2012 PAC 7s tournament, narrowly missing out on qualification to the 2012 USA Rugby Sevens Collegiate National Championships.
Pageantry
Nickname
The "Utes" nickname comes from the Ute tribe, from which the state of Utah derives its name. The Ute tribe gave the University of Utah explicit permission to use the name for all its athletic teams, which allowed the school to keep the name when the NCAA began pressuring member schools to drop Native American-themed names. The men's basketball team is known as the "Runnin' Utes"; the women's basketball team used to be called the "Lady Utes," but now prefers to be referred to as the "Utes"; and the women's gymnastics team is known as the "Red Rocks."
Before 1972, Utah used the nickname "Redskins". The university discontinued the practice because the term "Redskin" could be considered an ethnic slur and sometimes be considered offensive by Native Americans.
Mascot
Swoop, a red-tailed hawk, is the mascot of the Utah Utes sports teams. The university introduced Swoop with the consent of the tribal council of the Ute tribe in 1996. Originally the school's mascot was an American Indian, but was dropped. Later Hoyo, a cartoon Indian Boy, became an unofficial mascot, but was also dropped. During the 1980s the Crimson Warrior, a Caucasian horseman dressed in Indian costume, would ride onto the field before home football games and plant a lance into a bale of hay. The warrior was considered more a symbol of the school than a mascot.
Fight song
The Utah fight song is "Utah Man". Harvey Holmes and the football team wrote the song in 1904. The song was popularized during a football game at Colorado when Thomas Fitzpatrick heard four Utah students singing the song from the stands. It is sung to the tune of Solomon Levi, an old folk song. Many of the song's lyrics are identical to lyrics found in a Sigma Chi fraternity song.
"Utah Man" controversy
Due to some portions of the Utah fight song's lyrics potentially being interpreted as sexist and racist, there have been attempts to change portions of the song. Most notably, in 1984, a University of Utah vice president proposed changing the lyrics “Who am I, sir? A Utah man am I” to “Who am I, friend? A Utah fan am I”; in 2000, an entirely new song was written to replace “Utah Man” as the university's official fight song, but failed to gain popularity.
In addition to the repeated line “a Utah man am I”, the line “Our Co-eds are the fairest” has been criticized both for potentially objectifying women and seeming to prefer lighter skin tones. On April 22, 2014, members of the ASUU voted to push for changes to specific portions of the song's lyrics. These changes are summarized in the official ASUU Joint Resolution 11 as follows:
The Title of the Song—The title “Utah Man” can be viewed as referring only to male members of the campus community
Repetition of “Utah Man” throughout the song—can be interpreted by some as [a] reminder of a status given to male students or men as representative of all students, even though many students at the University of Utah do not identify as men or being a man
The phrase “Our Co-eds are the fairest” in the Song—this phrase can potentially be interpreted as objectifying women on campus while also supporting a hierarchy built on complexion and skin tone, privileging a light or “fair” appearance.
The proposal from ASUU was met with overwhelming opposition from students, faculty and alumni. In July 2014 university President David Pershing announced a compromise, highlighting optional alternate lyrics in the official, published fight song. "When printed officially by the university, this 2014 version of the fight song will be used, but historical renditions of the song will always be acceptable," Pershing said. "We encourage you to sing — loudly and with pride — whichever version resonates with you."
Championships
NCAA team championships
Utah has won 25 NCAA team national championships.
Men's (2)
Basketball (1): 1944
Skiing (1): 1981
Women's (9)
Gymnastics (9): 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1990, 1992, 1994, 1995
Co-ed (14)
Skiing (13): 1983, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1993, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2017, 2019, 2021, 2022, 2023
see also:
Pac-12 Conference NCAA championships
List of NCAA schools with the most NCAA Division I championships
Other national team championships
Below are eight national team titles that were not bestowed by the NCAA:
Men's
Basketball (2): 1916 (AAU), 1947 (NIT)
Football (2): 2004 (undefeated, no selectors), 2008 (selected by A&H and Wolfe math systems)
Skiing (1): 1947
Women’s AIAW championships:
Cross-country (1): 1981 (Div. II)
Gymnastics (1): 1981
Skiing (1): 1978
see also:
List of NCAA schools with the most Division I national championships
See also
BYU–Utah rivalry
Beehive Boot
References
External links
College sports in Utah
Sports in Salt Lake City
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Cinema of the Middle East
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Middle Eastern cinema collectively refers to the film industries of West Asia and part of North Africa. By definition, it encompasses the film industries of Egypt, Iran, Bahrain, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Palestine, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. As such, the film industries of these countries are also part of the cinema of Asia, or in the case of Egypt, Africa.
Since the inception of cinema in Europe and the United States, many people assumed that cinema in the Middle East arrived much later than Western Cinema. However, it was found that cinema was brought into most of the Arab countries by the beginning of the 20th century by Pathé Frères or the Lumière Brothers. Eventually by the 1950s Egyptian cinema was the main dominating Arab and Middle Eastern film industry and this led to many other Middle Eastern countries incorporating Egyptian conventions into their own films.
Each Middle Eastern country has a different and distinctive culture of cinema which differs in both history and infrastructure. The historical component includes key events and trigger points which led to the inception or emergence of cinema in the Middle East. The infrastructural component defines the current institution and/or systems in place which facilitate the financing/development/exhibition of cinema, locally or internationally.
Bahrain
The first cinema to be established in Bahrain consisted of a makeshift cinema set up in a cottage in 1922, with the first official cinema set up in 1937. Several more were established in the 1950s and 1960s, and the Bahrain Cinema and Film Distribution Company began operating in 1967, which was renamed the Bahrain Cinema Company in 1976. There are now a number of modern-style cinemas in Bahrain, including the 20-screen complex in Bahrain City Centre. (See Cinema of Bahrain).
Cyprus
Egypt
History of the industry
Egypt's history of film started a few months following the Lumière Brothers' first film screening in Europe. In 1896, their film was taken to Egypt and was screened exclusively to a group of Egyptians in the Schneider Baths, Alexandria. A year later in the same city, the Cinematographe Lumière, was opened and had recurring screenings of the films. Egypt was one of the few countries of the Arab world and Middle East to be able to establish a film industry during their colonization. However, the types of films that were shot in Egypt at the time were more direct-cinema-styled documentaries or news reels. Eventually, they did more news reels and also began creating short films. In 1906, Felix Mesguich, who worked for the Lumière Brothers, went to Egypt to film a short film on his camera for them. The film-viewing audience in Egypt kept growing until in 1908 there were a total of eleven movie theaters in the country. One of the French theaters brought in a camera and photographer to create local news reels to play exclusively in their own theater to compete with the other theaters. With this growing interest in film, Italian investors opened STICA film company in the city that was to be the hub of film, Alexandria, in 1917. Eventually, they shut down due to their low-quality films and the unfamiliarity of the producers with the Egyptian environment. One of the three films they created featured verses from the Muslim Qur'an vertically inverted which led it to being banned by government officials. Furthermore, their films had Italian actors and directors which did not help their case. With time, more films and newsreels were created. In 1926, the Lebanese Lama brothers came back from Argentina with their cameras and began creating Western-styled films in the deserts of Egypt. Up until that point, Egyptians had not been happy that most of the films that were created were not done by Egyptians and featured Western actors in an Egyptian setting. Finally, the film Layla (1927) was vastly popular because it was produced by an Egyptian theater actress, Aziza Amir, and features a narrative that was familiar to most Egyptian audiences. Therefore, this film was considered by many the first Egyptian film (even though it was directed by a Turkish director) and was the first film to be produced by a woman. This marked the beginning of the national cinema in Egypt.
Following this there was a peak in Egyptian film production. "From 1927 to 1930 two full-length films were produced a year, five films were released in 1931 and six in both 1933 and 1934". Although all these films were created independently, in 1935, Studio Misr was founded and was followed by six more studios from 1936 to 1948. Studio Misr did not dominate the industry, but was one of the big factors that launched Egyptian cinema (including their decision to move production from Alexandria to Cairo).
During this time, Egypt was the strongest Arab and Middle Eastern country that made films, which many other countries in the Middle East looked up to. Some of the Arab countries would attempt to copy the Egyptian melodramatic formulas and would make the film in the Egyptian dialect. With time, there were many changes that led many Egyptian filmmakers to start gradually making their movies in Lebanon instead. First, the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 made it less stable politically in Egypt. Second, the nationalization of the film industry (1962) in Egypt slowly brought more restrictions to the films until the film censorship laws that were issued in 1976. The Egyptian presence in Lebanon impacted the Lebanese film output. Between 1963 and 1970, half of the movies that were produced in Lebanon were in the Egyptian dialect.
Eventually, the Egyptians moved back to Egypt due to the civil war in Lebanon. Following the censorship in Egypt, there was an increased sense of morality and modesty on screen (from the late 1960s to the 80s). These constraints led a change in film movements from romance and love stories to new realist and melodramatic realism. This wave impacted many of the films from today. According to Ibrahim Farghali, an Egyptian journalist, "To me, the Egypt of today seems influenced by the ’68 movement in its call for change, the surmounting of traditional values, and liberation from oppression, whether political, social, ethical, or religious". More recently, the film The Square (2013) which was a documentary about the Egyptian Revolution of 2011. It was also nominated for an Academy Award as Best Foreign Film.
Although Egypt's film industry is not as powerful as it was before due to growing financial issues, it still dominates the Arab Cinema output especially in mainstream cinema where it outputs up to 77% of the films. That is because of an already established ecosystem for Egyptian cinema that saw its rise in the 1960s. Today, it includes leading regional players such as the distribution company MAD solutions. In addition to that, Egypt hosts a variety of film festivals which help sustain the local film culture, including notable regional festivals such as the El Gouna film festival, which boasts an impressive lineup of stars every year.
Notable Directors and Films
Iraq
History of the industry
Iraq has a long history of cinema since their independence in 1921. In the course of 82 years, from 1921 to 2003, 100 films have been produced and released in Iraq.
The first theater in Iraq opened its doors before 1920.
Post-independence period, more cinemas began to appear. A milestone was achieved in 1957 when 137 cinemas were established with a total capacity of 70,000 seats. After 1940, studios slowly began to appear in Iraq where Iraqi-made films would be produced.
One of the first studios in Iraq was opened in 1946 by the wealthy Sawda’i family in Baghdad. Studio Baghdad relied on specialists from Europe and Egypt to function. Its first movie, ‘Aliya wa ‘Isam, was recorded by the French director André Shatan, and released in 1948. In 1951, the Sawda’i family moved to Israel. For the next three years, various Iraqi's from abroad took over control until it was sold to Iraqi's who lived abroad in 1954. The studio still made movies for the next 12 years, until it was sold to the Coca-Cola Company in 1966, who wanted to turn the land and buildings into a new factory.
The government of Iraq established a department of cinema in 1959, which only produced a couple documentaries and two films per year.
During the reign of Saddam Hussein from 1979 to 2003, the cinema industry in Iraq was mainly filled with pro-Baathist propaganda.
Until 1991, Iraq was home to 275 cinemas across the nation, even though during the era of Saddam Hussein many theaters were slowly closed down. When the First Gulf War began, film-making equipment and celluloids were banned from entering the country because of an international embargo put on Iraq.
Post-invasion of Iraq
In 2003, film production in Iraq halted because of the U.S. invasion. In the same year, the National Film Archives in Iraq was bombed by the U.S. army and almost all of its celluloid collection was wiped away. Following from this, the Iraqi Independent Film Centre (IIFC) became active, which was formally established in 2009 by founder Mohammed Al-Daradji. It was the first Iraqi organization of its kind where cultural preservation of the movie industry was its objective.
In 2014, the Al-Nahj festival was founded, a film festival which was focused on short films and documentaries.
In 2017, the first Iraqi-made film was released after 27 years in Baghdad. The Journey is a psychological thriller film directed by Mohammed Al-Daradji with Zahraa Ghandour in the leading role.
Notable people in Iraqi cinema
Iran
Notable people in Iran cinema
Israel
History of the industry
The history of Israeli cinema is so closely related to the history of the state of Israel itself since some of the wars and international conflicts that the country has started or been involved in inspired Israeli film directors and gave rise to the different periods of the nation's film industry.
Some authors consider 1948 as the year in which the Israeli film industry was born along with the establishment of the state of Israel, others hold that its trajectory dates back to the 1920s when the silent films of Ya'akov Ben-Dov and other Israeli film directors made their appearance, but what they all agree on is that Zionist Realism Cinema dominated the industry until the 1950s. The films of this cinematic current were part of the propagandistic material used by Zionist organizations during the pre-statehood period to encourage the migration of European Jews to Palestine, they emphasized the agricultural way of living in the land of Palestine and featured traditional symbols that Jews could relate to, such as the Star of David and the Menorah. Between the end of World War II and the declaration of the Jewish state, Israeli films portrayed holocaust survivors and their journey to escape their tragic past of persecution, homelessness, and desolation in order to become true Israelis and fulfill their "duty" to claim the land, build settlements, and begin a new life in Palestine. Post-1948 films shifted from the Holocaust theme and started to highlight the new Israeli 'heroes', mainly the soldiers and the 'Sabras' (newborn Israelis). After the outbreak of the Arab-Israeli conflict, these films were one way in which the new state forged a nationalist narrative and portrayed how the perfect Hebrew Israeli men should be This branch of the Zionist Realism genre is called the Heroic-Nationalist Cinema.
In the 1960s-70s, two new film genres were born. The first one, the Bourekas films, named after a popular local pastry, were comedies and melodramas that depicted the inter-ethnic conflict between Mizrahi and Ashkenazi Jews, which generally was resolved by means of the consummation of a mixed marriage. The ingenuity of Bourekas filmmakers was, on one hand, their ability to use comedy and sentimentalism as a way to avoid serious involvement with more problematic issues and, on the other, their effort to legitimize Mizrahim as part of the Jewish-Israeli society through the marriage plot. The most famous of these films was Ephraim Kishon's Sallah Shabati (1964), which was the first Israeli film nominated for an Oscar award and a turning point in the Israeli film industry's history due to its combination of elements from the new and modern Israeli cinema. The second genre to appear during these decades was the New Sensibility cinema, also labeled as personal cinema or the Israeli New Wave. This current was characterized by low production budget films with urban scenery, debutant actors or non-actors as protagonists, experimental cinematic techniques, open-ended plots, and unconventional narrative strategies. However, the most important thing connecting these films was a strong motivation to break with the political subordination of films to Zionist ideology and a sense of fight for the recognition of film maker's artistic autonomy.
The aftermath of the Yom Kippur War in 1973, the electoral victory of Menachen Begin in 1977, and the rise of the Likud party in the country's political arena created the perfect environment for the birth of a new cinematic trend: films of the Political Cinema or Protest Cinema of the 1980s was the way in which Israeli filmmakers showed their opposition to the new right-wing government and protested against the political and social reality in Israel. The themes handled in these films were varied; they portrayed the complexity of the relationship between Holocaust survivors and native Israeli Jews; they criticized Israeli militarism, and they exposed the colonialist side of the Zionist mission in Palestine. Another important aspect of this new cinematic wave was that it questioned the Israeli identity and it did so by altering the traditional characteristics of the protagonists; for instance, the former 'Sabra hero' of the Zionist Realism cinema was now presented as a physically impotent, mentally damaged, weak, or frustrated soldier.
Notable people in Israeli cinema
Jordan
History of the Industry
The first known cinema in Jordan was the Petra Cinema in 1935. However, it is said that there was a cinema called 'Abu Siyah' in the 1920s and one of the first films it screened were Charlie Chaplin's silent films. As opposed to Egypt and Lebanon, Jordan joined the film industry much later, with their first films being released in the 1950s. The reason was most likely due to the fact that Jordan gained independence from the British mandate in 1946.
The first film to be created in Jordan was Struggle in Jerash, being released eleven years later in 1957. The film was set in Jordan and Palestine and was a romance film (especially with the success of such films were in Egypt at the time). To this day, this film is used as a reference to how Jordan and Palestine looked like in the 1950s. This film also tried to introduce the idea of Jordanian nationalism. In fact, at one point in the film, the female love interest, Maria, says, "As long as I am by you I feel like I am home." The male love interest, Atif, replies "you are truly home," and then Maria says, "It's true, I was born in Jordan". It was directed by the Jordanian director, Wasif Al-Shaikh and was filmed by the Palestinian refugee, Ibrahim Hassan Sirhan, who created many documentary-styled films in Palestine in the years before. Historians disagree over whether this was documentary or narrative film, because it uses elements of both. In 1964, A Storm on Petra by the Egyptian director, Farooq Ajrama was created. This film was a collaboration between the film industries of Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon and Italy, and was distributed internationally.
Since then, only four new films were made. Instead, there were more Western studios that were filming in Jordan in order to use Wadi Rum and other desert-like areas as locations for many of their films. Some of the more famous examples include, Lawrence of Arabia (1962) and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989). Years later, the Abdul Hameed Shoman Foundation was founded in 1989 to help cultivate a cinema culture of Arab films in an attempt to establish the film industry in Jordan. Moreover, in 2003 the Royal Film Commission was established that was also an attempt to encourage the production of Jordanian films. As a result, more Jordanian films were being produced including, the 2014 Academy Award nominee, Theeb, Captain Abu Raed (2008), and 3000 Nights (2016) which was a recipient of the Royal Film Commission's Fund.
The Commission fund is central to Jordan's contemporary film infrastructure and serves as a backdrop for Arab Cinema as a whole through a grants program, support for local filmmakers and an established series of workshops. Increasingly, Jordan has been capitalizing on its unique landscapes as ideal film location (especially Wadi Rum) and is now becoming a go to destination for Hollywood prestige pictures which around the world such as Lawrence of Arabia, The Martian, or even Star Wars: Rogue One. Therefore, natural landscapes can be considered an essential part of Jordan's film infrastructure because it enables the import of internationally acclaimed film productions.
Notable Directors and Films
Kuwait
Sons of Sinbad was the first movie shot in Kuwait, in 1939 by Alan Villier. The Kuwait Cinema Company was then established in 1954, with the first cinema located in the Sharq area. It now runs the Cinescape cinema chain, the only theatre chain available to Kuwaiti cinema goers. The well-known Kuwaiti film Bas Ya Bahar was produced in 1972 by Khalid al Siddiq, which tells the story of a pearl diver who is hunting for a large pearl so that he can marry a woman from a rich family. The film is set in Kuwait's pre-oil days and is critical of society and its treatment of women and religion. (See Cinema of Kuwait).
Lebanon
History of the Industry
The history of film in Lebanon goes back to the 1880s. Two years after the Lumière Brothers publicly projected their first film in December 1885 (Paris, France), they began sending traveling representatives to tour different countries to show their movies. One of the cities that they visited was Lebanon's capital city, Beirut. Several years later, in 1909, the first movie theater was opened in the same city by the Pathé Frères. These events helped cultivate a film-viewing culture into the country. Eventually, Jordano Pidutti, who was Italian driver to a well-known Lebanese family (who was fluent in Arabic and spent several years in the country) directed the first-ever silent film in Lebanon - The Adventures of Elias Mabrouk (1929). With the arrival of sound came many developments in Lebanese film production. In 1933, Lumar Film Company, the first ever-film production company opened and was funded by Herta Gargour. The technicians of the company were trained by Pathé Studios in France. By 1934, Lumar Film Company created the first Arabic-speaking Lebanese film, In the Ruins of Baalbak. This film was also the first to be completely created in an Arab country (including film development). After a five-year pause in progress, studios such as Studio Al-Arz and Studio Haroun started and had all the necessary equipment to make movies in the 1950s. Although the 50s, was when these films included countryside locations and the Lebanese dialect, they flopped commercially. As a result, studios started create films that were similar to the Egyptian melodramatic and bedouin films, which were doing well commercially at the time. Moreover, at this time, Egyptian filmmakers started going to Lebanon to film especially after the Egyptian revolution of 1952 and the political stability of Lebanon at the time. This led to films that did not have a distinct Lebanese identity since Lebanese filmmakers were trying to imitate the success of Egyptian films while Egyptian filmmakers were creating their same old Egyptian films in Lebanon. Between 1963 and 1970 there were 100 films produced in Lebanon, and from them 54 were in the Egyptian dialect.
Following the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), cinema infrastructure and many of the film reels were destroyed. The Egyptian filmmakers went back to Egypt since it was more politically stable especially following the end of the film ideology set by the public film sector. The Civil War in Lebanon brought more complications to filmmaking, especially when it came to resources. There, the focus was creating commercial films for television. This included entertainment shows for comedy, news reels, political documentaries (which were read by viewers differently depending on which political party they supported), and melodramas that were usually knock-offs of popular films. One film medium that became incredibly popular during the war was the viewing and creation of films through home video. This led the film West Beyrouth (Ziad Doueiri, 1998) to become a very popular feature film amongst Lebanese people at the time. The film highlighted the war through a narrative that combined clips and elements of home video with a conventional film (in a Lebanese dialect). This kickstarted Lebanese cinema into a renaissance period and helped solve the identity crisis.
Lebanon's modern film industry has only become more developed and more productive since then. Its current infrastructure (2019) includes some of the biggest and most numerous film institutions and funding bodies such AFAC (Arab Fund for Arts and Culture), Al Mawred (government), and Zoomal (crowd funding), and more. As for film festivals, Lebanon hosts the annual Beirut International Film Festival alongside less notable film festivals. As a result, by 2016 Lebanon has been one of the leading countries in cinema production. Though, due to a lack of mainstream infrastructure and bodies which support more independent cinema, it leads on independent movies front by producing 20% of Arab independent cinema a year.
Lebanon's modern film industry has only become more developed and more productive since then. In recent years, two Lebanese films have been nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, The Insult (Ziad Doueiri 2017) and Capernaum (Nadine Labaki, 2018).
Notable Directors and Films
Oman
The cinema of Oman is reportedly small, with only one major film having been released. It hosts the Muscat Film Festival annually since 2005. Al-Boom, Oman's first feature-length film, premiered in 2006.
Palestine
History of the Industry
Film in Palestine began when the Lumière brothers sought out to receive 'exotic' shots of Palestine as the proclaimed 'Holy Land' they used this in their film La Palestina en 1896 (1897). This film was simply observational footage of people living their everyday lives in Palestine. In 1900, the films of the Lumière brothers were screened in Europa Hotel in the city of Jerusalem and in 1908, Egyptian Jews opened a cinema in Jerusalem called, Oracle. Similar to Egypt and Lebanon, the first film made in Palestine was actually not made by Palestinians at all. It was called The First Film of Palestine (1911) made by Morey Rosenberg and was used to perpetuate Zionist propaganda and the idea of Palestine being a "a land without people for a people without land". As for actual first Palestinian films, similar to the rest of the Arab world, they were direct-cinema-styled documentaries or travelogues. In the theaters, there was a law issued by the government in 1929 called The Moving Pictures Act, which censored films that contained immoral actions and behaviors that may in any way negatively impact the audience.
In 1935, Ibrahim Hassan Sirhan (who would later go and become the cinematographer of Jordan's first feature film Struggle in Jerash) documented a 20-minute film on the visit of the Saudi Prince Saud to Jerusalem and Jaffa. Zionist forms of propaganda, specifically news reels, continued until the late 1960s. With the Palestinian Nakba of 1948 and the declaration of the state of Israel, many Palestinians started to leave Palestine and there were no records of any Palestinian films at the time. However, there was an Egyptian film that was made called Girl from Palestine (1948) that discussed this issue . Following the political instabilities in Palestine, the Palestine Liberation Organization was formed in 1964. Still, most of the film-related operations of Palestinian filmmakers were happening outside the country. In 1968, the Palestinian Film Unit was founded in Jordan and the some films were being created in exile in Lebanon where many Palestinians found refuge. The first film created by the Palestinian Film Unit in Jordan was a documentary called No Peaceful Solution! (1968). After creating a few films in Jordan, there were some tensions between Jordanian Authorities and the Palestinian resistance movement, that lead to the film unit to be relocated to Lebanon.
By simply reading the titles of the films that the Palestinians were making at the time, the revolutionary mindsets and intentions were very clear. Some examples include, Why We Plant Roses, Why We Carry Weapons (1973), The Guns Will Never Keep Quiet (1973) and The Guns are Unified (1974). Regardless, by 1982, there were more than sixty movies that were created and almost all of them were documentaries. However, in 1987, the first feature-length fiction film that was filmed in historic Palestine was released called, Wedding in Galilee, by Michel Khleifi. This introduced post-revolutionary filmmaking that contained more experimental and fiction films (and elements). Unfortunately, even then, Palestine did not possess the resources and infrastructure neither to create nor to distribute their films to their native audiences. To this very day, the industry is slowly growing and more recently, two of their films have been nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film: Omar (2013) and Paradise Now (2005) (both by director Hany Abu-Assad).
Because a great part of the Palestinian population is scattered around the world, and due to political turmoil in the country, Palestine does not have the necessary governmental or private support to sustain its own film industry and therefore the few Palestinian filmmakers heavily rely on regional and international institutions which they most of the time have access to because of their dual nationality. Nonetheless, as a result of the Palestinian diaspora around the world, there have been numerous film festivals dedicated to the Palestinian theme which are located in foreign cities such as London, Doha, and even Chicago.
Notable Directors and Films
Qatar
History of the industry
Qatar has little known cinema history. The Qatar Cinema Company was founded in 1970, which built a number of movie theaters showing foreign films. There has been little development of the Qatari film industry, though that may be set to change since the founding of the Doha Film Institute in 2010, which aims to bring together all of the country's film making initiatives and projects. Qatar also hosted an annual Doha Tribeca Film Festival launched in 2009 but was discontinued in 2012. Doha Film Institute was created by Sheikha Al-Mayassa bint Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani's initiative in 2010 to primarily foster a film culture and industry for Qatar's 2030 vision of a knowledge based economy but also to alternatively enhance the region's film industry. It does so primarily through grants, workshops, labs and development activities which aims at the local Qatari talent's development but is also open to regional MENA talent. For its first initiatives, Doha Film Institute partnered with the Tribeca Enterprise to launch the Doha Tribeca Film Festival which aimed to foster a grass root film industry but was ended after four years to make way to other initiatives such as the annual Qumra (five editions) and the Ajyal Film Festival (seven editions). The Doha Film Institute's new trajectory with its new initiatives is to focus its efforts fostering interest from an early in the local community, thus the children based judging for the Ajyal Film Festival. It is also to strengthen the making and appeal of its annually granted projects through the Qumra projects.
Qatar's current exhibition and distribution scheme is encouraged by a high demand of film viewing in theaters in addition to widespread online viewing, with the latter encourage theatrical visits from entertainment seekers in Qatar In 2017 only, there was a surge of 50 cinemas across Qatar in only 6 months as there was a rise of 35% in moviegoers across the nation. The exhibition landscape is competitively shared between worldwide exhibitors such as Novo, Vox and Gulf Media but also locally based theaters such as Landmark and Doha cinema (Souq Waqif).
Qatar's current contemporary cinema infrastructure includes its national film center charged of local and regional development of the film scene along with a competitive distribution and growing theatrical distribution landscape. Qatar does not have many feature films made by local talent, on the other hand, Qatari film companies have funded many films which won prestigious awards. The following is a list of notable films financed by Qatar.
Notable directors and films (funded)
Saudi Arabia
History
Initially, Saudi Arabia did not refute the idea of movie theaters and allowed independent improvised cinemas which functioned outside of government oversight. Similar to many of the other Arab countries, cinema was introduced into Saudi Arabia by westerners, who were working for oil and gas companies in Saudi Arabia, such as Aramco, at the time. This led to the building of projector screens in residential buildings in the 1930s. The cinemas went on to screen Egyptian films of the golden era and in 1959, almost 70% of the films made in Egypt that year, were exported in 16mm film to Saudi Arabia. However, these films were censored and were only supposed to be screened privately. Later on, this move was blocked for concerns that cinema would interfere with religious public and private life, therefore leading in a total cinema blackout during the 1990s and early 2000s. the exception being the IMAX system instated by Khalid in the city of Khobar which only displayed scientific and religious oriented content. A potential explanation to why the religious scholars were not fans of cinema, according to Shafik, could be because film is seen as bringing inanimate objects to life, which was something that seemed to compete with the power of God. However, there have been reports of secret cinemas operating in recent years, with organizers denying that it promotes un-Islamic values. There are also reports of many Saudi citizens traveling to neighboring states to go to the cinema, or watching films online. Furthermore, the film industry is receiving support from Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal, owner of entertainment company Rotana, which some see as an encouraging sign for the reestablishment of cinema in Saudi Arabia.
With the rise of digital and social network, pressure was mounting on Saudi Arabia in regards to the permissibility of cinemas as many were watching films online anyway. In 2005, an improvised cinema in Riyadh was officially opened though limited to men and children only to prevent gender mixing in a public space. This was not the only attempt to bring back cinema; in 2006, How’s It Going? became the first fully Saudi funded feature film. It also starred a Saudi actress. here have been several additional signs of relaxation, for example, Jeddah has started hosting a European Film Festival since 2006, and a single Saudi film festival was held in Dammam in 2008, though this did not meet with a favorable response from some of the more extreme religious leaders. Furthermore, the film Menahi was screened in Riyadh in 2009, although women were banned from attending. Finally, in 2017, efforts led by the King's son and Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia, Mohamed Bin Salman, targeted the enhancement of the entertainment sector in Saudi Arabia including strengthening the theatre and cinema infrastructure in Saudi Arabia.
The kingdoms filmography started in 2004 with an approval from the Ministry of Culture for a location shoot in the UAE. What followed was a small string of local talent counting on foreign exhibitions to showcase their work:
Sudan
Syria
United Arab Emirates
There is an expanding film industry in the United Arab Emirates, strengthened by the annual Gulf Film Festival showcasing cinematic productions from the region, as well as the Dubai International Film Festival, which was launched in 2004. UAE film-makers have been able to contribute a large volume of films to these festivals. UAE's first horror film is set to premier in the fall of 2013 after some delays in production.
Yemen
See also
Cinema of Africa
Cinema of Asia
Cinema of Central Asia
East Asian cinema
List of cinema of the world
South Asian cinema
Southeast Asian cinema
World cinema
Award Best Actressess in the Middle East for world
References
External links
IMDB entry for Egypt
The Hindu newspaper article covering the filming of 'A Bahraini Tale'
IMDB entry for Oman
IMDB entry for Yemen
Middle East
Asian cinema
African cinema
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Hobart
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History of Hobart
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The modern history of the Australian city of Hobart (formerly 'Hobart Town', or 'Hobarton') in Tasmania dates to its foundation as a British colony in 1804. Prior to British settlement, the area had been occupied for at least 8,000 years, but possibly for as long as 35,000 years, by the semi-nomadic Mouheneener tribe, a sub-group of the Nuenonne, or South-East tribe. The descendants of the indigenous Tasmanians now refer to themselves as 'Palawa'.
Little is known about the region from prehistoric times. As with many other Australia cities, urbanisation has destroyed much of the archaeological evidence of indigenous occupation, although Aboriginal middens are often still present in coastal areas.
The first European settlement in the Hobart area began in 1803 as a penal colony and defensive outpost at Risdon Cove on the eastern shores of the Derwent River, amid British concerns over the presence of French explorers in the South Pacific. In 1804 it was moved to a better location at the present site of Hobart at Sullivans Cove, making it the second oldest city in Australia.
The convict past haunted the city for decades, and Hobart's prominent Georgian architecture of the era served as a constant reminder of the 'social stain' some of its citizens feared they could never erase. Gradually this unpromising beginning was transformed into a quiet, conservative, strongly class-conscious society. However, many of the former convicts proved to be hard-working and enterprising, establishing businesses and families that still play a prominent role in Tasmanian society.
Since that time, the city has grown from what was approximately one square mile around the mouth of Sullivans Cove to stretch in a generally north–south direction along both banks of the Derwent River, from 22 km inland from the estuary at Storm Bay to the point where the river reverts to fresh water at Bridgewater. The city sits on low-lying hills at the eastern foot of Mount Wellington.
From the foundation of the settlement, Hobart has remained the administrative centre of Tasmania, and from the time that Tasmania was granted responsible self-government in 1856 it has been the capital city of Tasmania.
Hobart's growth has been slow due to its geographic isolation, and the city has experienced extreme economic boom and bust periods throughout its history. The city grew from being a defensive outpost and penal colony to become a world centre of whaling and shipbuilding, only to suffer a major economic and population decline in the late 19th century.
The early 20th century saw another period of growth on the back of mining, agriculture and other primary industries, but the world wars had a very negative effect on Hobart, with a severe loss of working age men. Like most of Australia, the post-war years saw an influx of new migrants from Eastern and Southern Europe, such as Italy, Greece, Yugoslavia and Poland.
In the later years of the 20th century, migrants increasingly arrived to settle in Hobart from Asia. Despite the rise in migration from parts of the world other than the United Kingdom and Ireland, the population of Hobart remains predominantly ethnically Anglo-Celtic, and has the highest percentage per capita of Australian born residents of all the Australian capital cities.
Hobart is a major deep-water port for Southern Ocean shipping, and the last port of call for Australian Antarctic Division and French expeditions to Antarctica. Hobart is also a common port of call for naval vessels from many countries due to the deep harbour of the Derwent River. US Navy vessels often stop for shore leave when returning to the United States from the Middle East.
Hobart is a city defined by its geographical position, history and heritage. Classical examples of Georgian, Victorian and Edwardian architecture abound throughout the city, and along with more recently built forms, these buildings define Hobart's character as a city.
Hobart has experienced a boom in tourism, and the low cost of living and relaxed way of life have attracted mainland Australians and new migrants to move to the city. Although Hobart has experienced a much slower rate of growth than mainland Australian cities, particularly during the 20th century, Hobart has a stable population, a reasonably strong economy, a clean environment, a healthy sports, arts and culture scene.
Etymology
The etymology of the name of Hobart comes from the first Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemen's Land, David Collins, who named the new settlement in honour of the then Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, Robert Hobart, 4th Earl of Buckinghamshire, the Lord Hobart.
It was originally referred to as 'Hobart Town', which was often shortened to 'Hobarton', but by 1842 it had grown large enough to officially be recognised as a city, and from 1 January 1881 the 'Town' was formally dropped from its name, leaving the modern name of simply 'Hobart'.
Geography
The city of Hobart is located in the south eastern part of the island of Tasmania, at 42°S, 147°E. It is approximately 22 kilometres from the mouth of the Derwent River at Storm Bay. Hobart is built around Sullivans Cove, a small bay formed where the Hobart Rivulet and the Derwent River join. The location was chosen as a location for a settlement due to the deep-water harbour that allows easy access for shipping, the sheltered anchorage that Sullivans Cove provides, and the freshwater supply from Hobart Rivulet.
The main part of the city runs along the western shore of the Derwent River in a north–south direction, but the eastern shore residential suburbs are also extensive. The eastern shore has many low hills and a small mountain ridge known as the Meehan Range. The western shore is partially flat at sea level but rises steeply away from the shore to the foothills.
Deep gullies are situated between the hill ridges, most of which reach to around 500–800 m in height. Mount Wellington is the most prominent feature of the Wellington Range. The Derwent Valley stretches northwards and is flat farmland and rolling green hills that follows the winding course of the river.
Prehistory
The prehistory of the Hobart region is poorly understood. At the time of settlement by the British, it is estimated that approximately 1000 to 5000 people lived in Tasmania, divided into eight tribal groups. It was the semi-nomadic Mouheneener tribe, a sub-group of the Nuenonne, or 'South-East' tribe, who were first affected by European settlement, as Hobart Town was founded in their traditional hunting grounds.
The Nuenonne had no permanent settlements at Sullivans Cove, or anywhere else in Tasmania, living as nomadic hunter-gatherers. Early Europeans described the Nuenonne as living in crude bark huts established around a fire at movable camping grounds as they travelled about their region.
The French described them as a friendly peaceful people who lived a happy, simple life. The best description of them came from Captain James Cook RN, on his visit to the Derwent River in 1777. Cook described the Nuenonne as:
During the first visits to Tasmania by European explorers, the Nuenonne, normally in parties of about eight men, were often very welcoming, greeting explorers from the shore with friendly shouts and exchanging food and water for trinkets. At first they thought the Europeans were spirits who arrived on the backs of great birds, believing the European ship's sails looked like seagull wings. However, tension grew quickly amongst the Nuenonne as they realised the Europeans were intending to establish a permanent settlement.
By the 1820s, the expansion of European settlements throughout the island, and massive growth in pastoralism came at the expense of the Aborigines, who began to resist the intruders. Clashes became more frequent, and tit-for-tat killings became common. Although exact numbers for the death toll were not recorded, estimates vary between 5–9,000. Towards the end of the 1820s the conflict had become so bad that martial law was declared, and the conflict soon grew into the Black War.
By 1831, there were only 200 natives left. Governor George Arthur's attempts to capture and resettle them failed with his disastrous "Black Line" policy. George Augustus Robinson's efforts to resettle them at Flinders Island resulted in the extermination of all the full-blooded native peoples by introduced European diseases such as smallpox, influenza and pneumonia. By 1847 there were only 44 native Tasmanians left, and the last full-blooded Aborigine, Trugannini, died in 1876. Today their race primarily survives in mixed-blood descendants of the women enslaved by Bass Strait whalers and sealers.
The expansion and urbanisation of Hobart has destroyed much of the archaeological evidence of prior indigenous occupation, although Aboriginal middens are often still present in coastal areas. As a result, it is difficult for archaeologists and anthropologists to gain a full understanding of the way of life of the Tasmanian Aborigines prior to European settlement.
European exploration
The Dutch crew of Abel Janszoon Tasman aboard Heemskirk and Zeehaen was the first group of Europeans to sight Tasmania. Leaving the Dutch colony of Batavia in Java (now Jakarta, Indonesia) in August 1642, they charted the Tasmanian coastline in November 1642 (though they did not determine that it was an island), and named it Van Diemen's Land, in honour of the Dutch governor of the Dutch East Indies, Anthony van Diemen. Although the ship did not contact the indigenous Tasmanians at this time, the sighting of the Dutch ships may have led to the creation of myths about spirits riding on great seabirds amongst the Tasmanians.
The next visit to the River Derwent was by the Frenchman Marion du Fresne who arrived in 1773 with the ships Mascarin and Castries. As French and British rivalries grew towards the end of the 18th century, both nations sent regular scientific missions to the region.
The English explorers Tobias Furneaux, aboard in 1773, and James Cook, aboard in 1777, both described the shores of the Derwent as a suitable location for resupplying and watering their ships.
One of Cook's Resolution crew in 1777, William Bligh, returned to the Derwent River for a second time in command of the on his fateful journey to Tahiti in 1788 that ended in mutiny by his crew. John Cox, aboard in 1789, closely followed Bligh. In the 1790s, the French and English continued to explore the area and chart parts of Tasmania's coast. William Bligh returned to the Derwent River in 1792, this time with the ships and , again en route to Tahiti. He had been ordered to complete his previous mission of obtaining breadfruit from Tahiti for the West Indian plantations, and remembered the Derwent's favourable position to stop en route.
The following year, French explorers Bruni d'Entrecasteaux and Jean-Michel Huon de Kermadec, who were in command of and the sailed into the river and charted it more extensively in the course of their search for Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse. He named the river 'Riviere du Nord'. During the stopover, his expedition also established a vegetable garden at Recherche Bay for use by future expeditions.
A few months later, the English captain, Sir John Hayes also sought shelter for his ships Duke of Clarence and Duchess of Bengal there. It was during this visit that Hayes named the river as the 'Derwent River', in honour of the River Derwent in Cumbria.
The next visit to the Derwent River came from George Bass and Matthew Flinders in 1798 and 1799, when they circumnavigated Tasmania aboard the Norfolk, being the first Europeans to prove that Tasmania was an island. British interest in the island then waned for the next four years.
1803 British settlement
Although several European explorers had navigated along the coast of Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) between the 1770s and 1790s, a strong English interest in the Derwent River only began with the return of English Royal Navy Captain William Bligh in 1792 aboard . He stopped briefly in Adventure Bay to take on fresh water before continuing his voyage.
From 1792 until 1802, France and Great Britain had been embroiled against each other in the French Revolutionary Wars, and growing French interest in the South Pacific alarmed the colonists in Sydney. An expedition in 1802 to survey Van Diemen's Land by French explorers Nicolas Baudin and Louis de Freycinet aboard , , and , stopped in the Derwent River to make observations of the indigenous Tasmanians, and the native flora and fauna.
With Bass and Flinders' confirmation in 1798 that Van Diemen's Land was an island, the British claim to the east coast of Australia was not legally valid for Van Diemen's Land. Baudin's presence there caused alarm at the prospect of the French establishing a rival colony, and the Governor of New South Wales, Philip Gidley King dispatched a request to the Colonial Office in London for permission to establish a new settlement there.
Whilst King awaited news from London regarding Van Diemen's Land, separate news arrived that the short lived peace with France had been broken by the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars. King decided he could not afford to await word from London and risk France establishing a naval base on Van Diemen's Land.
Acting on his own initiative, he dispatched an expedition under the command of a young 23-year-old Lieutenant John Bowen to establish a colony there. Bowen was in command of the whaler . Accompanying him were 21 male and three female convicts, guarded by a company of soldiers of the New South Wales Corps, as well as a small number of free settlers. The supply ship, the arrived on 8 September 1803, and 'Albion arrived on 13 September 1803, thereby creating a presence in Van Diemen's Land for the British.
At the same time David Collins had been dispatched from London in response to King's initial request, and departed from England in April 1803, in command of with orders to establish a colony at Port Phillip. Collins had been a member of the First Fleet which had founded Sydney 15 years earlier, and the Colonial Office felt this experience would be invaluable in the creation of a second settlement.
Collins arrived in Port Phillip Bay in October 1803. After establishing a short lived settlement at Sullivan Bay, near the current site of Sorrento, he wrote to Governor King, expressing his dissatisfaction with the location, and seeking permission to relocate the settlement to the Derwent River. Realising the fledgling settlement at Risdon Cove would be well reinforced by Collins' arrival, King agreed to the proposal.
Collins arrived at the Derwent River on 16 February 1804, aboard Ocean, immediately taking command from the young Lieutenant by virtue of rank (Collins was a colonel). The settlement that Bowen had established at Risdon Cove was vulnerable to changing tides and poor water supply and did not impress Collins. After three trips across the Derwent River to view possible alternatives, he decided to relocate the settlement down river, on the opposite shore. They landed at Sullivans Cove on 21 February 1804, and created the settlement that was to become Hobart, making it the second-oldest-established colony in Australia.
In October 1804, Lieutenant-Colonel William Paterson was dispatched from Port Jackson by Governor King to establish a second colony on the northern shore of the island. He arrived at the mouth of the Tamar River, and established a camp near the current location of George Town. However, feeling exposed to the off-shore weather, a few weeks later Paterson moved his camp 50.7 km (30.5 mi) inland to found Launceston.
In January 1807, Lieutenant Thomas Laycock carried dispatches on horseback from Launceston to Hobart Town overland, taking eight days to traverse the island, and he became the first European to make that journey through the interior. His southward journey followed a more westerly route, and he found the mountainous terrain hard going; however his return journey ran through the flatter midlands, and the modern main Midland Highway still follows a similar route to that first Hobart to Launceston ride.
Penal colony
Although Hobart Town had initially been established to prevent the French from establishing a colony there, its isolation soon proved to be a useful attribute for a secondary penal colony.
The convicts who arrived with Bowen's expedition had been dispatched to assist with necessary labour in the establishment of the colony. However, it was soon decided that the growing population of convicts in Sydney could be better managed by breaking them up into smaller groups. Some were sent to Norfolk Island, and others to Hobart Town. Early in 1804 whilst the settlers were still camped at Risdon Cove, a strike occurred amongst the soldiers who were guarding the convicts, as they were too few to be effective in controlling the increased convict population. An agreement was made that the ratio of soldiers to convicts would be increased, and they returned to duties. Whilst some convicts were kept in gaol within Hobart Town, secondary sites such as Sarah Island and Port Arthur were later created to spread the convict labour to more isolated regions, and for the purpose of stricter confinement for repeat offenders.
By 1817, an increasing number of female convicts were arriving in Hobart town, and there was not enough room to keep them in the first Hobart Town gaol. Permission was granted in 1821 by NSW Governor Lachlan Macquarie for the construction of a separate gaol for female convicts. Despite this, construction took nearly eight years, and it wasn't until December 1828 that the first female convicts began to be transferred to the Cascades Female Factory, in the foothills of Mount Wellington.
The “female factories” in Tasmania constituted a system of female convict prisons located in four locations across Van Diemen’s Land, in Hobart, George Town, Launceston and Ross. The latter factories were constructed in the early 1830s to alleviate overcrowding issues within the Cascades Female Factory. Eleanor Casella argues that the design of the female factories were predicated on the thought that convict women could be morally reformed through the prescription of manual labour, thus these institutions were essentially turned into economically productive, government supervised “manufactories”. According to Adrien Howe, the experiences of the convict women in Tasmania’s colony during the nineteenth-century were much more interlinked with the prison institutions then the male convicts, who were largely employed in the construction of infrastructure within the colony. Textile manufacturing was chosen as the primary program to implement within the female factories as, besides being a traditionally gendered industry, it was the most practical to fit within the factory-like atmosphere of the prison. The factory played a multiplicity of roles within Hobart’s society; it functioned as source of labour, a marriage bureau, gaol and hospital. After women had served their sentences, or after periods of nominal good behaviour, they were promoted to a “hiring class” which meant that they were ready to be employed within domestic service, often on farmland, within the hospital or a role within the prison itself. The factory administration was responsible for integrating the female convicts back into society. Today, the Cascades Female Factory remains as a historic site for tourists to explore the heritage of Hobart’s female convict landscape. By 1851, there was a sum of approximately 12,000 convict women that had been transported to the Van Diemen’s Land colony. Casella maintains that contrary to traditional portrayals of these women as “a monolithic bunch of damned whores,” most of them were convicted of petty crime, serving sentences of seven to fourteen years.
The opening of penal settlements at Maria Island (1825) and Port Arthur (1832) on the Tasman Peninsula, 111 km Southeast of Hobart Town, brought more importance to the island's East Coast, which resulted in the closing of Sarah Island penitentiary in 1833. The first land grants at Richmond were made in 1823, however the township began to grow much more rapidly after Port Arthur was founded, as it soon became an important stop on the highway to Port Arthur. Richmond Gaol was soon opened in 1825, and the oldest surviving bridge in Australia, the Richmond Bridge, was built there across the Coal River in 1823. The penitentiary at Port Arthur, although now remembered as a cruel and unpleasant place, was at the time one of the most advanced prisons. Improvements were made with the opening in 1853 of the 'separate prison', also known as the "model prison", the design of which was based on the modernised prison of Pentonville in London. Conditions were fair, a legitimate attempt was made to reform men, and boys were taught a trade and given religious lessons in a very pious society. Port Arthur was guarded by day and night by a line of soldiers and dogs, across the isthmus of the peninsula.
In 1831 the need for better facilities to contain the convicts within Hobart Town was answered by the opening of the Campbell Street Gaol with its magnificent Penitentiary Chapel, and open execution yard. Law Courts were soon added, and remained in use until 1983. The gaol features underground passages and solitary confinement cells. Port Arthur the site of the secondary punishment penitentiary opened in 1830. By 1835 it had grown to house 800 convicts, many of whom regularly served in chain gangs. It operated until 1877.
Only 6% of convicts in Hobart were kept confined in gaols. The majority were used on government building projects, such as the Sorell Causeway, or worked as indentured servants for free settlers. Despite this relative freedom, some continued to offend and transgressors were often confined by heavy leg irons, and flogged for minor indiscretions.
Convict transportation to Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) was to last exactly 50 years. In the 1840s, a strong local opposition group grew in Hobart Town known as the Anti-Transportation League, and they began lobbying the government to call for an end to convict transportation. By 1853 transportation to Van Diemen's Land was abolished, but many of the convicts already there still had lengthy sentences to complete. The success of the Anti-Transportation League led to locals calling for responsible self-government for the colony of Van Diemen's Land, which was granted in 1856, with Hobart Town remaining as the colonial capital.
Early 19th century
The first decade of the settlement on the Derwent River was a difficult one. Its geographic isolation, even from the other Australian settlement at Sydney, soon became apparent, and led to an air of despondency. The settlers initially struggled to come to terms with the environment of the new location, finding the summers hot and unbearable, and the winters nearly as cold as England.
The settlement was plagued with problems such as a shoddy workforce (mostly unskilled convict labour, and unwilling Marines pressed into work duties), insufficient supplies and neglect by imperial authorities, disease and constant threat of Aboriginal attack, difficult terrain, and quarrels amongst settlers. There were also insufficient tools, and timber-cutting was slow going in the thick forests, making it difficult to supply timber for permanent buildings. At times disaster hovered, but never became absolute.
Lieutenant Bowen's settlement at Risdon Cove had been poorly sited. He had chosen it based on the advice of an earlier expedition, that had found the creek at Risdon swollen with fresh water. Bowen's contingent had arrived on 11 September 1803 at the end of what was probably a wet winter. The grassy woodlands around Risdon Cove were verdant and lush, and the creek was at full flow. However, after a long hot summer between December 1803 and February 1804, during which the Risdon Cove encampment received not a single day of rain whatsoever, the creek was dried up completely and the grass and woodlands parched.
Tidal fluctuations at the mouth of the narrow inlet upon which the camp was located made launching vessels difficult for much of the day, and the camp had a poor water supply. In addition, the site was hilly and the soil was sandy and unsuitable for European agricultural practices. To make matters worse, as the creek dried into the summer months, swarms of mosquitoes and flies plagued the camp. As the summer lengthened, wildfire became more frequent, and on one occasion, the officers' huts were nearly consumed.
The soldiers were virtually mutinous by the time Captain David Collins arrived on 16 February 1804. Fed up with poor rations, forced labour, and surly convicts to guard, the men had all but lost any respect for Lieutenant Bowen. Bowen immediately felt threatened by the arrival of Collins, and for a time refused to accept his command. Eventually Bowen departed aboard Ocean to seek confirmation from Governor King.
Soon after his arrival, Collins decided to move the settlement to the far shore of the river. Surveyor George Harris was dispatched in a longboat, and within a day had reported back to Collins that he had located an excellent sheltered cove at the mouth of a fast flowing stream that seemed fed by the melted snow off Table Mountain (now Mount Wellington). He suggested the location would provide ample drinking water, whilst the cove would protect the ships from the current and weather. Most of the tents were struck two days later, and re-erected at Sullivans Cove on Monday, 20 February 1804. The following Sunday, 26 February 1804 the colony's chaplain, the Right Reverend Robert Knopwood, conducted the first divine service in Hobart Town.
Before the settlement at Risdon Cove had been completely abandoned, one of the most violent conflicts of the Australian frontier wars occurred. The facts of this event are still disputed by historians and the descendants of the Tasmanian Aborigines, however, on the morning of 3 May 1804, a food hunting party of approximately three hundred crested the heavily wooded hills above the Risdon Cove settlement, looking for kangaroo, in what is now considered to be part of the Oyster Bay tribe's traditional hunting grounds. Both the Marine sentries, and the hunting party surprised each other. It is not clear how the engagement began, with differing accounts being given. It does seem that, feeling threatened by such an overwhelmingly large group, the Marines fired upon the Aborigines. A convict by the name of Edward White claimed to have seen this. Armed with only spears and clubs, the Aboriginals were outdone by the firepower of the Marines who were armed with the Brown Bess smooth bore, muzzle loading muskets, many of whom were experienced troops from conflicts in India and the Americas. It is claimed that between three and fifty of the Aboriginals were killed.
This was just the first incident in what would become a complete breakdown in relations between European settlers and the indigenous population in Van Diemen's Land. A series of bloody encounters between the two groups continued for much of the next twenty years, culminating in the Black War. Between the warfare and the effects of diseases brought by the settlers, the Aboriginal population was soon forced away from the area and rapidly replaced by free settlers and the convict population.
Within the first two days of having landed at Sullivans Cove, shelter was provided for all of the Europeans through the erection of tents. With the winter approaching, the establishment of permanent shelters was of top priority, but took much longer than desired. The difficulty in obtaining timber from the thick forests, and establishing clearings on which to build, proved worse than first believed. A lack of saws, axes and other cutting tools made this process even harder. A shortage of building materials beset the colony, and local manufacture of timber products was slower than had been hoped.
A wharf out of Hunter Island was built by the fourth day to facilitate the unloading of supplies from the ships. A crude storehouse was also established on the island, which could be accessed via a low sandbar at high tide. The long spit could only be traversed at low tide, making it easier for sentries to guard the storehouse from would-be thieves.
By July, the settlement at Risdon Cove had been abandoned, and many of Bowen's initial party, with the exception of the few free settlers, returned to Sydney. By the time of Bowen's eventual departure, few permanent houses had been built, and the winter of 1804 was a particularly wet one, making conditions in the new settlement very unpleasant. Most suffered from the cold and wet, and disease soon broke out.
The colony of Hobart Town initially struggled to survive. Expected supply ships did not arrive in the first year, and the lack of cultivation of wheat that was essential for survival, combined with bad droughts and soaring temperatures in the summers of 1805 and 1806 nearly ended the colony. All of the settlers, soldiers and convicts were put onto short rations when the supply ships failed to arrive.
By early 1806, bay whaling had begun in the mouth of the Derwent River but by October 1806, the signs for the coming summer were bad. Chaplain to Lieutenant-Governor Collins, Reverend Robert Knopwood wrote in his diary late in October:
In November:
By Christmas Day, the temperature was so high he wrote of the heat:
Supplies from Sydney were interrupted in 1806 after flooding on the Hawkesbury River destroyed farms and crops. At the same time, the wheat crop on the Derwent failed due to drought. To overcome food shortages, the settlers turned to fishing, and even gathering seaweed to eat. They managed to survive through the prudent use of the farm animals that had been sent by early supply ships, which included cattle, sheep, goats, horses, pigs and poultry. In fact, the settlers were better supplied with animals than equipment.
As the area surrounding the river was explored, areas such as the Coal River Valley were discovered to be suitable for agriculture, and were soon producing substantial harvests. Unlike Sydney, where harsh summer conditions made the first attempts at agriculture difficult, Hobart Town's crops in 1806 and 1807 were so successful there was a large surplus of wheat and produce.
Although both exploration and settlement were hampered by the island's mountainous topography, the colony soon established itself, and local food production replaced a dependency on external supply, and settlers began to better exploit the area's natural resources. The climate, similar to England's, was found to be suitable for fruit orchards, particularly apples and pears, and the raising of livestock soon also began. The best resource of southern Van Diemen's Land though, was the sea. The River Derwent possesses one of the finest deep-water natural harbours in the world, and abundant marine life provided plentiful food supplies. Whaling and sealing soon cropped up as important industries, and provided the economic backbone of Hobart Town in its first decade.
The first overland journey through the island's interior was made in February 1807. Lieutenant Thomas Laycock led a party of five soldiers from the New South Wales Corps overland from the island's second settlement at Port Dalrymple (later Launceston) in the north to Hobart Town in the south seeking supplies for the struggling northern colony, as they were running low on food. His party took nine days on foot, via a central route of approximately high into the lakes district of the Central Highlands. Their unexpected arrival in Hobart Town out of the bush to the north of the colony elicited a rousing reception in the town. Hobart Town brought cartloads of supplies despite the southern colony also suffering shortages, and their return journey found a less arduous route north following the flatter midlands route further to the east of the southward journey, which formed the route that the Midland Highway follows today, and was completed without having to cut down a single tree to allow the carts to pass. Surveyor Charles Grimes was sent out the following month to formally survey the route, and a road between the two settlements was established by 1808.
Despite this initial expedition, exploration and road building into the interior was slow. Eventually the route would be later developed as the principal north–south road in the island, but it took several years to do so. As a result, the colony of Hobart Town used sea routes, even to the north of the island, as the primary means of transportation. By 1808, docks that survive to this day were constructed using convict labour, and vital buildings such as the government store were erected. The Commissariat's Store, which was completed in 1810, survives to the present, and is Hobart's oldest surviving building. The Bond Store, completed over a decade later in 1824, also still survives.
Although the first arrivals were almost entirely made up of convicts and soldiers, it was not long before rumours of Van Diemen's Land began to attract free settlers, allowing Hobart Town to grow. But Hobart Town's isolation also led to a large number of 'undesirables' seeking to escape from former crimes, escaping the law, or just looking for a life of solitude finding their way to the fledgling town. The area around the docks was rife with crime and prostitution, and heavy drinking and fighting were common.
The 1810s saw Hobart Town grow from a pioneer encampment into a town. Governor Lachlan Macquarie toured the Hobart Town settlement in 1811, not long after his appointment in New South Wales, and his suppression of the Rum Rebellion, whilst he was still brimming with energy and confidence. He was interested in the island, Hobart Town especially, but was disappointed at the poor state of defence, and general disorganisation that the colony had been left in at the time of Collin's death. Although some important infrastructure had been built, the town itself was still essentially a disorganised collection of crude wattle and daub huts that Macquarie described as "untidy". By this stage, the first Government House, only six years old, was already falling to pieces.
Macquarie laid out plans for the widening of existing streets, and planned for further roads, laying them out in a typically ordered fashion. He divided Hobart Town into a principal square, and seven streets to be named Macquarie, Elizabeth, Argyle, Liverpool, Murray, Harrington, and Collins, and framed a regular plan of the town. Buildings were to be properly built, or repaired, and there was to be a new church and courthouse.
He located major civic institutions, such as a hospital, barracks, new market, and a system of signal stations, which have left his imprint upon modern Hobart, and much of his planned works can still be seem today. In 1811, he planned for the settlement in Northern Van Diemen's Land to be administered from Hobart Town, instead of a separate sub-colony responsibility to Sydney. This was effective by June 1812, and upon his arrive in 1813, Thomas Davey became the first Lieutenant-Governor of both North and South Van Diemen's Land.
Along with planning for a new grid of streets to be laid out, and new administrative and other buildings to be built, he ordered the construction of the Bond Store, which was completed in 1815, and commissioned the building of Anglesea Barracks, which opened in 1814, and is now the oldest continually occupied barracks in Australia. The Anglesea Barracks continued to be expanded with addition of a Hospital in 1818, a Drill Hall in 1824, a new Guard House in 1838, and new Military Gaol in 1846, all of which survive to the present. By 1818, the Mulgrave Battery had been built on Castray Esplanade, on the southern side of Battery Point upon the orders of Lieutenant-Governor William Sorell. Now Hobart Town had two basic fortifications.
By 1814, several farms were already located outside the settlement proper. They were mostly centred upon land grants that the imperial government used to reward hard-working free settlers, or convicts who had served their sentences. In the first four years of the Hobart Town settlement (up to 1808), a total of only had been granted, mostly north, west and south of the Settlement. These grants were made in the areas that make up the modern Hobart Suburbs of Battery Point (Mulgrave Point), Sandy Bay (Queenborough), Dynnyrne, South Hobart, West Hobart, North Hobart, and New Town.
No official grants were made in 1811, and 1812, due to the Rum Rebellion in Sydney. Despite this hiatus, by 1814 the area of land grants had reached , with a whopping 33,544.5 made in 356 grants in 1813 alone, Thomas Davey's first year as Lieutenant-Governor. The grants Davey issued were mostly in the districts of Clarence Plains east of the Derwent River), and in the Derwent Valley to the north of the settlement, but also included areas around Launceston. This new group of citizens with personal land-holdings formed the basis of the newly established local society of landed gentry, despite many of them having had no previous upper-class background.
By 1820, Hobart Town had grown to accommodate over 10,000 people, and had become an important Pacific base for the Royal Navy. The plentiful natural resources of the island also proved useful for the Royal Navy, who had soon turned Hobart into a thriving port. The docks were busy as the Navy shipped materials such as timber, flax and rum from Hobart Town. By this time it had become a vital re-supply stop for international shipping and trade, and therefore a major freight hub for the British Empire. Wealth poured into the port on the back of this trade, and in 1823 the Van Diemen's Land Bank, the first in the colony, began operations.
In the twenty years immediately after settlement, Hobart Town became a base for the South Seas whaling and sealing industries. Hobart Town's shipyards built many of the whalers, and were kept busy with maintenance and repairs. Whale oil soon became a major export, and was used to light the street lamps of London, and the wool industry had also established itself as a major export from Hobart Town's docks. In 1816, there were 20,000 sheep, and by 1818, 12,000 horned cattle. Merino and other flocks were established in the now expanding Midlands district, and at Clarendon, Perth, Longford, Esk Vale, Jericho, Simmonds and elsewhere. Soon merino stud rams were being sold for high prices, and Van Diemen's Land became noted throughout the empire for its fine wool. Wheat crops were produced in such abundance that it was being exported to Sydney to subsidise their less successful crops. The Van Diemen's Land Company was formed in 1825 to raise sheep in the colony to provide wool for British cloth manufacturers who were then buying wool from Spain and Germany, as sheep bred in Britain were largely meat breeds.
The Van Diemen's Land Company was very unpopular in Hobart Town. The settlers felt that it would use all the convict labour, and be favoured by government. The company started out trying to grow wheat and barley but found the crops often ruined by heavy rain. Arthur also gave the company no favours, and it fell into financial trouble in the 1850s. The company was, however, successful in growing potatoes, finding the island's climate and soil well suited to that and oats, peas, wheat, and grass for hay to feed livestock.
Education and religion were becoming increasingly important at this time, as a way to break class barriers through education and religious devotion. In 1828, there were eight government primary schools. By 1835 that number had increased to 29, with the number continuing to increase steadily over the next few years. Secondary education would remain in private hands well into the late 19th century. Libraries came early to Hobart Town, with a reading and Newspaper room established in 1822, and the Hobart Town Book Society opened in 1826, although the Tasmanian Public Library (now the State Library of Tasmania) did not open until 1870.
Mid-19th century
1830 saw the consolidation of land settlement throughout the island. The most fertile parts of the island were now occupied by land holdings. Until 1831, the governor had extensive power for granting land, along with the disposition of convict labour. After 1831, free grants were abolished and all land was then sold by auction. This attracted the new class of "gentry farmers", who were more successful than earlier farmers, as the gentry farmers knew more about farming, and had more money to pay for tools and labour. Many of them became successful sheep farmers, and capitalised on the Australian wool booms on the 1820s and 30's.
Although the first decade focussed on gaining a foothold on the island, and the second concerned with the establishment of essential primary industries, very soon industrial development began to branch out. It had been discovered that the Tasmanian climate was exceptionally suited to the growing of fruit. The Hobart Town Almanack in 1833 described the growth of apples and plums as "astonishing", and apple orchards were planted in the Huon Valley in the 1840s. Many of the original orchards continue operating to this day. Hops for beer were first grown in the northern settlement in 1804, and at Hobart Town in 1806. Robert Clarke was granted land at Clarence Plains in 1806 for growing hops, and became the first brewer of beer in the colony.
Many small-scale breweries had soon sprung up. No large scale operations began until in 1824, when Charles Degreaves established the Cascade Brewery near the Cascade Falls in the foothills of Mount Wellington. By 1832, the brewery outgrew its original building. Degreaves relocated the brewery to the site of an old sawmill, slightly further upstream along the Hobart Rivulet, and a further three storeys were added to the main building in 1927, creating the iconic structure that survives to this day. The Brewery is still in operation and remains Australia's longest continually operating brewery.
This was a particularly important time for whaling and its associated industries of shipbuilding and cooperage in Hobart Town as well. The waterfront of Hobart was upgraded in the 1830s to account for ever-increasing numbers of visiting foreign ships. Although the dock areas remained quite rough and ready, other areas of Hobart Town were developing into quite pleasant locales. In the early 1820s the shoreline of the river immediately to the north of the town had been set aside as the Kings Domain (later Queen's Domain) for use as a public space.
Van Diemen's Land had been proclaimed a separate colony from New South Wales in 1824; it had been decided by 1825 that Hobart Town would be the new colony's capital city. An executive council (effectively a cabinet of chief public servants) and a legislative council (consisting of free citizens chosen by the government and lesser public servants) as well as a local judiciary in the form of the Supreme Court of Tasmania were established in Hobart Town, with the Supreme Court Building being erected in 1824. Governor Arthur continued control as before, however.
Governor Arthur drew up plans for a Botanical Gardens on the domain, which were opened in 1828, and for the creation of a grand new Government House nearby that was opened in 1858. Later that year, a convict built brick wall was added which featured internal fireplaces that heated the wall in order to allow exotic tropical plants to grow along its length. A second such wall, 280 metres in length was later added, and is now the longest surviving convict built wall in Australia.
By 1830, the population of Hobart Town was around 6,000. However, Hobart Town had grown to become a quaint, picturesque and thriving southern ocean port town. The whaling, sealing, wool and wattle oil industries were booming, as were agricultural crops such as wheat and apple growing. The economy was thriving, and life was quite comfortable for the merchants and free residents of the colony's capital.
Some of the early settlers to Hobart Town, who had arrived with very little, had become very wealthy members of Hobart Town's new gentry class, often with vast tracts of land, especially in the Midlands. One such example is Henry Hopkins. Hopkins arrived in Hobart Town in 1822 with a shipment of boots when they were in short supply. He made a huge profit and invested the earnings in local wool for export to England. He had begun life in Hobart Town sharing a two-room house with an earth floor with his wife. However, after ten years of exporting wool, he was wealthy enough to build "Westella House", then the biggest in Hobart Town, and still standing today. It had 48 rooms and the dining room could seat 60 guests.
Hopkins was influential in the early history of Van Diemen's Land. He became a community leader and magistrate soon after arriving. He campaigned heavily to abolish transportation, which had already been abolished in New South Wales. This placed a heavier burden on Van Diemen's Land, which by 1830 was Britain's only external gaol. He was one of the founders of congregationalism in Hobart Town and built a chapel at his own expense in Collins Street. He also contributed to building funds for the still existent St. David's Anglican Cathedral, as well as other Presbyterian and Wesleyan churches, and started scholarships for theological students.
Although Hobart Town was becoming more commercially successful, the number of felons transported from England to the colony had dramatically increased by the late 1820s and 1830s. Demobilisation following the Napoleonic Wars had left thousands of veterans unemployed, and many turned to crime, resulting in an increasing number of transported felons. The Campbell Street Gaol had opened in 1831, and its magnificent penitentiary chapel, designed by John Lee Archer was added later in the same year. The chapel remains one of the finest examples of colonial Georgian architecture in Australia. Two further wings were added to the gaol in 1860 and were soon converted to Criminal Courts that remained in use until 1985.
Charles Darwin visited Hobart Town arriving there on 5 February 1836 as part of the expedition. He writes of Hobart Town and the Derwent estuary in his Voyage of the Beagle:
Hobart Town had become a town dependent on external trade. Although many of the primary industries were highly successful, they were never conducted on a scale sufficient to bring long lasting wealth. By the 1830s, the sealing industry had petered out, and although whaling persisted, it was on a scale diminished from the first twenty years. Despite the decline in these industries, the export of Tasmanian wool continued to thrive. New industries were required to replace the declining trades, and shipbuilding was one of the new successes for Hobart Town in the 1830s. The quality of the island's hardwood timber resources, combined with excellent port facilities and access to major shipping routes meant that by 1850, Hobart Town was producing more wooden ships than all other Australian ports combined. Hobart built ships plied all of the world's oceans, and could be found as far a-field as the United States and Europe.
As often proved to be the case in Hobart's history, the world advanced faster than the city. Just as Hobart Town was growing to dominate the international shipbuilding trade, shortages of labour struck the industry, as men migrated en masse to the Victorian goldfields, and the shift towards steam and steel in shipbuilding undermined Hobart's production of quality wooden built ships.
Hobart Town had developed a reputation as a rowdy town very soon after its foundation. The area immediately to the north of the docks had become a bustling waterfront district called 'Wapping', and was a mixture of crowded terrace housing, pubs, hotels, brothels, and gambling houses as well as various other forms of seedy entertainment for visiting sailors. Cockfighting and dog fighting were popular in the area. The Theatre Royal, built in 1834, is located in the area, and Wapping was very much seen as the entertainment part of the town. The theatre was fitted out with a plush Georgian interior which was restored after the fire which affected it in 1984.
The wild nature of Hobart Town's seedier side almost had a disastrous effect. The town was in danger of losing trade from Royal Navy vessels due to the large number of sailors contracting venereal diseases whilst on shore leave in the port. The local authorities clamped down on the behaviour in the area, and the visits were allowed to continue.
Outside of Wapping the town was growing well. Numerous grand sandstone buildings and colonial residences were being built. Whilst Wapping remained an inner city residential slum, the wealthier residents were moving south of the town to Battery Point and Sandy Bay. In the 1810s and 20s, Battery Point had been one of the first areas cultivated for farmland and crops, but by the mid-1830s, it had become a collection of cottages and fine homes, from which the port that it overlooked was operated. The area was dominated by the battery of guns from which it took its name. In 1839, 'Kelly's Steps' were built by shipwright and adventurer Captain James Kelly to provide a short-cut from the pleasant colonial houses of Kelly Street and Arthur Circus in Battery Point, directly down to the warehouse and dockyards district of Salamanca Place.
In 1835 John Lee Archer designed and oversaw the construction of the sandstone Customs House facing Sullivans Cove, with construction completed in 1840. The building would later be used as Tasmania's parliament house, but its use as the Customs House is commemorated by a pub bearing the same name (built 1844) which is now a favourite of yachtsmen after they have completed the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race.
Many fine churches were also constructed. The Scot's Church was built in Bathurst Street from 1834–36, and a small brick building within the churchyard had been used from 1834 as the first Presbyterian Church in Hobart Town. The Salamanca Place warehouses and the Theatre Royal were also constructed in this period. The Greek revival St George's Anglican Church in Battery Point was completed in 1838, and later had a grand Gothic tower, designed by James Blackburn, added in 1847. St Joseph's was built in 1840. Although many such fine churches were being built throughout the town, it took another twenty years for Hobart to get a cathedral.
Sir John Franklin arrived in Hobart Town on 5 January 1837 with his wife Lady Jane Franklin to become the 5th Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemen's Land. The colony they took command of was orientated towards commerce and industry, but lacking in culture and opportunities for education. Lady Jane was passionate about improving the town and colony, as was her husband. However, their liberal views were not well received by many members of Hobart Town's civil service, and civilians who benefited from exploiting convict labour did not appreciate their humane views.
Despite this, the Franklins did much to reform Hobart Town society and the colony of Van Diemen's Land in general. Lady Jane Franklin ordered built a replica Greek temple, modelled on the Parthenon and designed by James Blackburn in the bush in Lenah Valley, which opened in 1841. Inside the temple, she housed the Lady Jane Franklin Museum, resplendent with replicas of the Elgin Marbles. The Franklins inaugurated the Royal Hobart Regatta in 1838. This event has been held annually since, and features sailing, rowing, swimming, and other water-sports events, culminating in a fireworks display. They also founded Christ College, now part of the University of Tasmania, the first tertiary education institution in the city. Lady Jane attempted to establish evening gatherings to discuss art, literature and science, but these proved unpopular with well-to-do 'Hobartians', who preferred that she host parties and dances instead.
Not to be outdone by his wife, Lieutenant-Governor Franklin opened the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery a year later in October 1843. In 1844 he also founded the Royal Society of Tasmania, the first such Royal Society outside of the United Kingdom. The enlightened governorship of the Franklins brought much social and cultural improvement to Hobart Town, and culminated in the town's incorporation as a city in 1842. The town had grown from a defensive outpost into a penal settlement, and from there, into a prosperous trading port. Free settlers were outstripping the arrival of convicts, and soon the colonists were clamouring for an end to transportation, and greater self-representation. The Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science was first published in 1840; however economic depression hit all of the Australian colonies that year, and Hobart Town suffered badly in what was to be the beginning of the first of many economic downturns.
By the mid-nineteenth century, elegant sandstone public buildings had replaced the crude early mud and timber edifices of the pioneering days, and many fine stately colonial mansions were being built in the town by the colony's more successful citizens, such as Stowell and Secheron House (1831) in Battery Point; Runnymede (1836) in New Town (originally called 'Cairn Lodge', it was built for prominent Scottish born lawyer Robert Pitcairn); Narryna House (1840) in Battery Point; Bellkirk House (1863) in Hobart; Lenna House (1880) in Battery Point; and Westella House (1890) in Hobart. Although not as grand as some of the stately homes, many fine cottages from the same period still survive, such as Barton Cottage (1837), Moina Cottage (1850), Colville Cottage (1877), and Cromwell Cottage (1880). There is also whole row of magnificent sandstone houses along Macquarie Street dating from the 1850s that survive much as they originally were.
The middle of the century saw Hobart Town as a major southern trading port with excellent rates of growth, well known and regularly visited, attracting commerce and emigrants. The colonial outpost prospered and had developed into an elegant city with stone buildings having replaced most of the early pioneering structures. By the mid-1840s, Hobart Town's shops were said to be as good as in many English towns, although at night the only lights in the streets were the lamps outside hotels and public houses. Some of these shop fronts can still be seen around Hobart's streets, such as the old Conner's family store in Murray Street. Hobart Town's main streets were lit by oil lamps from the 1840s, and eventually by gas lamps in 1857.
Late 19th century
Hobart Town had grown into a bustling port town by the mid 19th century. Local industries and commerce were thriving, and many local businesses began to succeed. Hobart Town's docks were struggling to cope with the demand now placed on them. The town's population was nearing 60,000 and ships were entering and departing the Derwent River on a nearly daily basis. The demand for berths and storage saw the construction of new docks and sandstone warehouses in an area which had been known as the 'Cottage Green', the former row of original cottages being demolished to make way for sandstone warehouses. By the mid-1840s, the bustling dock area had become known as the New Wharf, with access via Salamanca Place, named in honour of the Duke of Wellington's 1812 victory in the Battle of Salamanca. Many of the original warehouses still survive, used as galleries, studios, cafes, bars and restaurants.
Hobart's first major problems came with the combination of a general economic downturn in the 1840s, followed by the Victorian gold rush of the early 1850s. Large-scale migration to the Victorian goldfields occurred, creating a shortfall in local labour resources. As a response, the once booming economy of Hobart began to decline. Despite the economic and population declines of the early 1850s, the decade proved to be one of social and cultural advancement for the young city. Transportation of convicts to Van Diemen's Land was abolished in 1853, the last convict ship from England, the St. Vincent, arrived on 26 May 1853.
Calls for responsible self-government were successful, with a new constitution drafted, and Van Diemen's Land became an independent British colony in 1856. The new colony immediately changed its name to Tasmania, to disassociate itself with its past as a penal colony.
Hobart Town was proclaimed as the capital, and the Customs House at Sullivans Cove was renovated to accommodate a two house Parliament House with the previous Tasmanian Legislative Council re-constituted as the upper house, and the newly formed Tasmanian House of Assembly as the lower house. Two years later in 1858, the elegant Tudor-Gothic style Government House was completed, and by 1866 a magnificent Italian Renaissance style Town Hall had been completed adjacent to Franklin Square and the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery. As the colony grew, so too did the need for more administrative buildings. The Treasury Offices were built between 1859 and 1864, and a Registry of Deeds Office was built in 1884.
It was not just the administrative needs of the colony that were increasingly being catered for, but also the spiritual needs. Construction on a Catholic Cathedral designed by architect William Wardell, widely regarded as Australia's finest architect of the 19th century, was commenced in 1860, and was to be built on the site of the first Roman Catholic Church in Tasmania. In 1866, St Mary's Catholic Cathedral was opened, but without the originally designed tower. The magnificent St David's Anglican Cathedral, seat of the Bishop of Tasmania, and administrative centre of the Anglican Diocese of Tasmania, was completed in 1868 in high Gothic style, designed by George Frederick Bodley.
By the late 19th century, the central waterfront area of Wapping, which included the original wharf area built on Hunter Island, had declined dramatically as a result of government attempts to control prostitution, gambling and excessive drinking. As the areas of Wapping and to a lesser extent, Glebe declined, Battery Point and Sandy Bay located to the south of the town, were becoming home to the town's more prosperous residents. Soon, Battery Point was centred on the pleasant Arthur's Circus, where many of the cottages and fine homes of the period can still be seen. Whereas Glebe enjoyed a resurgence, the shanties and brothels of Wapping were condemned, and many were destroyed to make way for new developments, such as the wool store, that survives to this day as the Old Woolstore Hotel. Part of the area had already been reclaimed in the early 1850s for the construction of the Hobart Gas Works, which was opened amidst much fanfare on 9 March 1857, bringing gas lighting to the streets of Hobart Town for the first time.
In 1870, the -high shot tower was constructed by Joseph Moir at Taroona, south of Hobart, for the purpose of manufacturing shot for the Tasmanian Colonial Forces. It used gravity to drop molten lead down the inside of the tower, which formed spherical pellets and solidify when it landed in cold water at the base of the tower.
The Hobart Electric Tramway Company commenced operation in 1893, providing Hobart with the first complete electric tramway in the Southern Hemisphere. The tramway proved very popular and the route from the city to Sandy Bay Beach was always crowded in summers during the early 20th century. The tramways expanded rapidly, and suburban growth was encouraged by the lines. By the early 20th century, tramlines ran from the city depot to North Hobart, Lenah Valley, Springfield, Glenorchy, Cascade Brewery, Proctor's Road, and Sandy Bay. Single deck trams were introduced in 1906, and the Hobart City Council took over control of the company in 1912, renaming it the Hobart Metropolitan Tramways. Electric trolley buses were introduced in 1935.
An economic depression struck Hobart in the early 1890s, but some companies succeeded in spite of it. In 1891 Henry Jones established a jam factory in which he began to manufacture preserved jams and spreads using locally sourced high quality fruit produce. The factory soon came to be known simply as 'The Jam Factory' to locals, and was soon exporting jam throughout the British Empire. His company soon grew into a substantial business under the name of Henry Jones IXL, and established a second factory in Victoria.
In 1895 American writer Mark Twain visited Hobart as part of his worldwide tour of the British Empire, and wrote about his visit in his 1897 book Following the Equator. In it he writes:
Early 20th century
Hobart had been badly affected by the depression of the 1890s. The population had declined, and the economy was in recession. The early 20th century saw a shift in economic emphasis away from the traditional agricultural primary industries towards industrialisation. Henry Jones' waterfront factory had outgrown its requirements by 1911 as demand continued to grow, and Henry Jones IXL built a grand new factory on the eastern side of Constitution Dock, which was the first reinforced concrete building in Australia. In what was a pre-war period of development, several new buildings were added to the Hobart skyline in the early 20th century. In 1911, the grand new Hobart City Hall was opened, which had been designed by competition winner R. N. Butler.
A new Customs House, built in classical revival style, was opened in 1902 adjoining the original 1815 Bond Store. The iconic grand sandstone Hobart General Post office with classical clock-tower, designed by architect Alan Walker in High Victorian style, and built through funds donated by the people of Hobart in celebration of Australian Federation, opened on 2 September 1905. A telephone exchange was added in 1907. On 7 March 1912, Roald Amundsen telegraphed from the Hobart GPO that he had successfully reached the South Pole the previous December.
Although many bushfires had burned around the Hobart region since settlement, Hobart's relatively small size had meant few had caused serious damage. That changed in the summer of 1913–14, when several small bushfires burned on the slopes of Mount Wellington, and destroyed orchards, several buildings and livestock.
With the economy lagging, the Premier Walter Lee toured pre-war Germany, whose economy was booming. He was inspired by the hydroelectricity schemes of the Ruhr Valley, and realised the same method of cheap electricity production could benefit Tasmania with its mountainous interior. In 1914, the state government established the Hydro-Electric Department (later Hydro-Electric Commission) to provide cheap electricity in the hope of attracting industry to the island.
Upriver from the city key industries were established including the Pasminco Electrolytic Zinc Company, Cadbury's Chocolate Factory (1920) and the Boyer Newsprint Mills, and since the early 20th century the cheap ready supply of hydro-electric power has meant Hobart has been able to maintain a small industrial base. It has never attracted the heavy industry so desired by the state's politicians, which meant that Hobart has remained the least industrialised of all of the Australian capital cities.
The Cadbury Chocolate Factory project mirrored the company's Quaker principles of taking responsibility for bettering the lives of the workers, pioneered in their Bournville operation in the United Kingdom. Architects James Earle and Bernard Walker sought to provide an all-round community, and created the Cadbury Estate alongside the factory, where the workers were provided with comfortable housing, shops, entertainment and sporting facilities, designed to engender a sense of community and personal well-being amongst Cadbury's workers.
The local economy of Hobart has continued to survive on primary industries such as agriculture and fishing, and smaller scale industries such as canneries, fruit processing works, furniture manufacture, silk and textile printing, soft drink and confectionery production. Cottage industries such as pottery, woodwork, crafts and textiles also persist.
The first radio broadcast in Tasmania was on 17 December 1924 in Hobart. The development had come as part of a Commonwealth Government initiative earlier in 1924 to develop top quality radio broadcasting facilities in each state capital. The projects were funded by licensing fees, limiting those permitted to receive the broadcasts, but by mid-1925, 526 people in Hobart had bought licences to listen to broadcasts. The first Hobart station, 7ZL, was established by the Associated Radio Company, which was later bought by Tasmanian Broadcaster Pty Ltd in 1928. Finally, in 1932, ownership transferred to the Commonwealth Government owned Australian Broadcasting Commission as a result of an act of the Commonwealth Parliament nationalising radio companies.
The transfer of ownership which brought free broadcasting to Hobart for the first time, was in time for Hobart listeners to receive news that the first Tasmanian born Prime Minister, Joseph Lyons had been appointed.
7ZL was broadcast on the 580 AM frequency with a one-kilowatt transmitter. By 1937 the Hobart audience had grown sufficiently to warrant a second station, and in that year the Post-Master General announced that 7ZR would begin transmitting on the 1160 AM frequency. The following year, Hobart listeners tuned into 7ZR to hear Don Bradman score 144 in a tour match against the Tasmanians at the TCA Ground. Since its inception, 7ZR has since remained with the ABC and now forms part of the ABC Local Radio network as ABC Radio Hobart.
During the 1930s, the Modern movement of architecture became quite popular in Hobart, and although few examples survive, one such example is the Sunray Flats (1938) in Davey Street. Designed by Colin Philp of Hartley Wilson and Philp, they are an example of early International modern style architecture. The 1930s saw another building boom like that of the early 20th century, which was itself cut short by the outbreak of the Second World War
On 9 February 1934, Hobart was again visited by bad bushfires. The day was called 'Black Friday' and several homes were destroyed. Although many livestock were killed, there were no human fatalities.
On 23 January 1937, the first road to the summit of Mount Wellington was completed having taken 30 months to build, and named the 'Pinnacle Road'. It had cost £26,000 and allowed easy access from the Springs, which soon became a tourism and day-trip destination, to the Summit, which although subject to volatile weather changes, has views over Hobart and the Derwent River estuary.
Late 20th century
Although post-war Hobart was a thriving small city with a growing population and good combination of industry and primary agriculture, the city was largely confined to the western banks of the Derwent River.
The first plans for a bridge across the Derwent River had been made in 1832, but the width and depth of the river, combined with the powerful currents, proved to be too much of a deterrent for then current construction materials and techniques. A solution was hit upon to create a pontoon bridge, and in 1943, the Hobart Bridge was opened, spanning the Derwent River for the first time. To deal with the perceived problem of upriver shipping access, a lifting span was added near the western landing that allowed quite large vessels to pass through.
The Hobart Bridge had created the desired expansion of residential development on the eastern shore of the river, but by the mid-1950s, the population of the eastern shore, as it soon became commonly known, was so great that massive traffic congestion problems plagued the bridge. Stormy weather also created severe hazards on the water level roadway, with large waves sometimes sweeping over the roofs of vehicles.
By the late 1950s, it was realised a larger capacity bridge was needed. Construction on the much larger concrete arch Tasman Bridge began in May 1960, and was completed on 18 August 1964 at a total cost of £7 million. The bridge was originally four lanes, and expanded access to the eastern shore dramatically.
The 1950s brought an increased sense of mobility amongst Australians, both socially and geographically. Tourism was on the increase in Tasmania, and the state government invested £2,000,000 in the early 1950s for the construction of the 4700-ton Princess of Tasmania. Built in 1958, she was the first of a line of drive on ferries to cross the Bass Strait between Melbourne and Devonport that allowed tourists to travel by car from mainland Australia to Tasmania. Despite the popularity of the ferry service, it was already clear that aviation was the future of travel. In 1956 Lanherne Airport (now known as Hobart International Airport) was opened 20 km to the east of Hobart, and immediately created an increase in the number of tourists visiting the city.
The Hobart Metropolitan Tramways reached a peak in popularity in the 1930s and 40s, but by 1960 increased pressure from private car ownership and petrol-powered buses led to economic trouble for both passenger rail and the Hobart Tramways.
The final straw for the Tramways came on 29 April 1960 when a number 131 tram was struck by a lorry near the intersection of Elizabeth and Warwick Streets. The brakes failed as a result of the collision and the tram began to roll backwards down the steep gradient of Elizabeth Street during evening peak hour traffic. Despite being dazed by the collision, and rather than secure his own safety by jumping clear, tram conductor Raymond Donoghue guided the remaining passengers to the front of the vehicle as it was rolling backwards, and warned motorists by continuing to ring the tram's bells and desperately trying to operate the emergency hand brakes to no avail. It is estimated that the tram built up a speed of 40 to 50 miles per hour (64 to 80 km/h). The tram collided with the front of the following number 137 tram, killing Donoghue instantly. He remained vigilantly at his post throughout the disaster and in his heroism, he saved the lives of all of the passengers aboard, although 40 people were injured. Raymond Donoghue was awarded the George Cross posthumously for his actions.
As a result of the accident and the economic questions, Hobart's trams were abandoned that year in favour of the Metropolitan Transport Trust's fleet of petrol driven buses. Most of the fleet of trams were sold off for scrap metal, although some were placed into storage, and the early 21st century saw calls for the restoration of a tram service, possibly as a reduced tourism service along the Hobart waterfront.
1967 proved to be a disastrous year for the city of Hobart. On 7 February 1967, a combination of high winds, a heat wave, ill-conceived back-burning and deliberate arson led to the worst outbreak of urban bushfire in Hobart's recorded history. The fires, which came to be known as 'Black Tuesday', swept down both shores of the Derwent River, driven by high winds, and destroyed countless homes and other property. 52 people were killed in the Hobart area alone, and 10 in other parts of the state. Until the disastrous Black Saturday bushfires of 2009 in Victoria, the 1967 Tasmanian bushfires represented Australia's greatest loss of life on a single day outside of wartime.
The tourism boom continued throughout the 1960s, and prompted local hotelier Greg Farrell, head of Federal Hotels group and owner of the Riviera Hotel in Lower Sandy Bay to lobby the State government to allow the construction of Australia's first legal casino.
The issue divided locals and politicians alike, and a referendum was called in 1968. With a 58% majority, the referendum was passed, and construction began on what was to become an icon of the Hobart waterfront, the 17 story dodecagonal (12-sided) tower of the Wrest Point Hotel Casino. It opened in 1973 amid much fanfare and was soon leading another tourism boom with gamblers and celebrities visiting from throughout the world.
Despite the double boom in tourism in the 1950s and 1960s, Tasmania's geographic isolation deterred the craved foreign investment in industry that was needed to stimulate the economy, and the government was constantly dealing with economic fluctuations. Hobart went through short periods of building booms, followed by longer stagnations, a cycle that continued into the 1990s.
On Sunday 5 January 1975, a disaster occurred in Hobart when the handyweight bulk ore carrier collided with the Tasman Bridge in what would later be referred to as the Tasman Bridge disaster. The ship crashed into pylon 19, and then bounced across to strike pylon 18, knocking both pylons down, and also causing a 127-metre section of steel and concrete roadway to collapse onto the deck of the ship. The Illawarra sank, killing seven crew, and five motorists were killed when they drove off the gap, plunging into the river below.
Whilst many ferry services were launched to try and aid commuters stranded by the disaster, others had to endure a 20 km round trip to the temporary bridge that was constructed near Risdon Cove. Although it isolated many city workers, the disaster had a positive effect in that it encouraged a boom in the establishment of local commercial services on the eastern shore in places such as Rosny Park.
The disaster prompted the development of a second major crossing of the Derwent River near the location of the temporary Bailey bridge at Risdon Cove, 10 km to the north of the Tasman Bridge. With Federal Government funding, the $49 million Bowen Bridge was opened on 23 February 1984 by newly elected Prime Minister Bob Hawke. The bridge was named after Lieutenant John Bowen who had established the first British settlement at Risdon Cove in 1803, approximately 500 metres from the eastern landing of the new bridge.
The Tasman Bridge was eventually repaired, which took over two years and cost an additional $44 million. Many additional safety features, such as navigation aids, were added, and the opportunity was taken to expand the capacity to five lanes. The fifth lane is a central reversible lane that follows am and pm peak hour crossing times.
One of the largest building projects in Hobart for many years was completed in 1987 when the unpopular waterfront Hobart Sheraton Hotel (now the Grand Chancellor) was opened. Taking over two years in its construction and built on a site in the docks area, its rooms have exceptional views of Sullivans Cove and the Derwent River, but the hotel's construction was extremely unpopular with residences and commercial businesses immediately to the north who had previously enjoyed similar views, now obscured by the hotel's construction. The hotel's builders were also criticised for not sourcing enough of the sandstone coloured bricks that were meant to complement Hobart's colonial waterfront heritage. When the bricks ran out early in construction, they had to complete the project with a pinker shade of bricks that many people disliked. The construction of the Hobart Sheraton broke Wrest Point Hotel Casino's monopoly on the 4–5 star demographic.
The 1990s was a decade of substantial change for Hobart. Although a nationwide recession brought high levels of unemployment and a lowering rate of home ownership, a profound shift in the political landscape followed on from the 1989 state government election. The conservative Liberal government of Robin Gray had sought a third term in office, but had dramatically underestimated the widespread opposition to the construction of another paper pulp mill within the state, and the growing groundswell of support for the Tasmanian Greens party.
In what was the worst outbreak of bushfires in the 1990s, 6 houses and over 3,000 hectares of land in the Hobart area were destroyed by fire on 17 January 1998.
In what was one of the largest projects to go ahead in the late 1990s, a partnership between the Hotel Grand Chancellor, the Australian Commonwealth government and the Tasmanian Government created a permanent home for the Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra when the 1,100 seat Federation Concert Hall was opened on 4 September 2002. The hall's design sparked controversy due to its polished brass exterior cladding, but was welcomed by the orchestra who had been forced to play at a variety of venues from the Hobart City hall to the Hobart Odeon Theatre. It had formed part of an overall redevelopment of the Wapping area, that had seen the old Metropolitan Transport Trust bus garages, lower Collins Street, and other buildings restored.
21st century
In the early 21st century, Hobart enjoyed the benefits of Tasmania's economic climb out of the recession of the 1990s. Unemployment dropped and housing prices rose, as many people from mainland states and overseas moved to the state capital to take advantage of the cheap but high standard of living. The stagnation of population growth slowly reversed, and the first decade of the 21st century has seen Hobart's population begin to steadily rise again.
The city continues to be home to a creative and progressive community who are more in touch with their local environment than most cities worldwide, although the issue of logging in Tasmanian old-growth forest continues to divide opinions.
A thriving local arts community exists, with the Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra world-renowned. The Hobart City Council offers an annual City of Hobart Art Prize, and maintains the Hobart Council's Public Art Programme. The council see it as part of their remit to maintain and develop a healthy variety of activities that enhance the cultural life of Hobart. To do this they provide grants and funding for a variety of cultural activities including arts, theatre, festivals, and other events, and also provide financial support for the City of Hobart Eisteddfod Society, the Salamanca Arts Centre, the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, the Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra, and the Theatre Royal.
In 2008, widespread discussions commenced about the possible regeneration of large sections of Hobart's waterfront, particularly around Macquarie Point, and the old railyards near the docks to the north-eastern side of Sullivans Cove. Such a project could drastically alter the aesthetic appearance of Hobart. This area had once been a major rail hub, and the old Hobart Railway Station (now a part of the ABC studios) still exists nearby. A possible alternative use is the construction of new buildings for the Royal Hobart Hospital. In October 2008, the Tasmanian Government announced it planned to spend $150,000 on a public education programme, outlining its intentions for the hospital development.
Population
The population of Hobart has been subject to gradual growth, normally slower than the mainland state capital cities, and normally subject to strong fluctuations based on economic factors. Whilst there have been periods of negative population growth, as a general rule, Hobart's population has risen slowly but steadily since settlement, and has enjoyed a strong recent increase in the early 21st century.
The modern Australian state of Tasmania is a multi-cultural society with a variety of different ethnic and national backgrounds. Hobart reflects this more than any other region within the state.
Increasingly, migrants come from Asia, but over 90% of Hobartians have a European background, and of those, 37.5% are described as Anglo-Celtic Australians – those with British and Irish ancestry. 31% are described to be of just English ancestry, 9% are of just Irish ancestry, and 7% of just Scottish ancestry.
Since the end of World War II, migrants have also increasingly come from other parts of Europe, and notable communities of Italians, Greeks, Poles, Dutch, and Germans exist. The largest non-European communities in Hobart are Chinese and Hmong.
Historical places of note in Hobart
Arthur Circus
Cascade Brewery
Hobart Cenotaph
Hobart coastal defences
Kelly's Steps
Old Hobart Gaol
Runnymede House
Salamanca Place
Taroona Shot Tower
St David's Cathedral
Parliament House
Theatre Royal
See also
Convicts in Australia
History of Australia
History of Tasmania
Penal transportation
References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian%20People%27s%20Republic
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Hungarian People's Republic
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The Hungarian People's Republic () was a one-party socialist state from 20 August 1949 to 23 October 1989. It was governed by the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party, which was under the influence of the Soviet Union. Pursuant to the 1944 Moscow Conference, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin had agreed that after the war Hungary was to be included in the Soviet sphere of influence. The HPR remained in existence until 1989, when opposition forces brought the end of communism in Hungary.
The state considered itself the heir to the Republic of Councils in Hungary, which was formed in 1919 as the first communist state created after the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian SFSR). It was designated a "people's democratic republic" by the Soviet Union in the 1940s. Geographically, it bordered Romania and the Soviet Union (via the Ukrainian SSR) to the east; Yugoslavia (via SRs Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia) to the southwest; Czechoslovakia to the north and Austria to the west.
The Communists spent the next year and a half after the Moscow Conference consolidating their hold on power and weakening the other parties. This culminated in October 1947, when the Communists told their non-Communist coalition partners that they had to cooperate with a reconfigured coalition government if they wanted to stay in the country. The process was more or less completed in 1949, when a newly elected legislature chosen from a single Communist-dominated list adopted a Soviet-style constitution, and the country was officially recast as a "people's republic."
The same political dynamics continued through the years, with the Soviet Union pressing and maneuvering Hungarian politics through the Hungarian Communist Party, intervening whenever it needed to, through military coercion and covert operations. Political repression and economic decline led to a nationwide popular uprising in October–November 1956 known as the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, which was the largest single act of dissent in the history of the Eastern Bloc. After initially allowing the Revolution to run its course, the Soviet Union sent thousands of troops and tanks to crush the opposition and install a new Soviet-controlled government under János Kádár, killing thousands of Hungarians and driving hundreds of thousands into exile. By the early 1960s, however, the Kádár government had considerably relaxed its line, implementing a unique form of semi-liberal Communism known as "Goulash Communism". The state allowed imports of certain Western consumer and cultural products, gave Hungarians greater freedom to travel abroad, and significantly rolled back the secret police state. These measures earned Hungary the moniker of the "merriest barrack in the socialist camp" during the 1960s and 1970s.
One of the longest-serving leaders of the 20th century, Kádár would finally retire in 1988 after being forced from office by even more pro-reform forces amidst an economic downturn. Those influences remained supreme until the late 1980s, when turmoil broke out across the Eastern Bloc, culminating with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the Soviet Union's dissolution. Despite the end of communist control in Hungary, the 1949 constitution remained in effect with amendments to reflect the country's transition to liberal democracy. On 1 January 2012, the 1949 constitution was replaced with the current constitution.
History
Formation
Following the occupation of Hungary by the Red Army, Soviet military occupation ensued. After seizing most material assets from German hands, the Soviets tried to control Hungarian political affairs, with some success. Using force, the Red Army set up police organs to persecute the opposition, assuming this would enable the Soviet Union to seize the upcoming elections, together with intense communist propaganda to attempt to legitimize their rule. Despite all efforts, in the elections of November 1945 the Hungarian Communist Party was trounced by a Smallholder-led coalition, receiving only 17% of votes. The coalition, under Prime Minister Zoltán Tildy, thus frustrated the Kremlin's expectations of ruling through a democratically elected government.
The Soviet Union, however, intervened through force once again, resulting in a puppet government that disregarded Tildy, placed communists in important ministerial positions, and imposed several restrictive measures, like banning the victorious coalition government and forcing it to yield the Interior Ministry to a nominee of the Hungarian Communist Party.
Communist Interior Minister László Rajk established the ÁVH secret police, in an effort to suppress political opposition through intimidation, false accusations, imprisonment and torture.
In early 1947, the Soviet Union pressed the leader of the Hungarian Communists, Mátyás Rákosi, to take a "line of more pronounced class struggle". American observers likened communist machinations to a coup and concluded that "the coup in Hungary is Russia's answer to our actions in Greece and Turkey", referring to US military intervention in the Greek Civil War and the building of US military bases in Turkey pursuant to the Truman Doctrine.
Rákosi complied by pressuring the other parties to push out those members not willing to do the Communists' bidding, ostensibly because they were "fascists". Later on, after the Communists won full power, he referred to this practice as "salami tactics". Prime Minister Ferenc Nagy was forced to resign as prime minister in favour of a more pliant Smallholder, Lajos Dinnyés. In the 1947 elections, the Communists became the largest party, but were well short of a majority. The coalition was retained with Dinnyés as prime minister. However, by this time most of the other parties' more courageous members had been pushed out, leaving them in the hands of fellow travellers.
In June 1948 the Communists forced the Social Democrats to merge with them to form the Hungarian Working People's Party (MDP). However, the few independent-minded Social Democrats were quickly shunted aside, leaving the MDP as a renamed and enlarged Communist Party. Rákosi then forced Tildy to turn over the presidency to Social Democrat-turned-Communist Árpád Szakasits. In December, Dinnyés was replaced by the leader of the Smallholders' left wing, the openly pro-Communist István Dobi.
At the elections of May 1949, voters were presented with a single Communist-dominated list, comprising candidates from all parties and running on a common programme. By this time, there was virtually no opposition left in the country. On 18 August, the newly elected National Assembly passed a new constitutiona near-carbon copy of the Soviet constitution. When it was officially promulgated on 20 August, the country was renamed the People's Republic of Hungary.
Stalinist era (1949–1956)
Rákosi, now the leader of Hungary, demanded complete obedience from fellow members of the Hungarian Working People's Party. Rákosi's main rival for power was László Rajk, who was then Hungary's Foreign Secretary. Rajk was arrested and Stalin's NKVD emissary coordinated with Hungarian General Secretary Rákosi and his State Protection Authority to lead the way for the show trial of Rajk. At the September 1949 trial, Rajk made a forced confession, claiming that he had been an agent of Miklós Horthy, Leon Trotsky, Josip Broz Tito and Western imperialism. He also admitted that he had taken part in a murder plot against Mátyás Rákosi and Ernő Gerő. Rajk was found guilty and executed.
Despite their helping Rákosi to liquidate Rajk, future Hungarian leader János Kádár and other dissidents were also purged from the party during this period. During Kádár's interrogation, the ÁVH beat him, smeared him with mercury to prevent his skin pores from breathing, and had his questioner urinate into his pried-open mouth.
Rákosi thereafter imposed totalitarian rule on Hungary. At the height of his rule, Rákosi developed a strong cult of personality. Dubbed the "bald murderer", Rákosi imitated Stalinist political and economic programs, resulting in Hungary experiencing one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe.
He described himself as "Stalin's best Hungarian disciple"
and "Stalin's best pupil".
The government collectivized agriculture and it extracted profits from the country's farms to finance rapid expansion of heavy industry, which attracted more than 90% of total industrial investment. At first Hungary concentrated on producing primarily the same assortment of goods it had produced before the war, including locomotives and railroad cars. Despite its poor resource base and its favorable opportunities to specialize in other forms of production, Hungary developed new heavy industry in order to bolster further domestic growth and produce exports to pay for raw-material import.
Rákosi rapidly expanded the education system in Hungary. This was mostly in attempt to replace the educated class of the past by what Rákosi called a new "working intelligentsia". In addition to some beneficial effects such as better education for the poor, more opportunities for working-class children and increased literacy in general, this measure also included the dissemination of communist ideology in schools and universities. Also, as part of an effort to separate the Church from the State, religious instruction was denounced as propaganda and was gradually eliminated from schools.
Cardinal József Mindszenty, who had opposed the German Nazis and the Hungarian Fascists during the Second World War, however, he did support the Miklós Horthy dictatorship, was arrested in December 1948 and accused of treason. After five weeks under arrest, he confessed to the charges made against him and he was condemned to life imprisonment. The Protestant churches were also purged and their leaders were replaced by those willing to remain loyal to Rákosi's government.
The new Hungarian military hastily staged public, prearranged trials to purge "Nazi remnants and imperialist saboteurs". Several officers were sentenced to death and executed in 1951, including Lajos Tóth, a 28 victory-scoring flying ace of the World War II Royal Hungarian Air Force, who had voluntarily returned from US captivity to help revive Hungarian aviation. The victims were cleared posthumously following the fall of communism.
Rákosi grossly mismanaged the economy and the people of Hungary saw living standards fall rapidly. His government became increasingly unpopular, and when Joseph Stalin died in 1953, Mátyás Rákosi was replaced as prime minister by Imre Nagy. However, he retained his position as general secretary of the Hungarian Working People's Party and over the next three years the two men became involved in a bitter struggle for power.
As Hungary's new leader, Imre Nagy removed state control of the mass media and encouraged public discussion on changes to the political system and liberalizing the economy. This included a promise to increase the production and distribution of consumer goods. Nagy also released political prisoners from Rákosi's numerous purges of the Party and society.
On 9 March 1955, the Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party condemned Nagy for rightist deviation. Hungarian newspapers joined the attacks and Nagy was accused of being responsible for the country's economic problems and on 18 April he was dismissed from his post by a unanimous vote of the National Assembly. Rákosi once again became the leader of Hungary.
Rákosi's power was undermined by a speech made by Nikita Khrushchev in February 1956. He denounced the policies of Joseph Stalin and his followers in Eastern Europe. He also claimed that the trial of László Rajk had been a "miscarriage of justice". On 18 July 1956, Rákosi was forced from power as a result of orders from the Soviet Union. However, he did manage to secure the appointment of his close friend, Ernő Gerő, as his successor.
On 3 October 1956, the Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party announced that it had decided that László Rajk, György Pálffy, Tibor Szőnyi and András Szalai had wrongly been convicted of treason in 1949. At the same time it was announced that Imre Nagy had been reinstated as a member of the party.
Revolution of 1956
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 began on 23 October as a peaceful demonstration of students in Budapest. The students protested for the implementation of several demands including an end to Soviet occupation. The police made some arrests and tried to disperse the crowd with tear gas. When the protesters attempted to free those who had been arrested, the police opened fire on the crowd, provoking rioting throughout the capital.
Early the following morning, Soviet military units entered Budapest and seized key positions. Citizens and soldiers joined the protesters chanting "Russians go home" and defacing communist party symbols. The Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party responded to the pressure by appointing the reformer Imre Nagy as the new Prime Minister.
On 25 October, a mass of protesters gathered in front of the Parliament Building. ÁVH units began shooting into the crowd from the rooftops of neighboring buildings.
Some Soviet soldiers returned fire on the ÁVH, mistakenly believing that they were the targets of the shooting.
Supplied by arms taken from the ÁVH or given by Hungarian soldiers who joined the uprising, some in the crowd started shooting back.
Imre Nagy now went on Radio Kossuth and announced he had taken over the leadership of the Government as Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the People's Republic of Hungary. He also promised "the far-reaching democratization of Hungarian public life, the realisation of a Hungarian road to socialism in accord with our own national characteristics, and the realisation of our lofty national aim: the radical improvement of the workers' living conditions".
On 28 October, Nagy and a group of his supporters, including János Kádár, Géza Losonczy, Antal Apró, Károly Kiss, Ferenc Münnich and Zoltán Szabó, managed to take control of the Hungarian Working People's Party. At the same time revolutionary workers' councils and local national committees were formed all over Hungary.
The change of leadership in the party was reflected in the articles of the government newspaper, Szabad Nép (i.e. Free People). On 29 October the newspaper welcomed the new government and openly criticised Soviet attempts to influence the political situation in Hungary. This view was supported by Radio Miskolc that called for the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops from the country.
On 30 October, Imre Nagy announced that he was freeing Cardinal József Mindszenty and other political prisoners. He also informed the people that his government intended to abolish the one-party state. This was followed by statements of Zoltán Tildy, Anna Kéthly and Ferenc Farkas concerning the restitution of the Smallholders Party, the Social Democratic Party and the Petőfi (former Peasants) Party.
Nagy's most controversial decision took place on 1 November when he announced that Hungary intended to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and proclaim Hungarian neutrality. He asked the United Nations to become involved in the country's dispute with the Soviet Union.
On 3 November, Nagy announced the details of his coalition government. It included communists (János Kádár, Georg Lukács, Géza Losonczy), three members of the Smallholders Party (Zoltán Tildy, Béla Kovács and István Szabó), three Social Democrats (Anna Kéthly, Gyula Keleman, Joseph Fischer), and two Petőfi Peasants (István Bibó and Ferenc Farkas). Pál Maléter was appointed minister of defence.
Nikita Khrushchev, the leader of the Soviet Union, became increasingly concerned about these developments and on 4 November 1956 he sent the Red Army into Hungary. Soviet tanks immediately captured Hungary's airfields, highway junctions and bridges. Fighting took place all over the country but the Hungarian forces were quickly defeated.
During the Hungarian Uprising, an estimated 20,000 people were killed, nearly all during the Soviet intervention. Imre Nagy was arrested and replaced by the Soviet loyalist, János Kádár, as head of the newly formed Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party (Magyar Szocialista Munkáspárt, MSZMP). Nagy was imprisoned until being executed in 1958. Other government ministers or supporters who were either executed or died in captivity included Pál Maléter, Géza Losonczy, Attila Szigethy and Miklós Gimes.
Changes under Kádár
Hungary changed its flag on 12 October 1957. The coat of arms depicting the emblem of the Hammer and Wheat was removed from its pure tricoloured flag.
First Kádár followed retributions against the revolutionaries. 21,600 dissidents were imprisoned, 13,000 interned, and 400 executed. But in the early 1960s, he announced a new policy under the motto "He who is not against us is with us", a variation of Rákosi's quote: "He who is not with us is against us". He declared a general amnesty, gradually curbed some of the excesses of the secret police, and introduced a relatively liberal cultural and economic course aimed at overcoming the post-1956 hostility towards him and his regime. Homosexuality was decriminalized in 1961.
In 1966, the Central Committee approved the "New Economic Mechanism", which moved away from a strictly planned economy towards a system more reminiscent of the decentralized Yugoslav model. Over the next two decades of relative domestic quiet, Kádár's government responded alternately to pressures for minor political and economic reforms as well as to counter-pressures from reform opponents. Dissidents (the so-called "Democratic Opposition", ) still remained closely watched by the secret police however, particularly during the anniversaries of the 1956 uprising in 1966, 1976, and 1986.
By the early 1980s, it had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which encouraged more trade with the West. Nevertheless, the New Economic Mechanism led to mounting foreign debt, incurred to subsidize unprofitable industries. Many of Hungary's manufacturing facilities were outmoded and unable to produce goods that were salable on world markets. Despite this, they succeeded in obtaining sizable financial loans from Western countries without much difficulty. During a 1983 visit to Hungary, Soviet leader Yuri Andropov expressed interest in adopting some of the country's economic reforms in the Soviet Union.
Hungary remained committed to a pro-Soviet foreign policy and openly criticized US president Ronald Reagan's deployment of intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Europe. In a speech to the CPH's youth organization in 1981, Kádár said "The forces of capitalism are trying to distract attention from their mounting social problems by stepping up the arms race, but there can be no prospect for mankind other than that of peace and social progress." In 1983, Vice President George H. W. Bush and the foreign ministers of France and West Germany visited Budapest, where they received a friendly welcome, but the Hungarian leadership nonetheless reiterated their opposition to US missile deployment. They also cautioned the Western representatives not to mistake Hungary's economic reforms for a sign that the country would embrace capitalism.
Other events during Kadar's tenure were Hungarian aid and support of North Vietnam during the Vietnam War, severing relations with Israel following the Six-Day War, and the boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics during the Soviet conflict in Afghanistan.
Transition to democracy
In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev rose to power in the Soviet Union, and changed the course of its foreign policy. Hungary's transition to a Western-style democracy was one of the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc. By late 1988, activists within the party and bureaucracy and Budapest-based intellectuals were increasing pressure for change. Some of these became reformist social democrats, while others began movements which were to develop into parties. Young liberals formed the Federation of Young Democrats (Fidesz). A core from the so-called Democratic Opposition formed the Association of Free Democrats (SZDSZ) and the national opposition established the Hungarian Democratic Forum (Magyar Demokrata Fórum, MDF). Nationalist movements, such as the Jobbik, only reappeared after a rapid decline in nationalist sentiment following the establishment of the new Republic. Civic activism intensified to a level not seen since the 1956 revolution.
In 1988, Kádár was replaced as General Secretary of the MSZMP by Prime Minister Károly Grósz, and reformist communist leader Imre Pozsgay was admitted to the Politburo. In 1989, the Parliament adopted a "democracy package", which included trade union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; and a new electoral law. A Central Committee plenum in February 1989 agreed in principle to give up the MSZMP's monopoly of power, and also characterized the October 1956 revolution as a "popular uprising", in the words of Pozsgay, whose reform movement had been gathering strength as Communist Party membership declined dramatically. Kádár's major political rivals then cooperated to move the country gradually to Western-style democracy. The Soviet Union reduced its involvement by signing an agreement in April 1989 to withdraw Soviet forces by June 1991.
While Grósz favoured reforming and refining the system, the "democracy package" went well beyond the "model change" he advocated to change the system within the framework of Communism. However, by this time, Grósz had been rapidly eclipsed by a faction of radical reformers including Pozsgay, Miklós Németh (who succeeded Grósz as prime minister later in 1988), Foreign Minister Gyula Horn, and Rezső Nyers, the original architect of the New Economic Mechanism. This faction now favoured a "system change"–jettisoning Communism altogether in favour of a market economy. By the summer of 1989, it was clear that the MSZMP was no longer a Marxist-Leninist party. In June, a four-man executive presidency replaced the Politburo. Three of its four members–Nemeth, Pozsgay and Nyers–came from the radical reform faction, with Nyers becoming party president. Grósz retained his title of general secretary, but Nyers now outranked him–effectively making Nyers the leader of Hungary.
National unity culminated in June 1989 as the country reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and, symbolically, all other victims of the 1956 revolution. A national round table, comprising representatives of the new parties, some recreated old parties (such as the Smallholders and Social Democrats), and different social groups, met in the late summer of 1989 to discuss major changes to the Hungarian constitution in preparation for free elections and the transition to a fully free and democratic political system.
In October 1989, the MSZMP convened what would be its last congress. The party voted to disband and re-establish itself as the Hungarian Socialist Party (Magyar Szocialista Párt, MSZP), a Western European-style social democratic party with Nyers as its first president. Unable to slow down, let alone stop, the momentum toward a full "system change," Grósz eventually led a faction of Communists out of the MSZP to form a revived Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party, now the Hungarian Workers' Party.
The biggest changes by far came on 16–20 October 1989. In a historic session, Parliament adopted a package of nearly 100 constitutional amendments that almost completely rewrote the 1949 constitution. The package – the first comprehensive constitutional reform in the Soviet bloc – changed Hungary's official name to the Republic of Hungary and transformed the country from a one-party Marxist-Leninist state into a multiparty democracy. The revised constitution guaranteed human and civil rights, and created an institutional structure that ensured separation of powers among the judicial, executive, and legislative branches of government. The revised constitution also championed the "values of bourgeois democracy and democratic socialism" and gave equal status to public and private property. Although the now-dissolved MSZMP had already given up its monopoly of power in February, these changes marked the final legal step toward ending Communist rule in Hungary.
On the 33rd anniversary of the 1956 Revolution, 23 October, the Presidential Council was dissolved. In accordance with the constitution, parliament Speaker Mátyás Szűrös was named provisional president pending elections the following year. One of Szűrös' first acts was to officially proclaim the Republic of Hungary.
Hungary decentralized its economy and strengthened its ties with western Europe; in May 2004 Hungary became a member of the European Union.
Economy
As a member of the Eastern Bloc, initially, Hungary was shaped by various directives of Joseph Stalin that served to undermine Western institutional characteristics of market economies, liberal democracy (considered as bourgeoisie democracy in Marxist thought), and rule of law. The Soviets modeled economies in the rest of the Eastern Bloc, such as Hungary, along Soviet command economy lines. Economic activity was governed by Five Year Plans, divided into monthly segments, which are drafted in order to meet plan targets for the period, and made use of methods such as material balance planning similar to other Soviet-type command economies.
The plans prioritized investment for producer goods over consumer goods. Consumer goods soon began to lack in quantity, resulting in a shortage economy, and lack of user feedback without other incentives for innovation led to a lack of quality as well. Overall, the inefficiency of later economic systems without mechanisms for feedback present in other economies, such as competition, market-clearing prices or subsidies for innovation became costly and unsustainable. Meanwhile, other Western European nations experienced increased economic growth in the Wirtschaftswunder ("economic miracle"), Trente Glorieuses ("thirty glorious years"), and the post-World War II boom.
Housing shortages emerged. The near-total emphasis on large low quality prefabricated apartment blocks, such as Hungarian Panelház, was a common feature of Eastern Bloc cities in the 1970s and 1980s. Even by the late 1980s, sanitary conditions were generally far from adequate. Only 60% of Hungarian housing had adequate sanitation by 1984, with only 36% of housing having piped water.
While most western European economies essentially began to approach the per capita Gross Domestic Product levels of the United States, Hungary's did not, with its per capita GDPs falling significantly below their comparable western European counterparts:
The GDP per capita of Hungary, and the Eastern Bloc as a whole, lagged behind that of Western Europe. A contributing factor is that, in contrast to Hungary, some of the Western European economies, despite being also ravaged from WWII, benefited from the Marshall Plan from the United States, whose economy had expanded rapidly during the war and immediate post-war period. However, Spain and Finland, which saw much faster growth than Hungary, were not part of the Marshall Plan. Hungary did not receive financial assistance from the Molotov Plan of the Soviet Union, which also forbade Hungary from joining the Marshall Plan.
Legacy
According to a 2020 poll conducted by Policy Solutions in Hungary, 54% percent of Hungarians say that most people had a better life under communism, while 31% say most people are better off now.
Notes
References
External links
Everyday communism – on life, books and women in communist Hungary, Hungary Review
History of the Revolutionary Workers Movement in Hungary: 1944–1962, an English-language Hungarian work published in 1972.
The CWIHP at the Woodrow Wilson Center for Scholars Collection on Hungary in the Cold War
Communism in Hungary
Eastern Bloc
Hungary
Totalitarian states
Territorial evolution of Hungary
Modern history of Hungary
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Hungary
Communist states
States and territories disestablished in 1989
States and territories established in 1949
1949 establishments in Hungary
1989 disestablishments in Hungary
20th century in Hungary
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