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5240792	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Kumler%20Flickinger	Daniel Kumler Flickinger	Daniel Kumler Flickinger (25 May 1824 – 29 August 1911) was an American bishop of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, elected in 1885. He was the twenty-fifth Bishop of this Christian denomination, and the first elected to the office of Missionary Bishop. Family Bishop Flickinger was born 25 May 1824 near the village of Seven Mile, Butler County, Ohio, the sixth of the fourteen children born to Jacob and Hannah (Kumler) Flickinger. Jacob's ancestors were Swiss Mennonites. Hannah was the daughter of Henry Kumler Sr, a Bishop and influential leader in the early years of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ. Henry's son Henry Kumler Jr likewise was elected Bishop. Bishop Flickinger was therefore a grandson and a nephew of U.B. Bishops. His mother, Hannah, was the daughter, sister and mother of U.B. Bishops. Flickinger's parents were married in Franklin County, Pennsylvania, there establishing their first home. In 1818 they moved to Ohio. The next year Hannah's parents followed, there too establishing their home in Butler County. Jacob became a prosperous farmer and a zealous local preacher in the Miami Annual Conference of the U.B. Church. As was true of many of the pioneers of that day, he believed in hard work and rigid economy. He was also known for his deep-seated prejudice against higher education, also not unusual in that day. The itinerating pioneer preachers always found a welcome in the Flickinger home. There they held services and found lodging and board as long as they wished to remain in the community. Jacob Flickinger was very generous in supporting these preachers. For example, it is said that on one occasion a preacher arrived with his clothes tied in a cotton cloth. It was evident he needed a pair of saddle bags, having no money with which to purchase them, however. His host told him to stop at a certain saddle shop, buy the saddle bags, and have them charged to him. The preacher, doing as instructed, continued to use those same bags for nearly a half century! Early life Flickinger's youth was marked by experiences common to the pioneer children of his day. Much work and little time for play was the lot of most every one of them. Daniel took advantage of every opportunity which the rural school of his community offered. His deep religious interest dated back to when he was eight years old. Having heard a relative tell his father that many children were dying in a community about four miles (6 km) from their home, the boy became fearful that he would die and that he would certainly go to perdition. This morbid condition continued throughout the years of his boyhood. In November 1839 Daniel became a member of the U.B. Church. He made it a rule thereafter to pray four times a day and to take part in public services whenever possible. Flickinger married Miss Mary Lintner 25 February 1847. The newlyweds established themselves on a good farm near the parental home. All seemed to go well until about a year and one half later, when his wife fell victim to an affliction from which she never recovered. In the autumn of 1848 she and their child went to live with her mother, while Flickinger taught school. In the spring of 1849 he sold his stock and rented his farm. At that time he owned of fine farming land in Butler County in the Miami Valley of Ohio. If his wife's health had not broken, he probably would have become known as a prosperous and progressive farmer. But the course of his life was soon to take a very different turn. Early ministry Flickinger continued reading and studying. He taught another school term the winter of 1849-50. Meanwhile, his Pastor, the Rev. John Coons, who had also served as Bishop for one quadrennium, asked the local congregation to recommend Daniel Flickinger for quarterly conference License to Preach. This was done without his knowledge, and the license was granted April 1849. In the next year and a half the young minister tried to preach four or five times. He received his Annual Conference License to Preach at the Conference session of October 1850, signed by Bishop J.J. Glossbrenner. From there Rev. Flickinger was sent as the Junior Preacher (with the Rev. R. Norris) to the Mt. Pleasant Circuit, including nine preaching places all located near the city of Cincinnati, Ohio. Determined to enter college and take a full course of study, Rev. Flickinger purchased a home in Oxford, Ohio, planning to enter Miami University. This was in the autumn of 1851. However, in September he was called away from the conference session to find his sick wife's condition so grave that she died a few days later, leaving him with two children (one about two and one-half years old and the other less than a week). This changed his plans entirely. Rev. Flickinger, instead, took appointment to the Lewisburg Circuit consisting of six preaching places, serving there 1851-52. During this year he raised a far larger sum for missions than had ever been raised on that field before. Being in poor health himself, Rev. Flickinger decided not to accept a pastoral appointment in 1852. Instead, he accompanied Bishop Glossbrenner on his rounds to conference sessions. This took him to the Indiana, Wabash, Iowa, and Illinois Annual Conferences. Rev. Flickinger gave to the needy preachers he met along the way all the money he had not necessary for his own expenses, plus his watch besides. He then spent part of the following winter in the Glossbrenner home in Virginia. While there he became married to the Bishop's daughter, Miss Catherine Glossbrenner, 9 January 1853. Then, during the latter part of that conference year, Rev. Flickinger served as a colporteur for the American Tract Society, and as a City Missionary in Cincinnati, Ohio. Ordained ministry At the 1853 autumn session of the Miami Conference, Flickinger was ordained by Bishop David Edwards. He was appointed as Junior Preacher (with William R. Rhinehart) on the circuit consisting of Dayton, Miami Chapel, and Beavertown. In his memoirs, Bishop Flickinger provided this remembrance of the U.B. Church in Dayton at that time (soon to be the headquarters city of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ): "Our church was new then, more noisy than any other in the city, and that brought crowds of people." In August 1854, Catherine Glossbrenner Flickinger died, leaving her husband a widower the second time. Despite his grief, however, he continued his work. The Miami Conference session of 1854 divided the Dayton Circuit, and Flickinger was appointed to the city church. Missionary service In autumn 1854, Rev. Flickinger offered to join W.J. Shuey and D.C. Kumler as the first missionaries of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ to go to Africa, "provided no better person could be secured." At first his offer was rejected on the grounds of his poor health. But in December the call came to him. According to his own account, the message reached him at ten o'clock in the morning, his acceptance was given at two o'clock, and by six o'clock that same evening he was on his way to New York City to make plans for sailing. He returned to Dayton, resigned his pastorate on Christmas Day, and went back to New York on 4 January to board a vessel en route to Sierra Leone. After some delay the three missionaries sailed 23 January 1855, reaching Freetown 26 February. They spent the first few months surveying the field. On 30 June his two companions returned to the U.S., leaving Flickinger alone. He spent his time seeking a suitable location for the mission of his Church. During these months Rev. Flickinger made his home with the Mendi mission of the Congregational Church. Six of their missionaries had arrived on the same boat with Flickinger. One of these six, Miss Susanna Woolsey of Willoughby, Ohio, a teacher in the Mendi mission, became the wife of Daniel Flickinger 30 October 1855. After additional surveying, as well as a period of critical illness, the Flickingers sailed for the U.S. 31 March 1856, arriving in New York City 11 May. Rev. Flickinger then attended the meeting of the Board of Missions of the U.B. Church in Mt. Pleasant, Pennsylvania early in June. There he gave a full report of the conditions he found in Sierra Leone during the fourteen months he spent there. Reenters pastoral ministry That summer Rev. Flickinger traveled about to U.B. churches, telling about Africa and soliciting funds for the promotion of the mission work. When his Annual Conference met in September 1856, he was appointed Pastor of a mission church in Piqua, Ohio. He entered upon his work with characteristic zeal, in six weeks seeing the church building repaired and the work moving forward with great promise. Nevertheless, when the Board of Missions called, Rev. Flickinger again sailed for Africa early in December, arriving January 1857. Return to missionary work Daniel took with him two new missionaries. He introduced them to the field, then left them to carry forward the work, while Flickinger returned to the U.S. in time to again attend the meeting of the Board of Missions (and the General Conference of the U.B. Church) held in Cincinnati, May 1857. He was elected Secretary of Missionary Work for his denomination. After serving only a few months, however, he was stricken by illness, forcing his resignation. J.C. Bright was named to succeed him. But soon Bright found himself unable to carry this responsibility. Upon his resignation, Flickinger was re-elected in 1858, and continued in this work until elected Missionary Bishop of the U.B. Church in 1885. Missionary Secretary During the twenty-eight years Daniel Flickinger served as Secretary, he made six trips to Africa to organize, counsel and encouraged the missionaries there. Concerning a trip during the Winter of 1861-62, Daniel wrote: I paid the entire expense of that trip to Africa and back on sail vessels, which, however, was a small matter in comparison to the discomfort and sufferings which I endured. On my way out, a fearful gale filled my cabin with water, and on my way home, an equally severe storm was encountered. Then the ship was short of provisions on the home voyage. For two weeks the only food we had was wormy bread, "sow belly," as the sailors called it, and black coffee. The captain and crew were very profane, and their only passenger was much neglected. He had a personal conference with President Abraham Lincoln once, concerning establishing a school in Vicksburg, Mississippi for former slaves. The school was started, at one time employing as many as nine teachers. But after the end of the American Civil War the school was discontinued. Flickinger also was instrumental in establishing a mission in Germany, visiting it eight times. Rev. Flickinger also was called upon to solicit funds for other departments and interests of his denomination from time to time. A conspicuous example of his success was the endowment of the Flickinger Chair in Otterbein University (now College). Otterbein University In 1880 the university honored Daniel Kumler Flickinger by bestowing upon him the honorary degree Doctor of Divinity. For many years Daniel in turn served the College as one of its most efficient trustees. While his chief interest always was the cause of missions, he gave most generously of his own means as well as of his time and effort to every phase of the work of the Church, especially one of its chief Universities. Literary ministry Flickinger sought a means of disseminating information concerning missions to the whole Church. He therefore wrote articles for the denominational periodicals, published books, and introduced a missions magazine in 1865, the Missionary Visitor. He continued as Editor for twenty years, until his election to the episcopacy. His first book was published in 1857, titled Off-Hand Sketches of Men and Things in Western Africa. Several more books followed, some written in collaboration with others. Most had missions as their focus. Episcopal ministry The 1885 General Conference of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ convened in May in Fostoria, Ohio. Sentiment at the conference favored the establishment of the office of Missionary Bishop. Its focus would be the supervision of U.B. missions in Africa and Germany, as well as solicitation of funds in the Church in the U.S.A. The General Conference adopted this plan, and Daniel Kumler Flickinger was elected on the first ballot the first Missionary Bishop of the United Brethren Church. Bishop Flickinger gave himself and his own personal means to the furtherance of his work during the following quadrennium. He traveled to Africa three times, and gave much time to the mission in Germany, as well. Indeed, he had little opportunity to take part in the controversy which was brewing in the U.B. Church at home. Post-episcopacy The 1889 General Conference of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, meeting in York, Pennsylvania in May, discontinued the Missionary Bishopric. This left a very busy and earnest man without regular assignment. Indeed, writing of his experiences during the next few years, Daniel said: After the division of the Church, in 1889, owing to certain things which had occurred, I did not feel at home in the Church, and hence spent most of these three years preaching for Congregationalists, though I never withdrew from our Church. Thinking that I would get over that feeling, I did commence my forty-first year by taking charge of a United Brethren mission station in my own conference. United Brethren in Christ (Old Constitution) In December 1895 Rev. Flickinger joined the Scioto Annual Conference of the "break-away" segment of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ (that one, led by Bishop Wright, which continued by means of the former denominational Constitution). Daniel found there an opportunity to make his twelfth trip to Africa, in 1896. On 1 July 1897 he was appointed to the office of Secretary of the Domestic, Frontier, and Foreign Missionary Society of this denomination. By virtue of this office, he also became Editor of the first eight pages of the Missionary Monthly magazine. Nevertheless, disappointed in some conditions which he found in this denomination, on 1 June 1905 he severed his connection with the Board of Missions. He joined the First U.B. Church in Indianapolis, Indiana in December. Then in August 1906 he was accepted again into the Ministerial membership of the Miami Conference, where he had worked in his earlier years. Bishop Flickinger's children His oldest son, Samuel Jacob Flickinger, was widely known as the long-time Editor of the Ohio State Journal, published in Columbus, Ohio. Another son, Dr. Elmer Ellsworth Flickinger, practiced medicine six years and then went into business in Indianapolis, where he was also known as one of the leading laymen of the U.B. Church. The Bishop's youngest son died when only nine years old. He had three other sons and two daughters. Later years, death and funeral Flickinger spent most of his later years in the homes of his children. When past eighty-seven years of age, he attended the session of the Miami Annual Conference, 23–28 August 1911 in Dayton, Ohio. Bishop Flickinger died suddenly on 29 August 1911 in Columbus, Ohio. His funeral was held in the U.B. Church in Hamilton, Ohio. Dr. H.H. Fout (later Bishop) gave the Memorial Address. Dr. W.J. Shuey, who had gone to Africa with Flickinger in 1855, spoke intimately of their associations throughout the years. Interment was in the cemetery at Oxford, Ohio. In an editorial statement in the Religious Telescope (a U.B. denominational periodical), Dr. J.M. Phillippi wrote, A great life has closed - great in its comprehensive grasp of affairs, great in its attention to details, great in the maintenance of its faith and good-will to the close. Selected writings Off-Hand Sketches of Men and Things in Western Africa, 1857. Discourses on Doctrinal and Practical Subjects (with Dr. W.J. Shuey), 1859. The Church's Marching Orders, 1979. Ethiopia; or Twenty-six Years of Missionary Life in Western Africa, 1882. History of the Origin, Development and Condition of Missions Among the Sherbro and Mendi Tribes in Western Africa (with William McKee), 1885. Our Missionary Work from 1853-1889, 1889. Fifty-five Years in the Gospel Ministry (autobiography), 1907. See also List of bishops of the United Methodist Church Notes References Behney, J. Bruce and Eller, Paul H., The History of the Evangelical United Brethren Church, (edited by Kenneth W. Krueger), Nashville: Abingdon, 1979. Flickinger, D.K., Fifty-Five Years in the Gospel Ministry, Dayton, Ohio: United Brethren Publishing House, 1907. Koontz, Paul Rodes, and Roush, Walter Edwin, The Bishops: Church of the United Brethren in Christ, Dayton, Ohio: The Otterbein Press, 1950. Tompson, H.A., Our Bishops (New Edition), Dayton, Ohio: The United Brethren Publishing House, 1904 (originally published in 1889). External links 19th-century American bishops Bishops of the Evangelical United Brethren Church 1824 births 1911 deaths American people of Swiss descent Bishops of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ Evangelical United Brethren missionaries American Methodist missionaries American United Brethren in Christ American expatriates in Sierra Leone Methodist missionaries in Sierra Leone Ministers of the Evangelical United Brethren Church Burials at Oxford Cemetery, Oxford, Ohio People from Butler County, Ohio
5241465	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendums%20in%20New%20Zealand	Referendums in New Zealand	Referendums (or referenda) are held only occasionally by the Government of New Zealand. Referendums may be government-initiated or held in accordance with the Electoral Act 1993 or the Citizens Initiated Referenda Act 1993. Nineteen referendums have been held so far (excluding referendums on alcohol licensing, which were held triennially between 1894 and 1989). Fourteen were government-led, and five were indicative citizen initiatives. Government referendums The government of New Zealand may, at any time, call for a referendum on any issue. This requires enabling legislation to determine whether the outcome will be binding on the government or merely indicative. This allows parliamentary scrutiny of the issue and wording of the question. There is no constraint on whether an issue is to be decided by the New Zealand Parliament or by the public, except for where the reserved provisions of the Electoral Act 1993 are engaged. Section 268 of the Electoral Act 1993 protects some of the provisions of the Act from amendment except in accordance with s 268(2) which requires a majority vote in a referendum of a 75% majority of Members of Parliament. The protected provisions include, inter alia, the term of Parliament, the voting age and the voting method. The provision itself is not protected from ordinary amendment or repeal. This has led to the sporadic use of referendums, partly because there is no constitutional requirement, as there is in other countries like Australia or Switzerland that have codified constitutions. Recent examples are the New Zealand flag referendums held across 2015 and 2016, conducted by postal vote. Constitutional referendums There is no requirement for a referendum to enact constitutional change in New Zealand. Referendums were held in 1992 and 1993 to decide the nature of electoral reform in New Zealand. Many groups advocate approval of constitutional reforms by referendums; the Republican Movement supports a referendum on whether New Zealand should become a republic. There are frequent calls for the use of referendums to decide other constitutional matters, rather than by regular Acts of Parliament. In 2003 the Fifth Labour Government replaced the Privy Council as New Zealand's highest court of appeal with a new Supreme Court, despite calls from New Zealand First, National and ACT for a referendum to be held on the issue. In 1950 the abolition of the Legislative Council by the First National Government was done by Act of Parliament; with additional members of the Legislative Council (MLC) appointed to ensure approval by the upper house, the suicide squad. Liquor licensing referendums In New Zealand, alcohol licensing has historically been decided by referendum. The first of these were compulsory local licensing referendums, held in 1894 and then with each main parliamentary election between 1896 and 1914. Local licensing referendums were eliminated after 1914, apart from 'local restoration polls' to legalise liquor sales in 'dry' districts. In 1910 a referendum on national prohibition of alcohol was introduced, and held in conjunction with every general election from 1911 to 1987 inclusive (except 1931 and 1951). An extra referendum on prohibition was held on 10 April 1919. From 17 December 1919 the additional option of state purchase and control of liquor (i.e. nationalisation) was added to the ballot. The Sale of Liquor Act 1989 abolished the national liquor referendum. Local restoration polls were still held in areas that were still 'dry', but the last three, Mount Eden, Mount Roskill and Tawa, all became 'wet' in 1999. There have been two referendums on pub closing times. Other referendums The government may call referendums on any issues on which it wishes. These will usually be on issues on which the government is split. For the 1997 referendum on retirement savings, the decision to hold it was part of the coalition agreement between National and New Zealand First. For the 2020 referendum on Voluntary Euthanasia, it was originally meant to be passed as a bill of parliament but New Zealand First threatened to vote it down if it wasn't considered to be voted by the people during the 2020 election. The 2020 Cannabis referendum was based on the Confidence and Supply agreement between the Labour Party and the Green Party. Citizens Initiated Referenda The Citizens Initiated Referenda Act 1993 allows for citizens to propose a referendum. These are non-binding referendums on any issue in which proponents have submitted a petition to Parliament signed by ten percent of all registered electors within 12 months. There were 3,298,009 voters enrolled for the 2017 general election, so at least 329,801 signatures would be required at a rate of approximately 904 signatures per day. In reality, more signatures would be required to account for variances in electoral roll numbers, duplicate signatures and signatures that cannot be matched to a registered elector. There are procedural requirements governing this process. It costs NZ$500 to file a petition asking for a referendum with the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The Clerk formally determines the wording of the question, which may be quite different from the original. Once the Clerk receives the completed petition, the number of signatures is initially counted, followed by sample groups of signatures being taken and the signatories' names and addresses checked against the electoral roll. The sampling of signatures is used to estimate the number of valid signatures for the whole petition with confidence, and if the lower confidence interval is more than ten percent of the electoral roll, the petition is presented to the House of Representatives. Within one month of the petition's presentation to the House, a date for the poll must be determined. The poll must be held within 12 months of the petition's presentation, unless 75 percent of MPs vote to delay the poll for one year. There is also a $50,000 spending limit on promoting the petition. New Zealand, Italy, and Switzerland are among countries whose laws allow for citizen-initiated referendums (CIRs) nationally. Its defenders view it as a form of "direct democracy". However, the Citizens Initiated Referendum 1993 went against the advice of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System 1986. The Commission stated, speaking about referenda more broadly, "In general, initiatives and referendums are blunt and crude devices.... [that] would blur the lines of accountability and responsibility of Governments". A total of 48 petitions have been launched since 1993 on a wide range of topics. Only five (one in 1995, two in 1999, one in 2009, one in 2013) have come to a vote. The other petitions failed to gain enough signatures to force a referendum. Achieving the target number of signatures is a requirement for forcing a vote on an initiative proposed by citizens. Firefighters The first citizens initiated referendum was held on 2 December 1995. The question "Should the number of professional fire-fighters employed full-time in the New Zealand Fire Service be reduced below the number employed on 1 January 1995?" aimed to elicit a "no" response. Turnout was low as the referendum was not held in conjunction with a general election. Just over 12% voted "Yes" and almost 88% voted "No". 1999 election At the 1999 election two referendums were put before voters. One was on whether the number of Members of Parliament should be reduced from 120 to 99. Electors overwhelmingly voted in favour of the proposal, with 81.47% voting for this proposal. However, there were no moves to amend the Electoral Act 1993 in line with this result until 2006 when a bill was introduced by New Zealand First MP Barbara Stewart to reduce the size of Parliament to 100. The bill passed its first reading, 61 votes to 60 and was referred to Select Committee. The Select Committee returned recommending the bill to not be passed, citing reasons including public misconception on the MMP voting system, population growth, and international comparability. The bill was subsequently voted down 112 to 9 at its second reading. The other referendum held in 1999 asked "Should there be a reform of our Justice system placing greater emphasis on the needs of victims, providing restitution and compensation for them and imposing minimum sentences and hard labour for all serious violent offences?". This measure passed by 91.78%. There was some debate over the phrasing of the referendum, as the question actually contains five separate questions; voters could agree with some, but not with others. Parental corporal punishment Following the submission of a petition on 22 August 2008, the Clerk of the House verified to Parliament that the threshold for a CIR had been reached. Supporters were hoping for the referendum to be held alongside the 8 November general election, but it was decided by Parliament to hold the referendum by postal ballot between 31 July and 21 August 2009. The question asked was "Should a smack as part of good parental correction be a criminal offence in New Zealand?" Voter turnout was 56.1 percent. While 87.4 percent of votes answered 'no', the question drew widespread criticism from the public, parliament, and even the Prime Minister John Key for being a loaded question and for the use of the value-judgement 'good'. Opponents of citizens initiated referendums The perceived lack of implementation of successful referendums has led to calls for such referendums to be made binding on the government of the day, similar to the direct democracy said to exist in Switzerland. ACT New Zealand, Family First New Zealand, the Sensible Sentencing Trust and Kiwi Party all advocate binding referendums. However, Kiwi Party President Larry Baldock failed to submit enough signatures for a petition that might have led to a non-binding referendum on whether or not binding citizens referenda should be introduced after being granted permission to circulate a petition calling for that innovation, so the status quo remains. Although the Kiwi Party applied for deregistration, the cause has been taken up by the Conservative Party of New Zealand and its leader, Colin Craig. By contrast, GayNZ.com has run articles strongly critical of the CIR lobby, as well as expressing concerns that CIRs could be abused to strip vulnerable minorities of their legislative protections, as has occurred frequently with referendums against same-sex marriage in the United States and similar proposals that target illegal immigrants in that country. In some New Zealand media outlets, the Minaret controversy in Switzerland has also been cited as one current example of anti-minoritarian abuse of the 'citizens' referendum process. Even amongst conservatives, the issue has become contentious. The Maxim Institute has announced its opposition to binding citizens referendums, citing the adverse fiscal management consequences that have ensued in the state of California in a recent paper from Richard Ekins, a University of Auckland legal academic. Former New Zealand Prime Minister John Key also opposes binding referendums on fiscal grounds, noting that California's contradictory tax cap and public spending referendums have made state fiscal management chaotic. However, a key problem with that argument is that ballot initiatives only make up 2% of the Californian state budget, once Proposition 98 is removed from the equation (Proposition 98 locks in education spending which probably would have been spent anyway and had always occupied about one-third of the Californian budget). During 2009, there was additional criticism from prominent New Zealand legal academics, such as Andrew Geddis and Bridget Fenton at Otago University. They argue that CIRs are no substitute for more deliberative processes within the existing framework of representative democracy, such as joining political parties, protest marches, voting within general elections and parliamentary select committee submissions. Table of petitions and referendums The following table lists those petition questions lodged with Clerk of the House from 1994 to 2019. The 1999 referendums were held in conjunction with the 1999 general election, which is likely to have played a role in the high proportion of voters. Local government Local government (regional councils, territorial councils and District Health Boards) may hold referendum on issues which they feel their citizens need to be consulted upon. Referendums have been held on water fluoridation, changing the electoral system to Single Transferable Vote and merging authorities together. In 2018, The lobby group Hobson's Pledge (fronted by former National Party and ACT New Zealand leader Don Brash) organised several petitions calling for local referendums on the matter of introducing Māori wards and constituencies, taking advantage of the poll provision. These polls were granted and held in early 2018. Each poll failed; Māori wards were rejected by voters in Palmerston North (68.8%), Western Bay of Plenty (78.2%), Whakatāne (56.4%), Manawatu (77%), and Kaikōura (55%) on 19 May 2018. The average voter turnout in those polls was about 40%. On 1 February 2021, Labour Minister of Local Government Mahuta announced that the Government would establish a new law upholding local council decisions to establish Māori wards. This new law would also abolish an existing law allowing local referendums to veto decisions by councils to establish Māori wards. This law would come into effect before the scheduled 2022 local body elections. On 25 February, Mahuta's Local Electoral (Māori Wards and Māori Constituencies) Amendment Act 2021, which eliminates mechanisms for holding referendums on the establishment of Māori wards and constituencies on local bodies, passed its third reading in Parliament with the support of the Labour, Green and Māori parties. The bill was unsuccessfully opposed by the National and ACT parties, with the former mounting a twelve-hour filibuster challenging all of the Bill's ten clauses. See also New Zealand elections Electoral system of New Zealand New Zealand constitution References Further reading Atkinson, Neill. Adventures in Democracy: A History of the Vote in New Zealand. Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2003. Catt, Helena. "The Other Democratic Experiment: New Zealand’s Experience with Citizens' Initiated Referendum." Political Science 48, no. 1 (1996): 29–47. Church, Stephen. "Crime and Punishment: The Referenda to Reform the Criminal Justice System and Reduce the Size of Parliament." In Left Turn: The New Zealand General Election of 1999, edited by Jonathan Boston, Stephen Church, Stephen Levine, Elizabeth McLeay and Nigel S. Roberts. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2000. James, Colin. "Riding into Battle over Socially and Morally Divisive Bills." New Zealand Herald, 29 July 2003. Miller, R. ed. New Zealand Government and Politics 4th edition, 2006, OUP New Zealand Press Association. "Referendum Call on Māori Seats" The Dominion, 5 May 1999, 2. Palmer, Geoffrey, and Matthew Palmer. Bridled Power: New Zealand's Constitution and Government. fourth ed. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2004. Parkinson, John. "Who Knows Best? The Creation of the Citizen-Initiated Referendum in New Zealand." Government and Opposition 36, no. 3 ( 2001): 403 - 21. Prince, John D. "Look Back in Amber: The General Licensing Poll in New Zealand, 1919-87." Political Science 48, no. 1 (1996): 48–72. Simpson, Alan (editor), Referendums: Constitutional and Political Perspectives, Wellington: Occasional Publication No.5, Department of Politics, Victoria University of Wellington, 1992. The Political Economy of Six O’Clock Closing (in New Zealand) Tim Mulcare. (Rich Text Format) Overseas references David Broder: Democracy Derailed: Initiative Campaigns and the Power of Money: Harvest Books: 2001. Richard Ellis: Democratic Delusions: The Initiative Process in America: University of Kansas Press: 2002. Peter Schrag: Paradise Lost: California's Experience, America's Future? New York: New Press: 1998. External links Official Government website - 2020 referendums Organising New Zealand Referendums Online Elections NZ Campaign for Democracy Better Democracy Ministry of Justice Citizens Initiated Referenda Act 1993 Referenda (Postal Voting) Act 2000
5241875	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar%C5%8D%20Okamoto	Tarō Okamoto	was a Japanese artist, art theorist, and writer. He is particularly well known for his avant-garde paintings and public sculptures and murals, and for his theorization of traditional Japanese culture and avant-garde artistic practices. Biography Early life (1911–1929) Taro Okamoto was the son of cartoonist Okamoto Ippei and writer Okamoto Kanoko. He was born in Takatsu, in Kawasaki, Kanagawa Prefecture. In 1927, at the age of sixteen, Okamoto began to take lessons in oil painting from the artist Wada Eisaku. In 1929, Okamoto entered the Tokyo School of Fine Arts (today Tokyo University of the Arts) in the oil painting department. Time in Europe (1929–1940) In 1929, Okamoto and his family accompanied his father on a trip to Europe to cover the London Naval Treaty of 1930. While in Europe, Okamoto spent time in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Paris, where he rented a studio in Montparnasse and enrolled in a lycée in Choisy-le-Roi. After his parents returned to Japan in 1932, he stayed on in Paris until 1940. Much of Okamoto's formative education occurred during his stay in Paris. In 1932, he began attending classes at the Sorbonne, and enrolled in the literature department where he studied philosophy and specialized in aesthetics. He attended lectures on Hegelian aesthetics by Victor Basch. In 1938, Okamoto, along with many other Parisian artists at the time, began studying ethnography under Marcel Mauss, and he would later apply this ethnographic lens to his analysis Japanese culture. Okamoto also began to establish himself as a painter in Paris, working with the Parisian avant-garde artists. He was inspired by Pablo Picasso’s Pitcher and Bowl of Fruit (1931) which he saw at the Paul Rosenberg Gallery, and in 1932 he began successfully submitting his own paintings for exhibition at the Salon des surindépendants, for which he received some positive reviews. From 1933-1936, he was a member of the group Abstraction-Création, and showed works in their exhibitions. He participated in the French intellectual discussion group Collège de Sociologie and joined the secret society founded by Georges Bataille, Acéphale. His painting Itamashiki ude (“Wounded Arm”) was notably included in the International Surrealist Exhibition in Paris in 1938. Okamoto met and befriended many prominent avant-garde art figures in Paris, including André Breton, Kurt Seligmann, Max Ernst, Pablo Picasso, Man Ray, Robert Capa and Capa's partner, Gerda Taro, who adopted Okamoto's first name as her last name. Wartime (1940–1945) Okamoto returned to Japan in 1940 because his mother had died, and because of the outbreak of World War II. He found some artistic success in Japan upon his return, winning the Nika Prize at the 28th Nika Art Exhibition in 1942. The same year, he also had a solo exhibition of works he had completed in Europe, at the Mitsukoshi department store in Ginza. In 1942, Okamoto was drafted into the army as an artist tasked with documenting the war, and left for service in China. He returned to Japan in 1946 after spending several months in a prisoner-of-war camp in Chang’an. During his absence, his family home and all of his works were destroyed in an air raid. Postwar activity (1946–1996) 1946–1950 After the war, Okamoto established a studio in Kaminoge, Setagaya, Tokyo. He became a member of the artist association Nika-kai ("Second Section" Society) in 1947 and began regularly showing works at the Nika Art Exhibition. He also began giving lectures on European modern art, and started publishing his own commentaries on modern art. In 1948, he and the art critic Kiyoteru Hanada established the group Yoru no Kai ("Night Society"), whose members attempted to theorize artistic expression after the war. It dissolved in 1949. Hanada and Okamoto then founded the Abangyarudo Kenkyūkai ("Avant-Garde Research Group") which mentored younger artists and critics such as Tatsuo Ikeda, Katsuhiro Yamaguchi, and Yūsuke Nakahara. Eventually these groups inspired younger artists to break off and form their own avant-garde groups. 1950–1969 A prominent name in the art establishment, Okamoto began to have a series of solo exhibitions in the 1950s, at such prestigious venues at the art galleries of Mitsukoshi department store in Nihonbashi, Tokyo, and the Takashimaya department store in Osaka. His work was included in the Japanese presentation at the 2nd São Paulo Bienal in 1953 and the 27th Venice Biennale in 1954. Okamoto remained active as a Nika member, while also exhibiting in the non-juried, non-award-granting Yomiuri Indépendant Exhibition. From the 1950s through the end of his career, Okamoto received numerous public commissions to create murals and large sculptures in Japan, including government buildings, office buildings, subway stations, museums, and other locations. Notable examples included ceramic murals for the old Tokyo Metropolitan Office Building in Marunouchi, designed by Kenzō Tange and completed in 1956, and five ceramic murals for Tange's Yoyogi National Gymnasium for the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. During the 1950s, Okamoto theorized several key aesthetic ideas that helped establish his role as a public intellectual in Japanese society. First, he crafted his theory of “polarism” (taikyokushugi), the declaration of which he read at the opening of the Yomiuri Indépendant Exhibition in 1950. In 1952, Okamoto published an influential article on Jōmon period ceramics. This article was the beginning of a long engagement with prehistoric Japan, and his argument that Japanese aesthetics should take inspiration from the ancient Jōmon period helped change the public perception of Japanese culture. He continued to write on Japanese tradition and became one of the major thinkers active in the reevaluation of Japanese tradition after World War II. He later traveled around Japan in order to research the essence of Japanese culture, and published Nihon Sai-hakken－Geijutsu Fudoki ("Rediscovery of the Japan－Topography of Art") (1962) and Shinpi Nihon ("Mysteries in Japan") (1964), amply illustrated by photographs he took during his research trips. These works were an extension his ethnographic interest and taking his own photography helped provide strong evidence to his observations. As part of his travels around Japan, in 1959 and 1966, Okamoto visited Okinawa. He was struck by what he saw as the remnants of a simpler and more indigenous life there. In 1961, he published Wasurerareta Nihon: Okinawa bunka-ron ("Forgotten Japan: On Okinawa culture"), which included many photographs from his trip. The book received the Mainichi Publication Culture Award. Many of Okamoto's photographs revisited Okinawa subject matter already photographed by other Japanese photographers, such as Ihei Kimura and Ken Dōmon. His interest in Okinawa may be seen as part of a larger modern Japanese interest in viewing Okinawa as a lingering repository of tradition, in contrast with the rapidly modernizing Japanese main islands. In 1967, Okamoto visited Mexico, where he worked on a major mural commission and filmed a program for Japanese television entitled “The New World: Okamoto Tarō explores Latin America.” Okamoto was deeply inspired by Mexican painting and saw it as an avenue to refocus the attention of Japan's art world away from Western countries. He imagined a partnership between Japanese and Mexican art worlds to launch a new, non-Western modern art aesthetic, and saw affinities between Japanese Jōmon culture and pre-Columbian art in Mexico. Allusions to Mexican art would appear in his subsequent artworks. 1970–1996 Okamoto continued to travel, write and produce public art works in the 1970s. He also began to produce prints, experimenting with silkscreen and copperplate printing. Okamoto's most notable achievement of the 1970s was his involvement with 1970 Japan World Exposition in Osaka (Expo ’70), for which he designed and produced the central Theme Pavilion, which included a monumental sculpture entitled Tower of the Sun, an exhibition in and around the tower, and two smaller towers. The distinct appearance of Tower of the Sun was influenced by Okamoto’s background in European Surrealism, interest in Mexican art, and Jōmon ceramics. The pavilion was visited by over 9 million people during Expo ’70, and is preserved today in the Expo Commemoration Park. Toward the end of his career, Okamoto began to receive many more solo exhibitions of his work. In 1986, several of his early paintings were included in a major exhibition of Japanese avant-garde artists, Japon des Avant-Gardes 1910-1970 at the Centre Pompidou in Paris. In 1991, his major works were donated to Kawasaki city, and a museum in his honor was opened in 1999, following his death in 1996. Work Artwork Painting Although very few of Okamoto’s prewar paintings remain, during his early career in Paris he was interested in abstraction and showed a number of works with the Abstraction-Création group. However, over time he grew dissatisfied with the limitations of pure abstraction, and began to include more representational imagery in his paintings. The completion of Itamashiki ude (“Wounded Arm”), which melded abstraction and representation, convinced Okamoto that he should leave the Abstraction-Création group and explore other modes of painting. Itamashiki ude, which seems to depict a young girl through the representation of an arm, shoulder, hair, and bright red bow, disturbingly includes no human head or body, and the arm itself defies expectation with abstract stripes of flesh and bubble gum pink tones. Although the work was celebrated by the Surrealists in Paris, Okamoto opted out of joining the group. Okamoto's postwar paintings, like his murals and public sculpture, continued to be informed by abstraction and Surrealism, but were also influenced by his theory of polarism, and by his discovery of prehistoric arts. The Law of the Jungle (1950), one of his most famous paintings, depicts a monstrous red fish-like creature with an enormous, zipper-shaped spine devouring a human figure. Small human and animal forms in vibrant primary colors surround the central creature, floating through the glowing green jungle setting. Many of the key features of this work – the mix of abstraction and surreal anthropomorphic forms, vibrant colors, and a flat picture plane – continued in his paintings for the rest of his career. Key murals and sculptures During his trip to Mexico in 1967, Okamoto painted a 5.5 x 30-meter mural in oil on canvas, entitled Asu no shinwa ("Myth of Tomorrow"), for the Hotel de Mexico in Mexico city by Manuel Suarez y Suarez that was being constructed for the 1968 Olympics. The mural's subtitle is “Hiroshima and Nagasaki,” and accordingly the painting illustrates a landscape of nuclear destruction where a skeleton burns in red and emits pointed white protrusions. Surrounding images allude to events of nuclear disaster, such as the incident with Lucky Dragon #5. The hotel was never completed and thus the mural was never installed or displayed. After being lost for 30 years in Mexico, on November 17, 2008, the mural was unveiled in its new permanent location at Shibuya Station, Tokyo. Okamoto's Tower of the Sun became the symbol of Expo '70 in Osaka. Standing at 70 meters tall, the humanoid form was created in concrete and sprayed stucco, with two horn-shaped arms, two circular faces, and one golden metal face attached at its highest point. As a whole, it represents the past (lower part), present (middle part), and future (the face) of the human race. Visitors entered through the base of the sculpture and then ascended through it in escalators next to the so-called "Tree of Life," a sculptural tree displaying the evolution of creatures from primitive organisms toward more complex life forms. Visitors then exited through the arms of the sculpture. Constructed not long after Okamoto's visit to Mexico, the project was also inspired by pre-Columbian imagery. At the same time, the form of the tower resembled Jōmon figurines (dogū) and alluded to Cubist portraiture of Picasso. Unlike the apocalyptic Asu no shinwa ("Myth of Tomorrow"), the Tower ultimately had a more positive message: the eclectic inspirations for its imagery suggested the possibility of a more global modern art, and Okamoto imagined the tower and its surrounding plaza to facilitate a great gathering – rather than a great destruction – of people. Both Asu no shinwa and Tower of the Sun display imagery that runs throughout much of Okamoto's public artworks. Works in a similar style include Wakai tōkeidai (“Young Clock Tower”) (1966) in Ginza, Tokyo, Wakai taiyō no tō (Tower of the Young Sun) (1969) in Inuyama, Aichi prefecture, and Kodomo no ki ("Tree of Children") (1985) in Aoyama, Tokyo. Art theory and writings Polarism Okamoto's idea of taikyokushugi (polarism) was born out of his attendance at lectures on Hegel while in Paris. He questioned dialectics and refused the notion of synthesis, believing rather that thesis and antithesis (polar opposites) could actually remain apart, resulting in permanent fragmentation rather than unity or resolution. This theory, proposed shortly after World War II, was in many ways an aesthetics that directly opposed the visual totality and harmony of Japanese wartime painting. In terms of its application to art, Okamoto saw abstract painting as synthesis – it united color, motion, and the various senses into one work. The Law of the Jungle (1950), however, is permanently fragmented: individual elements are clearly described in line and color, but resist any identification, and float in the painted space without any connection to one another. There is also a strong tension between flatness and depth, clarity and obscurity, foreground and background, representational and abstract. Dawn (1948) and Heavy Industry (1949) are also thought to be examples of polarism. Tradition and contemporary art Okamoto's Jōmon theory has become one of the most influential theoretical contributions to 20th century Japanese aesthetics and cultural history. The theory was first introduced in his seminal essay “Jōmon doki ron: Shijigen to no taiwa” (“On Jomon ceramics: Dialogue with the fourth dimension”), published in Mizue magazine in 1952. Inspired by a trip to Tokyo National Museum, where he viewed earthenware ceramic vessels and dogū from the prehistoric Jōmon period, the article argued for a complete rethinking of Japanese aesthetics. Okamoto believed that Japanese aesthetics until that point had been founded on the aesthetics of prehistoric Yayoi period ceramics, which were simple, subdued, restrained, and refined. This foundation gave rise to the what many considered traditional Japanese aesthetic concepts, such as wabi-sabi. By contrast, the energetic, rough, and mysterious patterns and designs of Jōmon ceramics offered a dynamic, authentic expression that was missing from contemporary Japan. He argued that Japanese artists should pursue the same dynamic power and mystery to fuel their own work, drawing inspiration from this more “primitive” culture of their ancestors. Okamoto's understanding of Japanese aesthetics drew heavily from his ethnographic studies and encounters with Surrealism in Paris, but instead of exoticizing ethnographic objects, he used Jōmon objects specifically to construct a native theoretical basis for Japanese avant-garde artistic practices. Despite Okamoto's interest in prehistoric art, he did not advocate for any direct preservation of the past in contemporary art. His best-selling book Konnichi no geijutsu (The Art of Today), published in 1954, encouraged young artists to destroy violently any past art systems and rebuild a Japanese art world equal to the Western art world. This could be seen as a way of advocating a form of Jōmon-style energy and expression. “Myth of Tomorrow” Restoration Project A long-lost work by Taro Okamoto was discovered in the suburbs of Mexico City in the fall of 2003. It is a huge mural titled "Myth of Tomorrow. It depicts the tragic moment when the atomic bomb exploded. The work conveys Taro Okamoto's strong message that people can overcome even the cruelest tragedy with pride, and that "The Myth of Tomorrow" will be born in its wake. However, the work had been left in a poor environment for many years and was severely damaged.Therefore, the Taro Okamoto Memorial Museum Foundation launched the "Myth of Tomorrow" Restoration Project to transport the work to Japan, restore it, and then exhibit it widely to the public.The restoration was completed in June 2006, and the first public viewing of the work was held in Shiodome in July of the same year, attracting a total of 2 million visitors in a short period of 50 days. The work was later exhibited at the Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo from April 2007 to June 2008, and in March 2008 it was decided to permanently install the work in Shibuya, where it has been on view since November 18, 2008 in the connecting passageway of Shibuya Mark City. In the summer of 2023 further restoration work was done. Collections and legacy Much of Okamoto's work is held by the Tarō Okamoto Museum of Art in Kawasaki and the Tarō Okamoto Memorial Museum, which is housed in the artist's former studio and home built by the architect Junzō Sakakura in 1954 in Aoyama, Tokyo. Both museums organize special exhibitions addressing key themes in Okamoto's oeuvre, such as Jōmon artifacts, Okinawa, and public artworks. Okamoto's works are also held by the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, the National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo, the National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto, and the Museum of Modern Art, Toyama. The Tarō Okamoto Award for Contemporary Art (TARO Award) was established in 1997 and is run by the Tarō Okamoto Museum of Art in Kawasaki. The award is given annually to young contemporary artists who are creating art of the next generation, and who display the creativity and individuality he advocated for in The Art of Today (1954). References Sources Jonathan Reynolds, “Uncanny, Hypermodern Japaneseness: Okamoto Tarō and the Search for Prehistoric Modernism,” in Allegories of time and space: Japanese identity in photography and architecture (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i, 2017), 54–85. K. Yoshida, Avant-garde art and non-dominant thought in postwar Japan: image, matter, separation (New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2021). Bert Winther-Tamaki, “To Put on a Big Face: The Globalist Stance of Okamoto Tarō’s Tower of the sun for the Japan World Exposition,” Review of Japanese Culture and Society Vol. 23 (2011): 81–101. 川崎市岡本太郎美術館, ed. 岡本太郎の絵画 : 開館10周年記念展 = The Paintings of Tarō Okamoto. Kawasaki-shi: Kawasaki-shi Okamoto Tarō Bijutsukan, 2009. Okamoto Tarō & Jonathan M. Reynolds (Translator), "On Jōmon Ceramics," Art in Translation 1:1 (2009), 49–60, DOI: 10.2752/175613109787307645 External links Taro Okamoto Museum of Art, Kawasaki Taro Okamoto Memorial Museum Gendaigeijutsu Atelier Institute of Esthetic Research Taro Okamoto's grave 明日の神話保全継承機構 (in Japanese) Taro Okamoto Memorial Museum Kyoto Journal, 2011 Tarō Okamoto article 1911 births 1996 deaths Japanese sculptors Japanese muralists People from Kawasaki, Kanagawa Tokyo School of Fine Arts alumni University of Paris alumni 20th-century sculptors 20th-century Japanese painters
5241974	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphalt%20shingle	Asphalt shingle	An asphalt shingle is a type of wall or roof shingle that uses asphalt for waterproofing. It is one of the most widely used roofing covers in North America because it has a relatively inexpensive up-front cost and is fairly simple to install. History Asphalt shingles are an American invention by Henry Reynolds of Grand Rapids, Michigan. They were first used in 1903, in general use in parts of America by 1911 and by 1939 11 million squares of shingles were being produced. A U.S. National Board of Fire Underwriters campaign to eliminate the use of wood shingles on roofs was a contributing factor in the growth in popularity of asphalt shingles during the 1920s. The forerunner of these shingles was first developed in 1893 and called asphalt prepared roofing which was similar to asphalt roll roofing without the surface granules. In 1897 slate granules were added to the surface to make the material more durable. Types of granules tested have included mica, oyster shells, slate, dolomite, fly-ash, silica and clay. In 1901 this material was first cut into strips for use as one-tab and multi-tab shingles. All shingles were organic at first with the base material, called felt, being primarily cotton rag until the 1920s when cotton rag became more expensive and alternative materials were used. Other organic materials used as the felt included wool, jute or manila, and wood pulp. In 1926 the Asphalt Shingle and Research Institute with the National Bureau of Standards tested 22 types of experimental felts and found no significant differences in performance. In the 1950s self-sealing and manually applied adhesives began to be used to help prevent wind damage to shingle roofs. The design standard was for the self-sealing strips of adhesive to be fully adhered after sixteen hours at . Also in the 1950s testing on the use of staples rather than roofing nails was carried out showing they could perform as well as nails but with six staples compared with four nails. In 1960 fiberglass mat bases were introduced with limited success; the lighter, more flexible fiberglass shingles proved to be more susceptible to wind damage particularly at freezing temperatures. Later generations of shingles constructed using fiberglass in place of asbestos provided acceptable durability and fireproofing. Also in the 1960s research into hail damage which was found to occur when hail reach a size larger than . Asphalt Roofing Manufacturers Association (ARMA) formed the High Wind Task Force in 1990 to continue research to improve shingle wind resistance. In 1996, a partnership between members of the U.S. property insurance industry, the Institute of Business and Home Safety, and the Underwriter's Laboratory (UL) was established to create an impact resistance classification system for roofing materials. The system, known as UL 2218, established a national standard for impact resistance. Subsequently, insurers offered discounted premiums for policies on structures using shingles that carried the highest impact classification (class 4). In 1998, Texas Insurance Commissioner Elton Bomer mandated that Texas provide premium discounts to policyholders that installed class 4 roofs. Types Two types of base materials are used to make asphalt shingles, organic and fiberglass. Both are made in a similar manner, with an asphalt-saturated base covered on one or both sides with asphalt or modified-asphalt, the exposed surface impregnated with slate, schist, quartz, vitrified brick, stone, or ceramic granules, and the under-side treated with sand, talc or mica to prevent shingles from sticking to one-another before use. The top surface granules block ultra-violet light, which causes the shingles to deteriorate, provides some physical protection of the asphalt core, and provides color – lighter shades preferred for their heat reflectivity in sunny climates, darker in cooler ones for their absorption. Some shingles have copper or other biocides added to the surface to help prevent algae growth. Self-sealing strips are standard on the underside of shingles to provide resistance to lifting in high winds. This material is typically limestone or fly-ash-modified resins, or polymer-modified bitumen. American Society of Civil Engineers ASTM D7158 is the standard most United States residential building codes use as their wind resistance standard for most discontinuous, steep-slope roof coverings (including asphalt shingles) with the following class ratings: Class D – Passed at basic wind speeds up to and including ; Class G – Passed at basic wind speeds up to and including ; and Class H – Passed at basic wind speeds up to and including . An additive known as styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS), sometimes called modified or rubberized asphalt, is sometimes added to the asphalt mixture to make shingles more pliable, resistant to thermal cracking, and more resistant to damage from hail impacts. Some manufacturers use a fabric backing known as a scrim on the back side of shingles to make them more impact resistant. Most insurance companies offer discounts to homeowners for using Class 4 impact rated shingles. Organic Organic shingles are made with a base mat of organic materials such as waste paper, cellulose, wood fiber, or other materials. This is saturated with asphalt to make it waterproof, then a top coating of adhesive asphalt is applied, covered with solid granules. Such shingles contain around 40% more asphalt per unit area than fiberglass shingles. Their organic core leaves them more prone to fire damage, resulting in a maximum class "B" FM fire rating. They are also less brittle than fiberglass shingles in cold weather. The early wood material-based versions were very durable and hard to tear, an important quality before self-sealing materials were added to the underside of shingles to bond them to the layer beneath. Also, some organic shingles produced before the early 1980s may contain asbestos. Almost all major asphalt shingle manufacturers stopped production of organic shingles during the mid-to-late 2000's, with Building Products of Canada being the last manufacturer to make organic shingles, finally ceasing production in 2011. Fiberglass Fiberglass reinforcement was devised as the replacement for asbestos in organic mat shingles. Fiberglass shingles have a base layer of glass fiber reinforcing mat made from wet, random-laid glass fibers bonded with urea-formaldehyde resin. The mat is then coated with asphalt containing mineral fillers to make it waterproof. Such shingles resist fire better than those with organic/paper mats, making them eligible for as high as a class "A" rating. Area density typically ranges from . Fiberglass shingles gradually began to replace organic felt shingles, and by 1982 overtook them in use. Widespread hurricane damage in Florida during the 1990s prompted the industry to adhere to a 1700-gram tear value on finished asphalt shingles. Per 2003 International Building Code Sections 1507.2.1 and 1507.2.2, asphalt shingles shall only be used on roof slopes of two units vertical in 12 units horizontal (17% slope) or greater. Asphalt shingles shall be fastened to solidly sheathed decks. Shallower slopes require asphalt rolled roofing, or other roofing treatment. Architectural or three-tab Asphalt shingles come in two standard design options: architectural (also known as dimensional) shingles, and three-tab shingles. Three-tab are essentially flat simple shingles with a uniform shape and size. They use less material and are thinner than architectural shingles, and are therefore lighter and lower cost for both the material and the installation. They also do not last as long or offer manufacturer's warranties as long as good architectural asphalt shingles. Three-tab are still the most commonly installed in lower-value homes, such as those used as rental properties. However, they are declining in popularity in favor of the architectural style. Dimensional, or architectural shingles are thicker and stronger, vary in shape and size, and offer more aesthetic appeal; casting more distinct, random shadow lines better mimics the appearance of traditional roofing materials such as wood shake shingles. The result is a more natural, traditional look. While more expensive to install, they come with longer manufacturer's warranties, sometimes up to 50 years - typically prorated, as virtually all asphalt shingle roofs are replaced before such an expiration could be reached. While three-tab shingles typically need to be replaced after 15–18 years, Dimensional typically last 24–30 years. Qualities Asphalt shingles have varying qualities which help them survive wind, hail, or fire damage and discoloration. The American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) has developed specifications for roof shingles: ASTM D 225-86 (Asphalt Shingles (Organic Felt) Surfaced with Mineral Granules) and ASTM D3462-87 (Asphalt Shingles Made from Glass Felt and Surfaced with Mineral Granules), ASTM D3161, Standard Test Method for Wind-Resistance of Asphalt Shingles (2005), Many shapes and textures of asphalt shingles are available: 3-tab, jet, "signature cut", Art-Loc, t-lock, tie lock, etc. Architectural (laminated) shingles are a multi-layer, laminated shingle which gives more varied, contoured visual effect to a roof surface and add more resistance for water. These shingles are designed to avoid repetitive patterns in the shingle appearance. Hip and ridge lines can have standard three-tab shingles cut to fit. Manufacturers also make specialized shingles for these areas. Starter shingles are also required and, because they are not visible after installation is complete, the use of extra shingles (commonly referred to as 'waste') are used here. However, manufacturers also make a specialized starter row shingle. The use of specialized ridge/hip shingles and the use of specialized starter row shingles, results in decreased labor expenses in exchange for an increase in material cost. Laminated shingles are heavier and more durable than traditional three-tab shingle designs. Solar reflecting shingles help reduce air conditioning costs in hot climates by being a better reflective surface. Wind damage: Asphalt shingles come in varying resistance to wind damage. Shingles with the highest fastener pull through resistance, bond strength of the self-seal adhesive, properly nailed will resist wind damage the best. Extra precautions can be taken in high wind areas to fasten a durable underlayment and/or seal the plywood seams in the event the shingles are blown off. UL 997 Wind Resistance of Prepared Roof Covering Materials class 1 is best Wind Resistance roof standard and ASTM D 3161 class F is best for bond strength. Hail damage: Hail storms can damage asphalt shingles. For impact resistance UL 2218 Class 4 is best. This increases survivability from hailstorms, but the shingles become more susceptible to hail damage with age. Fire resistance: Forest fires and other exterior fires risk roofs catching on fire. Fiberglass shingles have a better, class A, flame spread rating based on UL 790, and ASTM E 108 testing. Organic shingles have a class C rating. Algae resistance Algae is not believed to damage asphalt shingles but it may be objectionable aesthetically. Different treatment methods are used to prevent discoloration from algae growth on the roof. Moss feeds on algae and any other debris on the roof. Some manufactures offer a 5- to 10-year warranty against algae growth on their algae resistant shingles. Locking shingles: Special asphalt shingles are designed to lock together called tie lock or T lock. Durability Shingle durability is ranked by warranted life, ranging from 20 years to lifetime warranties are available. However, a stated warranty is not a guarantee of durability. A shingle manufacturer's warranty may pro-rate repair costs, cover materials only, have different warranty periods for different types of damage, and transfer to another owner. Shingles tend to last longer where the weather stays consistent, either consistently warm, or consistently cool. Thermal shock can damage shingles, when the ambient temperature changes dramatically within a very short period of time. "Experiments...have noted that the greatest cause of asphalt shingle aging is thermal loading." Over time the asphalt becomes oxidized and becomes brittle. Roof orientation and ventilation can extend the service life of a roof by reducing temperatures. Shingles should not be applied when temperatures are below 10 °C (50 °F), as each shingle must seal to the layer below it to form a monolithic structure. The underlying exposed asphalt must be softened by sunlight and heat to form a proper bond. The protective nature of asphalt shingles primarily comes from the long-chain hydrocarbons impregnating the paper. Over time in the hot sun, the hydrocarbons soften and when rain falls the hydrocarbons are gradually washed out of the shingles and down onto the ground. Along eaves and complex rooflines more water is channeled so in these areas the loss occurs more quickly. Eventually the loss of the heavy oils causes the fibers to shrink, exposing the nail heads under the shingle flaps. The shrinkage also breaks up the surface coating of sand adhered to the surface of the paper, and eventually causes the paper to begin to tear itself apart. Once the nail heads are exposed, water running down the roof can seep into the building around the nail shank, resulting in rotting of roof building materials and causing moisture damage to ceilings and paint inside. Maintenance Cycles of wet and dry environmental conditions, as well as organic growths such as algae and foliose lichen and woody debris which remains on the shingles, will cause premature deterioration through both chemical and physical processes. Performed regularly, physical removal of debris, and physical or chemical removal of organic growth (for example, using a copper sulfate, zinc chloride, or other solution carefully applied and thoroughly rinsed), can prolong the life of asphalt roofing materials. Algae and moss growth may be prevented through installation of zinc or copper strips or wire at the ridge and every four to six feet down the roof; black algae growth can be removed with a bleach solution. Disposal and recycling Disposal methods According to a 2007 study conducted for the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), approximately of asphalt shingle waste is generated each year in the United States, with the most common disposal method being landfilling. Waste asphalt shingles, however, can be recycled. Recycling Reclaimed asphalt shingles (RAS) can be broken down and incorporated into asphalt concrete mixtures, which are used to form pavements and road surfaces. RAS are an attractive component in recycled asphalt mixes, primarily due to their relatively high content of asphalt cement, which acts as the binding element in asphalt concrete. There are two forms of RAS: post-manufacturer shingles that are reclaimed from factory waste, and post-consumer shingles that are reclaimed at the end of their service life (also referred to as “tear-offs”). The majority of asphalt shingle waste is post-consumer. Post-consumer RAS have fewer appealing properties for recycling, primarily because the asphalt cement component in shingles naturally hardens during its service life, resulting in higher stiffness, melting point, and susceptibility to fatigue cracking. Post-consumer RAS also require additional processing, such as the removal of nails and other metal waste through the use of a magnetic sieve. Recycled asphalt mixtures may contain post-manufacture and/or post-consumer RAS, provided that the quality of the asphalt cement binder is accessed and accounted for. Aged binders are typically combined with soft virgin asphalt binder and/or rejuvenating additives to produce a binder that is workable and resistant to fatigue cracking. Standard practice for accessing the binder quality in RAS and blending it with virgin binder has been established by The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). When RAS binder is combined with low-grade virgin binder, it has been demonstrated to provide some beneficial properties, such as increased resistance to rutting. In 2019, an estimated 1.1 million tons of RAS were accepted by asphalt plants. Of those accepted, approximately 423 thousand tons were pre-processed, 334 thousand tons were unprocessed post-manufacturer shingles, and 277 thousand tons were unprocessed post-consumer shingles. Health and safety concerns The use of RAS in recycled asphalt mixes is entirely prohibited in 10 states, and the majority of states that allow the use of RAS restrict it to certain sectors and pavement types. The primary reason restrictions on the use of RAS exist is the rare presence of asbestos in asphalt shingles manufactured before the early 1980s. Although the lifespan of a typical asphalt shingled roof is approximately 25 years, concerns remain due to the practice of layering newly installed shingles on top of old ones. In addition to shingles, asbestos has also been found present in felt paper, roll roofing, roof paints/coatings, caulking, and mastic, all of which may be present in the post-consumer shingle waste accepted by asphalt plants. Still, testing has demonstrated the percentage of asbestos-containing post-consumer shingles to be low. A 2007 survey of over 27,000 samples tested at 9 different facilities detected asbestos in less than 1.6% of samples. The National Asphalt Pavement Association continues to recommend that all post-consumer RAS be inspected for asbestos and that all recycling operations have an asbestos management plan in place. Asphalt also naturally contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which may leach out of RAS stockpiles or be emitted when RAS are heated. Some PAHs are carcinogenic and may put workers at risk. The recycling of RAS may lead to PAH emissions, however, there is no evidence to show that PAH emissions are lower when virgin asphalt is used in place of RAS. See also Metal roof References External links Canadian Asphalt Manufacturers Association technical bulletins Asphalt Roofing Manufacturers Association Residential/Steep Slope Technical Bulletins National Roofing Contractors Association information on asphalt shingles Abstract on ASTM E108 Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Roof Coverings UL Preamble to Guide TFWZ on Prepared Roof-covering Materials Roofs Roofing materials Building materials American inventions
5242674	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circe%20%28character%29	Circe (character)	Circe is a fictional character appearing in DC Comics publications and related media. Based upon the eponymous Greek mythological figure who imprisoned Odysseus in Homer's Odyssey, she is a wicked sorceress and major recurring adversary of the superhero Wonder Woman. She has been presented variously since first appearing in 1949’s Wonder Woman #37, though her characterization has consistently retained a key set of features: immortality, stunning physical beauty, a powerful command over sorcery, a penchant for turning human beings into animals (like her mythological antecedent) and often, a delight in humiliation. Though she first appeared as a Wonder Woman villain, Circe would spend the next 43 years as an antagonist for other DC Comics heroes, such as Rip Hunter, the Sea Devils, and particularly Superman and Supergirl, for whom she was a persistent foil (and sometimes ally) throughout the late-1950’s and 1960’s. In 1983, at the tail-end of the Bronze Age of Comics, Circe would be returned to her roots as a member of Wonder Woman’s rogues gallery, and would rise to become one of the hero’s most significant Modern Age foes, appearing frequently in Wonder Woman stories throughout DC Comics’ post-Crisis, New 52 and Rebirth continuities. Circe has been adapted into several Wonder Woman-related animated TV and video game projects, in which she has been voiced by actors Michelle Forbes, Laura Post and Rachel York. Publication history Golden and Silver Age Circe first appeared with blonde hair and flowing red robes in 1949’s Wonder Woman #37, written by Robert Kanigher and illustrated by Harry G. Peter. Her first Silver Age appearance, with black hair and a yellow gown, saw her battle Rip Hunter in 1959’s Showcase #21, written by Jack Miller and illustrated by Mike Sekowsky. (On the cover of this issue, her hair was rendered as dark green and her gown white.) Three years later, Robert Kanigher, who had written the Wonder Woman story in which the Golden Age version of Circe first appeared, pitted her against the Sea Devils in Sea Devils #3, illustrated by Russ Heath. Here she was illustrated in a white gown and with green hair, just as she was on the cover of Showcase #21. Also in 1962, Circe would begin to appear as a recurring character in Superman and Supergirl stories in Action Comics, Adventure Comics and Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane. In these appearances, which continued throughout the 1960’s, her hair was colored black and her gown pale pink, and she was depicted using a scepter to channel her magical powers. She was presented as a precarious ally of Superman and Supergirl, although one who occasionally lapsed into full villainy. She figured significantly in the origin and exploits of Comet the Super-Horse, a human-turned-animal character who was, somewhat alarmingly, presented as both a love-interest for Supergirl, as well as her pet and steed. Circe also expressed an unrequited romantic interest in Superman, which sometimes led her to rash and dangerous plots. She would reappear as an unambiguous villain, this time in a green gown, in 1972’s Justice League of America #102. Bronze Age After appearing as an unidentified figure lurking in the shadows in 1983's Wonder Woman #302, Circe would return to battle Wonder Woman, getting a Bronze Age makeover along the way, in Wonder Woman #312-#313, written by Dan Mishkin and illustrated by Don Heck, followed by multiple appearances in Wonder Woman over the next two years. Heck’s rendering of Circe, colored by Nansi Hoolahan, composited several elements of her Golden and Silver Age designs, including the pink gown and scepter from her Superman and Supergirl appearances, and the flowing red robe from her 1949 debut. Now depicted with short-cropped auburn-red hair and allied with the treacherous Aztec god Tezcatlipoca, the Bronze Age Circe re-established the character as a weighty adversary for Wonder Woman, and would go on to reappear in 1985’s Who's Who in the DC Universe as well as Crisis on Infinite Earths, the 12-issue limited series that rebooted DC Comics’ continuity. Modern Age Post-Crisis Circe would be re-imagined in June 1988, by creative team George Pérez and Greg Potter as part of their reboot of the Wonder Woman mythos. This version, with red irises, dark violet hair, and attired in a sultry green gown, would become one of Wonder Woman's principal Post-Crisis foes. With the goddess of witchcraft Hecate as her patron, Circe featured significantly in a number of Wonder Woman-related storylines throughout the Modern Age, including as the principal antagonist in DC Comic’s 1991 company-wide crossover event War of the Gods. Her look would be updated by illustrator John Ross in 1994’s Wonder Woman (vol. 2) #88, lightening her hair to lavender, and outfitting her in a revealing green bodysuit. Ross’s redesign accompanied a brassier, wise-cracking characterization by Christopher Priest which would be largely retained by future Wonder Woman writers, including Phil Jimenez, Gail Simone, Allan Heinberg and Greg Rucka. The Ross/Priest version of Circe had staying power and, with some design detours, remained the character’s central formulation until DC Comics’ 2011 continuity-reboot The New 52. The New 52 and DC Rebirth The New 52 Circe was introduced in 2011’s Men of War (vol. 2) #2, as a stoic nude temptress with blood-red hair and chalk-white skin, written by Ivan Brandon and illustrated by Tom Derenick. Going forward, Circe’s visual depiction would vary somewhat throughout the New 52, and into the subsequent DC Rebirth continuity reboot. Derenick’s white-skinned Circe was refined for 2016’s Trinity monthly series, adding actual clothes – a black corset and red skirt – and red braids. However, this depiction proved to be a deceptive glamour, as the post-Rebirth Circe apparently revealed her true countenance in 2016’s Wonder Woman (vol. 5) #20 in a story written by Greg Rucka and illustrated by Bilquis Evely. In a surprising visual turn for the character, Rucka and Evely style Circe in contemporary clothes with a lesbian chic aesthetic. The short-cropped auburn-red hair of the character’s Bronze Age design returns, accompanied by a wardrobe of fitted blazers, sharp open-collared shirts and black jeans. Rucka also restores Circe’s irreverent, wise-cracking sense of humor, and obliquely suggests that the character may not be heterosexual. Fictional character biography Pre-Crisis on Infinite Earths In the original DC Comics continuity (prior to the Crisis on Infinite Earths), Circe is a centuries-old enchantress who is kept young by an elixir called vitae. It is made from a special combination of plants and herbs. While living on the island Aeaea, Circe gains magical powers. Circe is very skilled at turning men into any animal resembling their personality, and, for her crimes against mortalkind, the Amazon Queen Hippolyta banished her to Sorca, "an island planet in space, where she could do no harm". Upon her return to Earth, Circe tries to destroy Wonder Woman, having heard from an oracle in ancient times that the daughter of Hippolyta will be her undoing. Unlike many of Wonder Woman's other Golden Age foes, Circe does not repent when her plot fails, and a legendary enmity is born. In Captain Marvel Adventures #66, set on Earth-S, it is revealed the evil immortal Oggar gave Circe immortality 3,000 years ago when she was a beautiful Graecian princess, hoping she would marry him. But because he did not give her eternal youth she keeps aging and becomes ugly, meaning she hates men who now have a hatred of her face, and learns magic to turn them into animals. Captain Marvel and Oggar battle on her island, and she turns Billy into a goat before turning him back. She finally helps Captain Marvel defeat Oggar by turning him into a boar. He jumps into a bluff and apparently dies, meaning she finally dies happily as his spell wears off. A woman claiming to be a descendant of the original Circe later appears and gives Superman an evolution serum, which temporarily transforms him into a partial lion after he does not agree to marry her. She leaves the planet by the time Superman returns to her island. Realizing the serum contains kryptonite, Superman theorizes the original Circe may have been from Krypton. In ancient times, Circe is responsible for changing Biron the centaur into a horse and later gives him super-powers as Comet the Super-Horse. She is depicted as more heroic during her appearances with Comet and Supergirl. She also has encounters with Lois Lane and Lana Lang, and battles Rip Hunter, who meets her during his time travels. Catwoman once used Circe's wand to turn Superman into a cat, but he is turned back by an Egyptian mummified magic cat's paw used by Lana Lang. Later, Saturn Woman (a version of Saturn Girl from an alternate timeline) poses as Circe as part of Superman's plan to defeat the Superman Revenge Squad. During World War II, Circe transforms a British soldier who misses being in the cavalry into a centaur, then, upon his death, into a horse. At another point in World War II, she turned Nazis into swine and consumed them. The character reappears, unnamed, in Wonder Woman #302 (April 1983) and is identified as Circe in issue #305 (July 1983) Circe reappeared with a mission to kill Wonder Woman to prevent an oracular prophecy of Circe's death at Wonder Woman's hands from coming true. After she failed to kill the Amazon with a series of attacks by man-animal hybrids, she took up with the Aztec god Tezcatlipoca, who set in motion a chain of events that led Wonder Woman to the jungles of Tropidor. Circe called on the god to send lightning down to kill Wonder Woman, who deflected the lightning bolts away from her and incinerated the herbs that made Circe immortal, thus fulfilling the prophecy. Circe then disappeared, swallowed up by Tezcatlipoca's magic obsidian mirror, which the god used to torture her with an image of herself as a crone. Circe begins to age normally and is last seen aiding a group of sorcerers who are trying to defeat the Anti-Monitor. Post-Crisis on Infinite Earths Following Crisis on Infinite Earths, Wonder Woman and Superman are rebooted. All of Circe's prior continuity is erased and she is reintroduced with a revamped history. Greek mythology background Circe is the daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Perseis. Circe is a powerful witch and former princess of Colchis. A beautiful, violet-haired, red-eyed sorceress, she is known for turning people into animals (which are called bestiamorphs), as well as for powers of mind control. Circe has been a devoted follower of the goddess Hecate for thousands of years. She has lived on the island of Aeaea where she became a powerful being in both magic and in influence over portions of man's world. During his adventure to her island, Circe fell in love with Odysseus and bore him three sons: Agrius, Latinus, and Telegonus. Though Circe's patron goddess Hecate was an offspring of the Titans, she was not considered one of the main Twelve Olympians. Zeus gave Hecate much respect, but she did not hold much favor with others on Olympus. As such, she married the god Hades, but their marriage did not last and Hecate was demoted as handmaiden to her former husband's new wife. Because of this, she left the realm of the gods and agreed to render her soul to her most devoted servant Circe. This caused Circe to attain her current goddess-level of power and immortality. Beginning of relationship with Wonder Woman When Hecate transferred her soul to Circe, she said the words: Upon the death of witch and the birth of witch, Hecate, by name and choice, shall repossess her soul. In addition to being goddess of witchcraft, Hecate is also a goddess of the moon. When Circe learned that Wonder Woman shared her name with moon goddess Diana, she decided that Hecate's cryptic warning must refer to her. Fearing that Diana would steal Hecate's soul and power, Circe decided to destroy her. Once Diana learned of Hecate's pronouncement, she too felt it pertained to her, but of course Diana has no desire to have the soul of Hecate possessing her body. This issue is central to the conflict between the two women. War of the Gods Circe's most ambitious gambit was inciting war between the various pantheons of gods throughout the DC Multiverse, becoming known as the War of the Gods. Circe's overall ploy was to gain the power of all the warring pantheons after they had defeated or destroyed one another. Another plot of the war was to disgrace Diana and the Amazons in the eyes of the world by portraying them as terrorists, allying herself with the Amazons of Bana-Mighdall to this effect. True to her nature, Circe eventually betrayed them as well. Over the course of the war, Circe succeeded in killing Hermes, who had since been in a severely weakened state from being away from Olympus for so long and temporarily devolving Diana herself out of existence by reverting her back into the clay from which she had been formed. Finally realizing the truth of Circe's deceptions, Earth's heroes launched an assault on New Olympus, which Circe had conquered and pitted the gods of the Olympian and Roman pantheons against them. Elsewhere, with the aid of the Spectre, Deadman, and the Phantom Stranger, Diana was restored to life and in a concerted effort with Donna Troy, used the amulet of Harmonia to open a portal into an alternate universe where the Titans of Myth resided. This caused the soul of Hecate herself to withdraw from Circe's body, which rapidly aged and crumbled to dust. Hecate then attempted to take possession of Diana, but was destroyed by the Lasso of Truth. Circe returned to life sometime later, though no explanation has ever been given for this. Amazon betrayal After the Amazons of Bana-Mighdall lost their Egyptian city at the hands of Diana's gods and turned to Circe for revenge, Circe remained true to her word and granted the Bana-Mighdallian Amazons immortality and teleported them to Themyscira for them to take over the island for themselves. Unfortunately for them though, after this was done, Circe eventually showed her hatred for all Amazons by betraying the alliance she had with the desert Amazons and cast the island and all its inhabitants into a dimension of demons. Thus, both tribes of Amazons spent several years battling demons for their own survival. When Diana discovered what the witch had done, she forced Circe to return the island back to its original location after losing a bet with the Amazon. This is not the only time Circe has lost a bet to Wonder Woman and was forced to cancel a spell made against her. Later, Circe caused Queen Hippolyta to forget who she was and instead embrace the false life of a domestic housewife. Circe told Diana that if she could get Hippolyta to drink the antidote, she would call off her attack. Diana was successful and Circe showed herself honorable once more by reversing all magical effects as promised. Donna Milton One attempt Circe made in trying to destroy Diana involved a disguise as a mortal lawyer named Donna Milton. In this persona, she could get close enough to Diana to kill her when her defenses were low. Afraid that Diana would see through her disguise with her power of truth, Circe cast a spell on herself. The spell made Circe believe that she actually was Donna Milton and her true persona would only return when Donna could strike. As Donna Milton, she was hired by the mobster Ares Buchanan, who was really the god Ares in disguise himself. During their time together, they formed a romantic relationship and Donna became pregnant. As Donna, Circe actually became a good friend of Diana and ended up saving her life from Ares. He was sucked into a miniature black hole while Donna went into labor. No longer working for Ares, Donna gave birth to her daughter Lyta Milton and became Diana's lawyer at her and Micah Rains' new detective agency. When the Amazon Artemis single-handedly battled the White Magician, Diana realized that Donna was actually Circe and begged her to help transport her to Artemis' side. Not believing Diana and hurt that her friend would think her to be a villain, Donna yelled at Diana to leave and subconsciously teleported Diana to Artemis. Shocked, Circe's memories slowly began coming back to her. Still possessing some of Donna's false memories, she teleported herself to Diana to help her in her battle, but she was not on top of her game as she still had ties to her Donna Milton body, and the White Magician was not affected by her magical attacks. She used the remainder of her power to save Diana by teleporting herself, a demonically altered Cheetah, and Cassandra Arnold, a television reporter and the White Magician's lover, away from the battle, leaving her last words to Diana be "You're my only friend, Diana". Expanded horizons Circe would make a Faustian deal with the demon-lord Neron to sell her soul to him in exchange for increased magical powers. She later formed part of the Injustice Gang gathered by Lex Luthor, alongside the Joker, Dr. Light, and the Ocean Master. During a fight with the JLA, she became preoccupied with Plastic Man. His shapeshifting powers allowed him to immediately change out of the animal forms she turned him into. She later proposed both a business and romantic relationship with Luthor, which he immediately shot down. The Witch and the Warrior Shortly before Imperiex assaulted the Earth, Circe struck at Diana through her friends. She allied herself with Sebastian Ballesteros, who had usurped the power of the Cheetah from Barbara Ann Minerva and turned Diana's friend Vanessa Kapatelis into the new Silver Swan. Ballestros also became Circe's lover. She reveals herself after Vanessa attacks Wonder Girl, luring Diana into battle. After Hippolyta dies saving Diana from an Imperiex probe, Circe launches an attack on New York City. Her scheme involved the transformation of all male superheroes into her bestiamorphs save for J'onn Jonzz, Beast Boy, and Plastic Man, whom she took special means to keep imprisoned due to their shape-shifting abilities. She also imprisoned and transformed her former confederates in the Injustice Gang, taking particular delight in tormenting Luthor as he had spurned her advances in his early presidency. Since the only persons who were not affected by the spell were women, many female superheroes entered the city in an attempt to save their friends and stop the witch's plan. However, Circe had planned for such a rescue and convinced various members of the supervillainess communities to join forces and stop the heroines by any means necessary. Leading the pack against Circe was Wonder Woman, who Circe also expected, sending a Doomsday-altered Superman. She hoped to demoralize the world by making Superman and Wonder Woman kill one another, while she transmitted the fight in a global simulcast. Ultimately, Circe was unsuccessful in her plan as a majority of the superheroines were able to change their male counterparts back to normal with the use of the moly herb, which has a tendency to disrupt Circe's magic. After a protracted fight, Diana broke Circe's spell on Superman with her lasso. Luthor and the Joker managed to free themselves and threaten Circe's daughter. She quickly overpowered them and escaped with her allies. Circe continued to harass Diana and Donna Troy, appearing in their dreams as a dying Hippolyta. Diana tracked Circe to the Parthenon, where they fought in single combat, again on a global simulcast. Circe had cast spells on herself to make her Diana's physical equal, but ultimately she was defeated. During the fight, she claimed her hatred of Diana was fueled by the hypocrisy and naivete she perceived in Diana's beliefs in a better world. She attempted to goad Diana into killing her, but Diana spared her instead. She was also rescued from possible death by the two living Gorgon sisters Stheno and Euryale once the island of Themyscira toppled into the sea. As repayment, Circe revived their long-dead sister Medusa, who eventually became a fellow enemy of Wonder Woman. Shortly after Medusa's defeat, Circe's daughter Lyta was kidnapped by her father Ares while under the protection of the Amazons on Themyscira. Confronting Ares, she soon discovered that the time of the gods was at a crossroads and joined Ares as his consort as the new ruler of Tartarus. Thus, Lyta continued to be cared for by both of her parents, reunited. "One Year Later" In the "One Year Later" storyline, Circe was revealed to be the source behind the new upgrades to Wonder Woman's rogues gallery, increasing their power "beyond their wildest imaginings". Circe stole Diana's powers, explaining her rationale for doing so was to avenge wronged women whom she believed Diana had no real interest in helping. After completing the spell, Circe is shown in an altered Wonder Woman-style costume and proceeds to slaughter slave traders in various cities. This greatly resembles a previous occurrence written by Phil Jimenez in which Circe magically caused herself to possess the strength of "Earth's strongest woman". During her battle with Diana, she proceeded to alter her costume several times. Diana eventually regains her powers from Circe but it was revealed that Circe and Hercules were the only Greek gods to disobey Athena's orders to leave the earthly realm. It is assumed that she left her daughter Lyta in the care of her father Ares. She was also responsible for giving Everyman his shapeshifting powers back to replace Sarge Steel at the Department of Metahuman Affairs and instigate the events leading up to the Amazons Attack! storyline. It was during this storyline that Circe revived the long-dead mother of Wonder Woman and convinced her to reclaim her throne to attack the U.S. capital, Washington, D.C. Once Hippolyta discovered that part of Circe's plans involved the destruction of Themyscira, she threw a spear into Circe's chest, critically wounding her. She was presumed to have been killed, but she appeared at the end of Amazons Attack! #4 alive and well. She explains that she brought about the events of Amazons Attack to punish the Olympian Gods for allowing Ares to steal her daughter Lyta from her. Circe was then banished to Hades by a disguised Granny Goodness who stole the persona of the goddess Athena. The New 52 In The New 52 reboot of DC's continuity, Circe is re-established as a pale, red-haired sorceress with a vendetta against Queen Hippolyta and the Amazons. She allied herself with Magog and used her magical abilities to manipulate Superman into battling Wonder Woman. Wonder Woman broke Superman out of the mind control, and the pair defeated Circe and Magog. DC Rebirth After the events of DC Rebirth, Circe's history was altered. Seven years after Diana left Themyscira to become Wonder Woman, the C.E.O. of Empire Industries, Veronica Cale, performed a ritual to summon Circe to exact her revenge on the gods Phobos and Deimos, who had taken the soul of Cale's daughter Isadore. After bargaining, Circe agreed to help Cale. She gave her detailed instructions and then returned to her lair to begin her spell of binding. Circe later confronted Wonder Woman in Al-Doha, Qurac. She spoke in Diana's native Amazonian language, which surprised the warrior. After killing several soldiers, Circe tricked Wonder Woman into wrapping her lasso around the witch, enabling her to complete the ritual to bind Phobos and Deimos into the forms of dogs. Circe then teleported back to Veronica Cale and Doctor Cyber, Cale's ally. Circe then revealed to Cale that her daughter's soul was not in the soulstone as she previously believed. Circe communicated to Phobos and Deimos in their animal forms, discovering that Isadore's soul had been taken by Ares, who was imprisoned on Themyscira. Circe refused to help Cale any further, as she realized to free Cale's daughter would involve freeing Ares from his prison. Reclaiming her soul Years later, Circe allied herself with Lex Luthor and Ra's al Ghul after discovering the Pandora Pits. The trio fought a creature that emerged from the pits, representing their fear and hatred towards Wonder Woman, Superman and Batman. They managed to defeat the creature by combining their powers. Though Luthor leaves immediately afterward, Ra's remains behind and Circe explains that the pits contain an army of demons which require a sacrifice to be released. The pair is interrupted by Etrigan the Demon, who has detected the pits. During the confrontation, Ra's cuts Etrigan and his blood touches the pits. They then absorb him and separate him from his human host, Jason Blood. Etrigan is also turned into a giant demon and attacks a nearby town, accompanied by an army of demons. Batman, Superman and Wonder Woman arrive and enact a spell to trap Etrigan inside Jason Blood again, though the spell requires their sacrifice. Circe intervenes and saves them, knowing she needs them alive for her plan. Ra's and she then teleport away to Antarctica where the Pandora Pits have reappeared. They then greet the Red Hood, Artemis and Bizarro, having lured them to the location. Circe and Ra's then have the pits possess the Red Hood and the Outlaws and send them to attack Gotham, where they battle Batman, Superman and Wonder Woman. John Constantine, Zatanna and Deadman are summoned by Batman to assist them. Zatanna and Deadman end up being swallowed by a possessed Red Hood and teleported to the Pandora Pits in Antarctica. John Constantine follows them and tricks Circe into using Deadman to possess Superman, all in a bid to buy time for his allies. It is revealed that long ago, Circe sold her soul to a dimension of Hell and has tried over the centuries to regain it. The Pandora Pits are actually a portal that leads to the realm where Circe's soul is located. The narration, told by Circe herself, also confesses that she believes death has finally come for her and she is in fact scared of dying. She then betrays Ra's and has Zatanna possessed, who brings her Superman and Wonder Woman. She prepares to sacrifice them when Batman intervenes with the Outlaws whom he has freed from Circe's control. Circe fights back by having her Animen form a colossus around her, only to be subdued by the heroes. Ra's then stabs Circe in revenge for her betrayal before tossing her into the pits. In what she thinks are her final moments, Circe again expresses her fear of dying before being rescued by Wonder Woman. Helping Wonder Woman and Stopping Hecate When Diana is struck by the witchmark of the goddess Hecate, she travels to Aeaea along with the Justice League Dark, hoping Circe can help due to her being a worshipper of Hecate. At first Circe transforms the male members of the League into Ani-men, but upon seeing Diana's witchmark, she quickly reverses her spell and admits that she plays the role of a supervillain purely to occupy herself. Circe goes as far as to console Diana, informing her that the witchmark on Diana is one of five marks that serve as holds for Hecate's power for the goddess to draw upon when she desires. Refusing to become Hecate's puppet, Wonder Woman formulates a plan and Circe casts a spell allowing Diana to control Hecate's power without becoming its slave. While this initially works Hecate eventually possess Wonder Woman and launches an attack on Nanda Parbat in an attempt to dominate all magical centres in the world. When the Justice League Dark try to free Wonder Woman from Hecate's control they fail and Hecate's power from three of her other witchmarks leaves their previous hosts, revealed to be Witchfire, Manitou Dawn and Black Orchid, and into the possessed Wonder Woman, empowering her further. Out of options, Circe persuades the rest of the League that the only way to stop Hecate is to kill Wonder Woman but before they are able to do so Diana regains control of her body and with the help of Zatanna kills Hecate by feeding her to an interdimensional monster called the Upside-down Man. Shortly after Hecate's death, while alone on Aeaea, Circe reveals that she was the bearer of the fifth and final Witchmark meaning that when Hecate died all of her power flowed into Circe. She secretly begins to build her own villainous Dark League starting by recruiting the Floronic Man and then later Solomon Grundy, Papa Midnite, and Klarion the Witch Boy. Powers and abilities Circe is a goddess-level witch of vastly powerful magical/mystical energy and strength; as such, she is immortal. She is able to transform reality and solid matter through magic and spells. Among other things, she can alter minds, fire destructive magical energy blasts, create illusions, revive the dead (as she did with Medusa), teleport, and transform objects and beings. Her "signature move" is transforming men into various animals, like when she turned Odysseus' men into pigs. She can also use her transformative magics on herself, which further multiplies her natural abilities to superhuman levels, therefore giving her superhuman strength, endurance, agility, reflexes, superhuman speed, and resistance to most bodily injury. This makes her more of a match for Wonder Woman. Circe also possesses a magical mirror, often referred to as "the Mirror of Circe", that allows anyone holding it to alter their features into that of another. It is considered a forbidden object by the Olympian gods but has been stolen several times and used by Hercules. Circe also can magically summon, lure, and seduce men towards her with her enchantingly beautiful, seductive, melodic hypnotic calls, vocalized melodies, lullabies, or songs, similar to that of a siren. She can also project strong bursts of purple fire from her hands. Other versions Flashpoint In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint storyline, Circe was imprisoned by Hippolyta's sister Penthesileia in Antarctica for uncovering the truth of the Western European Amazon/Atlantean war. After getting the High Priestess (Tarot card), Traci Thirteen transports herself there and breaks Circe's chains. Sensation Comics featuring Wonder Woman Circe appears in several stories of the anthology series Sensation Comics featuring Wonder Woman. In "Defender of Truth", Circe battles Wonder Woman and transforms the civilian police officers around them into centaurs. Wonder Woman manages to overcome Circe's magic and uses the magic lasso to restrain her. In "Taketh Away", Wonder Woman and a talk show host watch a video of Wonder Woman defeating Circe in Washington, D.C. In "The Problem With Cats", a young girl plays with her dolls, one of which she pretends is Circe. The Legend of Wonder Woman Circe was set to appear in the second volume to The Legend of Wonder Woman, a retelling of Wonder Woman's origins by Renae de Liz and Ray Dillon, but DC cancelled the project under unknown circumstances. De Liz later posted preliminary artwork featuring Circe on Twitter. In other media Television Circe appears in the Justice League Unlimited episode "This Little Piggy", voiced by Rachel York. Circe appears in the Justice League Action episode "Luthor in Paradise", voiced by Laura Post. Video games Circe appears as a boss in Justice League Heroes: The Flash. Circe appears as a boss and playable character in DC Universe Online, voiced by Michelle Forbes. This version is based in Metropolis. Circe appears as a character summon in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure. Circe appears as a playable character in DC Unchained. Books Circe appears in Monster Magic, by Louise Simonson and published by Capstone as part of their DC Super Heroes line of illustrated children's books. Circe appears in Wonder Woman Is Respectful, by Christopher Harbo and published by Capstone in their DC Super Heroes Character Education line of illustrated children's books. Miscellaneous Circe appears in Legion of Super-Heroes in the 31st Century #7. Circe appears in Batman: The Brave and the Bold #7. Circe appears in issue #7 of the Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure tie-in comic book. References External links Circe at Supermanica Cosmic Teams Profile: Circe Circe Profile Golden Age Circe at the DCU Guide Silver Age Circe at the DCU Guide Modern Age Circe at the DCU Guide Circe at the DC Database Project Circe Characters created by George Pérez Characters created by H. G. Peter Characters created by Robert Kanigher Characters created by William Moulton Marston Comics characters introduced in 1949 DC Comics characters with superhuman strength DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds DC Comics characters who can teleport DC Comics characters who have mental powers DC Comics characters who use magic DC Comics characters with immortality DC Comics deities DC Comics fantasy characters DC Comics female supervillains DC Comics witches Fictional ancient Greeks Fictional characters who have made pacts with devils Fictional illusionists Classical mythology in DC Comics Greek and Roman deities in fiction Magical supervillains Wonder Woman characters Works based on the Odyssey
5242831	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire%20and%20Rescue%20New%20South%20Wales	Fire and Rescue New South Wales	Fire and Rescue New South Wales (previously known as New South Wales Fire Brigades), an agency of the Government of New South Wales, Australia, is responsible for firefighting, rescue and HazMat services in the major cities, metropolitan areas and towns across New South Wales. Fire and Rescue NSW is the fourth largest urban fire service in the world, with over 6,800 firefighters serving at 335 fire stations throughout the state, supported by 465 administrative and trades staff and 5,700 community fire unit volunteers. FRNSW are also the busiest fire service in Australia, attending over 124,000 incidents a year. The agency operates under the Fire and Rescue Act 1989, with a substantial history dating back well over 100 years to the establishment of the New South Wales Fire Brigades in 1910, and the Metropolitan Fire Brigade prior to that in 1884. The organisation is led by the Commissioner of Fire and Rescue NSW, Jeremy Fewtrell, appointed on 30 October 2023 by the Minister for Emergency Services, Hon. Jihad Dib MP. History Early firefighting in New South Wales was made up of a number of small insurance and volunteer based fire brigades located predominantly around central Sydney. Following a series of major fires, most notably the Garden Palace Fire in 1882, firefighting in Sydney was formalised into one organisation on 14 February 1884, the Metropolitan Fire Brigade (MFB). The MFB initially operated out of the former Insurance Brigade Headquarters on Bathurst Street, but soon began to seek new locations for expansion. The first station opened by the MFB was No. 3 Stanmore (initially known as Marrickville) in 1886. This was soon followed by the construction of their new Headquarters on Castlereagh Street (No. 1 Station) in 1888, which remains New South Wales' oldest operational fire station to this day. In 1910, the Fire Brigades Act was extended to cover not just Sydney but the entire state of New South Wales. The Metropolitan Fire Brigade as a result became the New South Wales Fire Brigades (NSWFB). The organisation continued to grow, with many towns across the state seeking to establish permanent fire services often after major fires of their own. The NSWFB's expansion continued through the early 20th century, and it soon became responsible for hundreds of stations and thousands of firefighters even despite significant post-war cuts in 1945. Through the mid to late 20th century, NSWFB firefighters faced some of the most dangerous and deadly emergencies in the state's history, including the 1979 Luna Park Ghost Train Fire, the 1977 Granville Rail Disaster, the 1981 Sylvania Heights Nursing Home Fire, the 1981 Rembrandt Hostel Fire, the 1989 Downunder Hostel Fire and the 1989 Newcastle Earthquake, along with countless major bushfire emergencies including the 1968, 1974/75, 1979 and 1980 bushfire seasons. The 1990s and early 2000s saw significant changes in the NSWFB and in firefighting as a whole. Development in training and equipment saw the more widespread use of Breathing Apparatus and Thermal Imaging Cameras, along with improved Personal Protective Equipment and more modern appliances. In 1991, NSWFB took over primary rescue response from the NSW Police in a number of areas in Sydney. This saw a shift in the brigade, as they began to increase their capabilities in general and specialist rescue. This period also saw a number of major emergencies across the state, including the 1991 Palm Grove Hostel Fire, the 1994 Bushfires, the 1995 Speed Street Fire, the 1997 Thredbo Landslide, the 1997 Bushfires, the 1999 Glenbrook Train Derailment, the 1999 Sydney Hailstorm, the 2001 Bushfires, the 2002/03 Bushfires, the 2003 Waterfall rail accident and the 2006 Bushfires. In 2011, following the brigade taking over primary rescue services from NSW Ambulance in Sydney, Newcastle and Wollongong, the New South Wales Fire Brigades was renamed Fire and Rescue NSW (FRNSW), to better reflect its increasing rescue responsibilities. There was also a focus on further development of Personal Protective Equipment; new protective clothing featuring a Nomex and Kevlar blend called Titan, combined with an inner moisture barrier to prevent steam burns in 2013, new MSA and Pac Fire Firefighting and General Purpose Helmets in 2015, MSA Breathing Apparatus sets in 2017, and flash hoods and firefighting gloves in 2018. In 2016, FRNSW rolled out Mobile Data Terminals to every station to improve firefighter access to information including resources, call details, advanced maps, weather radars and data sheets. FRNSW have been working to incorporate further new technologies into their fleet, including the development of their two high tech Mobile Command Centres, the incorporation of Compressed Air Foam Systems into their appliances, the implementation of a remote Turbine Assisted Firefighting Unit, the development of the Hytrans Bulk Water Transfer System, and the development of Remote Piloted Aircraft systems. In 2016, FRNSW relocated their Headquarters to a brand new building at Greenacre, which serves as a modern workspace for both operational and administrative staff. This was followed in 2018 by the construction of the new Emergency Services Academy in Orchard Hills, which provides firefighters with a modern practical learning environment to maintain and improve safety and skills. In 2018, FRNSW rolled out the ‘Plus Plan’, an organisational strategy to develop an internal model for success and community education with an emphasis on these new roles and technologies. Emblem The Fire and Rescue NSW emblem includes the NSW state emblem with the State motto Orta Recens Quam Pura Nites, which is Latin for 'Newly Risen How Brightly We Shine'. A flag based on the British Blue Ensign with the FRNSW emblem is also used. Ranks Firefighters Retained firefighters Commissioner The Commissioner's official vehicle bears number plate 10, which has been on continuous issue to the head of the fire department from Transport for NSW and its predecessors since 1910. Paul Baxter was appointed Commissioner of Fire and Rescue NSW on 16 January 2017. He was previously National Commander of the New Zealand Fire Service and the National Rural Fire Authority. Organisation Staffing Fire and Rescue NSW operate two levels of staffing, Permanent and Retained. Permanent Firefighters are full-time career crews who work predominately 24 hour shifts. Each permanent station is made up of four platoons, A B C & D. Each station is assigned a minimum of one Pumper with a crew of 3 firefighters and a station officer per shift. Some multi appliance stations such as City of Sydney can have as many as 20 firefighters on a platoon. Permanent stations are typically located in Metropolitan areas (Such as Sydney and Newcastle) and Regional centres (Such as Lismore and Dubbo). Retained Firefighters are part-time on call crews, who are notified by pager and travel to the fire station from home or work when an emergency occurs. Retained firefighters are predominantly located in outer Metropolitan and Regional areas. Retained firefighters operate off an availability roster, where each firefighter has to give their available hours for the day/week. This system ensures that there is always a minimum safe crew of four Retained Firefighters available to turnout at any given time. A number of stations, particularly in regional areas, have a mix of both Permanent and Retained crews, who work together and often provide backup for one another. Zones Stations in New South Wales are organised geographically (often by LGA) into zones which are spread around the state. Each zone consists of between 10 and 20 stations. Each platoon of each zone is run by a Duty Commander, who not only manages the platoon but responds operationally as a commander to emergencies within the zone. Each zone then has an overall Zone Commander, who manages on a zone based level. Three zones then make up an Area, which is managed by an Area Commander. In New South Wales there are 21 Zones which form 7 Areas. The 7 Areas are split between Metropolitan and Regional. The Metro Areas report to the Assistant Commissioner of Metropolitan Operations, whilst the Regional Areas report to the Assistant Commissioner of Regional Operations. Both of these officers then report to the Deputy Commissioner of Field Operations, who in turn reports to the Commissioner. This tiered system means that management can be tailored at each level to suit local operational needs. Specialist Sections Fire and Rescue NSW operate a number of specialist operational and support sections including; Operational Communications – Responsible for Triple Zero call taking, dispatch and emergency communications, operating out of two Communications Centres at Alexandria and Newcastle. Fire Investigation and Research – Responsible for investigating the cause and origin of fires (including the operation of Australia's first accelerant detection dogs), as well as research into fire behaviour and fire dynamics, who operate out of their base at Greenacre and their research centre at Londonderry. Community and Fire Safety – Responsible for increasing community and business resilience to emergencies through community education as well as in the field assessments and inspections. Education and Training – Responsible for providing education and training for firefighters, utilising the Emergency Services Academy at Orchard Hills. Capability Management – Responsible for developing and enhancing Fire and Rescue's operational capabilities, including Firefighting, Rescue, HazMat, Incident Management and others. Specialised Operations – Responsible for managing Fire and Rescue's Rescue, USAR, HazMat, Bushfire and Aviation Sections. They run from a number of locations, mainly the Specialised Operations Centre at the Orchard Hills Academy. Logistics – Responsible for equipment management and distribution, and the management and maintenance of Fire and Rescue's huge vehicle fleet and property infrastructure. FRNSW operate a number of other specialist support sections include Finance, Governance and Legal, Information and Technology, People and Culture along with many others who support frontline firefighters and operations. Community Fire Units Community fire units (CFUs) are volunteer teams of local residents trained to safeguard their homes during a bushfire, until the fire brigades can get there, or to 'mop up' after a fire has passed so fire units can be released to attend more urgent incidents. CFU members are not firefighters. The aim of the CFU program is to reduce the impact of bushfires on the community and to protect life and property from bushfires. A typical team is made up of six to 12 members. Recruitment is within the local community. Local fire stations conduct regular training sessions with volunteers. The training focus is on bushfire education, prevention and preparation. Operations Responding from 355 Fire Stations across the state, Fire and Rescue NSW protect people across New South Wales from fires and emergencies and attend over 124,000 calls a year. Fire The majority of Fire and Rescue NSW's workload comes from fires, with the brigade responding to over 68,000 fire related calls in the 2017/18 period. These included over 6,000 structure fires, ranging from house fires to high rise fires and everything in between. Fire Rescue NSW's busiest station for fires is Ropes Crossing, who attend over 650 confirmed fires a year. FRNSW maintain a strong percentage of having 78% of structure fires contained to the room of origin, which can be attributed to the tenacity and hard work of firefighters, combined with the strong work of Fire Safety and Community Education. FRNSW attend an average of about 350 'Greater Alarm' fires a year, which are fires that require the attendance of four or more stations. The largest attendance at a structure fire in 2018 was a 9th Alarm Factory Fire in Seven Hills, which required more than 25 stations to get under control. FRNSW also responded to close to 9,000 bushfires in 2017/18, including a number of major wild fires that destroyed thousands hectares of bushland along with hundreds of houses. FRNSW operate a dedicated Bushfire and Aviation Section, based at Sydney Olympic Park, which is co-located with the NSW Rural Fire Service Headquarters. FRNSW work closely with the NSW Rural Fire Service along with other agencies including the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service and the NSW Forestry Corporation. Together, all four agencies come together to protect the state from bush and grass fires across all jurisdictions. In April 2018, over 70 FRNSW stations along with the RFS and NPWS attended a 17th Alarm Bush Fire which threatened hundreds of houses in Wattle Grove, Holsworthy, Menai and Alfords Point. Together, firefighters worked to prevent a single property loss as a result of the fire. Rescue As the largest rescue provider in the state, Fire and Rescue NSW responded to over 12,000 rescues in 2017/18. Fire and Rescue NSW are equipped to deal with all varieties of rescue incidents, including Domestic, Industrial, Road Crash, Transport, Confined Space, Vertical, Heavy Vehicle, Alpine, Trench, Bariatric, Swift Water, Large Animal and Collapse rescues. Along with standard ‘Primary’ and ‘Secondary’ rescue units, Fire and Rescue NSW operate 7 Heavy Rescues and 4 Technical Rescues across the metropolitan areas state, which carry an extensive array of heavy and technical rescue equipment. Fire and Rescue NSW also operate one of Australia's two Urban Search and Rescue Task Forces (NSWTF1 / AUS-2), who are accredited as a Heavy USAR Team by the United Nations INSARG. The Team are based out of Sydney, with a number of operators and vehicles across the state capable of providing both a domestic and international capability. In 2011, Fire and Rescue NSW deployed the Team in a Heavy capacity twice to both the Christchurch Earthquake and the Japan Earthquake & Tsunami. Hazardous Materials Fire and Rescue NSW are the sole responsible agency for Hazardous Materials incidents in inland New South Wales. They attended over 16,000 hazardous conditions incidents in 2017/18, ranging from gas leaks to chemical spills. Each station is equipped to deal with HazMat incidents to an extent, such as absorbing fuels, basic hydrocarbon booming, atmospheric monitoring and decontamination. Across the state, Fire and Rescue NSW operate 6 Heavy HazMats which are capable of dealing with more serious incidents, which are supported by 25 intermediate HazMat stations regionally. Additional capability is provided by the HazMat Advisory Response Team (HART), who can deploy on a statewide basis with a range of highly specialised equipment such as Raman and Infrared spectrometers. HART can also deploy the Otter II, their waterways response vessel, along with their mass decontamination units among other capabilities. Fire and Rescue NSW's Scientific Officers provide specialist scientific technical advice to crews statewide and can respond their mobile laboratory when required. Emergency Response Fire and Rescue NSW are on hand 24/7 every day of the year available to assist the residents in New South Wales in their times of need. Fire and Rescue NSW work closely with the NSW State Emergency Service to respond to incidents during and following storm/weather events, such as chainsawing downed trees, tarping roofs and pumping out flooded areas. This is in addition to Fire and Rescue NSW's flood/swift water rescue role. Another one of Fire and Rescue NSW's unique roles is their snake handling capability, with firefighters across the state trained in the safe capture and removal of snakes from peoples homes. Rescuing children and pets locked in cars forms another important part of Fire and Rescue NSW's role, particularly in hot Australian summers. In eleven remote/rural locations across the state, Fire and Rescue NSW are involved in the Community First Responder (CFR) program. CFR involves firefighters responding to medical emergencies with NSW Ambulance, who are often located some distance away from the areas involved. Firefighters provide initial lifesaving patient care, who are supported by paramedics upon their arrival. Stations across the state are regularly called upon to assist NSW Ambulance in a general capacity also, often simply providing manpower and specialist equipment when needed. These are just some of the diverse range of public calls for assistance that Fire and Rescue NSW attend every year. Fire engines (Appliances) Pumpers Rescue Appliances Water Tankers Aerial Appliances HazMat Appliances Support Appliances Alpine Appliances Community engagement Fire and Rescue NSW engages in a variety of community training and education activities, and has partnered with GIO to promote fire risk awareness and safety. Events such as Fire Prevention Week are organised by FRNSW during the year. In 2011 FRNSW and GIO created an advertising campaign to highlight the serious ramifications of fire in the domestic environment and to encourage people to use the free home fire safety audit tool - the advertising campaign was accompanied by a harrowing video telling the story of Linda, who not only suffered a brain injury in a domestic fire, causing her to have to learn to walk and talk again, but she also lost her sister to the blaze. Additionally FRNSW worked with GIO to create a tranche of informational fire safety videos. As well as providing hands-on community support, FRNSW utilises their Twitter profile and Facebook page to engage with the wider NSW community. See also Firefighting New South Wales Rural Fire Service Country Fire Service Country Fire Authority Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authorities Council References External links Annual reports Museum of Fire NSW Fire Brigade Employees Union NSW Fire Brigade Training Facility Government agencies of New South Wales Emergency services in New South Wales Fire and rescue services of Australia 1884 establishments in Australia
5242843	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20English%20non-League%20football%20system	History of the English non-League football system	For more information on the current structure of the NLS, see the main article. The history of the English non-League football system encompasses the history of non-League football in England. The non-League football system describes the hierarchical system interconnected leagues for men's association football clubs that sits below the English Football League. Currently, The Football Association administers the top six levels of the English non-League football system. It has named this the National League System (NLS). The NLS spans six levels of the overall English football league system, and consists of around 48 divisions in total. Although many of the leagues within the National League System have been around for a long time, the System itself is a fairly recent development. It was created by The Football Association in the 1990s to bring together various ad hoc arrangements from around the country, and to give clubs a clear path of promotion and relegation from the lower levels of the pyramid right through to the professional leagues. Before 1951 In the late nineteenth century a number of different football leagues were developed. Of these, only the Football League and the Football Alliance had national and professional pretensions. The Football Alliance was merged into the Football League in 1892, creating a two-tier competition. Both of these divisions were strongly weighted towards the North and the Midlands, since Southern County Football Associations were opposed to professionalism. Nonetheless, in 1894, the Southern League was formed, of both professional and amateur teams. It was considered to rival the Football League in quality and its strength was demonstrated by providing the only non-league FA Cup winner, Tottenham Hotspur in 1901, and by attracting a northern side in Bradford Park Avenue to join in 1907. As the Football League expanded further since its merger with the Football Alliance, it admitted clubs from a variety of leagues. The Midland League, founded in 1889, provided most of the additional clubs until the First World War, in addition to the Southern League. Other leagues which provided teams promoted to the League included: The Lancashire League (merged with The Lancashire Combination in 1903) The Combination (centred around Cheshire, Staffordshire and North Wales; folded in 1911) The Central League (From 1911) The Birmingham & District League The Northern Alliance The Northern League (1889) barred professional clubs in 1906 and remained strictly amateur until 1974. It rarely provided new entrants to the Football League unless its constituent clubs wished to turn professional. This was mirrored by the Isthmian League (1905), covering London and the South-East. Despite their relative lack of impact on the Football League, they dominated the FA Amateur Cup, collecting the trophy 50 times between them from 1894 to 1974. This remaining group of regional amateur and semi-professional leagues formed a patchwork across England and Wales, collectively known as "non-League football". Non-League in this sense referred to outside the national, professional Football League, rather than without a league. There was relatively little movement between leagues, although ambitious clubs could apply for membership of a stronger competition, often to replace a club that had folded. Creation of the Third Division In 1920, the top division of the Southern League was merged into the Football League to form the Third Division, establishing the Southern League as a feeder to the Football League and ending claims to their parity. The following season a further division, consisting of teams from a series of northern leagues, formed the Third Division North, with the existing league renamed the Third Division South accordingly. Many predominant non-League leagues contained a mixture of Football League reserve teams as well as smaller clubs. The Central League became composed entirely of reserve teams after the foundation of the Third Division North encompassed all six of its remaining first teams. 1951–79: Southern League and Northern Premier League Election to the Football League Clubs in the strongest leagues could apply to join the Football League by standing in an annual election. The bottom four teams in the League's lowest division were also obliged to stand in the election, and the existing League members would vote on the four teams from all those applying. Typically, around 10–15 non-League teams applied each year, but most of them gained only a handful of votes, and between 1951 and 1979, only seven non-league clubs won election to the League at the expense of an existing League club, in addition to the four clubs which benefited from the expansion of the Football League in 1950. The teams that were successfully promoted to League were: 1950: Shrewsbury Town (Midland League), Scunthorpe & Lindsey United (Midland League), Colchester United (Southern League), Gillingham (Southern League) were elected to expand the Football League from 88 to 92 teams. 1951: Workington (North Eastern League) replaced New Brighton 1960: Peterborough United (Midland League) replaced Gateshead 1962: Oxford United (as Headington United) (Southern League) elected to fill the vacancy left by Accrington Stanley's resignation 1970: Cambridge United (Southern League) replaced Bradford Park Avenue 1972: Hereford United (Southern League) replaced Barrow 1977: Wimbledon (Southern League) replaced Workington 1978: Wigan Athletic (Northern Premier League) replaced Southport 1951–68: Southern League The Southern League provided many of the subsequently promoted teams along with the Midland League. No clear northern equivalent to the Southern League was established, although the Lancashire Combination, the Cheshire League (successor to The Combination, established 1919) and the Northern Alliance League occasionally provided successful applicants until the establishment of the Northern Premier League. The Birmingham & District League's last Football League application was made in 1958, and its top teams started to promote to an expand Southern League. Although this was not a formal system of promotion and relegation, its top teams continued to join the Southern League or the Midland League. There was still an absence of a unified northern equivalent to the Southern League and, in-part due to this, there was the first of often chaotic reorganisations of the non-league game. The Lancashire Combination and The Combination (Cheshire League) remained largely unaffected by the chaos of reorganisations. The Northern Alliance was not as lucky and folded, being replaced by the North-Eastern League in 1964. 1968-79: NPL In 1968, the Northern Premier League was formed by the strongest clubs from the north of England outside the Football League, and after 1968, all League applicants came from either the Southern League or the Northern Premier League. The Northern League and the Isthmian League (1905), remained the strongest amateur leagues. The Northern Premier League drew teams mainly from the Lancashire Combination, Cheshire League and Midland League, and these leagues were demoted in status below the Northern Premier League, along with the Northern Alliance. Mixing of professional and amateur clubs By 1974, The Football Association had stopped distinguishing between professionals and amateurs. The Isthmian League went on a slow process of professionalisation, though even in the early 1980s many of its clubs remained amateur. 1979–82: APL The Northern League remained staunchly amateur and was eclipsed by the Northern Premier League; it refused to enter the National League System until 1991, when many of its teams had defected to other leagues and it was forced to accept feeder status to the Northern Premier League, having previously refused feeder status to the Alliance Premier League. Alliance Premier League In 1979, the Alliance Premier League was formed by a group of leading Southern League and Northern Premier League clubs. The Southern and Northern Premier Leagues became "feeder" leagues to the APL, with automatic promotion and relegation between them. The Isthmian League, while it was now becoming recognised as one of the strongest semi-professional leagues, remained outside the fledgling "pyramid" until 1985. The Southern League also restructured, reducing itself from three divisions to two (running in parallel) to compensate for the loss of many of its Premier Division clubs to the new league. One of the reasons for the creation of the APL was so that there would be a single club each year that could apply for Football League status, so as not to split the favourable votes between several clubs, as had happened in many previous years. Some years even saw the applicants receive more votes combined than any of the clubs up for re-election (including every year between 1973 and 1976). However, the League was still reluctant to increase its turnover of clubs, and none of the early APL champions succeeded in gaining election. 1982–2004: Feeding Southern League feeders West Midlands (Regional) League: 13 clubs (to 1994) Midland Combination: 10 clubs (to 1994) Midland Alliance: 7 clubs (from 1995) United Counties League: 8 clubs Eastern Counties League: 5 clubs Hellenic League: 11 clubs Western League: 8 clubs Wessex League: 7 clubs Sussex County League: 4 clubs Kent League: 9 clubs Spartan League: 2 clubs Athenian League: 1 club Northern Counties (East) League: 1 club (Shepshed Charterhouse) The Midland Alliance was formed in 1994 by clubs from the West Midlands (Regional) League and the Midland Combination. The latter two became feeder leagues to the Alliance along with the Leicestershire Senior League. The Alliance and Combination later merged in 2014 to create the Midland Football League. The Wessex League was formed in 1986 by clubs from the Hampshire League and from some neighbouring counties; it superseded the Hampshire League as a direct feeder for the Southern League. Isthmian League feeders Essex Senior League: 10 clubs Spartan League: 6 clubs (to 1997) South Midlands League: 1 club (to 1997) Spartan South Midlands League: 2 clubs (from 1998) Combined Counties League: 7 clubs United Counties League: 1 club (Stevenage Borough, 1984) Hampshire League: 1 club Eastern Counties League: 1 club Athenian League: 17 clubs (mostly in 1984 IL expansion; see below) The Spartan South Midlands League was formed in 1998 by a merger of the Spartan League and the South Midlands League. Northern Premier League feeders North West Counties League: 35 clubs (including 1987 NPL expansion) Northern Counties (East) League: 18 clubs (including 1987 NPL expansion) Northern League: 5 clubs (from 1991) A rationalisation of feeder leagues in the north of England took place in 1982. The Northern League remained untouched, but the Yorkshire League and the Midland League amalgamated to form the Northern Counties (East) League, while to the west of the Pennines, the Cheshire County League and the Lancashire Combination joined forces to become the North West Counties League. Both these leagues became feeders for the Northern Premier League, but without automatic promotion and relegation – clubs still had to apply to join the higher league. 1982-84 In 1982, the Southern League reinstated its Premier Division, absorbing 13 clubs from various smaller regional leagues. From this season onwards, the exchange of clubs between the regional leagues and the "big three" feeder leagues increased considerably, with around 8 clubs each season being promoted to the Southern, Northern Premier or Isthmian Leagues, and around 5 being relegated (the balance being made up of clubs folding or merging). 1984–87 In 1984, the Isthmian League absorbed the Athenian League, forming two parallel Second Divisions, and in 1985, it was accepted as a third feeder to the APL (although two Isthmian clubs, Dagenham and Enfield, had joined the APL in 1981). Each year, the champions of the APL's three feeder leagues would be promoted to the APL and the three lowest-ranking teams would be relegated down. The Southern League and Isthmian League's footprints overlapped considerably, with both having members throughout the south east of England, but despite occasional transfers between the two leagues, there was no concerted effort to fix their common boundary, and clubs in the South East were more or less free to choose which league to play in. In particular Yeovil Town, who had been a long-standing Southern League member until they became founder members of the APL, played in the Isthmian League from 1985 to 1988, and again from 1995 to 1997, despite being based 100 miles from any of their opponents. 1987–91: Football Conference League From 1987, the Conference champions were finally granted automatic promotion to the Football League. Over the next few years, the clubs relegated from the League were typically able to rebound straight away, with Lincoln City, Darlington and Colchester United all gaining promotion in one or two seasons. (although Newport County, relegated in 1988, went bankrupt partway through their first Conference season). Also in 1987, the Northern Premier League created a new First Division, with its existing clubs forming the Premier Division. Automatic promotion and relegation was then instigated with its feeder leagues. Scarborough were the first Conference club to win promotion to the Football League, when they finished as Conference champions at the end of the 1986–87 season. 1991–2002 In 1992, the Football League Fourth Division changed its name to the Third Division following the creation of the Premier League and the transfer to it of all the clubs of the First Division. The Isthmian League de-regionalised its second division to create new Second and Third Divisions. 2002–04: Play-offs In 2003, play-offs were introduced for clubs finishing 2nd–5th in the Conference, allowing two clubs to go up to the Football League for the first time. A year ago, the Isthmian League reorganised Division One into North and South regions and disbanded Division Three. 2004–2015: Expansion & Steps 2004–06: Three Conference League Divisions In 2004, the Football League renamed Football League Division Three to Football League Two as part of a rebranding exercise. A new level was added immediately below the Football Conference, consisting of two divisions, Conference North and Conference South. The clubs for these new divisions were drawn equally from the three feeder leagues. The existing Conference division at Step 1 was renamed Conference National. As part of the restructuring, the Isthmian League's two First Divisions were merged, and the boundary between the Southern League and the Isthmian League was redrawn, with 12 clubs transferring from the Southern to the Isthmian, and 27 moving in the opposite direction. To make up the numbers at Step 4, no clubs were relegated and a total of 20 clubs were promoted from the Step 5 feeder leagues. 2006–07: Three Isthmian League Divisions For the 2006–07 season, the Isthmian League First Division was split back out into North and South sections again to reduce travel costs, in the wake of Hastings United's complaints over these costs in 1998, causing them to drop out of the Southern league when their application to transfer to the Isthmian was denied. The Southern League Division Ones were also rearranged slightly, and renamed as Midlands and South & West. Plans to split the Northern Premier League First Division in the same way were put on hold due to a lack of suitable clubs. Each of the divisions at Steps 2–4 had a quota of 22 clubs, although the Northern Premier League First Division ran with 24 clubs for this season as part of the future expansion plans. The Conference National was expanded to 24 clubs, the same as the Football League's three divisions. A total of 30 clubs were promoted from Step 5 to Step 4, including 4 from the Isthmian League Second Division. The division was then disbanded, with its remaining clubs distributed across the other Step 5 leagues in the South East. It was planned to reduce the number of divisions at that level from 15 to 12, but there was no consensus on how this should be achieved, so 2006–07 ran with fourteen Step 5 divisions, each with between 18 and 22 clubs. It was hoped that the restructuring would improve the lower levels of the system in a number of ways. There will be less travelling for the Level 8 clubs as there will be five divisions, not four. This will be of particular benefit to Midlands-based clubs who will now predominantly compete in the Southern League Division One Midlands, rather than being split between the geographically larger older divisions. There should also be less overlapping at Level 9. Lower down the pyramid, the Liverpool County Combination merged with the I Zingari League to form the Liverpool County Premier League, while the Somerset County League split its lower levels from Division Two and Division Three to Division Two East and Division Two West. The East Cornwall Premier League changed its name to the East Cornwall League, divided into two divisions (Premier Division and Division One). In a purely cosmetic change, the Bedford & District League became the Bedfordshire League. 2007–09: Three NPL Divisions For the 2007–08 season, the Conference National was renamed Conference Premier and the Northern Premier League Division One was split into two, completing the plan of six divisions at Step 4. They were split along a north–south basis. Because each division only had 18 clubs initially, they played an unusual format, with each division being split into East and West sections. Each club played all the others in its division home and away, and will also play all the others in its section a third time, either home or away. This will give each club 42 games (rather than the 34 they would have with just a straight round-robin). The extra games are spread across the season. Further down, the South Western League and the Devon County League merged to form the South West Peninsula League. It has a Premier Division at Step 6, and Division One East and Division One West at Step 7. The new league fed directly into the Premier Division of the Western League, in parallel with the Western League Division One. It was hoped that the new division would encourage more clubs from the West Country to move up the pyramid, without having to jump directly from local Cornwall and West Devon leagues to the Western League (which can mean journeys of over 200 miles each way). Further down still, Step 7's Wessex League Division Two was disbanded and its clubs returned to local leagues, including the new Hampshire Premier Football League, which would run alongside the now-defunct Hampshire League. On 16 May 2008, the FA Leagues Committee added the East Midlands Counties League at Step 6, taking clubs from the Central Midlands League and the Leicestershire Senior League (both at Step 7 at the time). It was to run parallel to the Northern Counties League Division One, which was re-centred on Yorkshire, with both feeding into the Northern Counties League Premier Division. Both the Central Midlands League and the Leicestershire Senior League will retain their current formats and their current Step 7 status for their highest divisions. The possible addition of Surrey Elite Intermediate League at Step 7 was also announced. This included some of the best clubs from the existing Intermediate leagues in the county, some clubs dropping down from the Combined Counties League Division One, and some teams from areas adjacent to the county boundary. The FA refused to give this new league the expected Step 7 status but pledged to keep the matter under review. The Hampshire Premier League was also officially named as a Step 7 league from 2008. 2009–15 In 2009, Southern League Division One Midlands was renamed Division One Central. For the 2011–12 season, the Kent Invicta Football League was created at Step 6 to bridge the gap between the Kent League at Step 5 and the Kent County League at Step 7. The FA hoped to reduce the number of Step 5 leagues to twelve by the 2013–14 season, with the number of clubs in each league being gradually reduced to 22 through adjustments to the number of relegation places. This change never materialised. A series of changes were introduced for the 2013–14 season to ensure that each Step 5 league had the opportunity to promote a team to Step 4. Since there were 14 Step 5 leagues and 6 Step 4 leagues, a simple promotion/relegation system would not work. All three Step 3 leagues (Northern Premier League Premier, Southern Premier, Isthmian Premier) were expanded from 22 to 24 teams. The two Isthmian leagues at Step 4 (Division One North, Division One South) were expanded from 22 to 24 teams and the number of relegated sides in both divisions increased from two to three. The remaining four Step 4 leagues would still each have 22 teams and two relegation spots. The Isthmian League was chosen for expansion due to the greater number of clubs competing in its geographical area at Step 5 and to ensure there were 14 relegation places at Step 4, in line with the 14 Step 5 divisions. At Step 5, teams finishing as low as third at Step 5 could be promoted, as long as they applied for promotion and met the ground grading criteria, but only one team from each Step 5 division could be promoted each season, the highest placed eligible club. For changes for the 2013–14 season to take place, a "16-up, 6-down" system applied for the 2012–13 season only, whereby 16 teams from Step 5 were promoted (rather than 14) and only six teams from Step 4 were relegated (rather than 12). In 2013, the Kent League was renamed Southern Counties East League, while the Midland Alliance and Midland Combination merged to become the new Midland League at Step 5. 2015 onwards: National League 2015–18: National League In 2015, the Football Conference and its divisions were renamed the National League, and a year later the Southern Counties East League absorbed the Kent Invicta League to become the former's second division, still at Step 6. In 2017, the Southern League reverted its First Divisions to East and West. 2018–21: Four Step 3 & Seven Step 4 Leagues In May 2017, the FA chose the Southern League to create one additional division at Step 3 and the Isthmian League to create one at Step 4 as part of the next change to the structure, and in March 2018, the Northern Premier League voted to reorganise its Step 4 divisions into an east–west alignment, with all Step 3 divisions contracting to 22 clubs and those at Step 4 to 20, taking effect in the 2018–19 season. Step 7 was eliminated ahead of the 2020–21 season and leagues at that step were redesignated as regional NLS feeders, handled by county associations. 2021 onwards: Eight at Step 4 For 2020–21, the FA intended to add one more division at Step 4 and two more at Step 5 for a 'perfect' 1-2-4-8-16 divisional model. On 17 April 2019, it was clarified that there would be 17 divisions at Step 6, down from 19 in 2018–19 and that the two new divisions at Step 5 would be in the Midlands and the west London/Thames Valley areas. On 24 April, it was announced that the Northern Premier League had been awarded the operation of the eighth division at Step 4. After the declaration of a coronavirus pandemic which later reached England, the remainder of the 2019–20 season for leagues at Steps 3 to 6 was cancelled on 26 March 2020 and as a consequence, there were no promotions or relegations, necessitating the affected leagues to restart by next season. The FA decided to move the implementation of NLS restructures to the 2021–22 season. Again, leagues from Step 2 below had their 2020–21 seasons curtailed by restrictions from COVID-19 lockdowns on 24 February 2021. In April 2021, the FA Alliance and Leagues committees recommended the implementation of the aforementioned changes and it was reported that the two Step 5 divisions would be administered by the Combined Counties and United Counties leagues. For the 2024–25 season, all Step 4 divisions will expand to 22 clubs in each of them, reflecting a long-term FA aim to 'create consistency' at each step of the NLS pyramid. See also List of association football competitions Sources Football Club History Database Tony Kempster's site A critical view of NLS restructuring (archived) References History of football in England
5243591	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijay%20Iyer	Vijay Iyer	Vijay Iyer (born October 26, 1971) is an American composer, pianist, bandleader, producer and writer based in New York City. The New York Times has called him a "social conscience, multimedia collaborator, system builder, rhapsodist, historical thinker and multicultural gateway". Iyer received a 2013 MacArthur Fellowship, a Doris Duke Performing Artist Award, a United States Artists Fellowship, a Grammy nomination, and the Alpert Award in the Arts. He was voted Jazz Artist of the Year in the DownBeat magazine international critics' polls in 2012, 2015, 2016, and 2018. In 2014, he received a lifetime appointment as the Franklin D. and Florence Rosenblatt Professor of the Arts at Harvard University, where he was jointly appointed in the Department of Music and the Department of African and African American Studies. Early life and education Born in Albany and raised in Fairport, New York (a suburb of Rochester), he is the son of Indian Tamil immigrants to the United States. He received 15 years of Western classical training on violin beginning at the age of three. He began playing the piano by ear in his childhood and is mostly self-taught on that instrument. After completing a B.S. degree in mathematics and physics at Yale University in 1992, Iyer attended the University of California, Berkeley, where he obtained an M.A. degree in 1994 and initially to pursue a doctorate in physics. He continued to pursue his musical interests, playing in ensembles led by the drummers E. W. Wainwright and Donald Bailey. In 1994, he started working with Steve Coleman and George E. Lewis. In 1995, concurrently with his composing, recording and touring, he left the Berkeley physics department and assembled an interdisciplinary Ph.D. degree program in technology and the arts, focusing on music cognition. His 1998 dissertation, "Microstructures of Feel, Macrostructures of Sound: Embodied Cognition in West African and African-American Musics", applied the dual frameworks of embodied cognition and situated cognition to the music of the African diaspora. His graduate advisor was the music perception and computer music researcher David Wessel, with further guidance from Olly Wilson, George E. Lewis, Donald Glaser and Erv Hafter. Composing, performing, bandleading, recording Iyer performs internationally with his ensembles and in collaborations. Among these are his award-winning trios, featured on four albums (Uneasy (2021, ECM), Break Stuff (2015, ECM), Accelerando (2012, ACT) and the Grammy-nominated Historicity (2009, ACT)), his sextet with Graham Haynes, Steve Lehman, Mark Shim, Crump and Tyshawn Sorey, featured on Far From Over (2017, ECM), and his duo project with Wadada Leo Smith, documented on A Cosmic Rhythm with Each Stroke (2016, ECM). He has collaborated with Amiri Baraka, Teju Cole, Wadada Leo Smith, Arooj Aftab, Steve Coleman, Roscoe Mitchell, Oliver Lake, Henry Threadgill, Reggie Workman, Andrew Cyrille, Amina Claudine Myers, Butch Morris, George E. Lewis, Craig Taborn, Rudresh Mahanthappa, Kassa Overall, Linda May Han Oh, Liberty Ellman, Robert Stewart, Yosvany Terry, Okkyung Lee, Miya Masaoka, Francis Wong, Hafez Modirzadeh, Amir ElSaffar, Matana Roberts, Trichy Sankaran, L. Subramaniam, Zakir Hussain, Aruna Sairam, Pamela Z, Burnt Sugar, Karsh Kale, Mike Ladd, DJ Spooky, dead prez, HPrizm, Das Racist, Himanshu Suri, Will Power, Karole Armitage, the Brentano Quartet, the Imani Winds, the International Contemporary Ensemble, the Parker Quartet, Matt Haimovitz, Claire Chase, Jennifer Koh, Miranda Cuckson, Prashant Bhargava and Haile Gerima. In 2003, Iyer premiered his first collaboration with the poet-producer-performer Mike Ladd, In What Language?, a song cycle about airports, fear and surveillance before and after 9/11, commissioned by the Asia Society and released in 2004 on Pi Recordings. His next project with Ladd, Still Life with Commentator, a satirical oratorio about 24-hour news culture in wartime, was co-commissioned by UNC-Chapel Hill and the Brooklyn Academy of Music for its 2006 Next Wave Festival. It was released on CD by Savoy Jazz. Their third major collaboration, Holding It Down: The Veterans' Dreams Project, focuses on the dreams of young American veterans from the 21st-century wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, and was commissioned by Harlem Stage to premiere in 2012. It was released on CD by Pi Recordings in 2013. In 1996, Iyer began collaborating with the saxophonist Rudresh Mahanthappa, resulting in five albums under Iyer's name (Architextures (1998), Panoptic Modes (2001), Blood Sutra (2003), Reimagining (2005) and Tragicomic (2008)), three under Mahanthappa's name (Black Water, Mother Tongue, Code Book), and a duo album, Raw Materials (2006). Iyer was the 2015–16 Artist in Residence at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. He was the music director of the 2017 Ojai Music Festival. Iyer was the Composer-in-Residence at the Wigmore Hall in London for its 2019–20 season. Composing for others Iyer has been active as a composer of concert music. His composition Mutations I-X was commissioned and premiered by the string quartet Ethel in 2005. It was released on CD by ECM Records in 2014. His orchestral work Interventions was commissioned and premiered in 2007 by the American Composers Orchestra conducted by Dennis Russell Davies. Iyer co-created the score for Teza (2009) by the filmmaker Haile Gerima. He collaborated with the filmmaker Bill Morrison on the short film and audiovisual installation Release (2009), commissioned by the Eastern State Penitentiary in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which is now operated as an historic site. In 2011, he created Mozart Effects, commissioned by the Brentano String Quartet as a response to an unfinished fragment by Mozart. He also created and performed the score to UnEasy, a ballet choreographed by Karole Armitage and commissioned by Central Park Summerstage. In 2012, the Silk Road Ensemble debuted his commissioned piece, Playlist for an Extreme Occasion, which appears on its 2013 album A Playlist Without Borders. In 2013, the International Contemporary Ensemble premiered his composition Radhe Radhe: Rites of Holi, a large-scale collaboration with the filmmaker Prashant Bhargava commissioned by Carolina Performing Arts in commemoration of the centenary of Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring. In 2013, Brooklyn Rider premiered and recorded his string quartet Dig the Say. In 2014, he premiered Time, Place, Action, a piano quintet he performed with the Brentano Quartet, and Bruits, a sextet for Imani Winds and the pianist Cory Smythe, later recorded on their Grammy-nominated 2021 album of the same name. Later that year, the moving images by Bhargava, combined with Iyer's music, were released by ECM Records. In 2015, he had pieces premiered by the cellist Matt Haimovitz ("Run" for solo cello, an overture to Bach's Cello Suite No. 3) and the violinist Jennifer Koh ("Bridgetower Fantasy", a companion piece to Beethoven's "Kreutzer" Sonata). In 2016, he premiered Emergence for trio and orchestra, with his trio with Stephan Crump and Tyshawn Sorey plus the Leopoldinum Chamber Orchestra in Wrocław, Poland. In 2017, he composed Trouble for violin and orchestra, premiered by Jennifer Koh and International Contemporary Ensemble at Ojai Music Festival, Asunder commissioned by Orpheus Chamber Orchestra and The Law of Returns for piano quartet. In 2018, So Percussion premiered his mallet quartet Torque at Caramoor Summer Music Festival. In 2019, Iyer composed Crisis Modes for strings and percussion, co-commissioned by the Los Angeles Philharmonic, Kölner Philharmonie and Wigmore Hall, Hallucination Party commissioned by Mishka Rushdie Momen and recorded on her album Variations, and Song for Flint for viola solo, commissioned by Miller Theatre at Columbia University and premiered in Iyer's Portrait Concert there on October 24, 2019. Other works include For Violin Alone written for Jennifer Koh, My Boy (Song of Remembrance) composed for Boston Lyric Opera, Plinth (for Kwame Ture) composed for Shai Wosner, The Window composed for Inbal Segev and Iyer, Equal Night composed for Matt Haimovitz, For My Father composed for Sarah Rothenberg and Disunities composed for Lydian Quartet with David Krakauer. Iyer's concert works are published by Schott Music. In 2014 he was asked by the Indian filmmaker Prashant Bhargava to contribute a film score for the film "Radhe Radhe" (= Rites Of Holi) dealing with springtime rituals in India. The idea was to create something connected to the 100th anniversary of Stravinsky's "The Rite Of Spring". And he gave his okay, and contributed a live score to it working with the International Contemporary Ensemble. Bhargava died at the age of 42 by heart attack in May 2015. In memory of him Iyer as the music director of the 2017 Ojai Music Festival has staged the film score as an live act with members of the Oberlin Ensemble and the International Contemporary Ensemble conducted by UC San Diego music professor Steven Schick while the film was shown on a large screen above the heads of the musicians. Teaching and writing In 2014, Iyer joined the senior faculty in the Department of Music at Harvard University as the Franklin D. and Florence Rosenblatt Professor of the Arts. In 2017, he received a joint appointment with Harvard's Department of African and African American Studies. From 2013 to 2021, Iyer was the artistic director of the International Workshop in Jazz and Creative Music at the Banff Centre for Arts and Creativity (jointly with co-artistic director Tyshawn Sorey starting in 2017). Previously, Iyer was a faculty member at the Manhattan School of Music, New York University, The New School and the School for Improvisational Music. His writings have appeared in various journals and anthologies. Iyer can be seen as a contemporary musicologist who is most interested in researching not historical but improvisational music. 1998: “Microstructures of Feel, Macrostructures of Sound: Embodied Cognition in West African and African-American Musics.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley. 2002: “Being Home: Jazz Authority and the Politics of Place.” Current Musicology 71-73: 462-476. 2004: “Exploding the Narrative in Jazz Improvisation.” In O’Meally, R., B. Edwards & F. Griffin, eds., Uptown Conversation: The New Jazz Studies. New York: Columbia University Press. 2006: “Sangha: Collaborative improvisations on community.” Critical Studies in Improvisation / Etudes critiques en improvisation 1(3). 2008: “On Improvisation, Temporality, and Embodied Experience.” In Miller, P., ed., Sound Unbound: Sampling Digital Music and Culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, p. 273-292 2014: “Improvisation, Action Understanding, and Music Cognition With and Without Bodies.” In Lewis, George E., and Benjamin Piekut, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Critical Improvisation Studies. New York: Oxford University Press. 2019: “Beneath Improvisation.” In Rehding, Alexander and Steven Rings, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Critical Concepts in Music Theory. New York: Oxford University Press. He is aside from that a Steinway artist and uses Ableton Live software. Awards and honors Iyer's recording Uneasy was listed among the best albums of 2021 in Pitchfork, The New Yorker, JazzTimes, The Boston Globe, PopMatters, and the ArtsFuse jazz critics' poll. His sextet album Far From Over was named one of the best albums of 2017 in Rolling Stone, The New York Times, Los Angeles Times, Chicago Tribune and Slate and was voted the number one jazz album of 2017 in the NPR critics' poll. His trio album Break Stuff received five stars (highest rating) in the March 2015 issue of DownBeat magazine, was listed as one of the best albums of 2015 in Time, NPR, Slate, The New York Times, the Los Angeles Times, The Boston Globe, AllMusic, and PopMatters, and won the Preis der deutschen Schallplattenkritik (the German record critics' prize) of the year. Iyer received the 2003 Alpert Award in the Arts, a 2006 fellowship from the New York Foundation for the Arts, and commissioning grants from the Rockefeller Foundation, the New York State Council on the Arts, Creative Capital, the Mary Flagler Cary Charitable Trust, the American Composers Forum, Chamber Music America and Meet the Composer. He was named one of the "50 most influential global Indians" by GQ India and he received the 2010 India Abroad Publisher's Award for Special Excellence. He was awarded a 2012 Doris Duke Performing Artist Award, the 2012 Greenfield Prize for Music, and an unprecedented "quintuple crown" in the 2012 DownBeat International Jazz Critics Poll, in which he was voted Artist of the Year, Pianist of the Year, Small Group of the Year (for the Vijay Iyer Trio), Album of the Year (for Accelerando) and Rising Star Composer of the Year. He received a 2013 MacArthur fellowship, a 2013 Trailblazer Award by the Association of South Asians in Media, Marketing and Entertainment (SAMMA), and a 2013 ECHO Award for Best Jazz Pianist (International). He received a 2014 United States Artists Fellowship. He was voted 2014 Pianist of the Year and 2015 Jazz Artist of the Year in the DownBeat International Jazz Critics Poll. He was the critics' Jazz Artist of the Year again in 2016 and in 2018, and his sextet was voted 2018 Jazz Group of the Year. He was also voted Artist of the Year in JazzTimess 2017 Critics' Poll and the 2017 Readers' Poll. Discography As leader/co-leader As a featured pianist With Rez Abbasi Unfiltered Universe (Whirlwind, 2017) Suno Suno (Enja, 2011) Things to Come (Sunnyside, 2009) With Burnt Sugar (led by Greg Tate) All Ya Needs That Negrocity (2011) More Than Posthuman: Rise of the Mojosexual Cotillion (2006) If You Can't Dazzle Them With Your Brilliance, Then Baffle Them With Your Blisluth (2005) Not April in Paris: Live from Banlieus Bleues (2004) Black Sex Yall Liberation & Bloody Random Violets (2003) The Rites: Conductions Inspired by Stravinsky's Le Sacre du Printemps (2003) That Depends On What You Know (2001) Blood on the Leaf: Opus No. 1 (2000) With Steve Coleman The Ascension to Light (BMG France, 1999) The Sonic Language of Myth (BMG France, 1998) Genesis (BMG France, 1997) Myths, Modes and Means: Live at Hot Brass, Paris (BMG France, 1995) With Mike Ladd Mike Ladd Presents Father Divine (ROIR, 2005) Negrophilia: The Album (Thirsty Ear, 2005) The Nostalgialator (!K7, 2004) With Rudresh Mahanthappa Code Book (Pi, 2006) Mother Tongue (Pi, 2004) Black Water (Red Giant, 2002) With Roscoe Mitchell Far Side (ECM, 2007) Song for My Sister (Pi, 2002) With Wadada Leo Smith A Love Sonnet for Billie Holiday (as Wadada Leo Smith / Vijay Iyer / Jack DeJohnette) (TUM, 2021) A Cosmic Rhythm with Each Stroke (ECM, 2016) Spiritual Dimensions (Cuneiform, 2009) Tabligh (Cuneiform, 2008) Eclipse (concert film, 2005) With others Ivo Perelman, Brass and Ivory Tales: Tale 9 duo CD (Fundacja Słuchaj, 2021) Aggregate Prime (Ralph Peterson), Dream Deferred (Aggregate Prime, 2016) Arturo O'Farrill, The Offense of the Drum (Motéma, 2014) Pete Robbins, Pyramid (Hate Laugh, 2014) Trio 3 (Oliver Lake/Reggie Workman/Andrew Cyrille), Wiring (Intakt, 2014) Hafez Modirzadeh, Post-Chromodal Out! (Pi, 2012) Dave Douglas, Orange Afternoons (Greenleaf, 2011) Das Racist, Sit Down, Man (Greedhead / Mad Decent, 2010) Steve Lehman, Demian as Posthuman (Pi, 2005) Amiri Baraka, The Shani Project (Brown Sound, 2004) Compositions recorded by others Crown Thy Good performed by Laura Downes on Love at Last (Pentatone, 2023) Dig The Say performed by PUBLIQuartet on What Is American (Bright Shiny Things, 2022) The Window for cello and piano, performed by Inbal Segev and Vijay Iyer on 20 for 2020, vol II (Avie, 2021) For Violin Alone, performed by Jennifer Koh on Alone Together (Cedille, 2021) Equal Night, performed by Matt Haimovitz on Primavera I: The Wind (Pentatone, 2021) My Boy (Song of Remembrance), performed by Justin Vivian Bond as part of Desert In, a collaborative tele-opera released as a limited television series by Boston Lyric Opera, 2021 Bruits for wind quintet and piano, performed by Imani Winds and Cory Smythe on Bruits (Bright Shiny Things, 2021) The Diamond for violin and piano, performed by Jennifer Koh and Vijay Iyer on Limitless (Cedille, 2019) Hallucination Party for piano, performed by Mishka Rushdie Momen on Variations (Somm, 2019) Run for solo cello, performed by Matt Haimovitz on Overtures to Bach (Oxingale, 2015) Dig The Say for string quartet, performed by Brooklyn Rider on Brooklyn Rider Almanac (Mercury Classics, 2014) Playlist for an Extreme Occasion performed by Silk Road Ensemble on Playlist Without Borders (Sony Classical, 2013) Playlist One (Resonance) for solo violin, performed by Cornelius Dufallo (Innova Records, 2012) References Further reading External links ECM artist page Iyer's collected writings 1971 births Living people Jazz musicians from New York (state) American jazz pianists American male film score composers American male musicians of Indian descent American male pianists American musicians of Indian descent American people of Indian Tamil descent Harvard University faculty MacArthur Fellows American male jazz musicians Tamil musicians University of California, Berkeley alumni Yale University alumni ACT Music artists ECM Records artists Pi Recordings artists Savoy Records artists American musicologists
5243711	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20II%20of%20England	James II of England	James VII and II (14 October 1633 – 16 September 1701) was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII from the death of his elder brother, Charles II, on 6 February 1685. He was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was the last Catholic monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland. His reign is now remembered primarily for conflicts over religious tolerance, but it also involved struggles over the principles of absolutism and the divine right of kings. His deposition ended a century of political and civil strife in England by confirming the primacy of the English Parliament over the Crown. James succeeded to the thrones of England, Ireland and Scotland following the death of his brother, with widespread support in all three countries, largely because the principles of eligibility based on divine right and birth were widely accepted. Tolerance of his personal Catholicism did not extend to tolerance of Catholicism in general, and the English and Scottish parliaments refused to pass his measures. When James attempted to impose them by decree, this was met with opposition; some academics have, however, argued that it was a political principle, rather than a religious one, that ultimately led to his removal. In June 1688, two events turned dissent into a crisis. Firstly, the birth of James's son and heir James Francis Edward Stuart on 10 June raised the prospect of establishing a Catholic dynasty and excluding his Anglican daughter Mary and her Protestant husband William III, Prince of Orange, who was also his nephew, from the line of succession. Secondly, the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for seditious libel was viewed as further evidence of an assault on the Church of England, and their acquittal on 30 June destroyed his political authority in England. The ensuing anti-Catholic riots in England and Scotland led to a general feeling that only James's removal from the throne could prevent a civil war. Leading members of the English political class invited William of Orange to assume the English throne. When William landed in Brixham on 5 November 1688, James's army deserted and he went into exile in France on 23 December. In February 1689, a special Convention Parliament held that James had "vacated" the English throne and installed William and Mary as joint monarchs, thereby establishing the principle that sovereignty derived from Parliament, not birth. James landed in Ireland on 14 March 1689 in an attempt to recover his kingdoms, but, despite a simultaneous rising in Scotland, in April a Scottish Convention followed that of England, both finding that James had "forfeited" the throne and offered it to William and Mary. After his defeat at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690, James returned to France, where he spent the rest of his life in exile at Saint-Germain, protected by Louis XIV. While his contemporary opponents often portrayed him as an absolutist tyrant, some historians—beginning in the 20th century—have praised James for advocating religious tolerance. More recent scholarship has tended to take a middle ground between these views. Early life Birth James, the second surviving son of King Charles I and his wife, Henrietta Maria of France, was born at St James's Palace in London on 14 October 1633. Later that same year, he was baptized by William Laud, the Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury. He was educated by private tutors, along with his older brother, the future King Charles II, and the two sons of the Duke of Buckingham, George and Francis Villiers. At the age of three, James was appointed Lord High Admiral; the position was initially honorary, but became a substantive office after the Restoration, when James was an adult. He was designated Duke of York at birth, invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642, and formally created Duke of York in January 1644. Wars of the Three Kingdoms In August 1642, long-running political disputes between Charles I and his opponents in Parliament led to the First English Civil War. James and his brother Charles were present at the Battle of Edgehill in October, and narrowly escaped capture by Parliamentarian cavalry. He spent most of the next four years in the Royalist wartime capital of Oxford, where he was made a Master of Arts by the University on 1 November 1642 and served as colonel of a volunteer regiment of foot. Following the surrender of Oxford in June 1646, James was taken to London and held with his younger siblings Henry, Elizabeth and Henrietta in St James's Palace. Frustrated by their inability to agree terms with Charles I, and with his brother Charles out of reach in France, Parliament considered making James king. James was ordered by his father to escape, and, with the help of Joseph Bampfield, in April 1648 successfully evaded his guards and crossed the North Sea to The Hague. Following their victory in the 1648 Second English Civil War, Parliament ordered the execution of Charles I in January 1649. The Covenanter regime proclaimed Charles II King of Scotland, and after lengthy negotiations agreed to provide troops to restore him to the English throne. The invasion ended in defeat at Worcester in September 1651. Although Charles managed to escape capture and to return to the exiled court in Paris, the Royalist cause appeared hopeless. Exile in France James, like his brother, sought refuge in France, serving in the French army under Turenne against the Fronde, and later against their Spanish allies. In the French army James had his first true experience of battle, in which, according to one observer, he "ventures himself and chargeth gallantly where anything is to be done". Turenne's favour led to James being given command of a captured Irish regiment in December 1652, and being appointed Lieutenant-General in 1654. In the meantime, Charles was attempting to reclaim his throne, but France, although hosting the exiles, had allied itself with Oliver Cromwell. In 1656, Charles turned instead to Spain—an enemy of France—for support, and an alliance was made. In consequence, James was expelled from France and forced to leave Turenne's army. James quarrelled with his brother over the diplomatic choice of Spain over France. Exiled and poor, there was little that either Charles or James could do about the wider political situation, and James ultimately travelled to Bruges and (along with his younger brother, Henry) joined the Spanish army under the Prince of Condé in Flanders, where he was given command as Captain-General of six regiments of British volunteers and fought against his former French comrades at the Battle of the Dunes. During his service in the Spanish army, James became friendly with two Irish Catholic brothers in the Royalist entourage, Peter and Richard Talbot, and became somewhat estranged from his brother's Anglican advisers. In 1659, the French and Spanish made peace by the Treaty of the Pyrenees. James, doubtful of his brother's chances of regaining the throne, considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy. Ultimately, he declined the position; by the next year the situation in England had changed, and Charles II was proclaimed King. Restoration First marriage After the collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660, Charles II was restored to the thrones of England, Ireland and Scotland. Although James was the heir presumptive, it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children. On 31 December 1660, following his brother's restoration, James was created Duke of Albany in Scotland, to go along with his English title, Duke of York. Upon his return to England, James prompted an immediate controversy by announcing his engagement to Anne Hyde, the daughter of Charles's chief minister, Edward Hyde. In 1659, while trying to seduce her, James promised he would marry Anne. Anne became pregnant in 1660, but following the Restoration and James's return to power, no one at the royal court expected a prince to marry a commoner, no matter what he had pledged beforehand. Although nearly everyone, including Anne's father, urged the two not to marry, the couple married secretly, then went through an official marriage ceremony on 3 September 1660 in London. The couple's first child, Charles, was born less than two months later, but died in infancy, as did five further children. Only two daughters survived: Mary (born 30 April 1662) and Anne (born 6 February 1665). Samuel Pepys wrote that James was fond of his children and his role as a father, and played with them "like an ordinary private father of a child", a contrast to the distant parenting common with royalty at the time. James's wife was devoted to him and influenced many of his decisions. Even so, he kept mistresses, including Arabella Churchill and Catherine Sedley, and was reputed to be "the most unguarded ogler of his time". Samuel Pepys recorded in his diary that James "did eye my wife mightily". James's taste in women was often maligned, with Gilbert Burnet famously remarking that James's mistresses must have been "given [to] him by his priests as a penance". Anne Hyde died in 1671. Military and political offices and royal slavery After the Restoration, James was confirmed as Lord High Admiral, an office that carried with it the subsidiary appointments of Governor of Portsmouth and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. Charles II also made his brother the Governor of the Royal Adventurers into Africa (later shortened to the Royal African Company) in October 1660, an office James retained until after the Glorious Revolution when he was forced to resign. When James commanded the Royal Navy during the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) he immediately directed the fleet towards the capture of forts off the African coast that would facilitate English involvement in the slave trade (indeed English attacks on such forts occupied by the Dutch precipitated the war itself). James remained Admiral of the Fleet during the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674), during which significant fighting also occurred off the African coast. Following the raid on the Medway in 1667, James oversaw the survey and re-fortification of the southern coast. The office of Lord High Admiral, combined with his revenue from post office and wine tariffs (positions granted him by Charles II upon his restoration), gave James enough money to keep a sizable court household. In 1664, Charles II granted American territory between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers to James. Following its capture by the British, the former Dutch territory of New Netherland and its principal port, New Amsterdam, were renamed the Province and City of New York in James's honour. James gave part of the colony to proprietors George Carteret and John Berkeley. Fort Orange, north on the Hudson River, was renamed Albany after James's Scottish title. In 1683, James became the Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, but did not take an active role in its governance. In September 1666, Charles II put James in charge of firefighting operations during the Great Fire of London, in the absence of action by Lord Mayor Thomas Bloodworth. This was not a political office, but his actions and leadership were noteworthy. "The Duke of York hath won the hearts of the people with his continual and indefatigable pains day and night in helping to quench the Fire", wrote a witness in a letter on 8 September. In 1672, the Royal African Company received a new charter from Charles II. It set up forts and factories, maintained troops, and exercised martial law in West Africa in pursuit of trade in gold, silver and African slaves. In the 1680s, the RAC transported about 5,000 slaves a year to markets primarily in the English Caribbean across the Atlantic. Many were branded on the chest with the letters "DY" for "Duke of York", the RAC's Governor. As historian William Pettigrew writes, the RAC "shipped more enslaved African women, men, and children to the Americas than any other single institution during the entire period of the transatlantic slave trade". Conversion to Roman Catholicism and second marriage James's time in France had exposed him to the beliefs and ceremonies of the Roman Catholic Church, and both he and his wife Anne became drawn to that faith. James took Catholic Eucharist in 1668 or 1669, although his conversion was kept secret for almost a decade as he continued to attend Anglican services until 1676. In spite of his conversion, James continued to associate primarily with Anglicans, including John Churchill and George Legge, as well as French Protestants such as Louis de Duras, 2nd Earl of Feversham. Growing fears of Roman Catholic influence at court led the English Parliament to introduce a new Test Act in 1673. Under this Act, all civil and military officials were required to take an oath (in which they were required to disavow the doctrine of transubstantiation and denounce certain practices of the Roman Church as superstitious and idolatrous) and to receive the Eucharist under the auspices of the Church of England. James refused to perform either action, instead choosing to relinquish the post of Lord High Admiral. His conversion to Roman Catholicism was thereby made public. King Charles II opposed James's conversion, ordering that James's daughters, Mary and Anne, be raised in the Church of England. Nevertheless, he allowed the widowed James to marry Mary of Modena, a fifteen-year-old Italian princess. James and Mary were married by proxy in a Roman Catholic ceremony on 20 September 1673. On 21 November, Mary arrived in England and Nathaniel Crew, Bishop of Oxford, performed a brief Anglican service that did little more than recognise the marriage by proxy. Many British people, distrustful of Catholicism, regarded the new Duchess of York as an agent of the Papacy. James was noted for his deep devotion, once remarking, "If occasion were, I hope God would give me his grace to suffer death for the true Catholic religion as well as banishment." Exclusion Crisis In 1677, King Charles II arranged for James's daughter Mary to marry the Protestant Prince William III of Orange, son of Charles's and James's sister Mary. James reluctantly acquiesced after his brother and nephew had agreed to the marriage. Despite the Protestant marriage, fears of a potential Catholic monarch persisted, intensified by the failure of Charles II and his wife, Catherine of Braganza, to produce any children. A defrocked Anglican clergyman, Titus Oates, spoke of a "Popish Plot" to kill Charles and to put the Duke of York on the throne. The fabricated plot caused a wave of anti-Catholic hysteria to sweep across the nation. In England, the Earl of Shaftesbury, a former government minister and now a leading opponent of Catholicism, proposed an Exclusion Bill that would have excluded James from the line of succession. Some members of Parliament even proposed to pass the crown to Charles's illegitimate son, James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth. In 1679, with the Exclusion Bill in danger of passing, Charles II dissolved Parliament. Two further Parliaments were elected in 1680 and 1681, but were dissolved for the same reason. The Exclusion Crisis contributed to the development of the English two-party system: the Whigs were those who supported the Bill, while the Tories were those who opposed it. Ultimately, the succession was not altered, but James was convinced to withdraw from all policy-making bodies and to accept a lesser role in his brother's government. On the orders of the King, James left England for Brussels. In 1680, he was appointed Lord High Commissioner of Scotland and took up residence at the Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh to suppress an uprising and oversee the royal government. James returned to England for a time when Charles was stricken ill and appeared to be near death. The hysteria of the accusations eventually faded, but James's relations with many in the English Parliament, including the Earl of Danby, a former ally, were forever strained and a solid segment turned against him. On 6 May 1682, James narrowly escaped the sinking of HMS Gloucester, in which between 130 and 250 people perished. James argued with the pilot about the navigation of the ship before it ran aground on a sandbank, and then delayed abandoning ship, which may have contributed to the death toll. Return to favour In 1683, a plot was uncovered to assassinate Charles II and his brother and spark a republican revolution to re-establish a government of the Cromwellian style. The conspiracy, known as the Rye House Plot, backfired upon its conspirators and provoked a wave of sympathy for the King and James. Several notable Whigs, including the Earl of Essex and the Duke of Monmouth, were implicated. Monmouth initially confessed to complicity in the plot and implicated fellow conspirators, but later recanted. Essex committed suicide, and Monmouth, along with several others, was obliged to flee into exile in continental Europe. Charles II reacted to the plot by increasing the repression of Whigs and dissenters. Taking advantage of James's rebounding popularity, Charles invited him back onto the Privy Council in 1684. While some in the English Parliament remained wary of the possibility of a Roman Catholic king, the threat of excluding James from the throne had passed. Reign Accession to the throne Charles II died on 6 February 1685 from apoplexy, after supposedly converting to Catholicism on his deathbed. Having no legitimate children, he was succeeded by his brother James, who reigned in England and Ireland as James II and in Scotland as James VII. There was little initial opposition to James's accession, and there were widespread reports of public rejoicing at the orderly succession. He wished to proceed quickly to the coronation, and he and Mary were crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1685. The new Parliament that assembled in May 1685, which gained the name of "Loyal Parliament", was initially favourable to James, who had stated that most former exclusionists would be forgiven if they acquiesced to his rule. Most of Charles's officers continued in office, the exceptions being the promotion of James's brothers-in-law, the earls of Clarendon and Rochester, and the demotion of Halifax. Parliament granted James a generous life income, including all of the proceeds of tonnage and poundage and the customs duties. James worked harder as king than his brother had, but was less willing to compromise when his advisers disagreed with his policies. Two rebellions Soon after becoming king, James faced a rebellion in southern England led by his nephew, the Duke of Monmouth, and another rebellion in Scotland led by Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll. Monmouth and Argyll both began their expeditions from Holland, where James's nephew and son-in-law, the Prince of Orange, had neglected to detain them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts. Argyll sailed to Scotland where he raised recruits, mainly from his own clan, the Campbells. The rebellion was quickly crushed, and Argyll was captured at Inchinnan on 18 June 1685. Having arrived with fewer than 300 men and unable to convince many more to flock to his standard, he never posed a credible threat to James. Argyll was taken as a prisoner to Edinburgh. A new trial was not commenced because Argyll had previously been tried and sentenced to death. The King confirmed the earlier death sentence and ordered that it be carried out within three days of receiving the confirmation. Monmouth's rebellion was coordinated with Argyll's, but was more dangerous to James. Monmouth had proclaimed himself King at Lyme Regis on 11 June. He attempted to raise recruits but was unable to gather enough rebels to defeat even James's small standing army. Monmouth's soldiers attacked the King's army at night, in an attempt at surprise, but were defeated at the Battle of Sedgemoor. The King's forces, led by Feversham and Churchill, quickly dispersed the ill-prepared rebels. Monmouth was captured and later executed at the Tower of London on 15 July. The King's judges—most notably, George Jeffreys—condemned many of the rebels to transportation and indentured servitude in the West Indies in a series of trials that came to be known as the Bloody Assizes. Around 250 of the rebels were executed. While both rebellions were defeated easily, they hardened James's resolve against his enemies and increased his suspicion of the Dutch. Religious liberty and dispensing power To protect himself from further rebellions, James sought safety by enlarging his standing army. This alarmed his subjects, not only because of the trouble soldiers caused in the towns, but because it was against the English tradition to keep a professional army in peacetime. Even more alarming to Parliament was James's use of his dispensing power to allow Roman Catholics to command several regiments without having to take the oath mandated by the Test Act. When even the previously supportive Parliament objected to these measures, James ordered Parliament prorogued in November 1685, never to meet again in his reign. At the beginning of 1686, two papers were found in Charles II's strong box and his closet, in his own hand, stating the arguments for Catholicism over Protestantism. James published these papers with a declaration signed by his sign manual and challenged the Archbishop of Canterbury and the whole Anglican episcopal bench to refute Charles's arguments: "Let me have a solid answer, and in a gentlemanlike style; and it may have the effect which you so much desire of bringing me over to your church." The Archbishop refused on the grounds of respect for the late king. James advocated repeal of the penal laws in all three of his kingdoms, but in the early years of his reign he refused to allow those dissenters who did not petition for relief to receive it. James sent a letter to the Scottish Parliament at its opening in 1685, declaring his wish for new penal laws against refractory Presbyterians and lamented that he was not there in person to promote such a law. In response, the Parliament passed an Act that stated, "whoever should preach in a conventicle under a roof, or should attend, either as preacher or as a hearer, a conventicle in the open air, should be punished with death and confiscation of property". In March 1686, James sent a letter to the Scottish Privy Council advocating toleration for Roman Catholics but not for rebellious Presbyterian Covenanters. Presbyterians would later call this period "The Killing Time". James allowed Roman Catholics to occupy the highest offices of his kingdoms, and received at his court the papal nuncio, Ferdinando d'Adda, the first representative from Rome to London since the reign of Mary I. Edward Petre, James's Jesuit confessor, was a particular object of Anglican ire. When the King's Secretary of State, the Earl of Sunderland, began replacing office-holders at court with "Papist" favourites, James began to lose the confidence of many of his Anglican supporters. Sunderland's purge of office-holders even extended to the King's brothers-in-law (the Hydes) and their supporters. Roman Catholics made up no more than one-fiftieth of the English population. In May 1686, James sought to obtain a ruling from the English common-law courts that showed he had the power to dispense with Acts of Parliament. He dismissed judges who disagreed with him on this matter, as well as the Solicitor General, Heneage Finch. The case of Godden v. Hales affirmed his dispensing power, with eleven out of the twelve judges ruling in the king's favour. In 1687, James issued the Declaration of Indulgence, also known as the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience, in which he used his dispensing power to negate the effect of laws punishing both Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters. In the summer of 1687 he attempted to increase support for his tolerationist policy by a speaking tour of the western counties of England. As part of this tour, he gave a speech at Chester in which he said, "suppose... there should be a law made that all black men should be imprisoned, it would be unreasonable and we had as little reason to quarrel with other men for being of different [religious] opinions as for being of different complexions." At the same time, James provided partial toleration in Scotland, using his dispensing power to grant relief to Roman Catholics and partial relief to Presbyterians. In 1688, James ordered the Declaration read from the pulpits of every Anglican church, further alienating the Anglican bishops against the Supreme Governor of their church. While the Declaration elicited some thanks from its beneficiaries, it left the Established Church, the traditional ally of the monarchy, in the difficult position of being forced to erode its own privileges. James provoked further opposition by attempting to reduce the Anglican monopoly on education. At the University of Oxford, he offended Anglicans by allowing Roman Catholics to hold important positions in Christ Church and University College, two of Oxford's largest colleges. He also attempted to force the Fellows of Magdalen College to elect as their President Anthony Farmer, a man of generally ill repute who was believed to be a Roman Catholic, which was seen as a violation of the Fellows' right to elect someone of their own choosing. In 1687, James prepared to pack Parliament with his supporters, so that it would repeal the Test Act and the Penal Laws. James was convinced by addresses from Dissenters that he had their support and so could dispense with relying on Tories and Anglicans. He instituted a wholesale purge of those in offices under the Crown opposed to his plan, appointing new lord-lieutenants of counties and remodelling the corporations governing towns and livery companies. In October, James gave orders for the lord-lieutenants to provide three standard questions to all Justices of the Peace: 1. Would they consent to the repeal of the Test Act and the Penal Laws? 2. Would they assist candidates who would do so? 3. Would they accept the Declaration of Indulgence? During the first three months of 1688, hundreds of those who gave negative replies to those questions were dismissed. Corporations were purged by agents, known as the Regulators, who were given wide discretionary powers, in an attempt to create a permanent royal electoral machine. Most of the regulators were Baptists, and the new town officials that they recommended included Quakers, Baptists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians and Roman Catholics, as well as Anglicans. Finally, on 24 August 1688, James ordered the issue of writs for a general election. However, upon realising in September that William of Orange was going to land in England, James withdrew the writs and subsequently wrote to the lord-lieutenants to inquire over allegations of abuses committed during the regulations and election preparations, as part of the concessions he made to win support. Deposition and the Glorious Revolution In April 1688, James re-issued the Declaration of Indulgence, subsequently ordering Anglican clergy to read it in their churches. When seven bishops, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, submitted a petition requesting the reconsideration of the King's religious policies, they were arrested and tried for seditious libel. Public alarm increased when Queen Mary gave birth to a Roman Catholic son and heir, James Francis Edward, on 10 June that year. When James's only possible successors were his two Protestant daughters, Anglicans could see his pro-Catholic policies as a temporary phenomenon, but when the prince's birth opened the possibility of a permanent Roman Catholic dynasty, such men had to reconsider their position. Threatened by a Roman Catholic dynasty, several influential Protestants claimed the child was supposititious and had been smuggled into the Queen's bedchamber in a warming pan. They had already entered into negotiations with the Prince of Orange when it became known the Queen was pregnant, and the birth of a son reinforced their convictions. On 30 June 1688, a group of seven Protestant nobles invited William, Prince of Orange, to come to England with an army. By September, it had become clear that William sought to invade. Believing that his own army would be adequate, James refused the assistance of King Louis XIV of France, fearing that the English would oppose French intervention. When William arrived on 5 November 1688, many Protestant officers, including Churchill, defected and joined William, as did James's own daughter Anne. James lost his nerve and declined to attack the invading army, despite his army's numerical superiority. On 11 December, James tried to flee to France, first throwing the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames. He was captured in Kent; later, he was released and placed under Dutch protective guard. Having no desire to make James a martyr, William let him escape on 23 December. James was received by his cousin and ally, Louis XIV, who offered him a palace and a pension. William summoned a Convention Parliament to decide how to handle James's flight. It convened on 22 January 1689. While the Parliament refused to depose him, they declared that James, having fled to France and dropped the Great Seal into the Thames, had effectively abdicated, and that the throne had thereby become vacant. To fill this vacancy, James's daughter Mary was declared Queen; she was to rule jointly with her husband William, who would be King. On 11 April 1689, the Parliament of Scotland declared James to have forfeited the throne of Scotland as well. The Convention Parliament issued a Declaration of Right on 12 February that denounced James for abusing his power, and proclaimed many limitations on royal authority. The abuses charged to James included the suspension of the Test Acts, the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for merely petitioning the Crown, the establishment of a standing army, and the imposition of cruel punishments. The Declaration was the basis for the Bill of Rights enacted later in 1689. The Bill also declared that henceforth, no Roman Catholic was permitted to ascend the English throne, nor could any English monarch marry a Roman Catholic. Attempt to regain the throne War in Ireland With the assistance of French troops, James landed in Ireland in March 1689. The Irish Parliament did not follow the example of the English Parliament; it declared that James remained King and passed a massive bill of attainder against those who had rebelled against him. At James's urging, the Irish Parliament passed an Act for Liberty of Conscience that granted religious freedom to all Roman Catholics and Protestants in Ireland. James worked to build an army in Ireland, but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690 O.S. when William arrived, personally leading an army to defeat James and reassert English control. James fled to France once more, departing from Kinsale, never to return to any of his former kingdoms. Because he deserted his Irish supporters, James became known in Ireland as Séamus an Chaca or "James the shit". Despite this popular perception, later historian Breandán Ó Buachalla argues that "Irish political poetry for most of the eighteenth century is essentially Jacobite poetry", and both Ó Buachalla and fellow-historian Éamonn Ó Ciardha argue that James and his successors played a central role as messianic figures throughout the 18th century for all classes in Ireland. Return to exile, death and legacy In France, James was allowed to live in the royal château of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. James's wife and some of his supporters fled with him, including the Earl of Melfort; most, but not all, were Roman Catholic. In 1692, James's last child, Louisa Maria Teresa, was born. Some supporters in England attempted to assassinate William III to restore James to the throne in 1696, but the plot failed and the backlash made James's cause less popular. In the same year, Louis XIV offered to have James elected King of Poland. James rejected the offer, fearing that accepting the Polish crown might (in the minds of the English people) disqualify him from being King of England. After Louis concluded peace with William in 1697, he ceased to offer much assistance to James. During his last years, James lived as an austere penitent. He wrote a memorandum for his son advising him on how to govern England, specifying that Catholics should possess one Secretary of State, one Commissioner of the Treasury, the Secretary at War, with the majority of the officers in the army. James died aged 67 of a brain haemorrhage on 16 September 1701 at Saint-Germain-en-Laye. James's heart was placed in a silver-gilt locket and given to the convent at Chaillot, and his brain was placed in a lead casket and given to the Scots College in Paris. His entrails were placed in two gilt urns and sent to the parish church of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the English Jesuit college at Saint-Omer, while the flesh from his right arm was given to the English Augustinian nuns of Paris. The rest of James's body was laid to rest in a triple sarcophagus (consisting of two wooden coffins and one of lead) at the St Edmund's Chapel in the Church of the English Benedictines in the Rue Saint-Jacques, Paris, with a funeral oration by Henri-Emmanuel de Roquette. James was not buried, but put in one of the side chapels. Lights were kept burning round his coffin until the French Revolution. In 1734, the Archbishop of Paris heard evidence to support James's canonisation, but nothing came of it. During the French Revolution, James's tomb was raided. Later Hanover succession James's younger daughter Anne succeeded when William died in 1702. The Act of Settlement provided that, if the line of succession established in the Bill of Rights were extinguished, the crown would go to a German cousin, Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and to her Protestant heirs. Sophia was a granddaughter of James VI and I through his eldest daughter, Elizabeth Stuart, the sister of Charles I. Thus, when Anne died in 1714 (less than two months after the death of Sophia), she was succeeded by George I, Sophia's son, the Elector of Hanover and Anne's second cousin. Subsequent uprisings and pretenders James's son James Francis Edward was recognised as king at his father's death by Louis XIV of France and James II's remaining supporters (later known as Jacobites) as "James III and VIII". He led a rising in Scotland in 1715 shortly after George I's accession, but was defeated. His son Charles Edward Stuart led a Jacobite rising in 1745, but was again defeated. The risings were the last serious attempts to restore the Stuart dynasty. Charles's claims passed to his younger brother Henry Benedict Stuart, the Dean of the College of Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church. Henry was the last of James II's legitimate descendants, and no relative has publicly acknowledged the Jacobite claim since his death in 1807. Historiography Historical analysis of James II has been somewhat revised since Whig historians, led by Lord Macaulay, cast James as a cruel absolutist and his reign as "tyranny which approached to insanity". Subsequent scholars, such as G. M. Trevelyan (Macaulay's great-nephew) and David Ogg, while more balanced than Macaulay, still characterised James as a tyrant, his attempts at religious tolerance as a fraud, and his reign as an aberration in the course of British history. In 1892, A. W. Ward wrote for the Dictionary of National Biography that James was "obviously a political and religious bigot", although never devoid of "a vein of patriotic sentiment"; "his conversion to the church of Rome made the emancipation of his fellow-catholics in the first instance, and the recovery of England for catholicism in the second, the governing objects of his policy." Hilaire Belloc, a writer and Catholic apologist, broke with this tradition in 1928, casting James as an honourable man and a true advocate for freedom of conscience, and his enemies "men in the small clique of great fortunes ... which destroyed the ancient monarchy of the English". However, he observed that James "concluded the Catholic church to be the sole authoritative voice on earth, and thenceforward ... he not only stood firm against surrender but on no single occasion contemplated the least compromise or by a word would modify the impression made." By the 1960s and 1970s, Maurice Ashley and Stuart Prall began to reconsider James's motives in granting religious toleration, while still taking note of James's autocratic rule. Modern historians have moved away from the school of thought that preached the continuous march of progress and democracy, Ashley contending that "history is, after all, the story of human beings and individuals, as well as of the classes and the masses." He cast James II and William III as "men of ideals as well as human weaknesses". John Miller, writing in 2000, accepted the claims of James's absolutism, but argued that "his main concern was to secure religious liberty and civil equality for Catholics. Any 'absolutist' methods ... were essentially means to that end." In 2004, W. A. Speck wrote in the new Oxford Dictionary of National Biography that "James was genuinely committed to religious toleration, but also sought to increase the power of the crown." He added that, unlike the government of the Netherlands, "James was too autocratic to combine freedom of conscience with popular government. He resisted any check on the monarch's power. That is why his heart was not in the concessions he had to make in 1688. He would rather live in exile with his principles intact than continue to reign as a limited monarch." Tim Harris's conclusions from his 2006 book summarised the ambivalence of modern scholarship towards James II: In 2009, Steven Pincus confronted that scholarly ambivalence in 1688: The First Modern Revolution. Pincus claims that James's reign must be understood within a context of economic change and European politics, and makes two major assertions about James II. The first of these is that James purposefully "followed the French Sun King, Louis XIV, in trying to create a modern Catholic polity. This involved not only trying to Catholicize England ... but also creating a modern, centralizing, and extremely bureaucratic state apparatus." The second is that James was undone in 1688 far less by Protestant reaction against Catholicization than by nationwide hostile reaction against his intrusive bureaucratic state and taxation apparatus, expressed in massive popular support for William of Orange's armed invasion of England. Pincus presents James as neither naïve nor stupid nor egotistical. Instead, readers are shown an intelligent, clear-thinking strategically motivated monarch whose vision for a French authoritarian political model and alliance clashed with, and lost out to, alternative views that favoured an entrepreneurial Dutch economic model, feared French power, and were outraged by James's authoritarianism. Scott Sowerby countered Pincus's thesis in 2013 in Making Toleration: The Repealers and the Glorious Revolution. He noted that English taxes remained low during James II's reign, at about 4% of the English national income, and thus it was unlikely that James could have built a bureaucratic state on the model of Louis XIV's France, where taxes were at least twice as high as a proportion of GDP. Sowerby also contends that James's policies of religious toleration attracted substantial support from religious nonconformists, including Quakers, Baptists, Congregationalists and Presbyterians, who were attracted by the king's push for a new "Magna Carta for liberty of conscience". The king was overthrown, in Sowerby's view, largely because of fears among the Dutch and English elites that James might be aligning himself with Louis XIV in a supposed "holy league" to destroy Protestantism across northern Europe. Sowerby presents James's reign as a struggle between those who believed that the king was sincerely devoted to liberty of conscience and those who were sceptical of the king's espousals of toleration and believed that he had a hidden agenda to overthrow English Protestantism. Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles 14 October 1633 – 6 February 1685: The Duke of York 10 May 1659 – 6 February 1685: The Earl of Ulster 31 December 1660 – 6 February 1685: The Duke of Albany 6 February 1685 – 23 December 1688 (by Jacobites until 16 September 1701): His Majesty The King The official style of James in England was "James the Second, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc." The claim to France was only nominal, and was asserted by every English king from Edward III to George III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled. In Scotland, he was "James the Seventh, by the Grace of God, King of Scotland, England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc." James was created Duke of Normandy by King Louis XIV of France on 31 December 1660. In 1734 the Archbishop of Paris opened the cause for the canonisation of James as a saint, making him a Servant of God among Catholics. Honours KG: Knight of the Garter, 20 April 1642 Arms Prior to his accession, James's coat of arms was the royal arms (which he later inherited), differenced by a label of three points Ermine. His arms as king were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). Family tree In four generations of Stuarts, there were seven reigning monarchs (not including Hanover's George I). James II was the fourth Stuart monarch, the second of his generation and the father of two more. Issue Legitimate issue Illegitimate issue Notes References Sources Further reading DeKrey, Gary S. (2008). "Between Revolutions: Re-appraising the Restoration in Britain" History Compass 6 (3): 738–773. Earle, Peter (1972). The Life and Times of James II. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Glassey, Lionel, ed. (1997). The Reigns of Charles II and James VII and II. Goodlad, Graham (2007). "Before the Glorious Revolution: The Making of Absolute Monarchy? Graham Goodlad Examines the Controversies Surrounding the Development of Royal Power under Charles II and James II" History Review 58: 10 ff. Johnson, Richard R. (1978). "Politics Redefined: An Assessment of Recent Writings on the Late Stuart Period of English History, 1660 to 1714." William and Mary Quarterly 35 (4): 691–732. Mullett, M. (1993). James II and English Politics 1678–1688. . Ogg, David (1957). England in the Reigns of James II and William III, 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Van der Kiste, John (2021). James II and the first modern revolution. Barnsley: Pen & Sword. Walcott, Robert (1962). "The Later Stuarts (1660–1714): Significant Work of the Last Twenty Years (1939–1959)" American Historical Review 67 (2): 352–370 External links James VII & II at the official website of the British monarchy James II at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust James II at BBC History 1633 births 1701 deaths 17th-century English monarchs 17th-century Scottish monarchs 17th-century Irish monarchs 18th-century British people 17th-century English nobility 17th-century Scottish peers Dukes of Normandy Jacobite pretenders 18th-century Jacobite pretenders James II and VII English Roman Catholics Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism Dukes of York Peers of England created by Charles I 501 Peers of Scotland created by Charles II Ulster Earls of Ulster Peers of Ireland created by Charles II English pretenders to the French throne English people of Scottish descent English people of French descent Fellows of the Royal Society People of the Glorious Revolution Governors of the Hudson's Bay Company History of Catholicism in the United Kingdom House of Stuart Jacobite military personnel of the Williamite War in Ireland Knights of the Garter Lord High Admirals of England Lord High Admirals of Scotland Lords High Commissioner to the Parliament of Scotland Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports Pre-statehood history of New York (state) English princes Princes of Scotland Roman Catholic monarchs Children of Charles I of England Sons of kings Exiled royalty
5243877	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanzibar%20Revolution	Zanzibar Revolution	The Zanzibar Revolution () occurred in January 1964 and led to the overthrow of the Sultan of Zanzibar and his mainly Arab government by the island's majority Black African population. Zanzibar was an ethnically diverse state consisting of a number of islands off the east coast of Tanganyika. It had become fully independent in 1963, with responsibility for its own defence and foreign affairs, as a result of Britain giving up its protectorate over it. In a series of parliamentary elections preceding this change, the Arab minority succeeded in retaining the hold on power it had inherited from Zanzibar's former existence as an overseas territory of Oman. Frustrated by under-representation in Parliament, despite winning 54 per cent of the vote in the July 1963 election, the African Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) early in the morning of 12 January 1964, led by John Okello, youth leader of the ASP's Pemba branch, mobilised around 600–800 men on the main island of Unguja (Zanzibar Island). Having overrun the country's police force and appropriated their weaponry, the insurgents proceeded to Zanzibar Town, where they overthrew the Sultan and his government. They proceeded to loot Arab and South Asian–owned properties and businesses and then rape or murder Arab and Indian civilians on the island. The death toll is disputed, with estimates ranging from several hundred to 20,000. The moderate ASP leader Abeid Karume became the country's new president and head of state. The new government's apparent communist ties concerned Western governments. As Zanzibar lay within the British sphere of influence, the British government drew up a number of intervention plans. However, the feared communist government never materialised, and because British and American citizens were successfully evacuated, these plans were not put into effect. The Eastern Bloc powers of East Germany and the Soviet Union, along with the anti-Soviet People's Republic of China, immediately recognised the country and sent advisors. Karume succeeded in negotiating a merger of Zanzibar with Tanganyika to form the new nation of Tanzania, an act judged by contemporary media to be an attempt to prevent communist subversion of Zanzibar. The revolution ended 200 years of Arab dominance in Zanzibar, and is commemorated on the island each year with anniversary celebrations and a public holiday. Background The Zanzibar Archipelago, now part of the Southeast African republic of Tanzania, is a group of islands lying in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Tanganyika. It comprises the main southern island of Unguja (also known as Zanzibar), the smaller northern island of Pemba, and numerous surrounding islets. With a long history of Arab rule dating back to 1698, Zanzibar was an overseas territory of Oman until it achieved independence in 1858 under its own Sultanate. In 1890 during Ali ibn Sa'id's reign, Zanzibar became a British protectorate, and although never under direct rule was considered part of the British Empire. By 1964, the country was a constitutional monarchy ruled by Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah. Zanzibar had a population of around 230,000 Africans—some of whom claimed Persian ancestry and were known locally as Shirazis—and also contained significant minorities in the 50,000 Arabs and 20,000 South Asians, who were prominent in business and trade. The various ethnic groups were becoming mixed and the distinctions between them had blurred; according to one historian, an important reason for the general support for Sultan Jamshid was his family's ethnic diversity. However, the island's Arab inhabitants, as the major landowners, were generally wealthier than the Africans and enjoyed access to higher quality social services, such as health and education, than Africans. Apart from that, British authority considered Zanzibar as an Arab country and always held a position of supporting the Arab minority to stay in power. As a result, with the approach of the withdrawal of the British, the major political parties organised themselves largely along ethnic lines, with Arabs dominating the Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP) and Africans the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP). The ZNP looked towards Egypt as its model, which caused some tensions with the British officials on the islands, but for centuries Zanzibar had been dominated by its Arab ruling class, and the Colonial Office could not imagine a Zanzibar ruled by black Africans. In January 1961, as part of the process of British withdrawal from the islands, the island's authorities drew up constituencies and held democratic elections. Both the ASP and the ZNP won 11 of the available 22 seats in Zanzibar's Parliament, so further elections were held in June, with the number of seats increased to 23. The ZNP entered into a coalition with the Zanzibar and Pemba People's Party (ZPPP) and this time took 13 seats, while the ASP, despite receiving the most votes, won just 10. Electoral fraud was suspected by the ASP, and civil disorder broke out, resulting in 68 deaths. To maintain control, the coalition government banned the more radical opposition parties, filled the civil service with its own appointees, and politicised the police. In 1963, with the number of parliamentary seats increased to 31, another election saw a repeat of the 1961 votes. Due to the layout of the constituencies, which were gerrymandered by the ZNP, the ASP, led by Abeid Amani Karume, won 54 percent of the popular vote but only 13 seats, while the ZNP/ZPPP won the rest and set about strengthening its hold on power. The Umma Party, formed that year by disaffected radical Arab socialist supporters of the ZNP, was banned, and all policemen of African mainland origin were dismissed. This removed a large portion of the only security force on the island, and created an angry group of paramilitary-trained men with knowledge of police buildings, equipment and procedures. Furthermore, the new Arab-dominated government made it clear that in foreign policy, the Sultanate of Zanzibar would be seeking close links with the Arab world, especially Egypt, and had no interest in forging relationships with the nations on the African mainland, as the black majority wished. Slavery had been abolished in Zanzibar in 1897, but much of the Arab elite who dominated the island's politics made little effort to hide their racist views of the black majority as their inferiors, a people fit only for slavery. In Parliament, the Minister of Finance Juma Aley responded to questions from Karume by insultingly saying he need not answer questions from a mere "boatman". Aley further explained in another speech in Parliament that if Arabs were over-represented in the Cabinet, it was not because of race, but rather it was only because the mental abilities of blacks were so abysmally low and the mental abilities of Arabs like himself were so high, a remark that enraged the black majority. Memories of Arab slave-trading in the past (some of the older black people had been slaves in their youth) together with a distinctly patronizing view of the Arab elite towards the black majority in the present, meant that much of the black population of Zanzibar had a ferocious hatred of the Arabs, viewing the new Arab-dominated government as illegitimate. The government did not help broaden its appeal to the black majority by drastically cutting spending in schools in areas with high concentrations of black people. The government's budget with its draconian spending cuts in schools in black areas was widely seen as a sign that the Arab-dominated government was planning to lock the black people in a permanent second-class status. On 10 December 1963, with the termination of the British protectorate, complete independence was achieved, with the ZNP/ZPPP coalition as the government. The government requested a defence agreement from the United Kingdom, asking for a battalion of British troops to be stationed on the island for internal security duties, but this request was rejected as it was deemed inappropriate for British troops to be involved in the maintenance of law and order so soon after complete independence. And in any event many of the cabinet, which was seeking closer ties with Egypt, ruled by the radical, anti-Western nationalist Nasser, did not want British troops in Zanzibar. British intelligence reports predicted that a civil disturbance, accompanied by increasing communist activity, was likely in the near future, and that the arrival of British troops might cause the situation to deteriorate further. However, many foreign nationals remained on the island, including 130 Britons who were direct employees of the Zanzibar government. In 1959, a charismatic Ugandan named John Okello arrived in Pemba, working as a bricklayer, and in February 1963 he moved to Zanzibar. Working as an official in the Zanzibar and Pemba Paint Workers' Union and as an activist of the ASP, Okello had built himself a following and almost from the moment when he arrived on Zanzibar had been organizing a revolution that he planned to take place shortly after independence. Revolution Around 3:00 am on 12 January 1964, 600–800 poorly armed, mainly African insurgents, aided by some of the recently dismissed ex-policemen, attacked Unguja's police stations to seize weapons, and then the radio station. The attackers had no guns, being equipped only with spears, knives, machetes, and tire irons, having only the advantage of numbers and surprise. The Arab police replacements had received almost no training and, despite responding with a mobile force, were soon overcome. Okello himself led the attack on the Ziwani police HQ, which also happened to be the largest armory on the island. Several of the rebels were shot down, but the police were overwhelmed by sheer numbers. Okello personally attacked a police sentry, wrestled his rifle from him, and used it to bayonet the policeman to death. Arming themselves with hundreds of captured automatic rifles, submachine guns and Bren guns, the insurgents took control of strategic buildings in the capital, Zanzibar Town. At about 7:00 am, Okello made his first radio broadcast from a local radio station his followers had captured two hours earlier, calling upon the Africans to rise up and overthrow the "imperialists". At the time, Okello only referred to himself as "the field marshal", which prompted much speculation on Zanzibar about the identity of this mysterious figure leading the revolution, who spoke his Swahili with a thick Acholi accent that was unfamiliar on Zanzibar. Within six hours of the outbreak of hostilities, the town's telegraph office and main government buildings were under revolutionary control, and the island's only airstrip was captured at 2:18 pm. In the countryside, fighting had erupted between the Manga, as the rural Arabs were called, and the Africans. The Manga were armed mainly with hunting rifles, and once the arms seized from the police stations reached the rebels in the countryside, the Manga were doomed. In Stone Town, the fiercest resistance was at the Malindi police station, where under the command of Police Commissioner J. M. Sullivan (a British policeman who stayed on until a local replacement could be hired), all of the rebel attacks were repulsed, not least because the insurgents tended to retreat whenever they came under fire. Sullivan only surrendered the Melindi station late in the afternoon after running out of ammunition, and marched his entire force (not one policeman had been killed or wounded) down to the Stonetown wharf to board some boats that took them out to a ship, the Salama, to take them away from Zanzibar. Throughout Stone Town, shops and homes owned by Arabs and South Asians had been looted while numerous Arab and South Asian women were gang-raped. The Sultan, together with Prime Minister Muhammad Shamte Hamadi and members of the cabinet, fled the island on the royal yacht Seyyid Khalifa, and the Sultan's palace and other property were seized by the revolutionary government. At least 80 people were killed and 200 injured, the majority of whom were Arabs, during the 12 hours of street fighting that followed. Sixty-one American citizens, including 16 men staffing a NASA satellite tracking station, sought sanctuary in the English Club in Zanzibar Town, and four US journalists were detained by the island's new government. Not knowing that Okello had given orders to kill no whites, the Americans living in Stone Town fled to the English Club, where the point for evacuation was. Those travelling in the car convoy to the English Club were shocked to see the battered bodies of Arab men lying out on the streets of Stone Town with their severed penises and testicles shoved into their mouths. As part of Okello's carefully laid out plans, all over the island, gangs of Africans armed with knives, spears and pangas (machetes) went about systematically killing all the Arabs and South Asians they could find. The American diplomat Don Petterson described his horror as he watched from his house as he saw a gang of African men storm the house of an Arab, behead him in public with a panga, followed by screams from within his house as his wife and three children were raped and killed, followed by the same scene being repeated at the next house of an Arab, followed by yet another and another. After taking control of Stone Town on the first day, the revolutionaries continued to fight the Manga for control of the countryside for at least two days afterwards with whole families of Arabs being massacred after their homes had been stormed. According to the official Zanzibari history, the revolution was planned and headed by the ASP leader Abeid Amani Karume. However, at the time Karume was on the African mainland as was the leader of the banned Umma Party, Abdulrahman Muhammad Babu. Okello, in his capacity as the ASP youth branch secretary for Pemba, had sent Karume to the mainland to ensure his safety. Okello had arrived in Zanzibar from Kenya in 1959, claiming to have been a field marshal for the Kenyan rebels during the Mau Mau uprising, although he actually had no military experience. He maintained that he heard a voice commanding him, as a Christian, to free the Zanzibari people from the Muslim Arabs, though Zanzibaris themselves were predominantly Muslim and it was Okello who led the revolutionaries—mainly unemployed members of the Afro-Shirazi Youth League—on 12 January. One commentator has further speculated that it was probably Okello, with the Youth League, who planned the revolution. There appears to have been three different plots to overthrow the government, led by Karume, Babu and Okello, but it was Okello's plan that was furthest advanced and it was he who struck the blow that brought down the Sultan's regime. Okello was not widely known in Zanzibar, and the government was more concerned with monitoring the ASP and Umma rather than a little-known and barely literate house painter and minor union official. Okello was a complete mystery to the world at the time of the revolution, and MI5 reported to Whitehall that he was an ex-policeman who fought with the Mau Mau in Kenya and had been trained in Cuba in the art of revolutionary violence. Okello himself at a press conference several days later angrily denied having ever been to Cuba or China, stating that he was a Christian whose motto was "Everything can be learned from the Bible". During the revolution, there was an orgy of violence committed against the South Asian and Arab communities with thousands of women being raped by Okello's followers, and much looting and massacres of Arabs all over the island. The American diplomat Don Petterson described the killings of Arabs by the African majority as an act of genocide. Petterson wrote "Genocide was not a term that was as much in vogue then, as it came to be later, but it is fair to say that in parts of Zanzibar, the killing of Arabs was genocide, pure and simple". Okello frequently went on the radio to urge his followers in thunderous Old Testament language to kill as many Arabs as possible, with the maximum of brutality. As a Pan-African nationalist who made his followers sing "God Bless Africa" whenever he marched through the streets, Okello appealed to the black majority, but at the same time, as a militant Christian who claimed to hear the voice of God in his head, Okello's appeal on an island whose population was 95 per cent Muslim was limited. Aftermath A Revolutionary Council was established by the ASP and Umma parties to act as an interim government, with Karume heading the council as President and Babu serving as the Minister of External Affairs. The country was renamed the People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba; the new government's first acts were to permanently banish the Sultan and to ban the ZNP and ZPPP. Seeking to distance himself from the volatile Okello, Karume quietly sidelined him from the political scene, although he was allowed to retain his self-bestowed title of field marshal. However, Okello's revolutionaries soon began reprisals against the Arab and Asian population of Unguja, carrying out beatings, rapes, murders, and attacks on property. He claimed in radio speeches to have killed or imprisoned tens of thousands of his "enemies and stooges", but actual estimates of the number of deaths vary greatly, from "hundreds" to 20,000. Some Western newspapers give figures of 2,000–4,000; but the higher numbers may be inflated by Okello's own broadcasts and exaggerated reports in some Western and Arab news media. The killing of Arab prisoners and their burial in mass graves was documented by an Italian film crew, filming from a helicopter, for Africa Addio and this sequence of film comprises the only known visual document of the killings. Many Arabs fled to safety in Oman, although by Okello's order no Europeans were harmed. The post-revolution violence did not spread to Pemba. By 3 February Zanzibar was finally returning to normality, and Karume had been widely accepted by the people as their president. A police presence was back on the streets, looted shops were re-opening, and unlicensed arms were being surrendered by the civilian populace. The revolutionary government announced that its political prisoners, numbering 500, would be tried by special courts. Okello formed the Freedom Military Force (FMF), a paramilitary unit made up of his own supporters, which patrolled the streets and looted Arab property. The behaviour of Okello's supporters, his violent rhetoric, Ugandan accent, and Christian beliefs were alienating many in the largely moderate Zanzibari and Muslim ASP, and by March many members of his FMF had been disarmed by Karume's supporters and the Umma Party militia. On 11 March Okello was officially stripped of his rank of Field Marshal, and was denied entry when trying to return to Zanzibar from a trip to the mainland. He was deported to Tanganyika and then to Kenya, before returning destitute to his native Uganda. In April the government formed the People's Liberation Army (PLA) and completed the disarmament of Okello's remaining FMF militia. On 26 April Karume announced that a union had been negotiated with Tanganyika to form the new country of Tanzania. The merger was seen by contemporary media as a means of preventing communist subversion of Zanzibar; at least one historian states that it may have been an attempt by Karume, a moderate socialist, to limit the influence of the radically left-wing Umma Party. Babu had become close to Chinese diplomats who had arranged for several shipments of arms to be sent to Zanzibar to allow the Umma Party to have a paramilitary wing. Both Karume and President Nyerere of Tanganyika were concerned that Zanzibar was starting to become a hot-spot of Cold War tensions as American and British diplomats competed for influence with Soviet, Chinese and East German diplomats, and having a union with the non-aligned Tanganyika was considered the best way of removing Zanzibar from the world spotlight. However, many of the Umma Party's socialist policies on health, education and social welfare were adopted by the government. Foreign reaction British military forces in Kenya were made aware of the revolution at 4:45 am on 12 January, and following a request from the Sultan were put on 15 minutes' standby to conduct an assault on Zanzibar's airfield. However, the British High Commissioner in Zanzibar, Timothy Crosthwait, reported no instances of British nationals being attacked and advised against intervention. As a result, the British troops in Kenya were reduced to four hours' standby later that evening. Crosthwait decided not to approve an immediate evacuation of British citizens, as many held key government positions and their sudden removal would further disrupt the country's economy and government. Within hours of the revolution, the American ambassador had authorised the withdrawal of US citizens on the island, and a US Navy destroyer, the USS Manley, arrived on 13 January. The Manley docked at Zanzibar Town harbour, but the US had not sought the Revolutionary Council's permission for the evacuation, and the ship was met by a group of armed men. Permission was eventually granted on 15 January, but the British considered this confrontation to be the cause of much subsequent ill will against the Western powers in Zanzibar. Western intelligence agencies believed that the revolution had been organised by communists supplied with weapons by the Warsaw Pact countries. This suspicion was strengthened by the appointment of Babu as Minister for External Affairs and Abdullah Kassim Hanga as Prime Minister, both known leftists with possible communist ties. Britain believed that these two were close associates of Oscar Kambona, the Foreign Affairs Minister of Tanganyika, and that former members of the Tanganyika Rifles had been made available to assist with the revolution. Some members of the Umma Party wore Cuban military fatigues and beards in the style of Fidel Castro, which was taken as an indication of Cuban support for the revolution. However this practice was started by those members who had staffed a ZNP branch office in Cuba and it became a common means of dress amongst opposition party members in the months leading up to the revolution. The new Zanzibar government's recognition of the German Democratic Republic (the first African government to do so) and of North Korea was further evidence to the Western powers that Zanzibar was aligning itself closely with the communist bloc. Just six days after the revolution, The New York Times stated that Zanzibar was "on the verge of becoming the Cuba of Africa", but on 26 January denied that there was active communist involvement. Zanzibar continued to receive support from communist countries and by February was known to be receiving advisers from the Soviet Union, the GDR and China. Cuba also lent its support with Che Guevara stating on 15 August that "Zanzibar is our friend and we gave them our small bit of assistance, our fraternal assistance, our revolutionary assistance at the moment when it was necessary" but denying there were Cuban troops present during the revolution. At the same time, western influence was diminishing and by July 1964 just one Briton, a dentist, remained in the employ of the Zanzibari government. It has been alleged that Israeli spymaster David Kimche was a backer of the revolution with Kimche in Zanzibar on the day of the Revolution. The deposed Sultan made an unsuccessful appeal to Kenya and Tanganyika for military assistance, although Tanganyika sent 100 paramilitary police officers to Zanzibar to contain rioting. Other than the Tanganyika Rifles (formerly the colonial King's African Rifles), the police were the only armed force in Tanganyika, and on 20 January the police absence led the entire Rifles regiment to mutiny. Dissatisfied with their low pay rates and with the slow progress of the replacement of their British officers with Africans, the soldiers' mutiny sparked similar uprisings in both Uganda and Kenya. However, order on the African mainland was rapidly restored without serious incident by the British Army and Royal Marines. The possible emergence of an African communist state remained a source of disquiet in the West. In February, the British Defence and Overseas Policy Committee said that, while British commercial interests in Zanzibar were "minute" and the revolution by itself was "not important", the possibility of intervention must be maintained. The committee was concerned that Zanzibar could become a centre for the promotion of communism in Africa, much like Cuba had in the Americas. Britain, most of the Commonwealth, and the US withheld recognition of the new regime until 23 February, by which time it had already been recognised by much of the communist bloc. In Crosthwait's opinion, this contributed to Zanzibar aligning itself with the Soviet Union; Crosthwait and his staff were expelled from the country on 20 February and were only allowed to return once recognition had been agreed. British military response Following the evacuation of its citizens on 13 January, the US government stated that it recognised that Zanzibar lay within Britain's sphere of influence, and would not intervene. The US did, however, urge that Britain cooperate with other Southeast African countries to restore order. The first British military vessel on the scene was the survey ship HMS Owen, which was diverted from the Kenyan coast and arrived on the evening of 12 January. Owen was joined on 15 January by the frigate Rhyl and the Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship Hebe. While the lightly armed Owen had been able to provide the revolutionaries with an unobtrusive reminder of Britain's military power, the Hebe and Rhyl were different matters. Due to inaccurate reports that the situation in Zanzibar was deteriorating, the Rhyl was carrying a company of troops of the first battalion of the Staffordshire Regiment from Kenya, the embarkation of which was widely reported in the Kenyan media, and would hinder British negotiations with Zanzibar. The Hebe had just finished removing stores from the naval depot at Mombasa and was loaded with weapons and explosives. Although the Revolutionary Council was unaware of the nature of Hebes cargo, the Royal Navy's refusal to allow a search of the ship created suspicion ashore and rumors circulated that she was an amphibious assault ship. A partial evacuation of British citizens was completed by 17 January, when the army riots in Southeast Africa prompted Rhyls diversion to Tanganyika so that the troops she was carrying could assist in quelling the mutiny. In replacement, a company of the Gordon Highlanders was loaded aboard Owen so an intervention could still be made if necessary. The aircraft carriers Centaur and Victorious were also transferred to the region as part of Operation Parthenon. Although never enacted, Parthenon was intended as a precaution should Okello or the Umma party radicals attempt to seize power from the more moderate ASP. In addition to the two carriers, the plan involved three destroyers, Owen, 13 helicopters, 21 transport and reconnaissance aircraft, the second battalion of the Scots Guards, 45 Commando of the Royal Marines and one company of the second battalion of the Parachute Regiment. The island of Unguja, and its airport, were to be seized by parachute and helicopter assault, followed up by the occupation of Pemba. Parthenon would have been the largest British airborne and amphibious operation since the Suez Crisis. Following the revelation that the revolutionaries may have received communist bloc training, Operation Parthenon was replaced by Operation Boris. This called for a parachute assault on Unguja from Kenya, but was later abandoned due to poor security in Kenya and the Kenyan government's opposition to the use of its airfields. Instead Operation Finery was drawn up, which would involve a helicopter assault by Royal Marines from HMS Bulwark, a commando carrier then stationed in the Middle East. As Bulwark was outside the region, Finery's launch would require 14 days' notice, so in the event that a more immediate response was necessary, suitable forces were placed on 24 hours' notice to launch a smaller scale operation to protect British citizens. With the merger of Tanganyika and Zanzibar on 23 April, there were concerns that the Umma Party would stage a coup; Operation Shed was designed to provide for intervention should this happen. Shed would have required a battalion of troops, with scout cars, to be airlifted to the island to seize the airfield and protect Karume's government. However, the danger of a revolt over unification soon passed, and on 29 April the troops earmarked for Shed were reduced to 24 hours' notice. Operation Finery was cancelled the same day. Concern over a possible coup remained though, and around 23 September Shed was replaced with Plan Giralda, involving the use of British troops from Aden and the Far East, to be enacted if the Umma Party attempted to overthrow President Julius Nyerere of Tanzania. An infantry battalion, tactical headquarters unit and elements of the Royal Marines would have been shipped to Zanzibar to launch an amphibious assault, supported by follow-on troops from British bases in Kenya or Aden to maintain law and order. Giralda was scrapped in December, ending British plans for military intervention in the country. Legacy One of the main results of the revolution in Zanzibar was to break the power of the Arab/Asian ruling class, who had held it for around 200 years. Despite the merger with Tanganyika, Zanzibar retained a Revolutionary Council and House of Representatives which was, until 1992, run on a one-party system and has power over domestic matters. The domestic government is led by the President of Zanzibar, Karume being the first holder of this office. This government used the success of the revolution to implement reforms across the island. Many of these involved the removal of power from Arabs. The Zanzibar civil service, for example, became an almost entirely African organisation, and land was redistributed from Arabs to Africans. The revolutionary government also instituted social reforms such as free healthcare and opening up the education system to African students (who had occupied only 12 per cent of secondary school places before the revolution). The government sought help from the Soviet Union, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and People's Republic of China for funding for several projects and military advice. The failure of several GDR-led projects including the New Zanzibar Project, a 1968 urban redevelopment scheme to provide new apartments for all Zanzibaris, led to Zanzibar focusing on Chinese aid. The post-revolution Zanzibar government was accused of draconian controls on personal freedoms and travel and exercised nepotism in appointments to political and industrial offices, the new Tanzanian government being powerless to intervene. Dissatisfaction with the government came to a head with the assassination of Karume on 7 April 1972, which was followed by weeks of fighting between pro- and anti-government forces. A multi-party system was eventually established in 1992, but Zanzibar remains dogged by allegations of corruption and vote-rigging, though the 2010 general election was seen to be a considerable improvement. The revolution itself remains an event of interest for Zanzibaris and academics. Historians have analysed the revolution as having a racial and a social basis, with some stating that the African revolutionaries represent the proletariat rebelling against the ruling and trading classes, represented by the Arabs and South Asians. Others discount this theory and present it as a racial revolution that was exacerbated by economic disparity between races. Within Zanzibar, the revolution is a key cultural event, marked by the release of 545 prisoners on its tenth anniversary and by a military parade on its 40th. Zanzibar Revolution Day has been designated as a public holiday by the government of Tanzania; it is celebrated on 12 January each year. The Mapinduzi Cup (Revolution Cup), an association football knockout competition is organized by the Zanzibar Football Association in early January between 6 and 13 January to mark the revolution day (12 January). References Citations General and cited references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Further reading Fouéré, Marie-Aude, and William C. Bissell (eds) (2018). Social Memory, Silenced Voices, and Political Struggle: Remembering the Revolution in Zanzibar . Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Mkuki na Nyota. . . Mwakikagile, Godfrey. The Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar: Formation of Tanzania and Its Challenges, . Mwakikagile, Godfrey. Why Tanganyika united with Zanzibar to form Tanzania, . Mwakikagile, Godfrey. The Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar: Product of the Cold War?, . 1964 in Tanzania 1964 in Zanzibar 20th-century revolutions African and Black nationalism in Africa Anti-Arabism in Africa Anti-Indian racism in Africa Conflicts in 1964 Genocides in Africa History of Zanzibar January 1964 events in Africa Massacres in 1964 Massacres of ethnic groups Rebellions in Africa Sultanate of Zanzibar Wars involving Zanzibar
5244662	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem%20C.%20Vis%20Moot	Willem C. Vis Moot	The Willem C. Vis International Commercial Arbitration Moot or Vis Moot is an international moot competition. Since 1994, it has been held annually in Vienna, Austria, attracting more than 300 law schools from all around the world and spurring the creation of more than 20 pre-moots each year before the actual rounds are held in Vienna. It is the largest arbitration moot competition, and second-largest moot overall, in the world; considered a grand slam or major moot. A sister moot, known as the Willem C. Vis (East) Moot, is held in Hong Kong just before the rounds in Vienna. It was established in 2003 and attracts around 150 teams every year, making it the second largest commercial arbitration moot and also a grand slam moot. It uses the same moot problem as the Vis Moot, as does the various pre-moot friendlies. The objective of both Vis moots is to foster study in the area of international commercial arbitration and encourage the resolution of business disputes by arbitration. The problem for the moot is always based on an international sales transaction subjected to the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (referred to commonly as the CISG) and also involves procedural issues of arbitration such as jurisdiction and powers of an arbitral tribunal. The moot consists of submitting written memoranda for both claimant and respondent before the oral phase of the competition, though the written arguments have no bearing on either the preliminary rounds or knockout stages in the oral phase. Background About Willem C. Vis The moot is named after Willem Cornelis Vis (1924–1993), an expert in international commercial transactions and dispute settlement procedures. Vis was born in Utrecht and graduated from Leiden University and Nijmegen University in the Netherlands. He also read law, economics and philosophy at Magdalen College, Oxford. Vis began to work for European co-operation in 1957 as a member of the Council of Europe Secretariat, in its human rights and legal affairs directorates, and later, in 1965, became Deputy Secretary-General of the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT) in Rome. In 1968, he moved to the United Nations Secretariat in New York, where he became Senior Legal Officer, then Chief of the International Trade Law Branch of the United Nations Office of Legal Affairs, and Secretary of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL). Vis served as Executive Secretary of the Vienna Diplomatic Conference that created the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG). He helped craft the UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules, and was Representative of the Netherlands to the UNCITRAL and served as Chair of its Working Group on International Payments. He served on the faculty of Pace University School of Law from 1980 until his death in 1993. At Pace, he continued to participate in the development of international commercial law, and was founding director of the Pace Institute of International Commercial Law. Organisers and sponsors The moot is organised by the Association for the Organization and Promotion of the Willem C. Vis International Commercial Arbitration Moot. The Director was Pace Law School's Professor Emeritus Eric Bergsten, a former Secretary of the UNCITRAL until his retirement in 2013 after the 20th annual moot. The current directors are Christopher Kee, Patrizia Netal, and Stefan Kroell. The moot is sponsored by the International Centre for Dispute Resolution/American Arbitration Association, International Arbitral Centre of the Austrian Federal Economic Chamber, Australian Centre for International Commercial Arbitration, CEPANI (Belgium), Chartered Institute of Arbitrators, Chinese-European Arbitration Centre, German Institution of Arbitration, Hong Kong International Arbitration Centre, International Chamber of Commerce, Permanent Court of Arbitration, JAMS, London Court of International Arbitration, Moot Alumni Association, Singapore International Arbitration Centre, Swiss Arbitration Association, United Nations Commission on International Trade Law, Beijing International Arbitration Centre, Vienna International Arbitral Centre, and the University of Vienna Faculty of Law. Vis East The Vis East Moot is the sister moot to the Vis Moot in Vienna. The Vis East takes place annually in Hong Kong. Founded in 2003 by Louise Barrington, a Canadian arbitrator based in Hong Kong, the Vis East was originally underwritten by the East Asia Branch of the Chartered Institute of Arbitrators. The Vis East uses the same moot problem and the rules are essentially the same as the Moot that takes place in Vienna. Nevertheless, they are two separate moots with separate registrations and fees, as well as separate winners – the Vis East is not a regional elimination moot for the Vienna competition. A law school can register for the Vis East, the Vienna moot, or both. While the same students can be on both teams, a student cannot present oral arguments in both the Hong Kong and the Vienna Moot in the same year even though both moots are held a week apart; further, students who have spoken in elimination rounds in previous editions (whether in Vienna or Hong Kong) cannot participate as an oralist in subsequent competitions. The first local host of the Vis East was the City University of Hong Kong; the 1st–3rd editions were held at City University's campus located in Kowloon Tong. The following two moots were hosted by the Chinese University of Hong Kong at its campus in Central. From the 6th edition to the 16th edition, the Vis East Moot moved back to City University of Hong Kong. The general rounds and elimination rounds are now held at Justice Place, in Central Hong Kong. The Directors of the Vis East Moot are Barrington and Sherlin Tung. Online edition In 2020, due to COVID-19 pandemic, both Vis moots were conducted online during the originally scheduled dates, paving the way to the first editions of the Virtual Vis East and Virtual Vis respectively. Around 70 out of the original 140 teams that had signed up participated in the First Virtual Vis East, while the number for the virtual rounds for Vienna was around 250 out of 390. As air travel restrictions did not improve, it was decided that the 2021 and 2022 editions of both Vis moots would be online as well. The Vienna edition returned to the in-person format in 2023. Moot problem Danubia is a fictional country, which has enacted the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration as well as the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (New York Convention). It always features as the seat of arbitration. The arbitration clause in the contract in the problem always provides that the dispute is to be decided by arbitration in Danubia under the institutional arbitration rules of one of the various arbitration institutions which sponsors the moot. The substantive issue always entails the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG). Competition structure The Vis Moot consists of two parts. The written phase of the Vis Moot commences on the first Friday in October when the moot problem, consisting of initial statements of claim and defence by the parties' attorneys as well as motions regarding procedural questions and exhibits, is distributed to the participating teams. According to an order by the arbitral tribunal, both parties have to prepare a memorandum concerning factual and procedural issues. The memorandum supporting the position of the claimant is due early in December. As the moot proceeds, each team is sent a copy of the memorandum for claimant of one of the other teams in the moot. The memorandum for respondent is prepared in response to the memorandum received, and is due in mid-February. With the submission of the memorandum for respondent, the written phase is closed. Awards for the best memoranda in the competition will not be presented to the teams until the last day of the oral arguments. As opposed to some other international mooting competitions, there is no selection of the teams who can proceed to the oral arguments based on the quality of their memoranda – every team that is participating in the Vis Moot gets to go to Vienna or Hong Kong. The oral arguments then take place in Vienna and Hong Kong. In Vienna, they begin every year with a formal opening reception on the Friday a week before Easter and close with the finals on Thursday of Holy Week. On Thursday night preceding the opening ceremony, the Moot Alumni Association traditionally organises its welcoming party for student participants, coaches, and moot alumni. The general rounds of the oral arguments take place at the Law Faculty of the University of Vienna (the Juridicum) and several near-by law offices on Saturday through Tuesday. They start on Saturday morning, 8:30 a.m. (for those 25 or so teams who have caught the first "slot"), with every competing team arguing in four hearings (against four different teams, usually pairing a team from a civil law country with a team from a common law country) during the next four days. The preliminary rounds conclude on Tuesday afternoon with the announcement of the 64 highest-ranking teams (32 for Hong Kong) which move on to the elimination rounds. Entering elimination rounds is an achievement in itself, especially since the scoring in general rounds is not consistent across the board. Elimination rounds subsequently take place on Tuesday night, Wednesday and Thursday, culminating in the final argument. The moot closes with an awards banquet following the final argument. Pre-moots As popularity for the Vis moots has continually grown, many schools now participate in sessions to practice the presentation of their argument, before ultimately travelling to Vienna or Hong Kong for the actual moot. Examples of these pre-moots include: Belgrade Open held in Serbia. Organised since 2008, it has a turnout of around 60 teams a year Shanghai Moot held in Shanghai. Organised since 2010, it has a turnout of around 50 teams a year Asian International Arbitration Centre competition held in Kuala Lumpur. Organised since 2017, it has a turnout of around 80 teams a year CIArb Australia competition held in Melbourne. Organised since 2018, it has a turnout of around 20 teams a year Permanent Court of Arbitration's pre-moots hosted in various parts of the world International Centre for Dispute Resolution competition held in New York. Organised since 2008, it has a turnout of dozens of teams a year IAC Central Asia competition held in Kazakhstan. Organised since 2018 Fox Williams/CIArb competition held in London. Organised since 2015, it has a turnout of around 30 teams per year Awards Various awards are given in both Vienna and Hong Kong for the written and oral arguments (individual and team). Honourable Mentions are given to teams that make the knockout stages for the oral phase, written submissions, and individual performances during the oral phase. Best Memoranda and Best Oralist prizes are also given to the top-3 in each category. Venues The different occasions during the oral phase of the Vienna Moot have not always been held at the venues they take place at today. As the Vis Moot grew over the years, the space needed grew with it, and required a number of venue changes from year to year. The opening reception, for example, was held at the UNCITRAL headquarters during the first three Moots (1994–96), and subsequently moved to the building of the old Vienna Stock Exchange (the "Börse"), the Ronacher Theatre (until 2005) and then the Konzerthaus (13th Moot, 2006). In 2007, the opening reception was held at the Stadthalle, but it returned to the Konzerthaus in 2008. From the 1st until the 3rd Vis Moot (1994–96), the oral hearings proper were held at the International Arbitral Centre of the Austrian Federal Economic Chamber (Wiedner Hauptstrasse 63 in Vienna's 4th district), thus taking place in the very rooms where ordinary arbitration hearings are held. Only from the 4th Moot (1997) onwards, the oral hearings took place at the Juridicum of the Faculty of Law, University of Vienna. During the more recent moots, some of the hearings have been held at the offices of nearby law firms (since the Juridicum alone could no longer accommodate the growing number of hearings), namely at the offices of Dorda Brugger Jordis (since the 11th Moot 2004), DLA Piper Weiss-Tessbach (since the 16th Moot 2009) and Baker McKenzie: Diwok Hermann Petsche (since the 17th Moot 2010). The location for the championship final remained at the Vienna International Arbitral Centre even longer; the last hearing of each year's moot was held there from the 1st until the 6th Moot (1994–99). From the 7th until the 10th Moot (2000–03), the final hearing took place at the Festsaal of the Vienna City Hall (the Rathaus), and since the 11th Moot (2004) it has moved to the Messen. The awards banquet following the championship final was held at the Piaristenkeller, a historic Viennese restaurant, during the 1st and 2nd Moots (1994–95), then at the Rathauskeller of the Vienna City Hall (at the 3rd Moot, 1996) and subsequently at the same building's Festsaal (4th until 10th Moot, 1997–2003). Since the 11th Moot (2004), it has been held at the Messe. One location that has remained unchanged in its important role in the Moot (since the 4th Moot, when it was first used for moot purposes) is the "Dachgeschoss". The term "Dachgeschoss" (German for "top floor"; literally "roof floor" (Dach = roof, Geschoss = floor)), which has become part of the international moot vocabulary, refers to the top floor (7th floor) of the Juridicum in Vienna. It houses the moot administration (where teams and arbitrators register, the arbitrators pick up and hand in their score sheets, and tickets for the awards banquet are available), the MAA (Moot Alumni Association) desk, displays by various sponsoring law publishers (often offering special "moot deals") and - maybe most importantly - chairs, tables and lounge areas for the participants and arbitrators to meet and linger. The Dachgeschoss is where the hearing schedule for the day (listing the teams, the hearing room and the arbitrators) is posted every morning. During the elimination rounds, this is also the place where teams and arbitrators will gather after each round to learn with team will move on to the next round. Cultural reception The Vis moots are considered two of the most prestigious moot competitions in the world. With leading scholars and practitioners in the field of international sales law and international arbitration acting as arbitrators to judge the various teams, the competition has been referred to as the "Olympics of international trade law", and has been credited for engaging in emerging issues in this domain, bridging the divide between civil and common law cultures, and training the next generation of international arbitration lawyers. It draws participation from many law schools from all over the world. In 1994, when the first Moot was held, 11 teams took part. Since then, the field has grown rapidly: The 26th Moot, held in 2019, saw more than 300 teams enter the competition. In most law schools, being selected as a team member is in itself a sign of excellence. The moot's popularity has grown rapidly over the last decade of its existence. The moot gives an opportunity to law students to interact with law students from other countries and other cultures thereby equipping them with a multicultural approach which is undoubtedly an asset in international arbitrations as well as one of the aims of this competition. Moot Alumni Association (MAA) The Moot Alumni Association (MAA) is the alumni association of both Vis moots. It was founded in 1996 in the aftermath of the 3rd Vis Moot and is a non-profit association registered under Austrian law with its seat in Vienna. With a 5,000+ strong membership, the MAA is composed of students as well as distinguished academics and practitioners, and internationally renowned arbitrators and practitioners. In 2019, the MAA established a Core Team, expanding its reach and projects. The MAA Core Team is responsible for various MAA Projects such as the publication of the Vindobona Journal of International Commercial Law and Arbitration, facilitating internships and employment related to these areas of law, a Mentor-Mentee Programme, a Diversity & Inclusion Committee, China Project, MAA Speaker Series and other legal conferences and seminars, and collaboration with the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) and the Institute of International Commercial Law, Pace Law School. The MAA's other activities include organising the annual Generations in Arbitrations Conference and Peter Schlectriem CISG Conference, and social events for Vis participants. References Further reading Eric E. Bergsten, "Teaching about International Commercial Arbitration ...", 18 Journal of International Arbitration (August 2001) 481-486 Hew R. Dundas, "The Willem C. Vis International Commercial Arbitration Moot", Stockholm International Arbitration Review (2008:1) 155-169 Daniel Girsberger, "Internationale Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit: Ausbildung durch Moot Courts", in: Greiner / Berger / Güngerich (eds.), Festschrift für Franz Kellerhals zum 65. Geburtstag, Stämpfli Verlag AG Bern (2005), p. 23-33 Jack M. Graves & Stephanie A. Vaughan, "The Willem C. Vis International Commercial Arbitration Moot: Making the Most of an Extraordinary Educational Opportunity", 10 Vindobona Journal of International Commercial Law and Arbitration (2/2006) 173-206 Mark R. Shulman, "Moot Court in Global Language of Trade", New York Law Journal 2 April 2007 Jeff Waincymer, "International and Comparative Legal Education through the William C. Vis Moot Program: A Personal Reflection", 5 Vindobona Journal of International Commercial Law and Arbitration (2001) 251-283 Janet Walker (ed.), The Vis Book - A Participant's Guide to the Willem C. Vis International Commercial Arbitration Moot, Juris Publishing (2008), 190 pp. Harald Sippel / Marc Ohrendorf, "Mooting to Win - How to Succeed in International Moot Court Competitions", Sweet & Maxwell (2019) External links Willem C. Vis International Commercial Arbitration Moot, Vienna (official website) Willem C. Vis (East) Moot, Hong Kong (official website) Moot Alumni Association (MAA), the Alumni Association of the Willem C. Vis International Commercial Arbitration Moot Culture in Vienna Pace University International law Moot court competitions Law of Austria Recurring events established in 1994 1994 establishments in Austria
5244815	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.P.%20Indy	A.P. Indy	A.P. Indy (March 31, 1989 – February 21, 2020) was an American Thoroughbred racehorse who won the Belmont Stakes and Breeders' Cup Classic on his way to American Horse of the Year honors in 1992. His time in the Belmont Stakes tied Easy Goer for the second-fastest running in the history of the race, behind his damsire Secretariat. A.P. Indy subsequently became a "breed-shaping sire", leading the North American sire list twice and establishing a sire line that has produced multiple American Classic winners. A.P Indy lived most of his life at Lane's End Farm, where he was born and raised, and stood his entire stud career. For many years, he was the oldest living winner of the Breeders' Cup Classic, the oldest living winner of the Belmont Stakes, and the oldest living winner of a Triple Crown race. A.P. Indy is part of the only three-generation sequence of Belmont Stakes winners in American racing history. He is by 1977 winner Seattle Slew and is the sire of 2007 winner Rags to Riches. He was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 2000. He has been called "the fantasy of every Thoroughbred industry participant, from sale-topper yearling, to champion runner, to game-changing stallion to sire of sires." Bill Farish, son of Lane's End founder William Farish, said, "Words really can't put into perspective what he's meant to us. How many sale toppers are yearlings that end up being that good where they are Horse of the Year and then go on and be two-time champion sire and then have the long term influence that he has had and will continue to have? It's pretty amazing." Background A.P. Indy was a dark bay or brown horse with a narrow white blaze and a white sock on the right hind leg. He was bred in Kentucky by William Farish III and William Kilroy, and was foaled on March 31, 1989, at Lane's End Farm in Versailles, Kentucky. He was sired by Triple Crown-winner Seattle Slew. His dam Weekend Surprise was a multiple graded stakes winner whose first foal, Summer Squall, won the 1990 Preakness Stakes. Weekend Surprise was from a distinguished female family and her sire was Triple Crown winner Secretariat. Weekend Surprise was named the 1992 Kentucky Broodmare of the Year. Combined with an elite pedigree, A.P. Indy was a near perfect physical specimen. He became the top-priced yearling of 1990 at $2.9 million. His new owner was Tomonori Tsurumaki, who named the colt in honor of his recently opened Nippon Autopolis, where Tsurumaki hoped to host a Formula One (Indy Car) event. In July 1992, A.P. Indy's breeders Farish and Kilroy bought back an interest in the colt. A.P. Indy was born a ridgling, meaning he had one undescended testicle. As this caused him discomfort when he started his racing career, he would normally have been gelded. But because of his breeding potential, surgery was instead performed to remove the undescended testicle. His fertility was not affected by the condition. At maturity, he reached high. When racing, his low-headed, efficient gait was reminiscent of his broodmare sire, Secretariat. His one weakness was having rather "shelly" feet, meaning he was difficult to shoe. As a stallion, he developed a "dipped topline" (a mostly cosmetic issue not to be confused with a sway-back) that is often found in descendants of Seattle Slew. He had a white-rimmed left eye that could give him a rather wild appearance. Racing career Trained by Hall of Famer Neil Drysdale, A.P. Indy won three of four starts in 1991, including the Grade I Hollywood Futurity. On the Experimental Free Handicap, he was co-ranked the third best two-year-old of 1991 at 124 pounds, six pounds below the juvenile champion Arazi and one pound below Bertrando. He started his three-year-old campaign in 1992 with wins in the San Rafael Stakes and Santa Anita Derby. He was the second favorite on the morning line for the 1992 Kentucky Derby, but had to be scratched on the morning of the race due to a bone bruise. "He galloped very well", Drysdale said of a routine workout the day before. But in early afternoon, he came out of the stall and the trouble was discovered. "He just went like this", Drysdale said, lunging to one side to describe A.P. Indy's lameness. Drysdale eventually used a fiberglass patch to repair a small, almost invisible crack in A.P. Indy's hoof. A.P Indy missed the Preakness as a result, then prepped for the Belmont in the Peter Pan Stakes. The field was no match for A.P. Indy, who won by lengths. On June 6, he entered the Belmont Stakes against a field of eleven that included Preakness Stakes winner, Pine Bluff. Having drawn the number 1 post, Drysdale was concerned was getting trapped on the rail so he talked to jockey Eddie Delahoussaye about working toward the outside. Also of concern were heavy rains that fell for most of the day before the race and into the night, making the track condition "muddy" for the first eight races of the undercard. And above all, Drysdale worried about A.P. Indy's hoof. "The patch? I think about it every day. I look at it every day." The sun finally came out and the track was upgraded to "good" for the Belmont Stakes. As expected, A.P. Indy broke behind the leaders and tracked the pace in fourth for the first mile. Agincourt and Casual Lies set a brisk pace, followed by Pine Bluff. As they rounded the turn, Pine Bluff moved to the lead while A.P. Indy circled wide to close the gap. The two dueled down the stretch with A.P. Indy finally drawing clear in deep stretch. My Memoir then started closing quickly, but A.P. Indy had enough in reserve and prevailed by lengths, with My Memoir beating Pine Bluff by a neck for second. "I thought I was the winner turning for home", said My Memoirs' jockey, Jerry Bailey. "Eddie had just enough horse and he rated him really well. He deserves a lot of credit. He sat chilly and knew he had enough." Despite the track being good instead of fast, A.P. Indy raced the mile and a half in 2:26 flat, matching the second-fastest time for the Belmont Stakes set in 1989 by Easy Goer (although his time was subsequently adjusted to 2:26.13). He was two seconds off the track record set in 1973 by his grandfather Secretariat. A.P. Indy was given the summer off to allow his hoof to completely heal, then returned on September 13 with a dull performance in the Molson Export Million, finishing fifth. On October 10, he finished third in the Jockey Club Gold Cup after stumbling at the start and tearing off his right front shoe. "There wasn't much foot left", Drysdale recalled later. "Fortunately, acrylic had just been developed, and [farrier] Joey Carroll rebuilt his foot that night." Finishing ahead of him were Pleasant Tap, who was having an outstanding year, and Strike the Gold, the previous year's Kentucky Derby winner. The Breeders' Cup that year was held on October 31 at Gulfstream Park. There was a full field of fourteen horses for the Classic, twelve of whom had won Group 1 or Grade I races. A.P. Indy and Pleasant Tap were the two betting favorites, going off at 2-1 and 5-2 respectively. A.P. Indy broke well but soon dropped back to eighth off a fast opening pace set by Thunder Rumble. He remained on the rail at the back of the pack until the final turn when he split between horses to find running room. Under a hand ride, he drew clear to win by 2 lengths over Pleasant Tap. He was voted the Eclipse Awards for American Horse of the Year and Champion three-year-old colt. In his career, he made 11 starts, winning eight and showing once, earning a total of $2,979,815. In 2000, A.P. Indy was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame at the same time as Drysdale, his trainer. Stud record A.P. Indy was retired to stud at Lane's End Farm in 1993 with an initial stud fee of $50,000. Farish explained: "We wanted to keep him in training. He's very sound and such a brilliant horse, but it would be taking a tremendous risk with a great sire prospect. So many of our top horses have been retired to Europe or Japan that we need a horse like this to stand in the U.S. Everyone involved concluded that this was the right thing to do." A.P. Indy went on to become a "breed-shaping" sire. For much of his career, he stood for $300,000. He was the leading sire in North America for 2003 and 2006, and was among the top 10 for 10 consecutive years. He sired 88 graded stakes winners and 12 champions. His 12.5% stakes winners to foals ratio is the best among contemporary American stallions of the "big book era". A.P. Indy was also an important broodmare sire, leading the North American list in 2015. His daughters have produced Royal Delta, Kentucky Derby winner Super Saver, Kentucky Oaks winner Plum Pretty, champion Wait A While and Grade 1 stakes winners Bluegrass Cat and Any Given Saturday. A.P. Indy was a valuable source of stamina in the normally speed-oriented stallion ranks of North America. This means his progeny are highly prized by those who are looking for racehorses who can compete in top races at classic distances. In 2008, A.P. Indy became the 208th chef-de-race with an Intermediate/Classic designation. A.P. Indy sired his last foals in 2010, when only 36 of 80 mares he bred conceived. Of these, two would become grade 1 winners: Honor Code and Got Lucky, whose name refers to the multiple tries it took her dam to get in foal. He was retired from stud duty on April 8, 2011, upon failing to produce a confirmed live foal in the 25 mares he covered. A.P. Indy remained in his old stall, with sons Mineshaft in the stall across the aisle from him and Honor Code in the stall next to him. A.P. Indy lived to age 31, an advanced age for a horse. From June 2017 until his death, he had been the oldest living winner of the Belmont Stakes and the oldest living Classic winner overall. He was also the oldest living winner of the Breeders' Cup Classic. He died on February 21, 2020, due to the infirmities of old age. Major stakes winners Some of his leading progeny include (fillies in italics): Pulpit (1994) – Blue Grass Stakes Tomisue's Delight (1994) – Ruffian Handicap, Personal Ensign Handicap Golden Missile (1995) – Pimlico Special Old Trieste (1995)- Del Mar Breeders' Cup Handicap, Californian Stakes Stephen Got Even (1996) – Donn Handicap Symboli Indy (1996) – NHK Mile Cup Secret Status (1997) – Kentucky Oaks, Mother Goose Stakes Aptitude (1997) – Jockey Club Gold Cup Mineshaft (1999) – (Jockey Club Gold Cup), 2003 Horse of the Year and champion older horse Tempera (1999) – Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies, champion 2-year-old filly Jiljab (1999) – Coaching Club American Oaks Jump Start (1999)- Saratoga Special Stakes Congrats (2000) – San Pasqual Handicap Suave (2001) – Multiple graded stakes winner Friend's Lake (2001) – Florida Derby, Bernardini (2003) – 2006 Preakness Stakes, champion 3-year-old colt Rags to Riches (2004) (2007 Belmont Stakes), champion 3-year-old filly Marchfield (2004) – in Canada, champion older horse Serenading (2004) – in Canada, champion older mare Eldaafer (2005) – Brooklyn Handicap, Breeders' Cup Marathon Music Note (2005) – Coaching Club American Oaks, Ballerina Handicap Eye of the Leopard (2006) – Queen's Plate Love and Pride (2008) – Personal Ensign Handicap, Zenyatta Stakes Take Charge Indy (2009) – Florida Derby, Alysheba Stakes Dreaming of Julia (2010) – Frizette Stakes, Gulfstream Oaks Long River (2010) – Al Maktoum Challenge Race 3 (UAE-G1) Commissioner (2011) – Hawthorne Gold Cup, Pimlico Special, second in 2014 Belmont Stakes Got Lucky (2011) – Spinster Stakes, Molly Pitcher Stakes Honor Code (2011) – Metropolitan Handicap, Whitney Handicap, Champion Older Dirt Horse Sire line A.P. Indy has numerous sons and grandsons who stand (or stood) in North America. Those with notable offspring include: Pulpit (died 2012): Tapit – Wood Memorial, leading sire in North America for 2014, 2015 and 2016 Untapable (Kentucky Oaks, Breeders' Cup Distaff, champion 3-year-old filly) Stardom Bound (2008 Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies, champion juvenile filly) Hansen (2011 Breeders' Cup Juvenile, champion juvenile) Tapitsfly (2012 Just a Game Stakes, First Lady Stakes) Tonalist (2014 Belmont Stakes, 2014, 2015 Jockey Club Gold Cup) Country Grammer (2021 Hollywood Gold Cup Stakes) Frosted (2016 Metropolitan Handicap, Whitney Handicap) Creator (2016 Belmont Stakes, Arkansas Derby) Tapwrit (2017 Belmont Stakes, Tampa Bay Derby) Cupid (2017 Gold Cup) Constitution (2014 Florida Derby, 2015 Donn Handicap) Tiz the Law (2020 Belmont Stakes, Florida Derby) Americanrevolution (2021 Cigar Mile Handicap) Testa Matta (2012 February Stakes, 2009 Japan Dirt Derby) Tapizar (2012 Breeders' Cup Dirt Mile) Monomoy Girl (2018 Kentucky Oaks, Breeders' Cup Distaff) Concord Point (2010 West Virginia Derby) American Gal (2018 Humana Distaff Stakes, 2017 Test Stakes) Lucky Pulpit (Stakes winner) California Chrome (2014 Kentucky Derby, Preakness Stakes, 2016 Dubai World Cup) Sky Mesa (2002 Hopeful Stakes) General Quarters (2009 Blue Grass Stakes) Perfect Alibi (2019 Spinaway Stakes) Stroll (2004 Turf Classic Stakes) Wet Your Whistle (2019 Highlander Stakes) Bernardini: Alpha, Stay Thirsty, To Honor and Serve, Cavorting, Art Collector, Imperative, Rachel's Valentina, Boban (AUS), Dame Dorothy, Angela Renee To Honor and Serve (2011 Cigar Mile, 2012 Woodward Stakes) Eskimo Kisses (Alabama Stakes) Stay Thirsty (2011 Travers Stakes, 2012 Cigar Mile) Mind Control (2019 H. Allen Jerkens Stakes, 2018 Hopeful Stakes) Algorithms (2012 Holy Bull Stakes) Math Wizard (2019 Pennsylvania Derby) Malibu Moon: Life at Ten, Gormley, Malibu Mint, Declan's Moon, Carina Mia, Devil May Care, Ransom the Moon, Magnum Moon (15 G1 winners) Orb (2013 Kentucky Derby) Sippican Harbor (2018 Spinaway Stakes) Honor Code: Max Player, Honor A.P., Maracuja Mineshaft: Effinex, It's Tricky, Fly Down, Cool Coal Man, Discreetly Mine, Nates Mineshaft Dialed In (Florida Derby) Gunnevera (Fountain of Youth Stakes, Saratoga Special Stakes) Super Stock (Arkansas Derby) Get Her Number American Pharoah Stakes Flatter: West Coast, Flat Out, Taris, Paola Queen, Search Results Jump Start: Prayer for Relief, Rail Trip, Pants on Fire, Miss Behaviour Majestic Warrior: Princess of Sylmar, Best Warrior (Japanese Gr.I winner) Congrats: Polar River, Haveyougoneaway, Turbulent Descent, Emma's Encore, Wickedly Perfect Old Trieste: Silver Train, Barcola Sinister Minister (2006 Blue Grass Stakes) T O Keynes (2021 Champions Cup) Friesan Fire: Army Mule Judpot: Along Came Polly (South African champion) Stephen Got Even: Stevie Wonderboy (Breeders' Cup Juvenile, American Champion Two-Year-Old Male) I Want Revenge (CashCall Futurity, Wood Memorial) First Dude (2011 Hollywood Gold Cup) Shamrock Rose (2018 Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Sprint, champion female sprinter) As a broodmare sire Tapitsfly (Just a Game Stakes, First Lady Stakes, Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies Turf) produced: Gran Alegria (6 Grade I wins) Dreaming of Julia (Frizette Stakes, Gulfstream Oaks) produced: Malathaat (Kentucky Oaks, Alabama Stakes, Ashland Stakes) Music Note (5 Grade 1 wins) Mystic Guide (2021 Dubai World Cup) Quick Temper (Graded stakes placed) produced: Cloud Computing (2017 Preakness Stakes) Indy Glory (Stakes winner) produced: Artemis Agrotera (Frizette Stakes, Ballerina Stakes) Globe Trot (Winner) produced: Global Campaign (Woodward Stakes) Bolt d'Oro (Del Mar Futurity, Frontrunner Stakes) Marion Ravenwood (Stakes winner) produced: Idol (Santa Anita Handicap) Nest (Demoiselle Stakes) Rags to Riches (Belmont Stakes, Champion) produced: Rhett Butler (Champion in Hungary and Serbia) Pedigree A.P. Indy is inbred 4s × 3d to the stallion Bold Ruler, meaning that he appears once in the fourth generation on the sire side and once in the third generation on the dam of his pedigree. References A.P. Indy Hall of Fame Profile – National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame A. P. Indy Retired Sports Illustrated External links Inside Information: documentary on A.P. Indy and Lane's End 1992 Belmont Stakes on YouTube 1992 Breeders' Cup Classic on YouTube 1989 racehorse births Racehorses trained in the United States Racehorses bred in Kentucky Belmont Stakes winners Eclipse Award winners Breeders' Cup Classic winners United States Champion Thoroughbred Sires Thoroughbred family 3-l American Thoroughbred Horse of the Year United States Thoroughbred Racing Hall of Fame inductees Chefs-de-Race 2020 racehorse deaths
5244851	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dara%20%C3%93%20Cinn%C3%A9ide	Dara Ó Cinnéide	Dara Ó Cinnéide (born 25 April 1975 in Dublin) is an Irish former Gaelic footballer who played for his local club An Ghaeltacht and at senior level for the Kerry county team from 1995 until 2005. Ó Cinnéide captained Kerry to the All-Ireland title in 2004. Biography Dara Ó Cinnéide was born in Dublin in 1975, but grew up near An Daingean, County Kerry. A native Irish-speaker, he was educated at the local national school and later attended Dingle CBS. Ó Cinnéide currently works as a radio broadcaster with the Irish-language station RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta, where he produces the daily afternoon show An Saol Ó Dheas, and he also presents the main weekly GAA show Seó Spóirt on the Irish-language channel TG4. He also writes a Gaelic football column for the Irish Examiner and has been a pundit on RTÉ's premier Gaelic games programme, The Sunday Game. Playing career Club Ó Cinnéide played his club football with his local club called an Ghaeltacht and enjoyed much success during his career. He first came to prominence with the club at underage levels, however, he enjoyed little success in these grades. In 2000 an Ghaeltacht reached the final of the county senior championship for the very first time. Ó Cinnéide's side were the red-hot favourites going into the match, however, all did not go as planned as Dr. Crokes took charge. A hard-fought 1–4 to 0–6 score line resulted in defeat for an Ghaeltacht. In 2001 an Ghaeltacht were out to atone for this defeat. The team regrouped well and reached a second consecutive county final. Tralee-based club Austin Stacks provided the opposition on this occasion, however, Ó Cinnéide's side were well prepared. A conclusive 1–13 to 0–10 victory gave Ó Cinnéide, who chipped in with five points, a county winners' medal. An Ghaeltacht surrendered their club title in 2002, however, the following year Ó Cinnéide's side were back in the county championship decider. Laune Rangers were the opponents on this occasion, however, the game ended in a 0–10 apiece draw. The replay a fortnight later was a much more conclusive affair. A 0–12 to 2–4 score line gave an Ghaeltacht the victory and gave Ó Cinnéide a second county winners' medal in three years. This victory allowed the club to represent Kerry in the provincial club championship. A successful campaign saw Ó Cinnéide's side reach the provincial final against St. Senan's of Clare. A close game developed, however, the Kerrymen held on in the end to secure a 1–8 to 1–6 victory, giving Ó Cinnéide a Munster club winners' medal. An Ghaeltacht continued their march in the All-Ireland series and line dout on St. Patrick's Day 2004 in the All-Ireland club championship final. Caltra, a club from County Galway, provided the opposition and an exciting game developed. Ó Cinnéide faced the heartbreak of missing a goal in the dying seconds and eventually losing by just a single point – 0–13 to 0–12. The following few years saw Ó Cinnéide enjoy little success with the club after the victories of the earlier parts of the decade. He retired from club football in 2007 following an Ghaeltacht's 1–3 to 0–5 defeat of Kerins O'Rahilly's to take the county league title. He also won a New York Senior Football Championship title in 1999 with the Kerry New York club. Minor, under-21 & junior Ó Cinnéide first came to prominence on the inter-county scene as a member of the Kerry minor football team in the early 1990s. He lined out in the provincial decider in that grade in 1992 with Cork providing the opposition. A close game developed; however, both sides finished level. The replay was also a close affair but proved more conclusive. Kerry were defeated by their greatest rivals on that occasion by 3–6 to 2–7. Ó Cinnéide was eligible for the minor grade again in 1993; however, Kerry were knocked out of the provincial championship at a very early stage. In 1994 Ó Cinnéide was picked for the Kerry junior football team. He played no part in the team's hard-fought 1–6 to 0–8 Munster final victory over Clare; however, he was included on the team for the subsequent All-Ireland decider. Galway provided the opposition on that occasion, however, the game turned into a rout. 'The Kingdom' proved too strong for the Connacht champions and a 0–15 to 0–4 victory secured an All-Ireland winners' medal in the junior grade. That same year Ó Cinnéide joined the Kerry under-21 team. It was an unsuccessful year for the team in that grade. In 1995 Ó Cinnéide was still underage and lined out in the Munster Quarter-Final with Clare, Kerry ran out 1-13 to 0-07 winners with Ó Cinnéide scoring 0-08. Up next in the semi were Limerick. Another easy win was the result for Kerry this time on a 4-17 to 2-05 scoreline, with 2-06 from Ó Cinnéide. This set up a first Munster Under 21 final where Waterford were the opponents and a rout ensued. A 1–21 to 2–05 trouncing gave Ó Cinnéide a Munster winners' medal in the under-21 grade in a game where he scored 1-09. In the All Ireland semi final Kerry faced Ulster champions Donegal. In a close game and with 0-02 from Ó Cinnéide, Kerry won on a 2-06 to 1-05 scoreline. Kerry qualified to play Mayo in the All-Ireland final. After the highs of the Munster final victory, Kerry were held to a draw and a replay was required after a 2-12 to 3-09, with 1-03 from Ó Cinnéide. That game was also a close affair, however, Kerry's goal-scoring ability proved the key. A 3–10 to 1–12 score line, 1-03 once more from him, saw Kerry claim the victory and gave Ó Cinnéide an All-Ireland winners' medal with the Kerry under-21 team. He played all 6 of Kerrys games and was their top scorer with 5-31. In 1996 Ó Cinnéide was in his last year as a member of the Kerry under-21 team. A second Munster winners' medal was secured after an absolute trouncing of Clare in the provincial decider. The 3–14 to 0–6 victory put Kerry on the All-Ireland trail once again. Cavan provided the opposition in the subsequent All-Ireland decider, however, that game was far from a rout. Kerry had the upper hand for much of the game and went on to win by 1–17 to 2–10. It was Ó Cinnéide's second All-Ireland winners' medal in the under-21 grade. Senior By this stage Ó Cinnéide was also a key member of the Kerry senior football team. He made his senior debut in a National Football League game against Donegal in 1994, however, he had to wait until the following year for his senior championship debut to come in a provincial semi-final against Limerick. Kerry won that day and Ó Cinnéide lined out in the subsequent Munster final against archrivals Cork. Expectations were high that 'the Kingdom' could defeat 'the Rebels' and break back into the big time after a period in the wilderness. The game was a disappointing one for Ó Cinnéide as his side lost by 0–15 to 1–9. In 1996 Kerry regrouped under new manager Páidí Ó Sé and Ó Cinnéide lined out in his second provincial decider. Cork provided the opposition once again, however, on this occasion Kerry were a different team. A 0–14 to 0–11 victory gave Ó Cinnéide his first Munster winners' medal in the senior grade and kick-started the Kerry football revival. Kerry's next assignment was an All-Ireland semi-final meeting with Mayo. In spite of claiming the provincial title, Kerry were still not the finished article. Ó Cinnéide's side were eventually defeated by 2–13 to 1–10. 1997 saw Kerry through down an early marker with regard to their All-Ireland ambitions. The team reached the final of the National League that year with Cork providing the opposition in Páirc Uí Chaoimh. A 3–7 to 1–8 victory gave Ó Cinnéide a winners' medal in Gaelic football's secondary competition. Later that summer Kerry reached the Munster final once again. Clare provided the opposition on this occasion; however, in spite of shocking the Kerry men five years earlier, there was no shock this time. A 1–13 to 0–11 victory saw Ó Cinnéide add a second Munster winners' medal to his collection. A subsequent defeat of Cavan saw Kerry qualify for their first All-Ireland final in eleven years. Mayo, the defeated finalists of the previous year, provided the opposition. Mayo went on a scoring spree during the match, capturing 1–2 inside two minutes. Maurice Fitzgerald was the start player for Kerry. He scored nine points throughout the game while Mayo froze and were held scoreless for the last twenty minutes. A 0–13 to 1–7 score line gave Kerry the title and gave Ó Cinnéide an All-Ireland winners' medal. Kerry continued their march again in 1998 with a Munster final showdown with Tipperary. For the third year in succession 'the Kingdom' proved the provincial masters, and a 0–17 to 1–10 win gave Ó Cinnéide a third Munster title. Kerry were the favourites to retain their All-Ireland title, however, a narrow 0–13 to 1–9 defeat by Kildare in the All-Ireland semi-final brought an end to their All-Ireland quest. In 1999 Kerry were attempting to secure a fourth provincial title in succession. Cork put an end to this dream with a 2–10 to 2–4 win over their great rivals in the Munster final. With that Kerry were dumped out of the championship. After a low point the previous year, Kerry were back in the provincial decider again in 2000. Ó Cinnéide lined out in his sixth Munster final, his second with Clare as opposition. In a disappointing match as regards a contest, Kerry walloped 'the Banner men' by 3–15 to 0–8. It was Ó Cinnéide's fourth Munster medal. Kerry had firmly established their All-Ireland contender credentials, however, the All-Ireland series proved difficult. Ó Cinnéide's side drew with Armagh in the semi-final, while the replay proved just as tense. Both sides finished level after seventy minutes once again and it took a period of extra-time to find a winner. Kerry narrowly emerged from that game as the 2–15 to 1–15 winners and booked a place in the Millennium All-Ireland final. Galway provided the opposition in what was their second championship decider appearance in three years. In a game to forget both sides missed easy chances and seemed apprehensive about taking a lead. Galway trailed by seven points at one stage, but clawed their way back to secure a 0–14 apiece draw. The replay was a much more conclusive affair. Galway worked the ball the length of the field to Declan Meehan who scored a goal to give the westerners a boost. A disputed free with seventeen minutes left in the game gave Kerry a lead which they would not relinquish. At the full-time whistle Kerry were the champions by 0–17 to 1–10. It was Ó Cinnéide's second All-Ireland winners' medal. Kerry swept through the provincial series with ease again in 2001. A 0–19 to 1–13 defeat of Cork gave Ó Cinnéide a fifth Munster winners' medal and gave Kerry a boost in their All-Ireland ambitions. In a new innovation called the All-Ireland qualifiers series, Kerry's provincial victory allowed them to advance to the All-Ireland quarter-final. An exciting draw and a replay with Dublin at Semple Stadium gave Ó Cinnéide's side the right to advance to an All-Ireland semi-final showdown with Meath. In one of the lowest points ever for Kerry football, Ó Cinnéide's side were absolutely demolished by 'the Royals' on a score line of 2–14 to 0–5. In 2002 Kerry crashed out of the provincial championship at an early stage. In spite of this Ó Cinnéide's side still had a chance of winning the All-Ireland title via the scenic route in the All-Ireland qualifiers. After successfully negotiating through the early stages Kerry trounced Galway in the All-Ireland quarter-final before stuffing archrivals Cork in a unique all-Munster All-Ireland semi-final. The subsequent All-Ireland decider pitted Kerry against Armagh in one of the great finals of recent years. The first-half saw everything going Kerry's way while Armagh floundered. The Ulster men lost John McEntee to concussion while Oisín McConville missed a penalty just before the interval. As it stood Armagh trailed by four points at half-time and Ó Cinnéide's side looked to be in the driving seat. A different Armagh team emerged in the second-half. McConville compensated for his earlier miss by scoring a key goal in the 55th minute. Kerry froze after this and failed to score for the rest of the match as Armagh went on to narrowly win their first All-Ireland by 1–12 to 0–14. Kerry regrouped after this blow and reached the provincial decider once again in 2003. Limerick provided the opposition; however, they were no match for 'the Kingdom'. A 1–11 to 0–9 victory gave Ó Cinnéide a sixth Munster winners' medal. After an exciting game with Roscommon, Kerry advanced to an All-Ireland semi-final meeting with Tyrone. After being shocked in the latter stages of the two previous championships, Kerry were out to atone and were favourites going into the match. The Ulster men ambushed 'the Kingdom', however, and Ó Cinnéide's side faced another humiliation in Croke Park. A 0–13 to 0–6 defeat saw Tyrone advance to the All-Ireland final while Kerry were unceremoniously dumped out of the championship. 2004 saw Ó Cinnéide being appointed captain of the Kerry team. The year began well with Ó Cinnéide's side reaching the final of the National League. An exciting 3–11 to 1–6 victory saw Kerry claim the title and Ó Cinnéide picked up a second National League winners' medal. Kerry later booked their almost annual spot in the provincial final and, for the second year in succession, Limerick were the opponents. Surprisingly, that game ended in a 1–10 apiece draw. The replay was also a close-run affair; however, Kerry never really looked in danger of losing. A 3–10 to 2–9 victory gave Ó Cinnéide a seventh Munster winners' medal, while he also had the honour of lifting the Munster Cup on behalf of his team. The All-Ireland series proved no difficulty for Kerry, and 'the Kingdom' booked their place in the All-Ireland final against Mayo. An early goal from Alan Dillon gave the Connacht men some hope, however, the game was effectively over after twenty-five minutes when Colm Cooper scored Kerry's only goal of the day. The points kept coming from Ó Cinnéide's team and an injury-time Michael Conroy goal was nothing but a consolation for Mayo. A 1–20 to 2–9 victory gave Ó Cinnéide a third All-Ireland winners' medal, while he also had the honour of lifting the famous Sam Maguire Cup. In 2005 Kerry were hot favourites to retain their All-Ireland title. All was going to plan as Ó Cinnéide's side reached yet another provincial final. In a return to tradition, Cork were the opponents. A close game developed, however, in the end Kerry were the narrow winners by 1–11 to 0–11. It was Ó Cinnéide's eighth Munster winners' medal. Following this win Kerry cruised through the All-Ireland series to reach another championship decider with Tyrone providing the opposition. In one of the great finals of the decade, the result remained in doubt until the final whistle. Ó Cinnéide powered his team ahead with a goal after just six minutes. Tyrone responded in kind with a Peter Canavan goal just before half-time. Tomás Ó Sé launched the Kerry comeback in the 57th minute with Kerry's second goal; however, it was too later. Tyrone hung on to win by 1–16 to 2–10. It was Ó Cinnéide's second defeat in an All-Ireland final. Early in 2006 Ó Cinnéide announced his retirement from inter-county football. Inter-provincial Ó Cinnéide has also lined out with Munster in the inter-provincial series of games and enjoyed some success. He first lined out with his province in 1996 when Munster were drawn to play Ulster in the semi-final. That game ended in a draw, however, Ó Cinnéide's side narrowly won the replay by a single point. Leinster provided the opposition in the subsequent final. The southerners were completely outclassed on that occasion and they were defeated by 1–13 to 0–19. After an absence of one year, Ó Cinnéide was picked for duty with Munster again in 1998, albeit as a substitute. On that occasion Munster were narrowly defeated by Leinster once again. In 1999 Ó Cinnéide was back on the Munster starting fifteen. After a draw and an emphatic win over Ulster, Ó Cinnéide's side subsequently faced Connacht in the series decider. A low-scoring game saw Munster win by 0–10 to 0–7 and Ó Cinnéide added a Railway Cup winners' medal to his collection. Ó Cinnéide played with his province for the last time in 2002. On that occasion Munster were narrowly defeated by Ulster in the semi-final stage of the competition. Post-playing career In January 2021, Ó Cinnéide, aged 45, succeeded Seán Ó Catháin as chairman of An Gaeltacht. He was previously a selector with the club in 2017 and is an opponent of professionalism within the game. Honours An Ghaeltacht All-Ireland Senior Club Football Championship: Winner (0): Runner-up (1): 2004 Munster Senior Club Football Championship: Winner (1): 2003 Kerry Senior Football Championship: Winner (2): 2001, 2003 Runner-up (1): 2000 Kerry County Club Football Championship: Winner (3): 2001, 2002, 2005 Runner-up (3): 1999, 2000, 2003 Kerry County Football League – Division 1: Winner (1):: 2007 Kerry Intermediate Football Championship: Winner (1):: 1998 Kerry Junior Football Championship: Winner (1):: 1993 Kerry Novice Football Championship: Winner (1):: 1992 West Kerry Senior Football Championship: Winner (7):: 1991, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2006 Kerry All-Ireland Senior Football Championship: Winner (3): 1997, 2000, 2004 (c) Runner-up (2): 2002, 2005 Munster Senior Football Championship: Winner (8): 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2004 (c), 2005 Runner-up (2): 1995, 1999 National Football League: Winner (1): 1996–97, 2004 (c) All-Ireland Under-21 Football Championship: Winner (1): 1995, 1996 Munster Under-21 Football Championship: Winner (1): 1995, 1996 Munster Minor Football Championship: Winner (0): Runner-up (1): 1992 All-Ireland Junior Football Championship: Winner (1): 1994 Munster Junior Football Championship: Winner (1): 1994 (sub) Munster Railway Cup: Winner (1): 1999 Runner-up (1): 1996 References 1975 births Living people All-Ireland-winning captains (football) Alumni of Mary Immaculate College, Limerick An Ghaeltacht Gaelic footballers Gaelic football forwards Gaelic football selectors Gaelic games club administrators Gaelic games writers and broadcasters Irish columnists Irish Examiner people Irish radio producers Kerry inter-county Gaelic footballers Munster inter-provincial Gaelic footballers People educated at Dingle CBS TG4 presenters Winners of three All-Ireland medals (Gaelic football) 20th-century Irish people 21st-century Irish people
5245079	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20National%20Health%20Service	History of the National Health Service	The name National Health Service (NHS) is used to refer to the publicly funded health care services of England, Scotland and Wales, individually or collectively. Northern Ireland's services are known as 'Health and Social Care' to promote its dual integration of health and social services. For details of the history of each National Health Service, particularly since 1999, see: History of the National Health Service (England) History of NHS Scotland History of NHS Wales History of Health and Social Care in Northern Ireland The NHS was one of the first universal health care systems established anywhere in the world. A leaflet was sent to every household in June 1948 which explained that The NHS in Scotland was established as a separate entity with its own legislation, the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1947, from the foundation of the NHS in 1948. Northern Ireland likewise had its own legislation in 1948. Wales, however, was managed from England and treated much like an English region for the first 20 years of the NHS. In 1969, responsibility for the NHS in Wales was passed to the Secretary of State for Wales from the Secretary of State for Health, who was thereafter just responsible for the NHS in England. Background Dr Benjamin Moore, a Liverpool physician, in 1910 in The Dawn of the Health Age was probably the first to use the words 'National Health Service'. He established the State Medical Service Association which held its first meeting in 1912 and continued to exist until it was replaced by the Socialist Medical Association in 1930. Before the National Health Service was created in 1948, patients were generally required to pay for their health care. Free treatment was sometimes available from charitable voluntary hospitals. Some local authorities operated hospitals for local ratepayers (under a system originating with the Poor Laws). The London County Council (LCC) on 1 April 1930 took over from the abolished Metropolitan Asylums Board responsibility for 140 hospitals, medical schools and other medical institutions. The Local Government Act 1929 allowed local authorities to run services over and above those authorised by the Poor Laws and in effect to provide medical treatment for everyone. By the outbreak of the Second World War, the LCC was running the largest public health service in Britain. Dr A. J. Cronin's controversial novel The Citadel, published in 1937, had fomented extensive criticism about the severe inadequacies of health care. The author's innovative ideas were not only essential to the conception of the NHS, but his best-selling novels are also said to have greatly contributed to the Labour Party's victory in 1945. Systems of health insurance usually consisted of private schemes such as friendly societies or welfare societies. Under the National Insurance Act 1911, introduced by David Lloyd George, a small amount was deducted from weekly wages, to which were added contributions from the employer and the government. In return for the record of contributions, the workman was entitled to medical care (as well as retirement and unemployment benefits) though not necessarily to the drugs prescribed. To obtain medical care, he registered with a doctor. Each doctor in General Practice who participated in the scheme thus had a 'panel' of those who have made an insurance under the system, and was paid a capitation grant out of the fund calculated upon the number. Lloyd George's name survives in the "Lloyd George envelopes" in which most primary care records in England are stored, although today most working records in primary care are at least partially computerised. This imperfect scheme only covered workers who paid their National Insurance Contributions and was known as 'Lloyd George's Ambulance Wagon'. Most women and children were not covered. Foundation Bertrand Dawson was commissioned in 1919 by Christopher Addison, the first British Minister of Health to produce a report on "schemes requisite for the systematised provision of such forms of medical and allied services as should, in the opinion of the Council, be available for the inhabitants of a given area". An Interim Report on the Future Provision of Medical and Allied Services was produced in 1920, though no further report ever appeared. The report laid down plans for a network of primary and secondary health centres, and was very influential in subsequent debates about the National Health Service. However, the fall of the Lloyd George government prevented any implementation of those ideas at that time. The Labour Party in 1932 accepted a resolution moved by Somerville Hastings calling for the establishment of a State Medical Service and in 1934 the Labour Party Conference at Southport unanimously accepted an official document on a National Health Service. Prior to the Second World War there was already consensus that health insurance should be extended to the dependants of the wage-earner, and that the voluntary and local authority hospitals should be integrated. A British Medical Association (BMA) pamphlet, "A General Medical Service for the Nation" was issued along these lines in 1938. However, no action was taken due to the international crisis. During the war, a new centralised state-run Emergency Hospital Service employed doctors and nurses to care for those injured by enemy action and arrange for their treatment in whichever hospital was available. The existence of the service made voluntary hospitals dependent on the Government and there was a recognition that many would be in financial trouble once peace arrived. The need to do something to guarantee the voluntary hospitals meant that hospital care drove the impetus for reform. In February 1941 the Deputy Permanent Secretary at the Ministry of Health recorded privately areas of agreement on post-war health policy which included "a complete health service to be available to every member of the community" and on 9 October 1941, the Minister of Health Ernest Brown announced that the government proposed to ensure that there was a comprehensive hospital service available to everyone in need of it and that local authorities would be responsible for providing it. The Medical Planning Commission set up by the professional bodies went one stage further in May 1942 recommending (in an interim report) a National Health Service with general practitioners working through health centres and hospitals run by regional administrations. When in 1942 Arthur Greenwood, the Labour Party Deputy Leader and cabinet minister with responsibility for post-war reconstruction, successfully pressed the cabinet to commission a report into social insurance from economist and social reformer William Beveridge, Beveridge attached an assumption to the Beveridge Report that this same idea would be implemented; his report stressed the importance of it. Developing the idea into firm policy proved difficult. Although the BMA had been part of the Medical Planning Commission, at their conference in September 1943 the association changed policy to oppose local authority control of hospitals and to favour extension of health insurance instead of GPs working for state health centres. When Conservative MP and Health Minister Henry Willink prepared a white paper endorsing a National Health Service, it was attacked by Brendan Bracken and Lord Beaverbrook and resignations were threatened on both sides. However, the Cabinet endorsed the White Paper which was published in 1944. This White Paper includes the founding principles of the NHS: it was to be funded out of general taxation and not through national insurance, and services would be provided by the same doctors and the same hospitals, but: Services were provided free at the point of use; Services were financed from central taxation; Everyone was eligible for care (even people temporarily resident or visiting the country). Willink then set about trying to assuage the doctors, a job taken over by Aneurin Bevan in Clement Attlee's Labour Party government after the war ended. Bevan decided that the 1944 white paper's proposal for local authority control of voluntary hospitals was not workable, as he felt that local authorities were too small to manage hospitals. He decided that "the only thing to do was to create an entirely new hospital service, to take over the voluntary hospitals, and to take over the local government hospitals and to organise them as a single hospital service". This structure of the NHS in England and Wales was established by the National Health Service Act 1946 which received royal assent on 6 November 1946. The Act implemented a system where each person resident would be signed up to a specific general practitioner (GP) as the point of entry into the system, building on the foundations laid in 1912 by the introduction of National Insurance and the list system for general practice. Patients would have access to all medical, dental and nursing care they needed without having to pay for it at the time. Many doctors were initially opposed to Bevan's plan, primarily on the grounds that it reduced their level of independence. The British Medical Association voted in May 1948 not to join the new service, but Bevan worked hard to bring them on board by the time the new arrangements launched on 5 July 1948 knowing that without doctors, there would be no health service. Being a shrewd political operator, Bevan managed to push through the radical health care reform measure by dividing and cajoling the opposition, as well as by offering lucrative payment structures for consultants. At a dinner in late 1955 or early 1956 to celebrate the publication of the Guillebaud Report into NHS costs Bevan remarked to Julian Tudor Hart "ultimately I had to stuff their mouths with gold" about his handling of the consultants. This is often quoted as "I stuffed their mouths with gold". Establishment In 1979 across the whole UK there were about 2,750 NHS hospitals with about 480,000 beds, accounting for about 70% of total NHS expenditure. About one-third of beds in England were then provided in new or converted accommodation built since 1948 with a higher proportion in Northern Ireland, but lower in Scotland and Wales. Beds for mental illness, geriatric patients and mental handicap were much more likely to be in older buildings than acute or maternity services. The development of the workforce in the NHS The National Health Service was a major employer from its foundation. After nationalising Britain's voluntary and municipal hospitals, the new NHS took responsibility for 360,000 staff in England and Wales and a further 45,000 in Scotland. These included 9,000 full-time doctors (with thousands more consultants working in multiple part-time roles), 149,000 nurses and midwives (23,000 of whom were part-time), 128,000 ancillary staff (catering, laundry, cleaning and maintenance), 25,000 administrative and clerical staff, and 19,000 professional and technical staff, of whom the 2,800 physiotherapists, 1,600 laboratory technicians and 2,000 radiographers were the largest groups. This workforce would continue to grow throughout the 20th and 21st Centuries, overtaking the National Coal Board to become Britain's largest employer in 1961. By the end of the 1970s, the NHS had passed 1,000,000 staff and in 2015 was the world's fifth largest work organisation with 1.7m. Nurses are the largest single group of professionally qualified staff in the NHS, with 306,000 employed in English hospitals and community health services as at December 2020. The workforce The NHS has long had one of Britain's most varied workforces, with employees from a diverse range of backgrounds in terms of class, occupation, gender, race and nationality. In the early NHS doctors were overwhelmingly men from middle and upper class backgrounds, and were often privately educated. Nurses in general hospitals were usually women and generally from a mixture of middle and working class origins. Men constituted a significant minority of nurses but were largely concentrated in mental hospitals, where their role historically had been more associated with manual labour, particularly the physical control of the patients. Professional organisations like the Royal College of Nursing tended to promote the idea that nurses were middle-class professionals, whilst trade unions encouraged nurses to see themselves as workers. Like nursing, ancillary tasks were also heavily gendered with portering and maintenance largely done by men, and laundry and cleaning largely women. Increasing demand for health services led to a steady expansion in total staff numbers throughout the second half of the 20th century and into the 21st century. However, NHS wage rates were usually comparatively low and hours often long and anti-social. Consequently, under conditions of full employment in the 1950s and 1960s the NHS experienced regular recruitment crises in virtually all categories of staff, particularly doctors and nurses in some peripheral provincial areas. One solution adopted by health authorities was to encourage married nurses to return to the workforce part-time. In Britain, historically many nurses expected to leave work after getting married and into the 1960s senior nursing posts were disproportionately likely to be held by unmarried women. Nurse training also had a very high drop out rate, in part related to students leaving to get married (in addition to rejection by some of the strict discipline imposed on them). Part-time work brought many of these women back into the workforce and the NHS was a key site in the growth of this kind of work in post-war Britain, employing 65,000 part-time ancillary staff (mostly domestics) and 79,000 part-time nurses and midwives by 1967. Alongside this rise in part-time work, hospitals increasingly looked overseas for staff, recruiting particularly heavily in Britain's colonies from the 1950s. By 1955, the Ministry of Health had official recruitment campaigns in 16 British colonies and former colonies. By 1965, there were more than 3,000 Jamaican nurses working in British hospitals and in 1977, 12% of student nurses and midwives came from overseas, 66% of them from the Caribbean, with substantial numbers also coming from the Philippines and South Asia. Large numbers of ancillary staff also migrated to fill NHS vacancies. Doctors were also recruited from across Britain's colonies and former colonies, particularly from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Doctors born and qualified overseas constituted 31% of all doctors in 1971. Nurses and doctors recruited by the NHS were often marginalised in job allocation. Early nurse migrants were often forced to re-validate their qualifications on arrival in Britain and instructed to take the less academic State Enrolled Nurse (SEN) training, rather than the more prestigious State Registered Nurse (SRN) qualification. SENs had worse pay and fewer promotion prospects. Similarly, employment discrimination often meant South Asian doctors were forced into less desirable posts in run-down provincial hospitals. The NHS was also a site of expansion in new categories of scientific and technical workers. In 1967, the service employed 31,000 professional and technical staff connected with diagnosis and treatment, including audiologists, biochemists, dietitians, more than 9000 laboratory technicians, occupational therapists, physicists, physiotherapists, psychologists and radiographers. This category of staff had more than doubled in size ten years later, rising to 64,700 people or 6.5% of the total workforce. Although at the start of the period many of these roles had relatively informal career paths, with individuals sometimes recruited as assistants before training as technicians, from the 1970s onwards it became increasingly common for roles to have more formal training schemes and associated degree courses. Professional associations like the College of Occupational Therapists and the Association for Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine became better organised and took a greater role both in regulating their professions and in collective bargaining with the Ministry of Health. The 1980s saw further changes in the NHS' workforce. The Thatcher Government encouraged (and eventually forced) health authorities to put most ancillary services out for competitive tender, effectively outsourcing the jobs of those workers. This led to a substantial reduction in numbers, with one-third of ancillary posts disappearing between 1980 and 1987. Those that remained were largely employed by private agencies and no longer subject to national agreements or trade union collective bargaining. For nurses, the introduction of Project 2000 meant that their profession now centred around degree courses run by universities rather than nurse training courses run by teaching hospitals. This effectively removed student nurses from hospital workforces and helped raise the status of the profession. Much of the physical labour done by student nurses was now passed to a new category of health worker, the healthcare assistant, a role that mirrors that of "auxiliary nurses" in the early NHS. The status of general practitioners as outside contractors was largely confirmed by the market-based reforms introduced by the Thatcher, Major and Blair governments. The working lives of hospital doctors changed from the 1970s onwards, as career paths and work patterns became increasingly formalised. Set rules on hours were introduced in the 1970s and refined in the 1980s and 1990s to dramatically reduce the number of hours junior doctors were expected to contribute. Industrial relations 1948–72 Between 1948 and 1972 the NHS largely remained free of strikes, but nevertheless did experience some other industrial disputes. The foundation of the service was opposed by many doctors, particularly general practitioners, who feared that a state medical service would reduce their independence. Doctors expressed this opposition through their largest professional organisation, the British Medical Association, which held a number of ballots canvassing its members' (largely negative) opinions on arrangements for the new service. After a threat to boycott the new service, the BMA secured some concessions from Aneurin Bevan, the Minister of Health responsible for implementing the NHS Act. The BMA's intransigence did not stop the new health service coming into being, but did secure the right to be paid on a "capitation" basis (per patient) rather than on a set salary. More importantly for doctors the government's concessions established the conventional wisdom in the Ministry of Health that changes to the NHS were impossible without the consent of the medical profession, effectively giving doctors a "medical veto". Winning consent from physicians remained a problem for health ministers, who faced regular complaints, particularly relating to pay. In 1962 the government gave up control over doctors' pay to the independent Review Body on Doctors' and Dentists' Remuneration. The first dispute involving nurses took place when student nurses opened their first NHS pay packets in July 1948. Despite having received a modest pay rise, an increase in National Insurance contributions meant their take-home pay had gone down. Outraged students at St Mary's Hospital, Plaistow, Essex, organised a protest rally and a march, threatening to resign en masse if their demands for better pay, shorter hours and general improvements in conditions weren't met. The march made headlines but won few concessions from the Ministry of Health. Complaints from student nurses about poor conditions, long hours and low pay were common for much of the post-war period. Up to the 1970s, student nurses were responsible for as much as 75% of the physical labour on hospital wards and were often subject to intense disciplinary regimes both on the wards and in their private lives, with many student nurses living in strictly-supervised hospital nurses' accommodation. The conflicts of 1947–48 were not very representative of the prevailing industrial relations culture in the NHS. Despite recurrent complaints about low pay and long hours, NHS staff were not prone to outbreaks of collective protest in the 1950s and 1960s. With the exception of an overtime ban and work-to-rule by administrative staff in 1957, organised by NALGO, and a go-slow by laundry workers in Carshalton in 1950, the NHS had little formal workplace conflict. Groups of miners, printers, dockers and car workers did stage a one-hour strike in solidarity with nurses' claims for pay increase in 1962, but the nurses' professional organisation the Royal College of Nursing (RCN) repudiated their actions and generally preferred to trade on respectability rather than militancy. At that time the RCN was reluctant to refer to itself as a trade union and nurses looking for more conventional workplace representation looked to the Confederation of Health Service Employees (COHSE) and the National Union of Public Employees (NUPE). The latter was generally strongest amongst ancillary staff and former amongst psychiatric nurses. Recognising the sensitive nature of hospital work both remained cautious regarding industrial action in the NHS until the 1970s, fearing that advocating action that might affect patients would drive away potential members. A combination of cautious organisations, staff who often saw their work as a vocation, and the domineering influence of doctors over the rest of the workforce, led to an "old colonial" system of industrial relations, structured largely by personal patronage and paternalism. 1972–1979 This largely broke down in the 1970s with unions like NUPE, COHSE and ASTMS recruiting large numbers of all categories of staff, and professional organisations like the RCN and BMA becoming more aggressive in collective bargaining. In December 1972, ancillary staff, the worst paid and most marginalised section of the workforce, organised mass demonstrations across the country with around 150,000 workers and supporters protesting poverty level wages. Action continued in March 1973 with ancillaries organising the NHS' first national strike. In the years to come other groups took action over similar issues, with nurses mounting a sustained campaign over pay in 1974 and radiographers following suit in 1975 under the slogan "no raise, no rays". Doctors also took strike action in 1975, with junior doctors walking out over long hours and inadequate pay for extra time and consultants taking action in defence of their right to place their private patients in NHS beds. Although strikes in the NHS remained rare, changes in everyday industrial relations were more profound. The NHS saw a significant expansion in the number of workplace representatives in this period, sometimes forcing managers to consider the views of sections of the workforce, like the ancillary staff, who they had long ignored. This sometimes caused conflict between different groups. The "pay beds" dispute pitched nurses and ancillaries, who opposed private practice, against consultants, the direct beneficiaries of private practice. Other aspects of the upsurge in workplace activism were less controversial and all categories of staff were active in lobbying central government for better funding. The second half of the 1970s also saw a series of campaigns aimed at saving local hospitals, some of which involved "work-ins" where staff took over hospitals and continued to provide services after health authorities had shut them down. In November 1976, health workers took over Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Women's Hospital saving it from closure. The occupation of Hounslow Hospital in 1977 was less successful with the local authority forcibly removing the patients after two months. By the end of the 1970s, industrial relations in the NHS were widely considered to be in crisis, with poor management and inadequate personnel procedures causing endemic conflict in a substantial minority of hospitals. The participation of large numbers of health workers in the events of 1978–79 Winter of Discontent was one reflection of this. Ambulance drivers and ancillary staff were both involved in strikes over pay in January 1979, reducing 1,100 hospitals to emergency services only and causing widespread disruption to ambulance services. 1980–2010 As in other sectors, industrial relations under the Thatcher Government continued to be a conflict. Successive health ministers looked to hold down pay in the public sector and to outsource ancillary staff where possible. Following the 1983 Griffiths Report, the NHS also tried to import a business model more similar to the private sector with professional managers taking over cost control, reducing the power of the medical profession. There were disputes over all of these policies. In 1982 there was another conflict over pay restraint involving ancillaries and nurses. Campaigning by NUPE, COHSE and RCN won an interim pay rise for nurses who were also granted their own independent pay review body, as the doctors had been 20 years earlier. The status and pay for registered nurses subsequently tended to improve, particularly when nurse education was shifted to university degree courses under Project 2000 in 1986. Ancillary staff, in contrast, were increasingly marginalised during the 1980s. The Conservative Government put pressure on health authorities to outsource their catering, cleaning, laundry and maintenance services to private companies. Trade unions fought these policies, in some cases successfully, but many hospital services finally ended up in private hands, sometimes with companies who refused to recognise trade unions. Outsourcing dissipated some of the influence unions had built up during the 1970s and towards the end of decade increasingly occupied many shop stewards in detailed negotiations over grading and contract details rather than recruitment and organising. Doctors' relationship with the government deteriorated during the 1980s. The advance of managerialism under Griffiths irritated many doctors, previously accustomed to a dominant role in NHS governance. By 1989 doctors were extremely hostile to government reforms and were active in lobbying against the implementation of the 1989 government white paper, Working for Patients, which introduced an internal market to the NHS. Their defence of public ownership and opposition to market-based reforms marked a substantial shift from doctors' original opposition to the NHS, reflecting how far doctors' mindsets had changed in relation to state medicine. Relations between the NHS and the government were generally much improved under the Blair Government. Substantial investment in staff and new facilities were appreciated by many nurses and doctors, although there were concerns about the introduction of private sector suppliers, the use of public–private partnerships to fund much investment and the development of an intensive culture of achievement targets. There was also no attempt to reverse the outsourcing of ancillary services, something health service unions linked to recurrent crises over hospital cleanliness. Cultural history of the NHS Film and television Film and television have played important roles in forming cultural understandings of the National Health Service. Hospitals and GP practices, in particular, have been repeatedly dramatised as locations that lend themselves to displaying wider life stories – love, birth, ageing, dying, friendships and feuds. The NHS has also been an important topic within public health, often forming a central part in public information films about health and wellbeing. Public information films From the launch of the National Health Service in 1948, film was used as an important cultural tool for spreading governmental health messages. During the Second World War, film grew in popularity as a way for the British government to keep citizens informed, impart advice and help raise morale on the Home Front. This commitment to producing public information films continued after the end of the War in 1945 with the newly formed Central Office of Information taking responsibility for the production of these films. This ensured that the launch of the NHS was accompanied by a number of public information films shown nationwide during Spring and Summer 1948. Three main films were produced – Charley: You're Very Good Health (Halas & Batchelor, 1948), Here's Health (Douglas Alexander, 1948) and Doctor's Dilemma (Unknown, 1948). These films introduced the NHS in three distinct ways with Charley: You're Very Good Health focused on explaining how the NHS would work upon its launch in a light-hearted manner with Charley standing in as the 'everyman' within the film's narrative. The film used a series of 'suppose' scenarios to outline how the new NHS system would work in practice in comparison to the pre-NHS health care system. Here's Health instead employed the narrative techniques of melodrama to dramatise one family's response to a household accident and the sudden need for medical attention during the Christmas of 1947. It uses flash-forwards to show how these type of care and the cost of it will be altered by the introduction of the NHS. The third main film used to advertise the launch of the NHS was a much briefer, information short, centred on the use of voice-over and a combination of still and moving images to encourage members of the public to register with an NHS GP before the National Health Service Act came into force on 5 July 1948. Popular films and television Within a few years of the NHS, popular fictional films were beginning to focus on the NHS as a location for dramatic narratives. Films such as White Corridors (Pat Jackson, 1951) and Mandy (Alexander MacKendrick, 1952), shown within the early years of the NHS, showed day-to-day life in an NHS hospital as well as dealing with specific single-issue topics such as deafness within postwar British society. The Doctor series, starring firstly Dirk Bogarde and later Leslie Philips, took a comedic look at the antics of a young doctor in an NHS hospital and the Carry On comedies Carry On Nurse (Gerald Thomas, 1959), Carry On Doctor (Gerald Thomas, 1967) and Carry On Matron (Gerald Thomas, 1972) also used comic situations within the NHS hospital to poke fun at both the NHS as an institution and the capers of doctors, nurses and patients alike. From the late 1950s, the NHS also became an important subject within the wider history of British soap operas. Emergency – Ward 10 was first broadcast in 1957 on ITV and ran until 1967 and followed the life and loves of the staff and patients of the fictionalised Oxbridge General. ITV later followed this up with General Hospital which borrowed much from Emergency Ward 10 in terms of its themes and focus. The idea of a medical hospital as a suitable and popular setting for a soap opera continued to take root in the 1980s. Casualty, set in an A&E department, was first broadcast in 1986 and has since become the longest running medical drama in the world. At a time when controversy over the NHS was high on the public agenda, Paul Unwin and Jeremy Brock began their proposal for Casualty by declaring that 'In 1948 a dream was born: a National Health Service. In 1985 the dream is in tatters.' This politicised agenda remained in evidence during the first three series of Casualty, with the programme showing how those who fictionally worked for the NHS were also dissatisfied with the new direction of the service. During the 1990s television began more overtly showing medical practitioners who were critical or cynical of the NHS. In particular, Cardiac Arrest, broadcast on BBC 1, utilised this type of cynicism within its narrative plots. Television has also forged a place for the NHS within reality television programming. In particular 24 Hours in A&E and One Born Every Minute have adopted medical documentary formats to show the inner workings of particular NHS hospital departments. Fly-on-the-wall footage is interwoven with interviews with patients, staff and relatives as they give their perspectives on the medical cases shown in each episode. Comedy Comedy films, books, and cartoons have been produced about the NHS. These have shaped as well as reflected how people think about this institution. Cartoons There have been lots of cartoons about the NHS throughout the institution's history. Even before the NHS was launched, there were cartoons documenting the political debates about its form. In the 1940s, the British Medical Association was opposed to the idea of doctors becoming state employees on fixed salaries. Cartoonists made their opinions about this conflict known. David Low published a cartoon in the Evening Standard on 14 December 1944 showing Charles Hill, the BMA Secretary, being examined by a doctor. The doctor states, 'Don't be alarmed. Whatever's the trouble, you're not going to die from enlargement of the social conscience.' When the NHS was launched, many cartoons showed how people responded to the NHS being free at the point of access. One cartoon, published in 1951 by Antonia Yeoman, portrayed women in a doctor's waiting room, one of whom stated that she had seen eighteen doctors and seven psychiatrists. Eventually, she had been diagnosed with a 'deep-seated guilt about getting things free from the National Health Service.' Analysing cartoons about health featured in Punch magazine from 1948, the psychiatrist Bernard Zeitlyn argues that they 'centred on the bonanza of free spectacles, beards and trips abroad' that the NHS would bring. Cartoonists also portrayed public excitement about the availability of free wigs on the NHS. In one such example, from January 1949, cartoonist Joseph Lee showed an irate man chasing a child, asking, 'Who's been practising Home Perms on my free National Health Service wig?' Cartoons were also used to criticise NHS policy. From 1948, Zeitlyn also found cartoons portraying concern about the 'bureaucratic consequences' of the NHS. The number of critical cartoons about NHS policy increased from the 1960s, as the NHS faced cuts, and the satire movement emerged in Britain. In December 1960, cartoonist Victor Weisz drew an image for the Evening Standard showing Minister for Health Enoch Powell as a surgeon covered in blood, accusing him of making too many cuts. Other cartoonists suggested that too much was being spent on the NHS. For example, in the Daily Mail in 1968, John Musgrave-Wood drew a man to portray the NHS, who was wearing a dunce's cap and being fed 'Defence Cuts'. Many cartoons have been very interested in portraying NHS staff, both their lives and industrial conflict. The cartoonist Carl Giles, who often drew for the Daily Express, was very interested in drawing nurses in particular. Historian Jack Saunders has argued that Giles' presentation shifted from presenting nurses from 'caring and sexualised' to 'bolshie and assertive'. Giles sent a cartoon of nurses stealing peas from patients directly to the East Suffolk Nurses League. On the cartoon, Giles wrote 'with deepest sympathy', referring to the cutting of food allowances. Everyday humour Patients and staff have made jokes about the NHS to one another, on a daily basis, throughout time. However, it is very hard to locate and to understand these. The People's History of the NHS project at the University of Warwick has collected more such memories on its website, and invites contributions for more. Researchers and clinicians hope that humour and laughter may be able to be used to improve human health. The term 'gelotology', to denote the study of laughter, was created in 1964 by Edith Trager and W. F. Fry. One experiment from 2011, led by researchers at the University of Oxford, suggested that watching comedy videos may raise people's pain thresholds, when watched in a group. This effect did not hold when videos were watched alone, or if research participants watched videos such as scenes of nature. In 2003, the artist Nicola Green and film-maker Lara Agnew created a 'laughter booth' at the Royal Brompton Hospital. In this booth, patients and staff could watch videos of people laughing. The idea of laughter as healing has also influenced language, through the phrase 'laughter is the best medicine'. See also Healthcare in England Healthcare in Northern Ireland Healthcare in Scotland Healthcare in Wales References Further reading Virginia Berridge, AIDS in the UK: The Making of Policy, 1981–1994 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996). Roberta Bivins, Contagious Communities: Medicine, Migration, and the NHS in Post-War Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015). Jennifer Crane, "'Save our NHS': activism, information-based expertise and the 'new times' of the 1980s" , Contemporary British History, vol. 33, no. 1 (2019), pp. 52–74. Martin Gorsky, "The British National Health Service 1948–2008: A Review of the Historiography" , Social History of Medicine, vol. 21, no. 3 (2008), pp. 437–460. Martin Gorsky and Gareth Millward, "Resource Allocation for Equity in the British National Health Service 1948–89: An Advocacy Coalition Analysis of the RAWP" , Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, vol. 43, no. 1 (2018), pp. 69–108. Chris Ham, "Community Health Council Participation in the NHS Planning System" , Social Policy & Administration, vol. 14, no. 3. (1980), pp. 221–232. Stephen Harrison, "The Closed Shop in the National Health Service: A Case Study in Public Sector Relations" , Journal of Social Policy, vol. 17, no. 1 (1988), pp. 61–81. Rudolf Klein, The New Politics of the NHS: From Creation to Reinvention (Oxford: Radcliffe Publishing, 2006). John Lister, Cutting the Lifeline: The Fight for the NHS (London: Journeyman, 1988). Gareth Millward, "Social Security Policy and the Early Disability Movement: Expertise, Disability and the Government, 1965–77" , Twentieth Century British History, vol. 26, no. 2 (2015), pp. 274–297. Gareth Millward, "A Disability Act?: The Vaccine Damage Payments Act 1979 and the British Government's Response to the Pertussis Vaccine Scare" , Social History of Medicine, vol. 4 (2016), pp. 1–19. Alex Mold, "Patient Groups and the Construction of the Patient-Consumer in Britain: An Historical Overview" , Journal of Social Policy, vol. 39, no. 4 (2010), pp. 505–521. Alex Mold, Making the Patient-Consumer: Patient Organisations and Health Consumerism in Britain (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2015). Alex Mold and Virginia Berridge, Voluntary Action and Illegal Drugs: Health and Society in Britain since the 1960s (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010). Martin D. Moore, "Food as Medicine: Diet, Diabetes Management, and the Patient in Twentieth Century Britain" , Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, vol. 73, no. 2 (2018), pp. 150–267. Ayesha Nathoo, Hearts Exposed: Transplants and the Media in 1960s Britain (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). Andrew Seaton, "Against the 'Sacred Cow': NHS Opposition and the Fellowship for the Freedom in Medicine, 1948–72" , Twentieth Century British History, vol. 26, no. 3 (2015), pp. 426–449. Claire Sewell, "'If One Member of the Family Is Disabled the Family as a Whole Is Disabled': Thalidomide Children and the Emergence of the Family Carer in Britain, c. 1957–1978" , Family and Community History, vol. 18, no. 1 (2015), pp. 37–52. Matthew Thomson, The Problem of Mental Deficiency: Eugenics, Democracy and Social Policy in Britain, c. 1870–1959 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998). National Health Service National Health Service National Health Service
5245122	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine%20folk%20music	Philippine folk music	The traditional music of the Philippines reflects the Philippines' diverse culture, originating from more than 100 ethnolinguistic groups and shaped by a widely varying historical and sociocultural milieu. Classification Traditional Filipino music is reflective of the country's history as a melting pot of different cultures, both western and eastern. Among the dominant cultural strains noticeable today are Hispanic, American and to some extent Chinese, Indian and Islamic. It is thus difficult to strictly classify the whole corpus of Philippine music. A frequently used system is to classify it according to ethno-linguistic or cultural divisions: for example, traditional Tagalog music, which is somewhat more Hispanic in flavour, differs from Ifugao music and Maranao kulintang music. Ethnomusicologists such as Ramon Santos and Corazon Canave-Dioquino typically identify three distinct traditions or "repertoires" of traditional Filipino music: Indigenous traditions, also referred to as "Asiatic traditions" and as "Indigenous Philippine music"; Spanish-European Influenced Traditions also referred to as "Westernized folk traditions" or "lowland Christianized folk traditions"; and American Influenced Traditions, including western-influenced art and popular music, and semi classical music. Forms Traditional Filipino music is also sometimes categorized according to form, with one categorization being: Strophic/unitary form Binary form Ternary form Rondo form Indigenous Philippine music The music of the Philippines' many indigenous peoples are associated with the various occasions that shape life in indigenous communities, including day-to-day activities as well as major life-events, which typically include "birth, initiation and graduation ceremonies; courtship and marriage; death and funeral rites; hunting, fishing, planting and harvest; healing and various forms of armed conflicts." Ethnomusicologists such as Ramon Santos note that indigenous Philippine music forms closely related to the cultural traditions of Southeast Asia. And since indigenous Philippine music is typically transmitted orally within the community, Santos refers to the indigenous Philippine music repertoire as part of "Asiatic oral traditions." Santos also notes that the majority of these musical performances involve "the participation of the community or audience" and with "dancing and some form of physical movement." The notable exception is in instances of solo playing or small group singing, which do not necessarily involve much physical movement. Spanish-influenced traditional music Aside from the music of Indigenous People groups, another major Philippine folk music tradition is the "Spanish influenced" tradition associated with the Philippines' lowland majority peoples. Some of these musical forms, notably the metrical romances, were introduced during the Philippines' Spanish period of rule, and later adopted and adapted by local artists. Others are "syncretic and hybrid forms" - such as the subli and sanghiyang - which were assimilated from Western religious traditions. Yet others are westernized versions of tunes dating to the Philippine precolonial period, with notable examples including "planting songs, children's play songs, lullabies, love songs and serenades." Due to the cultural dominance of the Philippines' lowland majority peoples, these westernized lowland traditions often monopolizes the label of "Philippine folk music." American-influenced traditional music The Philippines' American colonial period, which lasted from 1898 to 1946, saw another period of transformation in Philippine music. Santos notes that much of Filipino art music, popular music, as well as semi-classical music predominantly fall under this repertoire. Many of the developments during this period were influenced by the formal training received by musicians from music schools established in the early days of the American colonial regime. Earlier musical forms evolved further, as was the case of the Kundiman, which was widely adapted as an art song, further differentiating it from its predecessor, the Kumintang. Vocal music A commonality is that vocal music is of significant import to every ethnic group in the country. Although there are some music intended for dance, the best-preserved form of traditional music is that intended for the voice, with chanting epic poetry as having been the earliest form and later augmented by instrumental accompaniment. Regarded to have a wide range, as most of them stretch more than an octave, they are still considered within the capacity of even an average singer. Dance music Dance music is an important form of traditional Philippine music. The best form of preserved music are those with lyrics and for music intended to accompany a dance. According to Francisca Reyes-Aquino, known for her voluminous collection of folk dances, people watching the dance sing the songs in the same way that cheerers chant in a game. This is very evident especially in songs where interjections Ay!, Aruy-Aruy!, Uy! and Hmp! are present, such as Paru-parong Bukid. Music falling under this category may be classified as those belonging to Christianized Groups, Muslim Groups, and the other Ethnic Groups. Dance music among Christianized ethnicities As Christianity was introduced to the Philippines, Dance Music classified as belonging to the Christianized Groups are somewhat related to Western music as well. Dance Music falling under this category may also be called Habanera, Jota, Fandango, Polka, Curacha, etc. and has the same characteristics as each namesakes in the Western Hemisphere. However, there are also indigenous forms like the Balitao, Tinikling and Cariñosa (the national dance). In a study by National Artist for Music Dr. Antonio Molina, the Balitao, famous in Tagalog and Visayan regions, employs a 3/4 time signature with a "crotchet-quaver-quaver-crotchet" beat. Others use the "crotchet-minim" scheme, while others use the "dotted quaver-semiquaver-crotchet-quaver-quaver" scheme. This type of music is generally recreational and, like traditional music from the West, is used for socialising. Dance music among southern Muslim ethnicities The court and folk dance music of the Muslim-Filipino groups have preserved ancient Southeast Asian musical instruments, modes and repertoires lost to Hispanicized islands further north. It is important to note that stricter interpretations of Islam do not condone musical entertainment, and thus the musical genres among the Muslimized Filipinos cannot be considered "Islamic".Genres shares characteristics with other Southeast-Asian court and folk music: Indonesian Gamelan, Thai Piphat, Malay Caklempong, Okinawan Min'yō and to a lesser extent, through cultural transference through the rest of Southeast Asia, is comparable even to the music of the remote Indian Sub-Continent. Generally, music falling under this category tells a story. An example is the Singkil, which relates an episode from the Darangen (the Maranao version of the ancient Indian epic, the Ramayana). The dance recounts the story of Putri Gandingan (Sita) as she was saved by Rajahmuda Bantugan (Rama) from crashing rocks, represented by bamboo poles. The Singkil is considered the most famous in the Philippines under this category for its perceived elegance, and is also performed by Filipinos from other ethnic groups throughout the country. Music is related in war in some regions in the country, as it is a way to show the emotions of victory and defeat, as well as the resolution of conflict. Philippine music also depends on the biographical factors: in cooler regions such as the Cordilleras, the beat of the music is so slower, while in warmer areas it is quite fast. Dance music among other indigenous ethnicities Like secular songs from the same group, this form of music has a sort of beat, even though it is hard to put it in a form of time signature. Percussions are mainly used for these type of music and sometimes, a gong is enough. As closeness to Nature is a main feature of these ethnic groups, one can expect that dance steps falling under this category are a mimicry of the movements of plants and animals of a certain locality. Some music is simply called the 'Monkey Dance' or the 'Robin Dance' for identification. Some of the music falling under this category is ritual music: thus there are dances used for marriage, worship, and even preparation for a war. Popularity Unlike folk music in Ireland, Hungary, the Czech Republic and neighbouring Malaysia, traditional music in the Philippines has never reached contemporary popularity. Perhaps, it is partly due to the fact every region of the Philippines has its own language, and several decades of Americanisation. Though some groups tried to collect songs from the different ethnolinguistic groups, none has so far succeeded in making traditional music a part of the national identity, much more a national symbol. It is rarely taught in elementary school, as in Ireland, aside from children's songs. This results in a mentality that traditional songs are children's songs. The decline was accelerated with the entry of television, making popular culture from Europe and the United States easily accessible to a common Filipino. Though most Europeans would say that Filipinos are music-loving people, traditional music is always at risk of being left in oblivion. Ethnomusicology Attempts have been made to collect and preserve traditional Philippine music, though no collection of the traditional music was ever made. There are however studies made regarding this subject in the late 19th century, when the Romanticists of Europe began to find the value of folk songs. Even during the American Era, attempts to collect traditional music came rather late. Perhaps the first collection was in 1919 by Fr. Morice Vanoverberg, which is focused on the traditional music of the Lepanto Igorots of the north. Unfortunately, only the words and not the tunes are included in the collection. The collection entitled Filipino Folk Songs by Emilia Cavan is considered to be the earliest collection with tunes, published in 1924. Perhaps, the most important collection of folk songs is the Philippine Progressive Music Series by Norberto Romualdez, published in the late 1920s. Unfortunately, the collectors who worked with Romualdez did not present the songs in their original languages but rather translated them into English and Filipino. This collection also included some songs aimed to promote national identity, like the national anthem of the Philippines, "Philippines Our Native Land" and even "Philippines the Beautiful" (an adaptation of "America the Beautiful"). The collection also included some folk songs from other countries. For a period of time, Romualdez's collection became the textbook for teaching music in primary school. It also ensured that folk tunes from every part of the country was preserved to be passed to the next generation of Filipinos. Until now, this collection remains to be the most important collection of traditional music from the Philippines, since a copy of it is still available in major municipal and provincial libraries in the country. Other collections like the Filipino Folk Songs by Emilia Reysio-Cruz caters to the so-called 'eight major languages' of the country and according to some, the collection is the best representation of the songs from these ethnolinguistic groups. Dr. Jose Maceda, former chair of the Department of Asian Music Research of the College of Music of the University of the Philippines, also did some collections which began in 1953 and lasted until 1972. This was followed by collections from his students as well. During the last years of the 20th century until the early 21st century, Raul Sunico, Dean of the Conservatory of Music of the University of Santo Tomas, published his own collection. He began with publishing a collection of lullabies, followed by love songs, then by work songs. Finally, he published a collection of songs about Filipino women, a major topic of traditional songs from all the ethnolinguistic groups. All these collections were arranged for the piano and the words are given in their original languages. A translation is also supplied, not to mention a brief backgrounder about the culture of the specific ethnic groups. With regard to traditional dance music, the seven volume collection of Francisca Reyes-Aquino is still the most important collection. None has yet followed her lead until now. Linguistics of traditional music Borromeo also noted that one interesting feature of Western-influenced traditional music is that a tune is not bound to a particular language or dialect. Many songs in the different Philippine languages, however, share the same tune, such as the Tagalog Magtanim ay 'Di Biro, Kapampangan Deting Tanaman Pale and the Gaddang So Payao. Another example is the Visayan song Ako Ining Kailu, which has the same melody as the Ibanag Melogo y Aya and Kapampangan Ing Manai. The largest body of songs are those using the various vernacular languages, especially the eight major languages in the country. Many of the collected traditional songs have a translation in Filipino, the national language. Songs from the various minority languages rank second in recognition, while those in Spanish rank third. This does not include the closest local language to Spanish, called Chavacano, which has a degree of mutual intelligibility with Castilian. The most famous songs in this classification are perhaps No Te Vayas de Zamboanga and Viva! Señor Sto. Niño. Folk music in Philippine education The curriculum of the Department of Education in the Philippines discusses the value of music and art in learning as a "means to celebrate Filipino cultural identity and diversity.” Philippine Art and Music Education is embedded in the curriculum. Students in their 7th grade have folk music integrated into their education. A teacher’s guide released by the Department of Education Schools Division of Bataan details the lesson plan for Music in Grade 7. The guide lists objectives that include analyzing musical elements in Philippine folk music and identifying the relationship among the music, people and culture of a given region. In May 2020, over 30 teachers, in the central part of Luzon, worked on a book entitled Revisiting the Folk Songs of Region III: a Kaleidoscope of Rich Cultural Heritage with the intention of “reviewing and reviving” 124 folk songs. According to the Department of Education director Nicolas Capulong, this book “helps students develop their sense of cultural identity.” Capulong mentions that the book makes classroom folk song tutorials easier because it includes chords, vocal guides, short videos, and an instrumental backing. Before this book, teachers relied on a collection of folk songs from 1983 that Department of Education Symphonic Band conductor Rafael Rubio says has limitations. Relationship with popular music Folk rock in the Philippines Some Philippine rock icons from the 1970s tried to record folk songs. Florante, Freddie Aguilar, Heber Bartolome, Joey Ayala and the group Asin propagated Filipino folk songs akin to the phenomenon in the United States. Another popular music category, influenced by Traditional Filipino music but not rooted in the American folk rock tradition of the 70s, is that of "contemporary music using Filipino instruments," an example of which is UDD's song "Paagi," which was used as the theme song for the animated adaptation of the comic book series Trese. Philippine contemporary folk (world) music The increasing commercial viability of Contemporary Folk Music in the 1980s created new opportunities for Philippine Artists to introduce Traditional filipino musical concepts and instruments to a popular audience. Globally popularized under the label "world music" to distinguish it from folk rock, its most popular practitioners include University of the Philippines Professor Edru Abraham and group Kontra-Gapi (short for Kontemporaryong Gamelan Pilipino), Ethnomusicologist Grace Nono, and world music band Pinikpikan (since renamed Kalayo). Musical acts incorporating other world music traditions while retaining Philippine folk music elements, sometimes labeled world fusion, include Humanfolk and Maquiling Ensemble, while the more prominently folk-focused Folk Rock acts, such as Pordalab, Bayang Barrios, Bullet Dumas, and Mijon are often also categorized as "Filipino world music" acts. Philippine folk music as protest music Because the global popularity of folk rock and of world music forms such as reggae coincided with the Vietnam War, and with the Marcos dictatorship in the Philippines, the 70s also saw the rise of protest music as a folk music tradition, with an increased interest in traditional nationalistic songs such as the kundiman "Bayan ko", the rise of folk rock protest acts such as Heber Bartolome and Jess Santiago within the resistance against the Marcos dictatorship, and the infusion of nationalist themes, although more subdued, in mainstream musical acts such as Freddie Aguilar and the APO Hiking Society. Adaptations of Filipino folk songs Several Filipino artists have recorded adaptations of Filipino folk songs. In 2014, artists Kitchie Nadal and Bullet Dumas collaborated on a contemporary recording of the traditional Waray language song "Idoy, Uday" as part of the relief effort for victims of Typhoon Haiyan the year before. In October 2020, a Philippine beer brand Red Horse launched an ad campaign that focused on paying tribute to Philippine folk songs. The campaign was tagged as an “aim to show how rock can be used to bridge old music to the appreciation of today’s generation.” The campaign featured rock band Mayonnaise and heavy metal band Slapshock. They gave their own take on classical, folk songs entitled Alak and Ugoy sa Duyan. In July 2021, the band Debonair District released an EP Diyalogo that merges the genre of jazz and folk. Toma Cayabyab, their lead vocalist, said that they arranged the songs with the hopes of “making the younger generation appreciate and love Filipino music.” References Philippine Literature: Folk Music by Mauricia Borromeo Philippine Progressive Music Series by Norberto Romualdez. The Encyclopedia of Philippine Art, Volume 6: Philippine Music by the Cultural Centre of the Philippines Himig: A Collection of Traditional Songs from the Philippines by Raul Sunico Filipino Folk Songs Folk music by country
5245261	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Cape%20Gloucester	Battle of Cape Gloucester	The Battle of Cape Gloucester was fought in the Pacific theater of World War II between Japanese and Allied forces on the island of New Britain, Territory of New Guinea, between 26 December 1943 and 16 January 1944. Codenamed Operation Backhander, the US landing formed part of the wider Operation Cartwheel, the main Allied strategy in the South West Pacific Area and Pacific Ocean Areas during 1943–1944. It was the second landing the US 1st Marine Division had conducted during the war thus far, after Guadalcanal. The objective of the operation was to capture the two Japanese airfields near Cape Gloucester that were defended by elements of the Japanese 17th Division. The main landing came on 26 December 1943, when US Marines landed on either side of the peninsula. The western landing force acted as a diversion and cut the coastal road near Tauali to restrict Japanese freedom of movement, while the main force—landing on the eastern side—advanced north towards the airfields. The advance met light resistance at first but was slowed by the swampy terrain which channeled the US troops onto a narrow coastal trail. A Japanese counterattack briefly slowed the advance, but by the end of December the airfields had been captured and consolidated by the marines. Fighting continued into early January 1944 as the marines extended their perimeter south from the airfields towards Borgen Bay. Organized resistance ceased on 16 January 1944 when marines captured Hill 660; however, mopping up operations in the vicinity continued into April 1944 until the marines were relieved by US Army forces. Background Geography Cape Gloucester is a headland that sits on the northern peninsula at the west end of the island of New Britain, which lies to the northeast of mainland New Guinea. It is roughly opposite to the Huon Peninsula, from which it is separated by Rooke Island with the intervening sea lane divided into the Vitiaz and Dampier Straits. At the time of the battle it was part of the Territory of New Guinea. It is west of Rabaul and northeast of Port Moresby. The peninsula on which Cape Gloucester sits consists of a rough semi-circular coast, extending from Lagoon Point in the west to Borgen Bay in the east. At the base of the peninsula is Mount Talawe, a extinct volcano, which runs laterally east to west. Southwest of Talawe, a semi-active volcano, Langila, rises , while further to the south, the extinct volcano Mount Tangi rises to . The area is densely vegetated with thick rainforest, sharp kunai grass and deep mangrove swamps. In 1943, there were only a few beaches suitable for landing operations, and there were no roads around the coast along which troops and vehicles could quickly advance. Temperatures ranged from , with high humidity. Rainfall was heavy, especially during the northwest monsoon season that ran until February. Air operations in this period could be mounted from Finschhafen, but after February the climate there was expected to restrict air operations, which would have to be conducted from Cape Gloucester. The climate dictated the timetable for the Cape Gloucester operation. In 1943, an Allied intelligence survey of the area estimated the local population around Cape Gloucester at around 3,000. There were numerous villages spread across four main areas: on the western coast, near Kalingi; on the western bank of the Itini River in the south; inland from Sag Sag and towards Tauali (on the western coast); and to the east of Mount Tangi, around Niapaua, Agulupella and Relmen. Prior to the Japanese invasion of New Britain in 1942, there had been two European missions around Cape Gloucester: a Roman Catholic mission at Kalingi and an Anglican one at Sag Sag. Before the war a landing ground had been established on the relatively flat ground that lay at the apex of the peninsula. Following the Japanese invasion of New Britain in early 1942, the landing ground had been developed into two airstrips (the larger of the two being long). The area was assessed by Allied intelligence as largely being unsuitable for large-scale development, with reefs to the south, west and north hampering the movement of large vessels, and a lack of protected anchorages suitable for such vessels. The few areas suitable for such vessels were open to the sea and were not considered perennial, being affected by the changing seasons. Nevertheless, small craft could operate along the coast, and Borgen Bay had been developed into a staging area for barge operations between mainland New Guinea and the main Japanese base around Rabaul on the eastern end of New Britain. Strategic situation By late 1943, the fighting in New Guinea had turned in the favor of the Allies after a period of hard fighting. The Japanese drive on Port Moresby during 1942 and early 1943 had been defeated during the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Kokoda Track campaign. The Japanese beachhead at Buna–Gona was subsequently destroyed, albeit with many casualties. The Japanese had been forced to abandon their efforts on Guadalcanal, and the Allies had secured the Salamaua region. The Allies then seized the initiative and implemented Operation Cartwheel, a series of subordinate operations aimed at the reduction of the Japanese base at Rabaul and then severing of lines of communication in the South West Pacific Area, as the Allies advanced towards the Philippines where operations were planned for 1944–1945. The Australians had secured Lae by 16 September 1943, and operations to capture the Huon Peninsula had begun in earnest shortly after, to secure Finschafen before a drive on Saidor. A secondary effort pushed inland from Lae through the Markham and Ramu Valleys, with the two drives eventually aiming toward Madang. As Allied forces began to make headway on the Huon Peninsula, Allied attention then turned to securing their seaward flank on the other side of the Vitiaz and Dampier Straits. On 22 September 1943, General Douglas MacArthur issued orders for the invasion of New Britain, codenamed Operation Dexterity. This operation was conceived with several phases, with the broad Allied scheme of maneuver being to secure all of New Britain west of the line between Gasmata and Talasea on the north coast. Within this scheme, Operation Backhander was a landing around Cape Gloucester aimed at the capture, and expansion of, two Japanese military airfields. This was to contribute to the increased isolation and harassment of the major Japanese base at Rabaul, which was subjected to heavy aerial bombing in October and November, as part of ongoing efforts to neutralize the large Japanese garrison there without the need to assault it head on. A secondary goal was to ensure free Allied sea passage through the straits separating New Britain from New Guinea. Amongst Allied commanders there was some debate about the necessity of invading New Britain. Lieutenant General George Kenney, the US air commander, believed that the landing at Cape Gloucester was unnecessary. He believed that it would take too long for the airfields to be developed and that the pace of Allied advance would ultimately outstrip their usefulness. Nevertheless, army and naval commanders felt it was necessary to secure convoy routes through the Vitiaz Strait to support operations in western New Guinea and to the north. The landing at Gasmata was later cancelled and replaced with a diversionary landing around Arawe, with the plan being to potentially establish a PT boat base there. Believing that the Allies could not bypass Rabaul as they attempted to advance towards the Japanese inner perimeter and would seek to capture it as quickly as possible, the Japanese sought to maintain a sizeable force for the defense of Rabaul, thus reducing the forces available for the defense of western New Britain. Prelude Opposing forces Responsibility for the seizure of western New Britain was given to Lieutenant General Walter Krueger's Alamo Force. For the Cape Gloucester operation, US planners assigned the 1st Marine Division (Major General William H. Rupertus) which had previously fought on Guadalcanal. The operation would be the 1st Marine Division's second landing of the war. Initial planning had envisaged an airborne landing from the 503rd Parachute Infantry near the airfields in conjunction with a two-pronged seaborne landing either side of the cape, with two battalions of the 7th Marine Regiment advancing on the airfields from the beaches north of Borgen Bay, while another blocked ingress and egress routes along the opposite coast around Tauali. However, the airborne landing was later removed from the plan due to concerns about overcrowding of staging airfields and possible delays due to weather. To compensate, the size of the seaborne assault forces was increased. The main force assigned to the assault was drawn from the 7th Marine Regiment (Colonel Julian N. Frisbie) reinforced by the 1st Marine Regiment (Colonel William J. Whaling). In addition, the 5th Marine Regiment (Colonel John T. Selden) formed the reserve. Artillery was provided by the 11th Marines (Colonel Robert H. Pepper and later Colonel William H. Harrison). These troops were organized into three combat teams, designated 'A' to 'C': the 5th Marines formed Combat Team 'A'; the 1st Marines formed Combat Team 'B' and the 7th Marines were Combat Team 'C'. In mid-1943, elements of the 1st Marine Division had still been in Australia, where they had been withdrawn following the fighting on Guadalcanal. Around this time, preliminary landing rehearsals had been conducted around Port Phillip Bay, prior to the division's movement to the forward assembly areas in New Guinea in August and September; however, the majority of Allied amphibious assets were tied up with operations around the Huon Peninsula, which meant that only limited rehearsals could take place until after November 1943. The combat teams moved into three staging locations (Milne Bay, Cape Sudest and Goodenough Island) after which further practice landings were conducted around the Taupota Bay area, before they concentrated at Cape Sudest in the Oro Bay area, southeast of Buna in December 1943. The US troops were opposed by elements of the Japanese 17th Division (Lieutenant General Yasushi Sakai), which had previously served in China before arriving on New Britain in October and November 1943. These troops were known as "Matsuda Force", after their commander, Major General Iwao Matsuda and consisted of the 65th Brigade, with the 53rd and 141st Infantry Regiments and elements of the 4th Shipping Group. These troops were supported by field and anti-aircraft artillery, and a variety of supporting elements including engineers and signals troops. Just prior to the battle, there were 3,883 troops in the vicinity of Cape Gloucester. Matsuda's headquarters had been at Kalingi, along the coastal trail northwest of Mount Talawe, within of the Cape Gloucester airfields but after the Allied bombardment prior to the battle, it had been moved to Egaroppu, closer to Borgen Bay. The headquarters at Kalingi was taken over by the Colonel Koki Sumiya, commander of the 53rd Infantry Regiment, which defended the airfields primarily with the regiment's 1st Battalion, supported by elements of two artillery battalions, a heavy weapons company and a battalion of anti-aircraft guns. The 2nd Battalion, 53rd Infantry Regiment was in reserve around Nakarop, while the 141st Infantry Regiment (Colonel Kenshiro Katayama) was positioned well to the south around Cape Bushing. At the time of the fighting around Cape Gloucester, the effectiveness of these troops had been degraded by disease and lack of supplies, due to interdiction of the Japanese coastal supply barges. Air support was available from the naval 11th Air Fleet and 6th Air Division. Preparations The landing on Cape Gloucester was scheduled for 26 December. Prior to the operation, planners directed that a stockpile of supplies – enough for a month of combat operations – be built up around Oro Bay, and this was in place by 16 December and would be shuttled to Cape Gloucester by landing craft as required. The day before, supporting operations began, when the US Army 112th Cavalry Regiment landed at Arawe on the south-central coast, to block the route of Japanese reinforcements and supplies from east to west and as a diversion from the Cape Gloucester landings. The operation around Arawe succeeded in diverting about 1,000 Japanese troops from Cape Gloucester. For several months before the landings, the area around the airfields and the coastal plain between Cape Gloucester and Natamo, south of Borgen Bay, was bombed by Allied aircraft, mainly from the US Fifth Air Force. Japanese entrenchments were destroyed and the airfields around Cape Gloucester were put out of action from November. A total of 1,845 sorties were launched by US aircraft around Cape Gloucester, with the expenditure of almost 3,000,000 rounds of ammunition and of bombs. Diversionary air raids were also made by AirSols aircraft in the days before the assault, focused on the Japanese airfields around Rabaul, while naval aircraft bombed Kavieng. Raids were also launched against Madang and Wewak. Meanwhile, the Allies undertook extensive aerial reconnaissance of the area, while ground teams of marines, Alamo Scouts and coastwatchers were landed at various locations except Borgen Bay over three separate occasions from PT boats between September and December 1943. Japanese defensive planning was focused upon holding the airfield sector. Bunkers, trenches and fortified positions were built along the coast to the east and west, with the strongest position being established to the southeast, to defend against an approach through the flat grasslands. A complex was also established at the base of Mount Talawe, affording a commanding view of the airfields, which were held by a battalion of infantry supported by service troops and several artillery pieces. To the east of the peninsula, the beaches around Silimati Point, which were bounded by heavy swamps, were largely left unfortified, the Japanese defensive scheme based on holding several high features, Target Hill and Hill 660 and maintaining control of lateral tracks, rapidly to move forces in response to an attack. Embarkation The Allied plan called for a two-pronged landing at several beaches to the east and west of the peninsula, followed by an advance north towards the airfields at Cape Gloucester. Final rehearsals were carried out on 21 December after which the troops embarked on their vessels early on Christmas Day at Oro Bay and Cape Cretin, near Finschhafen. The convoy, designated Task Force 76 under Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey, consisted of nine APDs, 19 Landing Craft Infantry (LCIs), 33 Landing Ship Tank (LSTs), 14 Landing Craft Mechanized (LCMs) and 12 Landing Craft Tank (LCTs), escorted by 12 destroyers as well as the task force flagship Conyngham, three minesweepers and two rocket-carrying DUKWs that were carried aboard the LCMs. These two amphibians would support the western landings, while two LCIs had been similarly modified to support the eastern landing. The troops were carried aboard the APDs, while the LSTs carried the heavy vehicles including bulldozers, tanks and trucks. In order to supply the force, a total of 20 days of supply of rations was detailed for assault troops, while the follow-on troops were to land with 30 days of supply. Both groups were to carry three units of ammunition resupply, while five days were needed for anti-aircraft weapons. Nevertheless, space was at a premium and in some instances, this could not be met. In order to speed up the unloading process and reduce congestion on the eastern beaches, a mobile loading scheme was devised with the supplies preloaded directly on 500 2.5-ton trucks. These vehicles would arrive on the beaches with the first echelon that would land the assault troops in the morning, and would be able to drive straight off the LSTs and unload their cargo at several dumps ashore before re-embarking on LSTs assigned to the second echelon that would land in the afternoon on the first day with the follow-on troops. Medical teams, including doctors and corpsmen, were assigned to each transport and some LSTs, and these personnel would form part of an evacuation chain that would see casualties transported back to Cape Sudest where an 88-bed floating hospital was established aboard an LST, which would serve as a casualty-receiving station prior to onward movement to base hospitals ashore. This force was escorted by United States Navy (USN) and Royal Australian Navy (RAN) cruisers and destroyers from Task Force 74, under Rear Admiral Victor Crutchley of the Royal Navy. Maintaining a speed of 12 knots, the convoy proceeded through the Vitiaz Strait towards Cape Gloucester, traversing between Rooke and Sakar Islands. As they made their way towards their objective, Allied patrol boats operated to the north and western approaches, in the Dampier Strait and the southern coast of New Britain. While heading towards their objective, the convoy was spotted by a Japanese reconnaissance plane as well as an observer around Cape Ward Hunt. As a result, their progress was reported to Rabaul. However, the commander of the Japanese Southeast Area Fleet, Admiral Jinichi Kusaka, incorrectly assessed that the convoy was bound for Arawe as reinforcements, and subsequently ordered a heavy air attack there instead of around Cape Gloucester with 63 Zero fighters and 25 bombers from Rabaul. Battle The main operation began just after dawn on 26 December with a naval barrage on the Japanese positions on the cape followed by air attacks by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). A total of 14 squadrons from the 1st Air Task Force under Brigadier General Frederick A. Smith, were provided for close air support, of which nine were bomber squadrons and five were attack. In addition, several fighter squadrons flew combat air patrols to negate the threat from Japanese aircraft: one squadron covered the approaching convoy, three would cover the landing beaches, and another would cover the seaborne elements that would withdraw in the afternoon. These attacks and an aerial smoke screen were followed by the landing of the 1st Marine Division, at Yellow Beaches 1 and 2, to the east near Silimati Point and Borgen Bay, about southeast of the airfield and a diversion at Green Beach, to the west at Tauali, about from Cape Gloucester. The main assault came at Silimati Point with only one battalion landing in the west. After being transported aboard the APDs from Cape Sudest, the force came ashore aboard landing craft of various types including, LSTs and LCIs. Western landing The diversionary western landing at Tauali (Green Beach), on the Dampier Strait side of the peninsula was assigned to Landing Team 21 (LT 21), consisting of the 2nd Battalion, 1st Marines with a battery of artillery from the 11th Marines. Escorted by two destroyers and two patrol boats, the force was embarked upon 31 landing craft of various types (five LCIs, 12 LCTs and 14 LCMs). They carried with them 20 days of rations and six units of artillery ammunition. After departing Oro Bay with the main convoy, this force had broken off around Finschhafen and proceeded on its own through the Dampier Strait. After a preliminary naval and aerial bombardment around 07:30, the Japanese defenses around Green Beach were found abandoned. LT 21 experienced no opposition coming ashore, preceded by heavy preparatory fires including rockets fired from several amphibious vehicles. The beachhead was established by 08:35 and all first day objectives had been secured by 10:00. Due to interference from the surrounding terrain, the marines were unable to raise their divisional headquarters, and were instead had to relay messages through headquarters Sixth Army (Alamo Force). By nightfall, the marines had secured a perimeter and had cut the coast road, establishing a road block. This prevented the Japanese from using it to reinforce their positions around the airfields, but a secondary route, to the east of Mount Talawe, remained open to the Japanese, having gone undetected by US intelligence. Shortly after the western landing, the Japanese dispatched two companies of the 53rd Infantry Regiment to respond. In the days that followed, the marines clashed with small groups of Japanese, and Japanese artillery and mortars fired on the US perimeter from Dorf Point. Patrol clashes increased until early morning on 30 December when the two companies of the 53rd Infantry attacked the marines around Coffin Corner, exploiting the concealment of a heavy storm and darkness to launch a concentrated assault along a narrow avenue of approach between two defended ridges. Supported with mortars, machine guns and artillery, a five-hour firefight followed before the assault was turned back. Casualties amounted to 89 killed and five captured for the Japanese, against six marines killed and 17 wounded. Following this, there were no further assaults on the western perimeter. Artillery fell on the position on 31 December, but was met counterbattery fire from the 11th Marines who labored to get their guns into action despite the terrain. Although the Japanese sought mainly to avoid contact as most withdrew to support the fighting on the east coast, patrol actions continued throughout early January 1944, when contact was established around Dorf Point with a company-sized patrol from the 5th Marines that had set out overland from the eastern lodgment. The wounded and heavy equipment were subsequently embarked on 11 January, having been hampered by poor weather previously, and LT 21 then collapsed its position, marching east towards the airfields, and on 13 January they linked up with the main body of US troops, who had captured the airfields in late December. Eastern landing and advance to the airfields The remainder of Task Force 76 consisting of 9 APDs, 14 LCIs, and 33 LSTs were allocated to the eastern zone (Yellow Beaches 1 and 2). The 7th Marines were to go ashore first and were tasked with securing the beachhead, while the 1st Marines – less the battalion assigned to the diversionary landing around Tauali – would follow them up after the initial assault, and would pass through their lines to begin the advance north towards the airfield. The 5th Marines would remain embarked as a floating commander's reserve and would only be released on Krueger's orders. As the task force moved into position, the approaches to the beach were marked and cleared during the darkness, and at 06:00, an hour and 45 minutes prior to H-Hour, a heavy naval bombardment began, with the cruisers engaging targets around the airfields, as well as around the beaches and towards Target Hill. As H-Hour approached, the escorting destroyers also joined in the bombardment, followed by a carefully co-ordinated aerial bombing raid with five squadrons of B-24s, and one squadron of B-25s, attacking Target Hill. The first wave of assault troops disembarked from the APDs and were loaded into 12 Landing Craft, Vehicle, Personnel (LCVPs): six were bound for Yellow 1 and the other six for Yellow 2. While the APDs withdrew, the LCVPs began their run to the shore. After the B-25s made a final strafing run over the beach, two rocket-equipped LCIs stationed to the flanks fired onto the beach defenses. Drifting smoke from the aerial bombardment of Target Hill, obscured the beaches and the approaches, and briefly hampered the landing with some troops coming ashore in the wrong spot. Nevertheless, the first wave made landfall around Yellow 1 one minute after H-Hour followed two minutes later at Yellow 2. There was no opposition in the vicinity of these two beaches, but the small group from the 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines which landed northwest of Yellow 1 by mistake came under fire from machine guns firing at maximum range from a number of bunkers after pushing through the thick jungle to locate the coastal trail. Throughout the morning, follow-up troops from the remainder of the 1st Marines came ashore and pushed through the 7th Marines, to begin the advance north towards the airfields. The landing area to the north of Borgen Bay, was surrounded largely by swamp, with only a small narrow beach along which the Marine infantry and their supporting Sherman tanks from the 1st Tank Battalion could advance towards the airfields. This slowed the advance inland and resulted in heavy congestion on the beaches, hampering the unloading process. After initially being diverted towards Arawe in the morning, Japanese aircraft, after refueling and rearming at Rabaul began attacking the Allied ships around the landing beaches around 14:30, resulting in the loss of the destroyer with over a hundred of her crew and casualties aboard the destroyers and . Nevertheless, around 13,000 troops and about 7,600 tons of equipment were pushed ashore during the first day of the operation on either side of the cape, and the attacking Japanese aircraft suffered losses to US fighters and ship-borne anti-aircraft fire. Opposition in the main landing area was limited initially to rear-area troops that had been overrun but a hasty counterattack by the 2nd Battalion, 53rd Infantry Regiment (Major Shinichi Takabe), which had marched from Nakarop, lasted through the afternoon and evening of the first day, falling mainly against the 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines under Lieutenant Colonel Odell M. Conoley. By the end of the day, the 7th Marines held the beachhead, while the 11th Marines had brought their artillery pieces ashore and the 1st Marines had begun a slow advance north, forced into a long column along the narrow trail. The following day the marines advanced westward, pushing towards their objective, before reaching a Japanese blocking position, identified by the marines as Hell's Point, on the eastern side of the airfields. This position was well concealed, and equipped with anti-tank and 75 mm field guns. Teams from the 19th Naval Construction Battalion (designated as the 3rd Battalion, 17th Marines) worked to improve the routes along which the US forces were advancing as large quantities of supplies were landed. Amphibian landing vehicles were used to ferry ammunition forward, but the volume of traffic, coupled with the heavy rain, churned up the narrow coastal road. As a result, the movement of combat supplies forward from Yellow Beach, as well as evacuation of the wounded back from the engagement areas, proved difficult. On 28 December, a secondary landing beach – Blue Beach – was established about closer to the fighting to reduce the distance supplies had to travel ashore. At the same time, the blocking position was attacked and US armor was brought up. Nine Marines were killed and 36 were wounded, while Japanese losses amounted to at least 266 killed. The 5th Marines, which had been in reserve for the initial landing, were landed on 29 December. There was some confusion during the landing due to a last minute change in orders for the regiment to land on Blue Beach instead of Yellow Beach 1 and 2. As a result, the regiment came ashore in both locations, with those who arrived on the Yellow Beaches route marching to Blue Beach or being ferried by truck. After establishing themselves ashore, the 5th Marines carried out a flanking move to the south-west, while the 1st Marine Regiment continued to advance along the coast. By the end of the day, the marines had broken through the Japanese defenses and were in control of most of the airfield. Japanese air attacks ended on 29 December, when bad weather set in. This was followed by much US air activity around Rabaul, which prevented further air attacks on Cape Gloucester. During the final days of December, the marines overran the airfield and expanded their perimeter, incorporating Razorback Ridge, a key feature about to the south of No. 2 Strip running north to south. In early January, Company E, from the 2nd Battalion, 5th Marines effected a link up with the western lodgment around Dorf Point on the western coast. Advance to Borgen Bay In the weeks that followed the capture of the airfield, US troops pushed south towards Borgen Bay to extend the perimeter beyond Japanese artillery range. In this time, further actions were fought by the 5th and 7th Marines against the remnants of the 53rd Infantry Regiment and the 141st Infantry Regiment, which had undertaken a march north across difficult terrain from Cape Bushing, following the initial landings. On 2 January, there was a sharp engagement around Suicide Creek, when the advancing marines came up against a heavily entrenched defending force from the 53rd Infantry. Held up by strong defenses that were well concealed amongst the dense jungle, the marines were halted and dug-in temporarily around Suicide Creek. The following day, a reinforced company from the Japanese 141st Infantry Regiment launched an unsuccessful counterattack on the US troops around Target Hill. This was followed by renewed fighting around Suicide Creek, as the Japanese put up a stubborn defense, which was eventually overcome with the assistance of tanks and artillery on 4 January. After reorganizing on 5 January, US troops secured Aogiri Ridge and Hill 150 on 6 January. This was followed by an action towards the high ground around Hill 660. Slowed by bad weather, rugged terrain and Japanese resistance, progress for the marines around Hill 660 was slow. The position was finally secured on 16 January 1944 following three days of fighting in which 50 marines and over 200 Japanese were killed. The capture of this position represented the end of Japanese defensive operations in the Cape Gloucester and Borgen Bay areas. Following this, Matsuda withdrew with around 1,100 troops, ceding the area to the Americans, who captured his command post intact. Base development The Base Engineer and his operations staff landed on 27 December 1943 and completed a reconnaissance of the two Japanese airfields by 30 December. They found that they were deep in kunai grass and that the Japanese had neither attempted to construct proper drainage nor to re-grade the airstrips. They decided not to proceed with any work on No. 1 Airstrip and to concentrate on No. 2. The 1913th Engineer Aviation Battalion arrived on 2 January, followed by the 864th Engineer Aviation Battalion on 10 January and the 841st Engineer Aviation Battalion on 17 January. Work hours were limited by blackout restrictions imposed by the Task Force Commander, which limited work to daylight hours until 8 January 1944 and by heavy and continuous rain from 27 December 1943 until 21 January 1944, averaging a week. Grading removed of material, mostly kunai humus, from two-thirds of the area. The subgrade was then stabilized with red volcanic ash that had to be hauled from the nearest source away. Marston Mat was then laid over the top but this did not arrive until 25 January 1944, resulting in further delay. By 31 January, of runway was usable and by 18 March a runway was complete. Natural obstacles prevented the runway being lengthened to as originally planned but there were four alert areas, 80 hardstands, a control tower, taxiways, access roads and facilities for four squadrons. A C-45 had landed on the runway at Cape Gloucester in January, followed by a C-47. Lieutenant General Walter Krueger, the commander of Alamo Force, inspected the airstrip with Brigadier General Frederic H. Smith, Jr., on 9 January 1944. They estimated that the 8th Fighter Group could move in as early as 15 January. This did not prove feasible; the airbase was not finished and was at capacity with transport aircraft bringing in much-needed supplies. The 35th Fighter Squadron arrived on 13 February, followed by the 80th Fighter Squadron on 23 February. Heavy rains made mud ooze up through the holes in the steel plank, making the runway slick. This did not bother the 35th Fighter Squadron which flew nimble and rugged P-40 Kittyhawks but the P-38 Lightnings of the 80th Fighter Group found themselves overshooting the short runway. Major General Ennis C. Whitehead, the commander of the Fifth Air Force Advanced Echelon (ADVON), decided to move the 8th Fighter Group to Nadzab and replace it with RAAF Kittyhawk squadrons from Kiriwina. No. 78 Wing RAAF began moving to Cape Gloucester on 11 March. No. 80 Squadron RAAF arrived on 14 March, followed by No. 78 Squadron RAAF on 16 March and No. 75 Squadron RAAF two days later. No, 78 Wing provided close air support for the 1st Marine Division, assisted the PT boats offshore and provided vital air cover for convoys headed to the Admiralty Islands campaign. Operations were maintained at a high tempo until 22 April, when No. 78 Wing was alerted to prepare for Operations Reckless and Persecution, the landings at Hollandia (Jayapura) and Aitape. To support air operations, of bulk petroleum storage was provided, along with a tanker berth with connections to the five storage tanks, which became operational in May 1944. The 19th Naval Construction Battalion worked on a rock-filled pile and crib pier long and wide for Liberty ships. It was not completed before the 19th Naval Construction Battalion left for the Russell Islands, along with the 1st Marine Division, in April 1944. Other works included of open storage, of covered warehouse storage and of refrigerated storage; a 500-bed hospital was completed in May 1944 and a water supply system with a capacity of per day was installed. Despite problems obtaining suitable road surface materials, of two-lane all-weather roads were provided, surfaced with sand, clay, volcanic ash and beach gravel. Timber was obtained locally, and a sawmill operated by the 841st Engineer Aviation Battalion produced of lumber. Aftermath Analysis and statistics Casualties during operations to secure Cape Gloucester amounted to 310 killed and 1,083 wounded for the Americans. Japanese losses exceeded 2,000 killed in the December 1943 to January 1944 period. Ultimately, according to historian John Miller, Cape Gloucester "never became an important air base". Plans to move Thirteenth Air Force units there were cancelled in August 1944. In assessing the operation, historians such as Miller and Samuel Eliot Morison have argued that it was of limited strategic importance in achieving the Allied objectives of Operation Cartwheel. Morison called it a "waste of time and effort". Nevertheless, the airstrip played a vital role in supporting the Admiralty Islands operation commencing in February 1944 and as an emergency landing field for aircraft damaged in raids on Kavieng and Rabaul; it remained in use until April 1945. In June, the base at Cape Gloucester became part of Base F at Finschhafen. Subsequent operations Elsewhere, US and Australian forces conducted the Landing on Long Island, to the northwest, where a radar station was established in December. Alamo Force switched its attention to the landing at Saidor in January 1944 as part of the next stage of operations in New Guinea. In mid-January, the 17th Division commander, Yasushi Sakai, sought permission to withdraw his command from western New Britain. On 16 February, US patrols from Cape Gloucester and Arawe linked up around Gilnit. A company from the 1st Marines landed on Rooke Island on 12 February aboard six LCMs to ensure it was clear of Japanese troops. After coming shore unopposed, the marines sent out patrols to reconnoiter the island. Finding it abandoned, they returned to Cape Gloucester on the 20th Commencing on 23 February, the Japanese forces sought to disengage from the Americans in western New Britain and move towards the Talasea area. Marine patrols kept up the pressure, with several minor engagements being fought in the center of the island and along its north coast. Mopping up operations around Cape Gloucester continued throughout early 1944, although by February 1944 the situation had stabilized enough for US planners to begin preparations to expand the lodgment further east. In early March 1944, the Americans launched an operation to capture Talasea on the northern coast of New Britain, while following up a general Japanese withdrawal towards Cape Hoskins and Rabaul. The 1st Marine Division was relieved around Cape Gloucester on 23 April 1944, and were replaced by the US Army's 40th Infantry Division, which arrived from Guadalcanal. A lull on New Britain followed as the US confined their operations largely to the western end of the island, having decided to bypass Rabaul, while the Japanese stayed close to Rabaul at the opposite end of the island. Responsibility for operations on New Britain was later transferred from US forces to the Australians. In November 1944, they conducted the Landing at Jacquinot Bay for a limited offensive with the Battle of Wide Bay–Open Bay securing the bays, to confine the larger Japanese force to the Gazelle Peninsula, where they remained until the end of the war. References Bibliography External links Cape Gloucester 1943 in Papua New Guinea Cape Gloucester 1944 in Papua New Guinea Cape Gloucester Territory of New Guinea Cape Gloucester Cape Gloucester Cape Gloucester Cape Gloucester Cape Gloucester
5245337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristin%20Lavransdatter	Kristin Lavransdatter	{{Infobox book \| name = Kristin Lavransdatter (The Wreath, The Wife, The Cross) \| image = Kristin Lavransdatter.jpg \| caption = 1935 Knopf edition \| title_orig = Kristin Lavransdatter (Kransen, Husfrue, Korset) \| translator = \| author = Sigrid Undset \| cover_artist = Matthew Joseph Peak \| country = Norway \| language = Norwegian \| genre = Historical fiction, family saga \| publisher = Aschehoug \| release_date = 1920, 1921, 1922 \| isbn = 0-394-43262-2 \| oclc = 17486375 \| preceded_by = The Master of Hestviken}}Kristin Lavransdatter is a trilogy of historical novels written by Sigrid Undset. The individual novels are Kransen (The Wreath), first published in 1920, Husfrue (The Wife), published in 1921, and Korset (The Cross), published in 1922. Kransen and Husfrue were translated from the original Norwegian as The Bridal Wreath and The Mistress of Husaby, respectively, in the first English translation by Charles Archer and J. S. Scott. This work formed the basis of Undset receiving the 1928 Nobel Prize in Literature, which was awarded to her "principally for her powerful descriptions of Northern life during the Middle Ages". Her work is much admired for its historical and ethnological accuracy. Plot The cycle follows the life of Kristin Lavransdatter, a fictitious Norwegian woman living in the 14th century. Kristin grows up in Sel in the Gudbrand Valley, the daughter of a well-respected and affluent farmer. She experiences a number of conflicts in her relationships with her parents, and her husband, in medieval Norway. The Wreath Kristin Lavransdatter is the daughter of Lavrans, a charismatic, respected nobleman in a rural area of Norway, and his wife Ragnfrid, who suffers from depression after the loss of three infant sons and the crippling of her younger daughter Ulvhild in an accident. Raised in a loving and devoutly religious family, Kristin develops a sensitive but wilful character, defying her family in small and large ways. At an early age, she is exposed to various tragedies. After an attempted rape raises questions about her reputation, she is sent to Nonneseter Abbey, Oslo, a Benedictine nunnery, which proves to be a turning point in her life. Despite being betrothed to a neighboring landowner's son, Simon Darre, Kristin falls in love with Erlend Nikulaussøn, from the estate of Husaby in Trøndelag. Erlend has been excommunicated by the Catholic Church for openly cohabitating with Eline, the wife of a prominent judge; Eline left her elderly husband to live with Erlend, flouting both religious and social law. They have had two children together, Orm and Margret, who have no legal rights since they were born of an adulterous relationship. Erlend and Kristin begin a passionate romance which is sealed with Erlend's seduction of Kristin and their eventual complicity in Eline's death, both grievous sins in the eyes of Church and State. Lavrans forbids their relationship, but after three years of Kristin's defiance and the death of Ulvhild, he no longer has the strength to oppose Kristin. He consents to her marriage to Erlend. Erlend and Kristin are formally betrothed, but she becomes pregnant before the wedding. Out of shame, she keeps this a secret from everyone, including Erlend, and is wed with her hair loose and wearing the family bridal crown —- privileges reserved for virgin brides. This section of the trilogy is named for the golden wreath Kristin wears as a young girl, which is reserved for virgins of noble family. It symbolizes her innocent life before she meets Erlend; after he seduces her, she is no longer entitled to wear it, but does so out of fear of her sin coming to light. The Wife The second book opens with Kristin's arrival at Husaby. She is suffering from remorse for her sins and fears for her unborn child. Her relationship with Erlend is no longer the careless one of days past, as she can see that he is impetuous and wasteful of his possessions although his passion for her is unchanged. She gives birth to a son, Nikulaus (Naakkve for short), who to her surprise is healthy and whole in spite of the circumstances of his conception. After confessing to her parish priest, Kristin undertakes a pilgrimage to St. Olav's shrine in Trondheim to do penance and give thanks for her son's birth. She donates her golden wreath, which she wore undeservedly after her seduction by Erlend, to the shrine. Over the following years, Kristin and Erlend have six more sons together and Kristin becomes the head of the household. She must deal with her husband's weaknesses while running the estate, raising her children as well as those of Erlend's former mistress, and trying to remain faithful to her religion. During these years, her parents die and her remaining sister Ramborg is married to Simon Darre, although he secretly still loves Kristin. Ramborg is only fourteen when she is married, but has pushed for this wedding as she has loved Simon since her childhood. She understands little about what marriage means, particularly to a man who has been in love with someone else for many years. Erlend becomes a leader in a plot to depose the king and install the last king's son on the throne. During this time, in part to spite Kristin's coldness towards him, he has a one-night affair with another woman, who finds letters on him related to the plot and turns him in to the authorities. The plot, which would likely have succeeded and elevated Erlend and his sons among the nobility, is thus foiled by Erlend's impetuousness. Through the efforts of Kristin's former fiancé, Simon, his life is spared but his property must be forfeited to the crown. Husaby is lost to them and Erlend's sons are left without an inheritance. The only property left to the family is Kristin's childhood farm, Jørundgård. The Cross Kristin, Erlend, and their children return to Jørundgård but fail to gain the acceptance of the community. Hardship forges strong family bonds and highlights Kristin's sense of obligations to her family and her faith. However, she and Erlend become estranged from Simon and Ramborg after Erlend and Ramborg become aware that Simon has never ceased to love Kristin. Kristin becomes increasingly concerned about the future of her sons now that Erlend has lost their inheritance. After a fierce argument on this subject in which she compares him unfavorably with her father, who had preserved his estate and inheritance even as more and more farmers around him were taking on debts and losing their land to the crown, Erlend leaves the manor and settles at Haugen the former home of his aunt Aashild and the place where she was murdered by her husband. He and Kristin reunite there briefly during his absence after the dying Simon extracts a promise from Kristin to ask Erlend's forgiveness for her harsh words. They conceive an eighth son together, but Erlend refuses to return to the manor, instead insisting Kristin must move to Haugen to be with him. Kristin is very angry and hurt, and when she gives birth, she names her son Erlend. This is a terrible breach of custom, as local superstition maintains that children must not be named after living relatives or one of the two will die. In this way, she demonstrates that she considers her husband dead to her. The superstition is borne out, as the child weakens from the time he is given his father's name and soon dies. Due to the jealousy of her foreman's estranged wife, Kristin is publicly accused of adultery and complicity in the death of her child. Her sons rally around her, and Lavrans rides to inform Erlend. Erlend immediately sets out for Jorundgård, but upon his return to the farm he is slain in a confrontation with the locals and dies, without a confession to the priest, in Kristin's arms after asserting her innocence. After handing the farm over to her third son and his wife, Kristin returns to Trondheim, where she is accepted as a lay member of Rein Abbey. When the Black Death arrives in Norway in 1349, Kristin dedicates herself to nursing the ill. Shortly after she learns that her two eldest sons have succumbed to the plague, she herself succumbs to the plague, but not before performing a final good deed which allows her to die in peace. Related works Undset wrote a tetralogy, "The Master of Hestviken", which takes place around the same time as Kristin Lavransdatter. Kristin's parents make a brief appearance in this book, near the end of the part called "The Snake Pit". They are depicted as young married people, playing with their baby son. They are a happy and prosperous couple at their first home in Skog, before Kristin's birth. The unfortunate life of Olav, the main character of "The Master of Hestviken", stands in stark contrast to the happiness and good fortune of the young couple, though Kristin's parents eventually lose all their sons in infancy, and suffer many other misfortunes and sorrows. Characters in Kristin Lavransdatter Kristin Lavransdatter, the protagonist Lavrans Bjørgulfsson, her father (also referred to as Lavrans Langmandsson) Ragnfrid Ivarsdatter, Kristin's melancholy mother. Simon Darre (also called Simon Andresson), initially engaged to Kristin, later her brother-in-law Erlend Nikulausson, the reckless and handsome man who seduces and marries Kristin Ulvhild Lavransdatter, Kristin's younger sister, left chronically ill and unable to walk after an accident Ramborg Lavransdatter, Kristin's youngest sister, eventual wife of Simon Darre Åashild Gautesdatter of Dovre, a wise woman skilled in magic and the healing arts whom Kristin befriends. She is Erlend's aunt; formerly married unhappily to his uncle Baard Munanson, she is suspected by some of Baard's murder by poison. Ingebørg Olavsdotter, a novice in Nonneseter with Kristin, becomes somewhat of a friend Arne Gyrdson, Kristin's childhood friend and foster-brother Sira Eirik, parish priest at Kristin's childhood home in Jørundgaard Brother Edvin, traveling monk, friend and spiritual mentor to Kristin. Bentein Priestson, grandson of Sira Eirik, attempts to assault Kristin and murders Arne, Gunnulf Nikulausson, Erlend's brother, a priest Lady Gunna, Kristin's neighbor and midwife Sira Eiliv, parish priest at Husaby, Erlend's home Eline Ormsdatter, Erlend's mistress in his youth Orm, son of Erlend and Eline and stepson of Kristin Margret, daughter of Erlend and Eline, and stepdaughter of Kristin Sunniva Olavsdatter, wife of Thorolf; her brief affair with Erlend has tragic consequences Brynhild Fluga (also called Brynhild Jonsdatter), owner of a brothel in Oslo and mother of two of Munan Baardson's children Naakve, Bjørgulf, Gaute, Ivar, Skule, Lavrans, Munan, and Erlend''', sons of Kristin and Erlend (Ivar and Skule are twins). Undset also wrote a few historical figures into the novel: King Magnus VII (also called Magnus Eiriksson), King of Norway and Sweden 1319–1343 Lady Ingebørg Haakonsdatter, mother of King Magnus Knud Porse, Lady Ingebørg's second husband Erling Vidkunsson, "Drotsete" (Regent or High Steward) of Norway 1322–1330 under King Magnus. In the story, he is related to Erlend and Lady Halfrid, and is a lifelong friend of Erlend. Munan Baardson, friend of Lady Ingebørg and Knut Porse. In the story he is the son of Åshild and cousin to Erlend. Jon and Sigurd Haftorsson, King Magnus's cousins who plotted to overthrow him Paal Baardson, Chancellor of Norway 1330, an old antagonist of Erling Vidkunssøn. Literary significance and criticism Kristin Lavransdatter was notable and to some extent controversial in its time for its explicit characterization of sex in general and female sexuality in particular; and its treatment of morally ambiguous situations. It was the main basis for Undset being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. English translations Kristin Lavransdatter was first translated into English by Charles Archer in three volumes between 1923 and 1927, with J.S. Scott collaborating with Archer on Kransen. Their translation made heavy use of archaic and stilted English phrasing ("thee", "I trow", "methinks", etc.), intended to reflect the novel's 14th-century setting. Some of the English translation directly reflects the original language - for example 'I trow' was adopted from the Norwegian 'tror' meaning "to believe". Archer and Scott's translation has been widely criticized as clouding Undset's prose, rendering it unnecessarily formal and clumsy. Bruce Bawer, writing in The New York Times, described the translation as "execrable" and "crammed with hoary medievalisms", while a review from the National Book Critics Circle characterized the language as "relentlessly faux". It was also criticized for expurgations, as some scenes, particularly sexually explicit ones, had been omitted or edited. The quality and difficulty of the translation was cited as impeding the adoption of Kristin Lavransdatter into standard literature of the English-speaking world. Some reviewers have positively cited the Archer and Scott translation; Brad Leithauser, writing in The New York Review of Books, said that their language choice "encourage[s] us to transplant the plot into a realm detached from time". American translator Tiina Nunnally produced a new English translation of the trilogy that was published by Penguin Classics between 1997 and 2000. Many literary critics considered the new version to be superior, particularly for its clarity and reflecting Undset's "straightforward, almost plain style." For her translation of the third book, Korset (The Cross), Nunnally was awarded the PEN Translation Prize in 2001. Kransen (1920). The Bridal Wreath, trans. Charles Archer and J.S. Scott (1923); trans. Tiina Nunnally as The Wreath (Penguin, 1997) Husfrue (1921). The Mistress of Husaby, trans. Charles Archer (1925); trans. Tiina Nunnally as The Wife (Penguin, 1999) Korset (1922). The Cross, trans. Charles Archer (1927); trans. Tiina Nunnally (Penguin, 2000) Portrayal of 14th-century Norway Undset's characterizations of the ethnology, geography, and history of 14th-century Norway have held up as archaeological and literary evidence has emerged since its writing. Much of the meticulous accuracy of the portrayals of medieval life derives from Undset's own familiarity with Norse medieval literature and culture (her father, Ingvald Martin Undset, was an archaeologist) and her personal devout Catholicism. The staunch realism of Kristin Lavransdatter stands in contrast to the romanticized presentations of the Middle Ages popularized by Pre-Raphaelites and Arthurian myth. Awards and nominations Nobel Prize in Literature, 1928 Film, TV or theatrical adaptations Kristin Lavransdatter, 1995, directed by Liv Ullmann Critics gave it a lukewarm reception at best, and many considered it to be more true to the present than to the medieval era in which it was set. The film covers only the first book of the trilogy. However, as it was viewed by as much as two-thirds of the population, it became one of Norway's most domestically successful films: an important cultural event. The release of the film coincided with rising national interest that centered on Norwegian medieval cultural history, and cemented Kristin Lavransdatter and Sigrid Undset as a part of the Norwegian national identity. DVD Actors: Per Kværnes, Elisabeth Matheson, Anne Kokkinn, Bjørn Jenseg, Erland Josephson Format: Anamorphic, Color, Dolby, DVD-Video, Subtitled, Widescreen, NTSC Language: Norwegian Subtitles: English DVD Release Date: April 6, 2004 Run Time: 187 minutes VHS Actors: Torunn Lødemel, Astrid Folstad, Paul-Ottar Haga, Kirsti Eline Torhaug, Joachim Calmeyer Format: Box set, Color, Director's Cut, Special Edition, NTSC VHS Release Date: February 19, 2002 Run Time: 180 minutes Cultural impact Several of the sites mentioned in the novels have been made into museums and destinations along the Norwegian countryside, including Jørundgard medieval center, The Kristin Days, and other events The plot of Kristin Lavransdatter is an important element in the 2007 Academy Award winning animated short, The Danish Poet''. References External links No Longer Lost in Translation book review in the Boston Globe, January 15, 2006. 1920 Norwegian novels 1921 Norwegian novels 1922 Norwegian novels Literary trilogies Novels by Sigrid Undset Novels set in the Middle Ages Norwegian novels adapted into films Novels set in Norway Catholicism in fiction Catholic novels
5245886	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostitution%20in%20ancient%20Greece	Prostitution in ancient Greece	Prostitution was a common aspect of ancient Greece. In the more important cities, and particularly the many ports, it employed a significant number of people and represented a notable part of economic activity. It was far from being clandestine; cities did not condemn brothels, but rather only instituted regulations on them. In Athens, the legendary lawmaker Solon is credited with having created state brothels with regulated prices. Prostitution involved both sexes differently; women of all ages and young men were prostitutes, for a predominantly male clientele. Simultaneously, extramarital relations with a free woman were severely dealt with. In the case of adultery, the cuckold had the legal right to kill the offender if caught in the act; the same went for rape. Female adulterers, and by extension prostitutes, were forbidden to marry or take part in public ceremonies. Pornai The pornai () were found at the bottom end of the scale. They were the property of pimps or pornoboskós () who received a portion of their earnings (the word comes from pernemi "to sell"). This owner could be a citizen, for this activity was considered as a source of income just like any other: one 4th-century BC orator cites two; Theophrastus in Characters (6:5) lists pimp next to cook, innkeeper, and tax collector as an ordinary profession, though disreputable. The owner could also be a male or female metic. In the classical era of ancient Greece, pornai were slaves of barbarian origin; starting in the Hellenistic era the case of young girls abandoned by their citizen fathers could be enslaved. They were considered to be slaves until proven otherwise. Pornai were usually employed in brothels located in "red-light" districts of the period, such as Piraeus (port of Athens) or Kerameikos in Athens. The classical Athenian politician Solon is credited as being the first to institute legal public brothels. He did this as a public health measure, in order to contain adultery. The poet Philemon praised him for this measure in the following terms: [Solon], seeing Athens full of young men, with both an instinctual compulsion, and a habit of straying in an inappropriate direction, bought women and established them in various places, equipped and common to all. The women stand naked that you not be deceived. Look at everything. Maybe you are not feeling well. You have some sort of pain. Why? The door is open. One obol. Hop in. There is no coyness, no idle talk, nor does she snatch herself away. But straight away, as you wish, in whatever way you wish. You come out. Tell her to go to hell. She is a stranger to you. As Philemon highlights, the Solonian brothels provided a service accessible to all, regardless of income. (One obolus is one sixth of one drachma, the daily salary of a public servant at the end of the 5th century BC. By the middle of the 4th century BC, this salary was up to a drachma and a half.) In the same light, Solon used taxes he levied on brothels to build a temple to Aphrodite Pandemos (literally "Aphrodite of all the people"). In regards to price, there are numerous allusions to the price of one obolus for a cheap prostitute; no doubt for basic acts. It is difficult to assess whether this was the actual price or a proverbial amount designating a "good deal". Independent prostitutes who worked the street were on the next higher level. Besides directly displaying their charms to potential clients they had recourse to publicity; sandals with marked soles have been found which left an imprint that stated AKOLOUTHEI ("Follow me") on the ground. They also used makeup, apparently quite outrageously. Eubulus, a comic author, offers these courtesans derision: "plastered over with layers of white lead, … jowls smeared with mulberry juice. And if you go out on a summer's day, two rills of inky water flow from your eyes, and the sweat rolling from your cheeks upon your throat makes a vermilion furrow, while the hairs blown about on your faces look grey, they are so full of white lead". These prostitutes had various origins: Metic women who could not find other work, poor widows, and older pornai who had succeeded in buying back their freedom (often on credit). In Athens they had to be registered with the city and pay a tax. Some of them made a decent fortune plying their trade. In the 1st century, at Qift in Roman Egypt, passage for prostitutes cost 108 drachma, while other women paid 20. Their tariffs are difficult to evaluate: they varied significantly. The average charge for a prostitute in 5th and 4th century ranged from three obols to a drachma. Expensive prostitutes could charge a stater (four drachmas), or more, like the Corinthian Lais in her prime did. In the 1st century BC, the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus of Gadara, cited in the Palatine anthology, V 126, mentions a system of subscription of up to five drachma for a dozen visits. In the 2nd century, Lucian in his Dialogue of the Hetaera has the prostitute Ampelis consider five drachma per visit as a mediocre price (8, 3). In the same text a young virgin can demand a mina, that is 100 drachma (7,3), or even two minas if the customer is less than appetizing. A young and pretty prostitute could charge a higher price than her in-decline colleague; even if, as iconography on ceramics demonstrates, a specific market existed for older women. The price would change if the client demanded exclusivity. Intermediate arrangements also existed; a group of friends could purchase exclusivity, with each having part-time rights. Musicians and dancers working at male banquets can also undoubtedly be placed in this category. Aristotle, in his Constitution of the Athenians (L, 2) mentions among the specific directions to the ten city controllers (five from within the city and five from the Piraeus), the astynomoi, that "it is they who supervise the flute-girls and harp-girls and lyre-girls to prevent their receiving fees of more than two drachmas" per night. Sexual services were clearly part of the contract, though the price, in spite of the efforts of the astynomi, tended to increase throughout the period. Hetaera More expensive and exclusive prostitutes were known as hetaerae, which means "companion". Hetaerae, unlike pornai, engaged in long-term relationships with individual clients, and provided companionship as well as sex. Unlike pornai, hetaerae seem to have been paid for their company over a period of time, rather than for each individual sex act. Hetaerae were often educated, and free hetaerae were able to control their own finances. Temple prostitution in Corinth Around the year 2 BC, Strabo (VIII,6,20) in his geographic/historical description of the town of Corinth wrote some remarks concerning female temple servants in the temple of Aphrodite in Corinth, which perhaps should be dated somewhere in the period 700–400 BC: The text in more than one way hints at the sexual business of those women. Remarks elsewhere of Strabo (XII,3,36: "women earning money with their bodies") as well as Athenaeus (XIII,574: "in the lovely beds picking the fruits of the mildest bloom") concerning this temple describe this character even more graphically. In 464 BC, a man named Xenophon, a citizen of Corinth who was an acclaimed runner and winner of pentathlon at the Olympic Games, dedicated one hundred young girls to the temple of the goddess as a sign of thanksgiving. We know this because of a hymn which Pindar was commissioned to write (fragment 122 Snell), celebrating "the very welcoming girls, servants of Peïtho and luxurious Corinth". The work of gender researchers like Daniel Arnaud, Julia Assante and Stephanie Budin has cast the whole tradition of scholarship that defined the concept of sacred prostitution into doubt. Budin regards the concept of sacred prostitution as a myth, arguing taxatively that the practices described in the sources were misunderstandings of either non-remunerated ritual sex or non-sexual religious ceremonies, possibly even mere cultural slander. Although popular in modern times, this view has not gone without being criticized in its methodological approach, including accusations of an ideological agenda. Sparta In archaic and classical Sparta, Plutarch claims that there were no prostitutes due to the lack of precious metals and money, and the strict moral regime introduced by Lycurgus. A 6th century vase from Laconia, which shows a mixed-gender group at what appears to be a symposium, might be interpreted as depicting a hetaira, contradicting Plutarch. However, Sarah Pomeroy argues that the banquet depicted is religious, rather than secular, in nature, and that the woman depicted is not therefore a prostitute. As precious metals increasingly became available to Spartan citizens, it became easier to access prostitutes. In 397, a prostitute at the perioicic village of Aulon was accused of corrupting Spartan men who went there. By the Hellenistic period, there were reputedly sculptures in Sparta dedicated by a hetaera called Cottina. A brothel named after Cottina also seems to have existed in Sparta, near to the temple of Dionysus by Taygetus, at least by the Hellenistic period. Social conditions The social conditions of prostitutes are difficult to evaluate; as women were already marginalized in Greek society. We know of no direct evidence of either their lives or the brothels in which they worked. It is likely that the Greek brothels were similar to those of Rome, described by numerous authors and preserved at Pompeii; dark, narrow, and malodorous places. One of the many slang terms for prostitutes was khamaitypếs () 'one who hits the ground', suggesting to some literal-minded commentators that their activities took place in the dirt or possibly on all fours from behind. Given the Ancient Greeks' propensity for poetic thinking, it seems just as likely that this term also suggested that there is 'nothing lower', rather than that a significant proportion of prostitutes were reduced to plying their trade in the mud. Certain authors have prostitutes talking about themselves: Lucian in his Dialogue of courtesans or Alciphron in his collection of letters; but these are works of fiction. The prostitutes of concern here are either independent or hetaera: the sources here do not concern themselves with the situation of slave-prostitutes, except to consider them as a source of profit. It is quite clear what ancient Greek men thought of prostitutes: primarily, they are reproached for the commercial nature of the activity. The acquisitiveness of prostitutes is a running theme in Greek comedy. The fact that prostitutes were the only Athenian women who handled money may have increased acrimony towards them. An explanation for their behavior is that a prostitute's career tended to be short, and their income decreased with the passage of time: a young and pretty prostitute, across all levels of the trade, could potentially earn more money than her older, less attractive colleagues. To provide for old age, they thus had to acquire as much money as possible in a limited period of time. Medical treatises provide a glimpse—but very partial and incomplete—into the daily life of prostitutes. In order to keep generating revenues, the slave-prostitutes had to avoid pregnancy at any cost. Contraceptive techniques used by the Greeks are not as well known as those of the Romans. Nevertheless, in a treatise attributed to Hippocrates (Of the Seed, 13), he describes in detail the case of a dancer "who had the habit of going with the men"; he recommends that she "jump up and down, touching her buttocks with her heels at each leap" to dislodge the sperm, and thus avoid risk. Prostitutes were also probably more likely to practice infanticide than citizen women. In the case of independent prostitutes the situation is less clear; girls could after all be trained "on the job", succeeding their mothers and supporting them in old age. Greek pottery also provides an insight into the daily life of prostitutes. Their representation can generally be grouped into four categories: banquet scenes, sexual activities, toilet scenes and scenes depicting their maltreatment. In the toilet scenes the prostitutes are not presented as portraying the physical ideal; sagging breasts, rolls of flesh, etc. There is a kylix showing a prostitute urinating into a chamber pot. In the representation of sexual acts, the presence of a prostitute is often identified by the presence of a purse, which suggests the relationship has a financial component. The position most frequently shown is the leapfrog—or sodomy; these two positions being difficult to visually distinguish. The woman is frequently folded in two with her hands flat on the ground. Sodomy was considered degrading for an adult and it seems that the leapfrog position (as opposed to the missionary position) was considered less gratifying for the woman. Finally, a number of vases represent scenes of abuse, where the prostitute is threatened with a stick or sandal, and forced to perform acts considered by the Greeks to be degrading: fellatio, sodomy or sex with multiple partners. If the hetaera were undeniably the most liberated women in Greece, it also needs to be said that many of them had a desire to become 'respectable' and find a husband or stable companion. Naeara, whose career is described in a legal discourse, manages to raise three children before her past as a hetaera catches up to her. According to the sources, Aspasia is chosen as concubine or possibly spouse by Pericles. Atheneus remarks that "For when such women change to a life of sobriety they are better than the women who pride themselves on their respectability" (XIII, 38), and cites numerous great Greek men who had been fathered by a citizen and a courtesan, such as the Strategos Timotheus, son of Conon. Finally, there is no known example of a woman of the citizen class voluntarily becoming a hetaera. This is perhaps not surprising, since women of the citizen class would have no incentive whatsoever to do such a thing. Prostitutes in literature During the time of the New Comedy (of ancient Greek comedy), prostitute characters became, after the fashion of slaves, the veritable stars of the comedies. This could be for several reasons: while Old Comedy (of ancient Greek comedy) concerned itself with political subjects, New Comedy dealt with private subjects and the daily life of Athenians. Also, social conventions forbade well-born women from being seen in public, while the plays depicted outside activities. The only women who would normally be seen out in the street were logically the prostitutes. The intrigues of the New Comedy thus often involved prostitutes. Ovid, in his Amores, states "Whil'st Slaves be false, Fathers hard, and Bauds be whorish, Whilst Harlots flatter, shall Menander flourish." (I, 15, 17–18). The courtesan could be the young girl friend of the young first star: in this case, free and virtuous, she is reduced to prostitution after having been abandoned or captured by pirates (e.g. Menander's Sikyonioi). Recognized by her real parents because of trinkets left with her, she is freed and can marry. In a secondary role, she can also be the supporting actor's love interest. Menander also created, contrary to the traditional image of the greedy prostitute, the part of the "whore with a heart of gold" in Dyskolos, where this permits a happy conclusion to the play. Conversely, in the utopian worlds of the Greeks, there was often no place for prostitutes. In Aristophanes' play Assemblywomen, the heroine Praxagora formally bans them from the ideal city: Why, undoubtedly! Furthermore, I propose abolishing the whores … so that, instead of them, we may have the first-fruits of the young men. It is not meet that tricked-out slaves should rob free-born women of their pleasures. Let the courtesans be free to sleep with the slaves.(v. 716–719). The prostitutes are obviously considered to be unfair competition. In a different genre, Plato, in the Republic, proscribed Corinthian prostitutes in the same way as Attican pastries, both being accused of introducing luxury and discord into the ideal city. The cynic Crates of Thebes, (cited by Diodorus Siculus, II, 55–60) during the Hellenistic period describes a utopian city where, following the example of Plato, prostitution is also banished. Male prostitution The Greeks also had an abundance of male prostitutes, pórnoi. Some of them aimed at a female clientele: the existence of gigolos is confirmed in the classical era. As such, in Aristophanes's Plutus (v. 960–1095) an old woman complains about having spent all her money on a young lover who is now jilting her. The vast majority of male prostitutes, however, were for a male clientele. Prostitution and pederasty Contrary to female prostitution, which covered all age groups, male prostitution was in essence restricted to adolescents. Pseudo-Lucian, in his Affairs of the Heart (25–26) expressly states: "Thus from maidenhood to middle age, before the time when the last wrinkles of old age finally spread over her face, a woman is a pleasant armful for a man to embrace, and, even if the beauty of her prime is past, yet "With wiser tongue Experience doth speak than can the young." But the very man who should make attempts on a boy of twenty seems to me to be unnaturally lustful and pursuing an equivocal love. For then the limbs, being large and manly, are hard, the chins that once were soft are rough and covered with bristles, and the well-developed thighs are as it were sullied with hairs." The period during which adolescents were judged as desirable extended from puberty until the appearance of a beard, the hairlessness of youth being an object of marked taste among the Greeks. As such, there were cases of men keeping older boys for lovers, but depilated. However, these kept boys were looked down upon, and if the matter came to the attention of the public they were deprived of citizenship rights once come to adulthood. In one of his discourses (Against Timarkhos, I, 745), Aeschines argues against one such man in court, who in his youth had been a notorious escort. As with its female counterpart, male prostitution in Greece was not an object of scandal. Brothels for slave-boys existed openly, not only in the "red-light district" of Piraeus, the Kerameikon, or the Lycabettus, but throughout the city. The most celebrated of these young prostitutes is perhaps Phaedo of Elis. Reduced to slavery during the capture of his city, he was sent to work in a brothel until noticed by Plato, who had his freedom bought. The young man became a follower of Socrates together with his mentor Plato and gave his name to the Phaedo dialogue of Plato, which relates the last hours of Socrates. Males were not exempt from the city tax on prostitutes. The client of such a brothel did not receive reprobation from either the courts or from public opinion. Prostitution and citizenship If some portions of society did not have the time or means to practice the interconnected aristocratic rituals (spectating at the gymnasium, courtship, gifting), they could all satisfy their desires with prostitutes. The boys also received the same legal protection from assault as their female counterparts. Sexual relations with slaves does not appear to have been a widespread option; first mention of it does not occur until 390 BC. As a consequence, though prostitution was legal, it was still socially shameful. It was generally the domain of slaves or, more generally, non-citizens. In Athens, for a citizen, it had significant political consequences, such as the atimia ()- loss of public civil rights. This is demonstrated in The Prosecution of Timarkhos: Aeschines is accused by Timarkhos; to defend himself, Aeschines accuses his accuser of having been a prostitute in his youth. Consequentially, Timarkhos is stripped of civil rights; one of these rights being the ability to file charges against someone. Conversely, prostituting an adolescent, or offering him money for favours, was strictly forbidden as it could lead to the youth's future loss of legal status. The Greek reasoning is explained by Aeschines (stanza 29), as he cites the dokimasia (): the citizen who prostituted himself ( peporneuménos) or causes himself to be so maintained ( hētairēkós) is deprived of making public statements because "he who has sold his own body for the pleasure of others ( eph’ hybrei) would not hesitate to sell the interests of the community as a whole". According to Polybius (XII, 15, 1), the accusations of Timaeus against Agathocles reprise the same theme: a prostitute is someone who abdicates their own dignity for the desires of another, "a common prostitute ( koinòn pórnon) available to the most dissolute, a jackdaw, a buzzard presenting his behind to whoever wants it." Fees As with female prostitutes, fees varied considerably. Athenaeus (VI, 241) mentions a boy who offers his favours for one obolus; again, the mediocrity of this price calls it into some doubt. Straton of Sardis, a writer of epigrams in the 2nd century, recalls a transaction for five drachma (Palatine anthology, XII, 239). In the forensic speech Against Simon, the prosecutor claimed to have hired a boy's sexual services for the price of 300 drachma, much more than what "middle range" hetaira typically charged. And a letter of pseudo-Aeschines (VII, 3) estimates the earnings of one Melanopous at 3,000 drachma; probably through the length of his career. The categories of male prostitution should be so separated: Aeschines, in his The Prosecution of Timarkhos (stanza 29, see above) distinguishes between the prostitute and the kept boy. He adds a little later (stanzas 51–52) that if Timarkhos had been content to stay with his first protector, his conduct would have been less reprehensible. It was not only that Timarkhos had left this man—who no longer had the funds to support him—but that he had 'collected' protectors; proving, according to Aeschines, that he was not a kept boy (hêtairêkôs), but a vulgar whore (peporneumenos). See also Hetaira History of human sexuality History of prostitution Pederasty in ancient Greece Prostitution in ancient Rome Sexuality in ancient Rome Sexuality in ancient Greece Notes References Sources [Baladié] Strabon. Géographie. Tome V. (Livre VIII). Texte établi et traduit par Raoul Baladié, Professeur à l’Université de Bordeaux III. Société d’édition « Les Belles Lettres », Paris; 1978. [Radt,2] Strabons Geographika. Band 2: Buch V-VIII: Text und Übersetzung. Mit Übersetzung und Kommentar herausgegeben von Stefan Radt. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen; 2003. [Radt,6] Stefan Lorenz Radt – Strabons Geographika. Band 6: Buch V-VIII: Kommentar. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen; 2007. Further reading David M. Halperin, « The Democratic Body; Prostitution and Citizenship in Classical Athens », in One Hundred Years of Homosexuality and Other Essays on Greek Love, Routledge, "The New Ancient World" collection, London-New York, 1990 Kenneth J. Dover, Greek Homosexuality, Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Massachusetts), 1989 (1st edition 1978). Eva C. Keuls, The Reign of the Phallus: Sexual Politics in Ancient Athens, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1993. Sarah B. Pomeroy, Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity, Schocken, 1975. K. Schneider, Hetairai, in Paulys Real-Encyclopädie der classichen Altertumwissenschaft, cols. 1331–1372, 8.2, Georg Wissowa, Stuttgart, 1913 Violaine Vanoyeke, La Prostitution en Grèce et à Rome, Les Belles Lettres, "Realia" collection, Paris, 1990. Hans Licht, Sexual Life in Ancient Greece, London, 1932. Allison Glazebrook, Madeleine M. Henry (ed.), Greek Prostitutes in the Ancient Mediterranean, 800 BCE-200 CE (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2011) (Wisconsin studies in classics). Sexuality in ancient Greece Pederasty in ancient Greece Greece
5245920	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gareth%20Bale	Gareth Bale	Gareth Frank Bale (born 16 July 1989) is a Welsh former professional footballer who played as a winger, most notably for Tottenham Hotspur and Real Madrid. He is widely regarded as one of the best footballers of his generation and one of the greatest Welsh players of all time. He was best known for his explosive pace, athleticism, and powerful strikes from distance. Bale began his professional career at Southampton, playing at left-back before moving to Tottenham in 2007. From the 2009–10 season, under the guidance of Harry Redknapp, Bale became an integral part of the team and transformed into a winger. He went on to receive several individual honours, including two PFA Players' Player of the Year awards and three PFA Team of the Year inclusions. In September 2013, Real Madrid signed Bale for a then world-record transfer fee of £85.1 million (€100.8 million). Being part of the subsequent trio dubbed BBC, alongside Cristiano Ronaldo and Karim Benzema, Bale helped the club to win the Copa del Rey and the Champions League, scoring in both finals. Although Bale experienced a decrease in game time from 2015 onwards due to continual injuries, he was amongst the top three nominees for the 2015-16 UEFA Men's Player of the Year Award, scored an overhead kick in Real Madrid's 2018 UEFA Champions League Final victory, and was awarded the FIFA Club World Cup Golden Ball in 2018. In 2020–21, he returned to Tottenham on loan, before playing his final season in Madrid. In his nine-year tenure, Bale won 15 trophies, including three La Liga titles and five Champions Leagues. He joined MLS club Los Angeles FC in July 2022 before retiring in January 2023, aged 33. Bale made his senior international debut for Wales in May 2006, becoming the youngest player at that point to represent the nation. He then went on to earn 111 caps and scored 41 international goals, making him Wales' most capped player and top goalscorer of all time. He was the top scorer for Wales in their successful qualifying campaign for UEFA Euro 2016, scoring seven times; he subsequently represented Wales in the final tournament as they reached the semi-finals, scoring three goals. He later featured for the side at Euro 2020 and was pivotal in Wales' qualifying for the 2022 FIFA World Cup, ending a 64-year appearance drought at the World Cup. He was named Welsh Footballer of the Year a record six times. Early life and career Bale was born in Cardiff, Wales, to Frank, a school caretaker, and Debbie Bale, an operations manager. He is the nephew of former Cardiff City footballer Chris Pike. He attended Eglwys Newydd Primary School in Whitchurch. It was while at this school that he first came to the attention of Southampton at age nine, when he was playing in a six-a-side tournament with his first club, Cardiff Civil Service. Growing up, his footballing hero was fellow Welshman and Manchester United player Ryan Giggs. Bale attended Whitchurch High School in Cardiff. He was a keen athlete; he played football alongside future Wales rugby captain Sam Warburton, rugby, hockey and excelled at athletics. As a 14-year-old he says that he ran the 100-metre sprint in 11.4 seconds. Because of his superior footballing skill, the school's PE teacher, Gwyn Morris, had to write special rules which restricted Bale to playing one-touch football and not using his left foot. Despite being only 16 at the time, Bale helped the school's under-18 team win the Cardiff & Vale Senior Cup. He left school in the summer of 2005 with a Grade A in PE amongst his other GCSE results. In his final year at school, he was awarded the PE department's prize for services to sport. In the presentation, Morris commented: "Gareth has a fierce determination to succeed and has the character and qualities to achieve his personal goals. He is one of the most unselfish individuals that I have had the pleasure to help educate." Club career Southampton On 17 April 2006, at the age of 16 years and 275 days, Bale became the second youngest player ever to play for Southampton (after Theo Walcott, who was 132 days younger) when he made his debut in the Saints' 2–0 victory against Millwall. On 6 August, Bale scored his first league goal, a free kick, to level the score at 1–1 against Derby County. The final score at Pride Park was 2–2. He scored again, at St Mary's, against Coventry City in the team's second game of the 2006–07 season with another free kick. Bale further developed his reputation as a threat on free kicks when he struck the post from one against West Bromwich Albion. By 16 December 2006, Bale's goal count had risen to five, thanks to a late equaliser against Sunderland and free kicks away to Hull City and at home to Norwich City. In December 2006, he won the Carwyn James Award for the BBC Wales Young Sports Personality of the Year, and was named the Football League Young Player of the Year on 4 March 2007. This capped what was described in the local press as an "incredible" first full season as a professional footballer in which he was one of the Saints' "most creative players even (though operating) from the left-back position whilst his defending improved immeasurably as the season progressed." His final game for Southampton was in the first leg of the Championship play-off semi-final against Derby County on 12 May 2007. Bale suffered an injury during the second half, preventing him from appearing in the second leg. In total, he made 45 appearances for Southampton, scoring five goals. Tottenham Hotspur On 25 May 2007, Bale signed a four-year deal with Tottenham Hotspur with the club paying an initial £5 million for the player, potentially rising to £10 million based on appearances and success. 2007–2009 Bale played his first game for Spurs in a friendly against St. Patrick's Athletic on 12 July 2007, but was substituted on the 80th minute with a minor dead leg. He made his competitive debut for Tottenham Hotspur on 26 August away against Manchester United. On 1 September 2007, in his second Spurs appearance, he scored his first goal for the club in a 3–3 draw with Fulham. Bale went on to score against Arsenal in the North London derby from a free kick. He then scored in the League Cup home tie against Middlesbrough. On 2 December 2007, Bale was substituted after sustaining an injury resulting from a tackle from Fabrice Muamba in the league fixture against Birmingham City. A scan revealed that Bale had suffered ligament damage to his right ankle, consigning him to an extended period on the sidelines. Bale had exploratory surgery on 11 December. By February 2008, it became clear that Bale was to miss the rest of the season through injury. Sporting Director of Tottenham, Damien Comolli said, "Even if the examination reveals that Gareth's foot is stable, the decision has been taken to bring him back slowly to ensure he does not get a repeat of the injury or suffer any further damage. Gareth is obviously disappointed to be sidelined for this length of time but he is still young and we have to do what is best for him in the long run." Bale returned to fitness in August 2008, the same month he signed a new four-year deal with the club, and went on to make 30 appearances for Tottenham in all competitions that season. He picked up his first career red card in a 2–1 defeat at Stoke City in October 2008. That season he took part in the League Cup final against Manchester United. Bale came off the bench in the 98th minute in extra time with the final result deadlocked at 0–0 resulting in a penalty shoot-out that ended 4–1 to Manchester United. 2009–2011 In June 2009, Bale underwent surgery for a knee injury, ruling him out for over two months. He missed pre-season matches and it was projected that he would miss the first few weeks of the 2009–10 season. On 26 September, he made his comeback as an 85th-minute substitute in Tottenham's 5–0 win over Burnley. This was Bale's first ever involvement in a Premier League win, after not being on the winning side since the Southampton move. However, he struggled to break into the first team, in part thanks to Benoit Assou-Ekotto's good form. When Assou-Ekotto was sidelined with an injury, manager Harry Redknapp decided to give Bale a chance and he impressed in Spurs' FA Cup third-round 4–0 win over Peterborough United. His first victory as a starter in a league game came in the 2–0 win over London rivals Fulham on 26 January 2010. Bale's good form continued and he was named Player of the Round after helping Spurs to a 3–1 win in the sixth round replay of the FA Cup against Fulham. In April 2010, Bale scored the winning goal in a 2–1 North London derby win against Arsenal, tapping past Manuel Almunia, after a pass from Jermain Defoe. Three days later, Bale scored Tottenham's winning goal with his weaker right foot in a 2–1 victory over league leaders and eventual champions Chelsea and was named man of the match. He was named Premier League Player of the Month for April 2010. He signed a new four-year contract at White Hart Lane on 7 May 2010, as a reward for helping the club reaching a 2010–11 UEFA Champions League qualification place. On 21 August 2010, Bale scored twice in a 2–1 win at Stoke City, the second of which was a head-high volley into the top right hand corner of the goal. This was later awarded the BBC Goal of the Month for August 2010. On 25 August, Bale set up all four goals to help Spurs overcome Young Boys 4–0 (6–3 agg.) in a Champions League play-off at White Hart Lane. Although Assou-Ekotto had already returned from injury, Bale continued his good form and cemented his place in the starting eleven, with his manager opting him to move to left wing to accommodate Assou-Ekotto at left-back. On 29 September, Bale scored his first Champions League goal for Tottenham in a 4–1 home win against Dutch champions Twente in their second game of the group stages. For his performances, he was named Welsh Player of the Year by the Football Association of Wales (FAW). On 20 October, Bale scored his first senior hat-trick against European champions Inter Milan at the San Siro in the Champions League. Tottenham lost the match 4–3, having been 4–0 down inside the first 35 minutes and playing with ten men for over 80 minutes of the match after goalkeeper Heurelho Gomes had been sent off in the eighth minute for a professional foul on Inter's Jonathan Biabiany. In the return match at White Hart Lane on 2 November, Bale provided a man-of-the-match performance, setting up goals for Peter Crouch and Roman Pavlyuchenko to earn Spurs a memorable 3–1 win. On 4 November, Bale stated that he intended to remain at Tottenham for the remainder of his recently signed four-year contract, despite reported interest from other clubs, then, in December, he was awarded the BBC Wales Sports Personality of the Year trophy. On 19 March 2011, it was announced he would then extended his stay at the club until 2015. On 17 April, Bale was honoured with the PFA Players' Player of the Year award, as voted for by his peers. With Spurs, he rose to international attention during the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League with Tottenham. 2011–2013 Bale scored his first goal of the 2011–12 season on 24 September 2011, in an away game against Wigan Athletic. The game ended in a 2–1 victory for Tottenham. He added his second and third goals of the season on 30 October with two goals against Queens Park Rangers in a 3–1 home win. He continued his good form with the first goal in a 3–1 victory over Fulham the following week, whilst also setting up Aaron Lennon who made it 2–0 on the stroke of half time. The first goal against Fulham was later ruled by the "dubious goals committee" to be an own goal by Chris Baird. On 3 December, Bale scored the first goal in Tottenham's 3–0 victory over Bolton Wanderers. He marked the goal with a tribute to Gary Speed by holding up his left boot, with "R.I.P Gary Speed" stitched on it, in front of the Bolton fans. On 27 December, Bale scored twice to give Tottenham a 2–0 win against Norwich City. On 5 January 2012, Bale was one of the players voted into the 2011 UEFA Team of the Year. He scored his third brace of the season as he scored twice against Wigan, on 31 January to take his tally to ten goals for the season. In January 2012, he was named Premier League Player of the Month for the second time in his career, after three goals and two assists in the Premier League for the month. On 27 June, Bale signed a new four-year contract, committing his future to the club until 2016. For the 2012–13 season, Bale changed his squad number from 3 to 11 as he was "not a left-back anymore" and had asked the club for a "higher number". On 16 September 2012, Bale scored his first goal of the 2012–13 season against Reading in a 3–1 away victory. On 29 September, Bale scored the second goal in Tottenham's 3–2 away victory over Manchester United, their first win at Old Trafford since 1989. He scored his first Premier League hat-trick in a 4–0 away win on Boxing Day against Aston Villa. On 5 January 2013, Bale scored in the FA Cup third round fixture against Coventry City as well as assisting Clint Dempsey on both of his goals in a 3–0 win. On 30 January, Bale scored a magnificent solo effort in the 1–1 draw with Norwich City. Bale then scored against West Bromwich Albion in a 1–0 away win on 3 February. Bale then took his goal tally of the season to 15 goals with a brace against Newcastle United in a match which Spurs won 2–1. This took Spurs into third place, and strengthened their Champions League ambitions. In Bale's next game, he scored directly from two free kicks, one from 35 yards out just before half time and another from 25 yards out in the dying seconds of injury time, to give Tottenham a 2–1 victory over Lyon in the first leg of their Europa League round of 32 tie on 14 February. This took Bale to a tally of ten goals in his previous ten appearances. In Tottenham's Premier League match against West Ham on 25 February, Bale scored the first and third in a 3–2 win for Tottenham. His second, a long range dipping strike from over 30 yards, in the dying stages of the game, capped a world class performance. This was his eighth goal in six games. On 3 March, Bale scored against Arsenal in a North London derby that Tottenham won 2–1. On 7 March, Tottenham faced Inter Milan in the Europa League, with Bale scoring the opening goal and Tottenham winning 3–0. Bale's run of good form in the early months of 2013 saw him win Premier League Player of the Month for February as well as the BBC Goal of the Month in both January and February for his strikes against Norwich City and West Ham United respectively. On 4 April, Bale injured his right ankle in the first leg of the Europa League quarter-final against Basel. On his return from injury, Bale scored a goal and assisted Clint Dempsey as Tottenham beat Manchester City at White Hart Lane. On 28 April, Bale won both the PFA Players' Player of the Year and Young Player of the Year after his excellent showing in the 2012–13 season. A week later, on 2 May 2013, he added the FWA Footballer of the Year Award from the Football Writers' Association, making Bale one of only two players who have won all three in the same season – the other being Cristiano Ronaldo, who won them in 2007. Bale scored the winning goal against his former club Southampton on 4 May. The goal gave Spurs a 1–0 win as well as being Bale's 20th in the Premier League in his 200th appearance for Spurs. On 19 May, Bale scored a 90th-minute goal from 25 yards out. This goal gave Spurs a 1–0 win over Sunderland, but was not enough to give them Champions League football for the following season. Real Madrid On 1 September 2013, Spanish club Real Madrid announced that they had reached an agreement for the transfer of Bale, signing a six-year deal in a then world record deal. The Spanish press (and Real Madrid TV) reported that Bale had cost £77 million (€91 million), while the British press reported a world record transfer fee of £85.3 million (€100 million), which would be above Cristiano Ronaldo's transfer record fee of £80 million (€94 million). However, in January 2016, documents pertaining to the transfer were leaked by Football Leaks which confirmed a world record transfer fee of €100.8 million (£85.1 million). Bale's record was surpassed in August 2016 by Paul Pogba's record fee of €105 million (£89.2 million). Bale was assigned the number 11 shirt at Madrid. 2013–2015 The first half of Bale's season was plagued by injuries; of Real's first 16 games after his signing, Bale missed five and was substituted on or off in six others, playing only five full games. Bale scored on his Real Madrid debut, a goal coming in the 38th minute against Villarreal, before being substituted later in the game for Ángel Di María. Bale's second appearance for Madrid came in a 6–1 victory over Galatasaray in the Champions League. Although Bale only played the final 26 minutes, his free kick led to Cristiano Ronaldo's second goal of the game. On 28 September 2013, Bale made his home debut as a second-half substitute in a 1–0 loss to local rivals Atlético Madrid. Following a brief appearance against Juventus in the Champions League, Bale made his El Clásico debut on 26 October, but was substituted in the 61st minute. Barcelona won the game 2–1, and Bale's performance drew some media criticism. Four days later, he scored two goals and assisted two in a 7–3 victory against Sevilla. Following his impressive performance the Spanish press nicknamed Bale "The Cannon". In November, he assisted a further two goals in Madrid's 3–2 victory over Rayo Vallecano, before scoring in a 2–2 draw with Juventus in the Champions League. He then scored a 25-yard free kick against Galatasaray in the Champions League, a match which Madrid won 4–1 despite being a man down. On 30 November, Bale rounded off the month with his first hat-trick for Real Madrid, as well as assisting Karim Benzema, in a 4–0 victory over Real Valladolid. It was a "perfect hat-trick": one goal with a header and one with each foot.On 26 February 2014, he scored twice in Real Madrid's 6–1 win against Schalke 04 in the Champions League round of 16 first leg. He then scored one of the team's three goals in a 3–0 quarter-final win over Borussia Dortmund on 2 April, taking him to five Champions League goals for the season. In La Liga, he scored four goals in three matches between gameweeks 31 and 33, as Real Madrid defeated Rayo Vallecano (5–0), Real Sociedad (4–0) and Almería (4–0). On 16 April, Bale scored the winning goal for Real Madrid with five minutes remaining in the 2014 Copa del Rey Final against rivals Barcelona. Considered one of the best goals of his career, Bale outsprinted Barcelona defender Marc Bartra from the halfway line (with Bale running off the field at one point) before converting past goalkeeper José Manuel Pinto. In the post match interview Bale stated, "I had to get round the player and go off the pitch to do it", while his Real Madrid teammate Xabi Alonso commented, "It was incredible, I have never seen anything like it". The goal was Bale's 20th of the season and his first in a Clásico fixture. On 24 May, Bale scored in the 110th minute of the extra time period to put Real Madrid 2–1 up against city rivals Atlético Madrid in the 2014 UEFA Champions League Final, as Los Blancos won their tenth European Cup. The goal made Bale the first Welshman to score a goal in a European Cup/Champions League final. Bale finished his debut season with 22 goals and 16 assists in all competitions. Real Madrid's attacking trio of Bale, Benzema and Cristiano, dubbed BBC, finished the season with 97 goals. Bale started the 2014–15 season in good form, playing the full 90 minutes and assisting Cristiano Ronaldo's first goal in a 2–0 win at the Cardiff City Stadium against Sevilla to win the 2014 UEFA Super Cup. After the match, his performance was described as "amazing" by Ronaldo. Six days later, Bale scored his first goal of the season in a 4–2 away loss to Real Sociedad. Bale scored twice in Real's 8–2 win over Deportivo La Coruña on 20 September 2014. In December 2014, Bale scored in a third major final, the second goal in a 2–0 win over San Lorenzo, to help the club win the FIFA Club World Cup. In a match against Espanyol on 10 January 2015, Bale was booed by a section of Madrid fans who adjudged him as being selfish in shooting for goal and not passing to Ronaldo. Bale was defended by Carlo Ancelotti over this plus difficulties at the end of the season. On 18 April, Bale sustained a calf injury against Málaga. 2015–2017 Bale scored twice in Real's win over Real Betis in September 2015. His two goals took the total number of goals of Madrid's attacking trio of Bale, Benzema and Cristiano Ronaldo to 200 goals since they first played together in 2013. On 20 December 2015, he scored four goals in a 10–2 victory over Rayo Vallecano. On 9 January 2016, Bale scored his second hat-trick of the season in Madrid's 5–0 defeat of Deportivo La Coruña in Zinedine Zidane's first match as head coach of Los Blancos. After being sidelined since 19 January, due to a calf injury he sustained in a 5–1 league victory at home against Sporting Gijón, during which he had also scored the opening goal of the match, Bale returned to the pitch on 5 March; he made a substitute appearance in Real Madrid's 7–1 home win over Celta Vigo, scoring Real Madrid's final goal of the match. On 20 March 2016, Bale scored his 43rd La Liga goal in a 4–0 defeat of Sevilla to surpass Gary Lineker as the highest scoring British player in the competition's history. On 23 April, Bale scored twice as Real Madrid came from 0–2 down to win 3–2 at Rayo Vallecano. Bale was a regular starter when the team won the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League. He assisted the team's only goal and went on to score in the penalty shoot-out win over Atlético Madrid in the final. On 30 October 2016, Bale signed a new contract with Madrid until 2022. On 22 November 2016, Bale damaged his ankle tendons during the 2–1 victory at Sporting CP that would rule him out for up to four months. On 23 April, Bale made his 100th appearance in La Liga in a 3–2 home defeat to Barcelona, but was forced off after sustaining an injury. Despite suffering several injuries during the season, he managed to feature 19 times for Madrid as they won their 33rd La Liga title. After missing more than a month, he returned to action for the 2017 UEFA Champions League Final, which Madrid won. 2017–2021 The 2017–18 season saw some improvement in Bale's goalscoring record across the league, cup competitions, and in the Champions League. He featured in Real Madrid's victories in both the 2017 UEFA Super Cup and the 2017 Supercopa de España, and he also featured in the club's victorious 2017 FIFA Club World Cup campaign, winning a third trophy before 2018 had even begun. In La Liga, he made 26 appearances and scored 16 goals but Real Madrid were unable to reclaim the title, finishing in third. The 2017–18 UEFA Champions League saw Bale scoring once prior to the final. This goal came from the match against Borussia Dortmund in the group stages, when he opened the scoring in a 3–1 victory in Germany. In the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final, Bale scored two goals, the first an overhead kick from the edge of the 18-yard box – regarded as one of the greatest goals in Champions League history – before a speculative 40-yard strike that went through the hands of goalkeeper Loris Karius, resulting in a 3–1 victory over Liverpool, to help Real Madrid win their thirteenth Champions League trophy. He became the first substitute to score twice in a Champions League final and was named man of the match. Following the break-up of the BBC trifecta with Ronaldo's transfer to Juventus, and the replacement of Zidane by new manager Julen Lopetegui, Bale was ever-present during August 2018, and was awarded Cinco Estrellas Mahou for the Real Madrid Player of the Month, scoring against Getafe and Girona along the way. On 19 December 2018, Bale scored a hat-trick in a 3–1 win over Kashima Antlers in the semi-finals of the 2018 FIFA Club World Cup. He became the third player to score a hat-trick in a FIFA Club World Cup match after Cristiano Ronaldo and Luis Suárez. He also became the third player to score in three editions of the competition after Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi. He was awarded the Golden Ball after Real Madrid won the competition by beating Al Ain FC 4–1 in the final. On 9 February 2019, Bale scored his 100th goal for Real Madrid after scoring the team's third goal as a substitute in a 3–1 away win over cross-city rivals Atlético Madrid; however, he was also the source of controversy in the media following the match, due to the "provocative" goal celebration that he made towards the opposition fans. In July 2019, he was close to leaving the club, according to manager Zinedine Zidane, but later that month a proposed transfer to Chinese club Jiangsu Suning was called off by Real Madrid. In October 2019, Bale was said to be "angry" at Real Madrid and wanted to leave, but later that month Zidane said Bale had never asked to leave. Ex-Real Madrid president Ramón Calderón also said that Bale should return to Tottenham Hotspur. He made 16 appearances during the league season, as Real Madrid won the 2019–20 La Liga. 2020–2022: Loan to Tottenham Hotspur and departure On 19 September 2020, Bale returned to Tottenham Hotspur on a season-long loan. He came off the bench to score the winner in Tottenham's 2–1 home win over Brighton & Hove Albion on 1 November, his first goal since returning to the club. On 3 December, Bale scored his 200th career goal in a 3–3 draw against LASK in the Europa League. He scored a brace and got an assist in a 4–0 win over Burnley on 28 February 2021. Bale once again scored twice in Tottenham's 4–1 victory against Crystal Palace on 7 March, bringing his tally to six goals in six games. On 2 May, Bale scored a hat-trick in a 4–0 win against Sheffield United. The hat-trick was only his second in the Premier League and his first since his return to Tottenham. On 23 May 2021, Bale came off the bench to score two goals against Leicester City in a 4–2 away victory which led Tottenham to a 7th-place finish, ensuring qualification to the Europa Conference League. Bale returned to Real Madrid for the 2021–22 season. His appearances during the season were severely limited. Bale's agent, Jonathan Barnett, confirmed in May 2022 that Bale would leave Real Madrid at the end of the season. On 1 June, Bale himself published an open letter on Twitter confirming his exit. Los Angeles FC and retirement On 27 June 2022, Major League Soccer team Los Angeles FC announced that they had signed Bale to a 12-month contract using Targeted Allocation Money. He made his debut on 17 July as a 72nd-minute substitute in a 2–1 win at Nashville SC. In his next appearance, on 23 July, he came on as a 65th-minute substitute against Sporting Kansas City, scoring his first goal for the club in a 2–0 victory. Bale made 12 total appearances in the regular season for LAFC, starting two matches, but remained mostly unused as the club won the Supporters' Shield. He made his first playoff appearance in the MLS Cup as a substitute, where his header in the 128th minute tied the match at 3–3 and sent it to a penalty shootout. His goal was the latest goal in MLS history. LAFC won the shootout and their first MLS Cup title. On 9 January 2023, following the 2022 FIFA World Cup, Bale announced his retirement from professional football. International career Wales Bale was selected by Wales at the end of the 2005–06 season for a friendly against Trinidad and Tobago on 27 May 2006. In the match in Graz, Austria, he replaced David Vaughan after 55 minutes and assisted Robert Earnshaw's winning goal in a 2–1 victory. At 16 years and 315 days old, Bale became the youngest player to play for Wales, breaking a record held by Lewin Nyatanga who set that three months earlier; this record was itself superseded by Harry Wilson in October 2013. Wales youth guru Brian Flynn commented that Bale was potentially a future star of the game, comparing his technical ability to that of Ryan Giggs. On 7 October 2006, Bale became the youngest ever goalscorer for the senior national team, scoring a free kick in a Euro 2008 qualification match against Slovakia. After a long injury lay-off, he returned and started in the World Cup qualifier against Finland on 10 October 2009. On 14 October, he played a part in Wales' final World Cup qualifier by setting up David Vaughan to score the opening goal against Liechtenstein and won the free kick that led to the second, Aaron Ramsey's first at senior level. In December 2010, Bale was awarded the BBC Cymru Sports Personality of the Year trophy. On 12 October 2012, Bale scored both goals for Wales in a 2–1 victory over Scotland in a 2014 World Cup qualifier. He won his 100th Wales Cap during a World Cup Qualifying Match on 13 November 2021 against Belarus at the Cardiff City Stadium where he played 45 minutes being substituted at half time. Euro 2016 campaign On 9 September 2014, Bale scored two goals, one with a header and another with a free kick, as Wales beat Andorra 2–1 in their first match of the UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying campaign. In doing so, he became Wales' joint 10th all-time top-scorer with 14 goals, alongside John Hartson. Bale scored two goals on 28 March 2015, in a 3–0 win away in Israel. On 12 June, his 50th cap, he scored the only goal to defeat Belgium in a home qualifier, taking Wales above the Belgians to the top of Group B. He headed Jazz Richards' cross on 3 September in a 1–0 away win over Cyprus, putting Wales three points away from qualification. With qualification to UEFA Euro 2016 achieved (the country's first major finals since the 1958 FIFA World Cup), on 13 October 2015, Bale scored his seventh goal of the qualifying campaign in Wales' final qualifier against Andorra at the Cardiff City Stadium. On 11 June, Bale scored the first goal in Wales' clash with Slovakia in their opening game of UEFA Euro 2016 from a free kick, helping his country secure a 2–1 win and, in the process, lead them to their first win in a tournament in 58 years. His goal saw him become the first Welsh player to score at a major international tournament since Terry Medwin's goal against Hungary at the 1958 FIFA World Cup. He then followed this up by scoring another opening free kick goal against England in the second group game, though Wales went on to lose the game 2–1; this made Bale the first player to score two free kicks at a European Championship since Germany's Thomas Häßler in 1992. Bale scored his third goal of the tournament in a 3–0 win over Russia, making him their all-time top scorer in major tournaments, ahead of Ivor Allchurch who scored twice in the 1958 World Cup; he also helped to create the second goal of the match, which was scored by Neil Taylor. In the last 16 against Northern Ireland at the Parc des Princes, Bale sent in the cross from which Gareth McAuley scored an own goal to give the Welsh victory. Wales were eliminated following a 2–0 defeat to eventual champions Portugal in the semi-final of the tournament on 6 July. On 5 September 2016, Bale scored twice in a 4–0 win over Moldova in a 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification game. This brought him to 24 international goals, surpassing both Ivor Allchurch and Trevor Ford, and behind only Ian Rush's 28. On 22 March 2018, with 29 goals, Bale became Wales' all-time top-scorer surpassing Ian Rush's 28, thanks to his first hat-trick in his international career in a 2018 China Cup match against China. Euro 2020 campaign In May 2021, he was selected as captain of the Wales squad for the delayed UEFA Euro 2020 tournament. At the finals, he provided the assists for Aaron Ramsey and Connor Roberts's goals in Wales's second group match on 16 June, a 2–0 win over Turkey; he helped his country qualify for the round of 16, in which they were beaten 4–0 by Denmark. World Cup 2022 campaign On 24 March 2022, Bale scored two goals in the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualifying playoff semi-finals in a 2–1 win against Austria which sent Wales to the playoff final. In the playoff final against Ukraine on 5 June, delayed due to Russia's invasion of Ukraine earlier in the year, Bale's free-kick was deflected into the net by Ukraine captain Andriy Yarmolenko, giving Wales the lone goal in a 1–0 victory. Initially credited as an own goal for Yarmolenko, the decisive goal was subsequently awarded to Bale at the end of June. Wales qualified for the World Cup for the first time since 1958. Bale called it "the greatest result in history for Welsh football," and further that it "means everything. It's what dreams are made of." Bale, as captain led the Welsh team in singing along to the unofficial anthem of the team, "," which was performed live by Dafydd Iwan after the final whistle. After the match, The Guardian opined on the occasion that "what can be said now is that nobody has ever achieved more in a Wales shirt." In November 2022, Bale was named in the Wales squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar. In the team's opening group stage game against the United States, Bale was awarded a penalty kick after being fouled in the box with Wales 1–0 down, and converted to equalise the game. This was the first goal scored by Wales in a World Cup since 1958, and earned his side a draw with the United States. This proved to be Wales's only point and goal of the tournament, as they finished last in Group B, and were eliminated in the first round. Bale's final appearance as a professional footballer was Wales' final group game, a 3–0 loss to England. Great Britain Bale, who met the age criteria to play in the 2012 London Olympics, said in May 2011 "I want to play in the Olympics" for the Great Britain Olympic football team, in defiance of the FAW. On 28 October 2011, Bale became the first player to be photographed modelling the British 2012 London Olympics football supporters' shirt. In response, FAW chief executive Jonathan Ford said: "Our position remains unchanged. We are not for Team GB. Gareth can make his own choices and make his own decisions. But we are not going to stop anyone playing." On behalf of Bale, a spokesman said "while he is 100% Welsh, he is also British". At the end of June 2012, Bale pulled out of the tournament with a back injury. On 29 June, he advised the Team GB football manager, Stuart Pearce, that he would not be available for selection as he had aggravated an old back and hip injury during a training run. In view of the short recovery time between the end of the Olympics and the start of the Premier League season, Bale had decided to withdraw rather than exacerbate the problem. Bale recovered from his injury in good time to be included on Spurs' pre-season tour of the United States, scoring against LA Galaxy on 24 July and against New York Red Bulls a week later. Between these matches, Bale also played against Liverpool when he was injured in a tackle by Charlie Adam. Bale's appearances in Spurs' pre-season tour coincided with Team GB's Olympic matches, where they drew with Senegal before victories over the United Arab Emirates and Uruguay took them through to the knockout stages, where they lost to South Korea following a penalty shoot-out. Bale's withdrawal from the Team GB squad attracted calls for sanctions against him including a ban from the rest of Spurs' pre-season tour but, in the absence of an official complaint by Team GB, these were not carried out. Spurs' manager, André Villas-Boas, defended the player insisting that Bale "had recovered quicker than expected". The club's stance was supported by British Olympic Association chairman Lord Moynihan. Tottenham released a statement in relation to Bale's non-selection for Team GB, they stated that "Gareth sustained an injury as he built up his fitness ahead of joining up with Stuart Pearce's side. MRI scan reports were sent to the FA medical team on 29 June 2012. He was subsequently not selected on the basis of this injury and the inability to predict recovery time. This decision was not taken lightly and made only after consultation with Team GB's medical team, who were in agreement after seeing the medical reports." Player profile Style of play One of the fastest footballers in the world at his peak, Bale started out as an offensive left-back or wing-back at the beginning of his career. It was at Tottenham Hotspur that his manager Harry Redknapp decided to utilise Bale's pace and played him as a left winger, where he developed into a world class player. He was predominantly known for his speed, strength, stamina, and heading ability, but also possessed good technique and ball control. His skills, combined with his acceleration and physicality, allowed him to get past defenders regularly and make runs into space, where he was able to score or create. Bale was also a free kick specialist, and was known for employing the "knuckleball" technique (popularised by Juninho Pernambucano) when taking free kicks. As he moved further forward onto the wing, he began to score goals on a regular basis with powerful strikes from outside the penalty box. In addition to his athletic and offensive capabilities, Bale also drew praise in the media for his work-rate and defensive contribution off the ball. As Bale developed into one of the most dangerous left wingers in the world, his style of play won admiration from managers, current and past players such as Luís Figo, José Mourinho, and Dani Alves. Bale had been described as a footballer with "tremendous speed, great crossing ability, a great left foot and exceptional physical qualities". Former Liverpool player and BBC Sport football pundit Mark Lawrenson said in 2011: "What makes Gareth Bale so special? Simple. He is one of the quickest players I've ever seen, but he has another gear and the ability to find that extra pace within the next stride. He has the ability to perform and use his technique at great pace." During the 2011–12 season, Harry Redknapp experimented with using Bale in a free role, as an attacking midfielder, or as a second striker. The following season, André Villas-Boas deployed Bale in this role on a more permanent basis. After joining Real Madrid, Bale was usually deployed as a winger, but mostly on the right flank, due to the presence of Cristiano Ronaldo on the left, a position which enabled him to cut into the centre and strike on goal with his stronger left foot; he was also used in a more attacking role on occasion, as a striker or centre forward, courtesy of his goalscoring, movement off the ball, and ability to make attacking runs, while his elevation, strength, and heading accuracy saw him excel in the air in this role. However, in spite of his playing ability, his playing time during his later seasons with Real Madrid was largely limited by recurring injury struggles. Reception Bale is widely regarded as one of the greatest wingers of his generation, one of the greatest Welsh players of all time, and the best British player of his generation. After a Champions League group stage match against Inter Milan on 2 November 2010, his teammate Rafael van der Vaart said, "Everyone is scared of him (Bale). Maicon is one of the best defenders in the world, and he's killed him." El Mundo praising Bale for his performance wrote, "Bale combines the height and build of an 800-metre runner like Steve Ovett with the acceleration and directness of a rugby winger like Bryan Habana. And, when he gets to the byline, he delivers curling crosses like a Brazilian". According to his Wales teammates, Bale was a pivotal, inspirational, and uplifting figure for the squad. Welsh international Neil Taylor speaking of Bale's positive influence on the team's psyche and performance said, "There's a belief about the team when he's in it. He makes everyone around him play better." With the spotlight increasing on Bale following his performances, in October 2012 his Spurs manager Harry Redknapp put him in the same class as both Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi. He said: "He's an amazing, amazing talent and he's after the Ronaldos and Messis of this world and he's getting better and better. He's almost unplayable when he's on his game. He is a genuine world-class player. There's nobody he couldn't play for. He'd improve any team." Bale was accused of diving by sections of the British media. However, this was denied by Bale, Harry Redknapp, and Wales coach Chris Coleman. On 29 December 2012, Bale picked up his third yellow card for simulation for the 2012–13 season. It was his fifth for simulation since the start of the 2011–12 season, and no other Premier League player had more than two cautions for simulation in that time. Between August 2008 and his departure from the Premier League, he was booked eight times for simulation. The next most-booked players were shown three yellow cards each. Bale was ranked twelfth on ESPN's list of the world's most famous athletes in 2016, while The Guardian listed him as the seventh-best footballer on the planet in the same year. During his time at Real Madrid, Bale was praised in the media for his decisive performances in important matches. Despite his ability and achievements, however, Bale became less popular with the club's fans during his final years with the team due to his perceived inconsistency and lack of commitment. Moreover, his injury struggles led some pundits to accuse him of failing to live up to his potential, in particular following his perceived decline in his later seasons at Real Madrid, despite his success and his high level of performance in his first few seasons with the club. Outside football Personal life Bale lives in Madrid with his partner Emma Rhys-Jones, his high-school sweetheart. Their first child was born in Cardiff on 21 October 2012, and their second daughter was born in the same city on 22 March 2016. On 17 July 2016, Bale announced he and Rhys-Jones were engaged. On 9 March 2018, Bale announced that he and his fiancée were expecting their third child. Later that year, on 8 May, the couple announced the birth of their son. They married in June 2019. Bale was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2022 Birthday Honours for services to association football and charity. Bale is teetotal. Endorsements On 26 March 2013, Bale filed an application with the Intellectual Property Office to register a logo based on his heart shaped goal celebration along with his squad number (eleven) to be used on a range of merchandise such as clothing and footwear. Bale is featured in EA Sports' FIFA video game series, and he has appeared on the British, Irish and Middle Eastern covers of FIFA 14, alongside global cover star Lionel Messi. His 'heart' goal celebration is featured in FIFA 14. Bale has endorsed several companies in his career and has current deals with Adidas, EA Sports, Lucozade and BT Sport. In 2014, Bale was the first player to wear the Adidas F50 crazylight football boots. In 2015, he unveiled the Adidas X15 football boots. Active on social media, Bale has over 45 million Instagram followers, and earns $185,000 per sponsored post, the second highest-paid Briton after David Beckham. In 2016, ESPN ranked Bale twelfth on its list of the world's most famous athletes. Philanthropy In November 2014, Bale appeared in FIFA's "11 against Ebola" campaign with a selection of top football players from around the world, including Cristiano Ronaldo, Neymar, Xavi and African star Didier Drogba. Under the slogan "Together, we can beat Ebola", FIFA's campaign was done in conjunction with the Confederation of African Football and health experts, with the players holding up eleven messages to raise awareness of the disease and ways to combat it. In April 2020, he and his wife Emma donated £1 million to health boards in Wales and Spain to help in the fight against the Coronavirus pandemic. In October 2020, Bale gave £15,000 for Christmas hampers in Swansea, Wales. Golf Bale is a keen golfer, and has a replica of the 17th hole – the island green – at TPC at Sawgrass in his back garden. His golf playing became somewhat controversial in his latter years at Real Madrid, with the perception that Bale was more interested in his hobby than football. El Confidencial cited golf as the reason why Bale spent so much time out injured, claiming it worsened his back problems. Bale often humorously played-up to this reputation; after qualifying for the Euro 2020 tournament with Wales, he celebrated behind a Welsh flag with the slogan "Wales. Golf. Madrid. In that order" written on it. Bale was interviewed in Episode 179 of The Erik Anders Lang Show podcast, in which he said his golf handicap was "between a three and a four". Bale competed alongside American professional golfer Joseph Bramlett in the February 2023 edition of the AT&T Pebble Beach Pro-Am in California. The duo went on to place joint-16th in the amateur side of the event. Career statistics Club International Honours Tottenham Hotspur Football League Cup: 2007–08 Real Madrid La Liga: 2016–17, 2019–20, 2021–22 Copa del Rey: 2013–14 Supercopa de España: 2017 UEFA Champions League: 2013–14, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2021–22 UEFA Super Cup: 2014, 2017 FIFA Club World Cup: 2014, 2017, 2018 Los Angeles FC MLS Cup: 2022 Supporters' Shield: 2022 Individual Tottenham Hotspur Young Player of the Year: 2009–10, 2010–11 Tottenham Hotspur Player of the Year: 2012–13 UEFA Team of the Year: 2011, 2013 UEFA Champions League Squad of the Season: 2015–16 Welsh Footballer of the Year: 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 ESM Team of the Year: 2012–13 The Football League Team of the Decade Premier League Player of the Month: April 2010, January 2012, February 2013 PFA Team of the Year: 2006–07 Championship, 2010–11 Premier League, 2011–12 Premier League, 2012–13 Premier League PFA Players' Player of the Year: 2010–11, 2012–13 PFA Young Player of the Year: 2012–13 FWA Footballer of the Year: 2012–13 Premier League Player of the Season: 2012–13 FIFA Club World Cup Golden Ball: 2018 BBC Wales Carwyn James Junior Sportsman of the Year: 2006 Football Association of Wales Young Player of the Year: 2007 BBC Wales Sports Personality of the Year: 2010 Orders Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE): 2022 See also List of top international men's football goal scorers by country List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps References External links Gareth Bale at Real Madrid CF 1989 births Living people Footballers from Cardiff Welsh men's footballers Wales men's youth international footballers Wales men's under-21 international footballers Wales men's international footballers Men's association football defenders Men's association football wingers Southampton F.C. players Tottenham Hotspur F.C. players Real Madrid CF players Los Angeles FC players English Football League players Premier League players La Liga players Major League Soccer players UEFA Champions League winning players UEFA Euro 2016 players UEFA Euro 2020 players 2022 FIFA World Cup players Welsh expatriate men's footballers Expatriate men's footballers in Spain Welsh expatriate sportspeople in Spain Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States Welsh expatriate sportspeople in the United States People educated at Whitchurch High School FIFA Men's Century Club Members of the Order of the British Empire
5245926	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emakimono	Emakimono	Illustrated handscrolls, , or is an illustrated horizontal narration system of painted handscrolls that dates back to Nara-period (710–794 CE) Japan. Initially copying their much older Chinese counterparts in style, during the succeeding Heian (794–1185) and Kamakura periods (1185–1333), Japanese developed their own distinct style. The term therefore refers only to Japanese painted narrative scrolls. As in the Chinese and Korean scrolls, combine calligraphy and illustrations and are painted, drawn or stamped on long rolls of paper or silk sometimes measuring several metres. The reader unwinds each scroll little by little, revealing the story as seen fit. are therefore a narrative genre similar to the book, developing romantic or epic stories, or illustrating religious texts and legends. Fully anchored in the style, these Japanese works are above all an everyday art, centered on the human being and the sensations conveyed by the artist. Although the very first 8th-century were copies of Chinese works, of Japanese taste appeared from the 10th century in the Heian imperial court, especially among aristocratic ladies with refined and reclusive lives, who devoted themselves to the arts, poetry, painting, calligraphy and literature. However, no remain from the Heian period, and the oldest masterpieces date back to the "golden age" of in the 12th and 13th centuries. During this period, the techniques of composition became highly accomplished, and the subjects were even more varied than before, dealing with history, religion, romances, and other famous tales. The patrons who sponsored the creation of these were above all the aristocrats and Buddhist temples. From the 14th century, the genre became more marginal, giving way to new movements born mainly from Zen Buddhism. paintings mostly belong to the style, characterized by its subjects from Japanese life and landscapes, the staging of the human, and an emphasis on rich colours and a decorative appearance. The format of the , long scrolls of limited height, requires the solving of all kinds of composition problems: it is first necessary to make the transitions between the different scenes that accompany the story, to choose a point of view that reflects the narration, and to create a rhythm that best expresses the feelings and emotions of the moment. In general, there are thus two main categories of : those which alternate the calligraphy and the image, each new painting illustrating the preceding text, and those which present continuous paintings, not interrupted by the text, where various technical measures allow the fluid transitions between the scenes. Today, offer a unique historical glimpse into the life and customs of Japanese people, of all social classes and all ages, during the early part of medieval times. Few of the scrolls have survived intact, and around 20 are protected as National Treasures of Japan. Concept The term or , often abbreviated as , is made up of the kanji , and . The term refers to long scrolls of painted paper or silk, which range in length from under a metre to several metres long; some are reported as measuring up to in length. The scrolls tell a story or a succession of anecdotes (such as literary chronicles or Buddhist parables), combining pictorial and narrative elements, the combination of which characterises the dominant art movements in Japan between the 12th and 14th centuries. An is read, according to the traditional method, sitting on a mat with the scroll placed on a low table or on the floor. The reader then unwinds with one hand while rewinding it with the other hand, from right to left (according to the writing direction of Japanese). In this way, only part of the story can be seen – about , though more can be unrolled – and the artist creates a succession of images to construct the story. Once the has been read, the reader must rewind the scroll again in its original reading direction. The is kept closed by a cord and stored alone or with other rolls in a box intended for this purpose, and which is sometimes decorated with elaborate patterns. An can consist of several successive scrolls as required of the story – the was made up of 48 scrolls, although the standard number typically falls between one and three. An is made up of two elements: the sections of calligraphic text known as , and the sections of paintings referred to as ; their size, arrangement and number vary greatly, depending on the period and the artist. In inspired by literature, the text occupies no less than two-thirds of the space, while other more popular works, such as the , favour the image, sometimes to the point of making the text disappear. The scrolls have a limited height (on average between and ), compared with their length (on average to ), meaning that are therefore limited to being read alone, historically by the aristocracy and members of the high clergy. History Origins Handscrolls are believed to have been invented in India before the 4th century CE. They were used for religious texts and entered China by the 1st century. Handscrolls were introduced to Japan centuries later through the spread of Buddhism. The earliest extant Japanese handscroll was created in the 8th century and focuses on the life of the Buddha. The origins of Japanese handscrolls can be found in China and, to a lesser extent, in Korea, the main sources of Japanese artistic inspiration until modern times. Narrative art forms in China can be traced back to between the 3rd century CE under the Han dynasty and the 2nd century CE under the Zhou dynasty, the pottery of which was adorned with hunting scenes juxtaposed with movements. Paper was invented in China in about the 1st century CE, simplifying the writing on scrolls of laws or sutra, sometimes decorated. The first narrative scrolls arrived later; various masters showed interest in this medium, including Gu Kaizhi (345–406), who experimented with new techniques. Genre painting and Chinese characters, dominant in the scrolls up to the 10th century CE, remain little known to this day, because they were overshadowed by the famous landscape scrolls of the Song dynasty. Relations with East Asia (mainly China and Korea) brought Chinese writing (kanji) to Japan by the 4th century, and Buddhism in the 6th century, together with interest in the apparently very effective bureaucracy of the mighty Chinese Empire. In the Nara period, the Japanese were inspired by the Tang dynasty: administration, architecture, dress customs or ceremonies. The exchanges between China and Japan were also fruitful for the arts, mainly religious arts, and the artists of the Japanese archipelago were eager to copy and appropriate continental techniques. In that context, experts assume that the first Chinese painted scrolls arrived on the islands around the 6th century CE, and probably correspond to illustrated sutra. Thus, the oldest known Japanese narrative painted scroll (or ) dates from the 7th century to the Nara period: the , which traces the life of the Gautama Buddha, founder of the Buddhist religion, until his Illumination. Still naive in style (Six Dynasties and early Tang dynasty) with the paintings arranged in friezes above the text, it is very likely a copy of an older Chinese model, several versions of which have been identified. Although subsequent classical feature a very different style from that of this work, it foreshadows the golden age of the movement that came four centuries later, from the 12th century CE onwards. Heian period: genesis of the art Arts and literature, birth of a national aesthetic The Heian period appears today as a peak of Japanese civilization via the culture of the emperor's court, although intrigue and disinterest in things of the state resulted in the Genpei War. This perception arises from the aesthetics and the codified and refined art of living that developed at the Heian court, as well as a certain restraint and melancholy born from the feeling of the impermanence of things (a state of mind referred to as in Japanese). Furthermore, the rupture of relations with China until the 9th century, due to disorders related to the collapse of the glorious Tang dynasty, promoted what Miyeko Murase has described as the "emergence of national taste" as a truly Japanese culture departed for the first time from Chinese influence since the early Kofun period. This development was first observed in the literature of the Heian women: unlike the men, who studied Chinese writing from a young age, the women adopted a new syllabary, , which was simpler and more consistent with the phonetics of Japanese. Heian period novels () and diaries () recorded intimate details about life, love affairs and intrigues at court as they developed; the best known of these is the radical Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, lady-in-waiting of the 10th century Imperial Court. The beginnings of the Japanese-inspired Heian period painting technique, retrospectively named , can be found initially in some aspects of Buddhist painting of the new esoteric Tendai and Shingon sects, then more strongly in Pure Land Buddhism (); after a phase when Chinese techniques were copied, the art of the Japanese archipelago became progressively more delicate, lyrical, decorative with less powerful but more colorful compositions. Nevertheless, it was especially in secular art that the nascent was felt most strongly; its origins went back to the sliding partitions and screens of the Heian Imperial Palace, covered with paintings on paper or silk, the themes of which were chosen from court poetry, annual rites, seasons or the famous lives and landscapes of the archipelago (). This secular art then spread among the nobles, especially the ladies interested in the illustration of novels, and seems to have become prevalent early in the 10th century. As with religious painting, the themes of Japanese life, appreciated by the nobles, did not fit well with painting of Chinese sensibility, so much so that court artists developed to a certain extent a new national technique which appeared to be fashionable in the 11th century, for example in the seasonal landscapes of the panel paintings in the or Amida Hall at the Byōdō-in temple, a masterpiece of primitive of the early 11th century. Experts believe that illustrations of novels and painted narrative scrolls, or , developed in the vein of this secular art, linked to literature and poetry. The painting technique lent itself fully to the artistic tastes of the court in the 11th century, inclined to an emotional, melancholic and refined representation of relations within the palace, and formed a pictorial vector very suited to the narrative. Even though they are mentioned in the antique texts, no of the early Heian period (9th and 10th centuries) remains extant today; the oldest illustrating a novel mentioned in period sources is that of the , offered to the Empress between 872 and 907. However, the stylistic mastery of later works (from the 12th century) leads most experts to believe that the "classical" art of grew during this period from the 10th century, first appearing in illustrations in novels or diaries produced by the ladies of the court. In addition, the initial themes remained close to poetry (seasons, Buddhism, nature and other themes). Therefore, the slow maturation of the movement of was closely linked to the emergence of Japanese culture and literature, as well as to the interest of courtesans soon joined by professional painters from palace workshops () or temples, who created a more "professional" and successful technique. The art historians consider that the composition and painting techniques they see in the masterpieces of the late Heian period (second half of the 12th century) were already very mature. Fujiwara era: classical masterpieces If almost all belong to the genre of , several sub-genres stand out within this style, including in the Heian period ("women's painting") and ("men's painting"). Several classic scrolls of each genre perfectly represent these pictorial movements. First, the (designed between around 1120 and 1140), illustrating the famous eponymous novel, narrates the political and amorous intrigues of Prince Hikaru Genji; the rich and opaque colors affixed over the entire surface of the paper ( method), the intimacy and melancholy of the composition and finally the illustration of the emotional peaks of the novel taking place only inside the Imperial Palace are characteristics of the subgenre of , reserved for court narratives usually written by aristocratic ladies. In that scroll, each painting illustrates a key episode of the novel and is followed by a calligraphic extract on paper richly decorated with gold and silver powder. The already presents the composition techniques specific to the art of : an oblique point of view, the movement of the eyes guided by long diagonals from the top right to the bottom left, and even the removal of the roofs to represent the interior of buildings (). A second notable example of the paintings in the Heian period is the , which appears to be very similar to the , but presents softer and more decorative paintings giving pride of place to the representation of nature subtly emphasising the feelings of the characters. In contrast with court paintings inspired by women's novels () there are other scrolls inspired by themes such as the daily lives of the people, historical chronicles, and the biographies of famous monks; ultimately, a style of depicting matters outside the palace and called ("men's painting"). The (middle of the 12th century), with dynamic and free lines, light colors and a decidedly popular and humorous tone, perfectly illustrate this movement, not hesitating to depict the life of the Japanese people in its most insignificant details. Here, the color is applied only in light touches that leave the paper bare, as the supple and free line dominates the composition, unlike the constructed paintings of the court. In addition, the text occupies very limited space, the artist painting rather long scenes without fixed limits. Two other masterpieces emerged into the light of day during the second half of the 12th century. First, the forms a monochrome sketch in ink gently caricaturing the customs of Buddhist monks, where the spontaneity of touch stands out. Secondly, the tells of a political conspiracy in the year 866 by offering a surprising mixture of the two genres and , with free lines and sometimes light, sometimes rich and opaque colors; this meeting of genres foreshadows the style that dominated a few decades later, during the Kamakura period. While the authority of the court rapidly declined, the end of the Heian period (in 1185) was marked by the advent of the provincial lords (in particular, the Taira and the Minamoto), who acquired great power at the top of the state. Exploiting the unrest associated with the Genpei War, which provided fertile ground for religious proselytism, the six realms (or ) Buddhist paintings () – such as the Hell Scroll or the two versions of the , paintings – aimed to frighten the faithful with horror scenes. Retracing the evolution of remains difficult, due to the few works that have survived. However, the obvious mastery of the classical scrolls of the end of the Heian period testifies to at least a century of maturation and pictorial research. These foundations permitted the artists of the ensuing Kamakura period to engage in sustained production in all of the themes. Kamakura period: the golden age of The era covering the end of the Heian period and much of the Kamakura period, or the 12th and 13th centuries, is commonly described by art historians as "the golden age" of the art of . Under the impetus of the new warrior class in power, and the new Buddhist sects, production was indeed very sustained and the themes and techniques more varied than before. The style of the time was characterized by two aspects: the synthesis of the genres of , and realism. Initially, the evolution marked previously by the (very late Heian era) was spreading very widely due to the importance given both to the freedom of brush strokes and the lightness of the tones (), as well as bright colors rendered by thick pigments for certain elements of the scenes (). However, the very refined appearance of the court paintings later gave way to more dynamic and popular works, at least in relation to the theme, in the manner of the . For example, the recounts the life and death of Sugawara no Michizane, Minister in the 9th century and tragic figure in Japanese history, revered in the manner of a god (). The rich colours, the tense contours, the search for movement and the very realistic details of the faces well illustrate this mixture of styles, especially as the paintings drew their inspiration from both Buddhism and Shinto. The realistic trends that were in vogue in Kamakura art, perfectly embodied by sculpture, were exposed in the majority of the Kamakura ; indeed, the shogunate system held power over Japan, and the refined and codified art of the court gave way to more fluidity and dynamism. The greater simplicity advocated in the arts led to a more realistic and human representation (anger, pain or size). If the activity related to religion was prolific, then so too were the orders of the (noble warriors). Several of historical or military chronicles are among the most famous, notably the (no longer extant) and the ; of the latter, the scroll kept at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston remains highly regarded for its mastery of composition (which reaches a crescendo at the dramatic climax of the scroll, i.e. the burning of the palace and the bloody battle between foot soldiers), and for its contribution to present day understanding of Japanese medieval weapons and armour. Akiyama Terukazu describes it as "a masterpiece on the subject of the world's military." In the same spirit, a noble warrior had the designed to recount his military exploits during the Mongol invasions of Japan. Kamakura art particularly flourished in relation to realistic portraiture (); if the characters in the therefore evolved towards greater pictorial realism, some, such as the , or the attributed to Fujiwara no Nobuzane, directly present portrait galleries according to the iconographic techniques of the time. A similar change was felt in religion as the esoteric Buddhist sects of the Heian era (Tendai and Shingon) gave way to Pure Land Buddhism (), which primarily addressed the people by preaching simple practices of devotion to the Amida Buddha. These very active sects used intensively during the 13th and 14th centuries to illustrate and disseminate their doctrines. Several religious practices influenced the Kamakura : notably, public sermons and picture explaining sessions (, ) led the artists to use scrolls of larger size than usual, and to represent the protagonists of the story in a somewhat disproportionate way compared with of the standard sizes, to enable those protagonists to be seen from a distance, in a typically Japanese non-realistic perspective (such as the ). The religious of the Kamakura period focus on the foundation of the temples, or the lives of famous monks. During that period, many of the religious institutions commissioned the workshops of painters (often monk-painters) to create recounting their foundation, or the biography of the founding monk. Among the best-known works on such themes are the illustrated biographies of Ippen, , and Xuanzang, as well as the and the . The Ippen biography, painted by a monk, remains remarkable for its influences, so far rare, from the Song dynasty (via the wash technique) and the Tang dynasty (the style), as well as by its very precise representations of forts in many Japanese landscapes. As for the , it addresses the declining aristocracy in idealising the figure of the monk aesthete Saigyō by the beauty of its landscapes and its calligraphic poetry. Towards the middle of the Kamakura period, there was a revival of interest in the Heian court, which already appeared to be a peak of Japanese civilization, and its refined culture. Thus the , which traces the life and intrigues of Murasaki Shikibu, author of The Tale of Genji (10th century), largely reflects the painting techniques of the time, notably the , but in a more decorative and extroverted style. Other works followed that trend, such as , the or the . Muromachi period: decline and By the end of the Kamakura period, the art of was already losing its importance. Experts note that, on the one hand, had become less inspired, marked by an extreme aesthetic mannerism (such as the exaggerated use of gold and silver powder) with a composition more technical than creative; the tendency to multiply the scenes in a fixed style can be seen in the (the longest known , with 48 scrolls, completed in 1307), the (1309) and the (16th century). On the other hand, the innovative and more spiritual influences of Chinese Song art, deeply rooted in spirituality and Zen Buddhism, initiated the dominant artistic movement of wash (ink or monochromatic painting in water, or in Japanese) in the ensuing Muromachi period, guided by such famous artists as Tenshō Shūbun or Sesshū Tōyō. A professional current was nevertheless maintained by the Tosa school: the only one still to claim the , it produced many to the order of the court or the temples (this school of painters led the imperial until the 18th century). Tosa Mitsunobu notably produced several works on the foundation of temples: the (1517), a scroll of the (1497), the (1487) or a version of the (1503); he paid great attention to details and colours, despite a common composition. In a more general way, the illustration of novels in the classic style (such as the many versions of the or ) persisted during late medieval times. If therefore ceased to be the dominant artistic media in Japan since the end of the Kamakura period, it is in the illustration movement of ( meaning "to tell stories") that developed a new popular vigour in the 15th and 16th centuries (the Muromachi period); the term (literally, "the book of illustrations of Nara") sometimes designated them in a controversial way (because they were anachronistic and combined books with scrolls), or more precisely as or . These are small, symbolic and funny tales, intended to pass the time focusing on mythology, folklore, legends, religious beliefs or even contemporary society. This particular form of dates back to Heian times, but it was under Muromachi that it gained real popularity. The relative popularity of seems to have stemmed from a burgeoning lack of enthusiasm for hectic or religious stories; the people had become more responsive to themes of dreams, laughter and the supernatural (a number of depict all sorts of and folk creatures), as well as social caricatures and popular novels. Among the preserved examples are genre paintings such as and , or supernatural Buddhist tales such as the or the . From the point of view of art historians, the creativity of classical scrolls is felt even less in , because even though the composition is similar, the lack of harmony of colors and the overloaded appearance are detrimental; it seems that the production is often the work of amateurs. However, a field of study of and the pictorial style exists on the fringes and stands out from the framework of . Various other artists, notably Tawaraya Sōtatsu and Yosa Buson, were still interested in the narrative scroll until around the 17th century. The Kanō school used narrative scrolls in the same way; Kanō Tan'yū realised several scrolls on the Tokugawa battles, particularly that of Sekigahara in his , where he was inspired in places by the (13th century). Features and production Themes and genres In essence, an is a narrative system (like a book) that requires the construction of a story, so the composition must be based on the transitions from scene to scene until the final denouement. were initially strongly influenced by China, as were the Japanese arts of the time; the incorporates many of the naive, simple styles of the Tang dynasty, although dissonances can be discerned, especially in relation to colours. From the Heian period onwards, came to be dissociated from China, mainly in their themes. Chinese scrolls were intended mainly to illustrate the transcendent principles of Buddhism and the serenity of the landscapes, suggesting the grandeur and the spirituality. The Japanese, on the other hand, had refocused their scrolls on everyday life and man, conveying drama, humour and feelings. Thus, began to be inspired by literature, poetry, nature and especially everyday life; in short, they formed an intimate art, sometimes in opposition to the search for Chinese spiritual greatness. The first Japanese themes in the Heian period were very closely linked to literature and poetry: paintings of the seasons, the annual calendar of ceremonies, the countryside and finally the famous landscapes of the Japanese archipelago (). Subsequently, the Kamakura warriors and the new Pure Land Buddhist sects diversified the subjects even more widely. Despite the wide range of themes, specialists like to categorise them, both in substance and in form. An effective method of differentiating comes back to the study of the subjects by referring to the canons of the time. The categorisation proposed by Okudaira and Fukui thus distinguishes between secular and religious paintings: Secular paintings Court novels and diaries (, ) dealing with romantic tales, life at court or historical chronicles; Popular legends (); Military accounts (); Scrolls on poets; Reports on the rites and ceremonies celebrated in a very codified and rigid way throughout the year; Realistic paintings and portraits (); , traditional or fantastic tales popular in the 14th century. Religious paintings Illustrations of sutras or religious doctrines (); Illustrated biography of a prominent Buddhist monk or priest (, or ); Paintings of the antecedents of a temple (); The , a collection of Buddhist anecdotes. A third category covers more heterogeneous works, mixing religion and narration or religion and popular humour. The artists and their audience The authors of are most often unknown nowadays and it remains risky to speculate as to the names of the "masters" of . Moreover, a scroll can be the fruit of collaboration by several artists; some techniques such as even naturally incline to such collaboration. Art historians are more interested in determining the social and artistic environment of painters: amateurs or professionals, at court or in temples, aristocrats or of modest birth. In the first place, amateur painters, perhaps the initiators of the classical , are to be found at the emperor's court in Heian, among the aristocrats versed in the various arts. Period sources mention in particular painting competitions () where the nobles competed around a common theme from a poem, as described by Murasaki Shikibu in The Tale of Genji. Their work seems to focus more on the illustration of novels () and diaries (), rather feminine literature of the court. Monks were also able to produce paintings without any patronage. Secondly, in medieval Japan there were ; during the Kamakura period, professional production dominated greatly, and several categories of workshops were distinguished: those officially attached to the palace (), those attached to the great temples and shrines (), or finally those hosted by a few senior figures. The study of certain colophons and period texts makes it possible to associate many with these professional workshops, and even sometimes to understand how they function. When produced by the temple workshops, were intended mainly as proselytism, or to disseminate a doctrine, or even as an act of faith, because copying illustrated sutras must allow communion with the deities (a theory even accredits the idea that the would have aimed to pacify evil spirits). Proselytising, favoured by the emergence of the Pure Land Buddhist sects during the Kamakura era, changed the methods of production, because works of proselytism were intended to be copied and disseminated widely in many associated temples, explaining the large number of more or less similar copies on the lives of great monks and the founding of the important temples. Various historians emphasise the use of in sessions of , during which a learned monk detailed the contents of the scrolls to a popular audience. Specialists thus explicate the unusually large dimensions of the different versions of the or the . As for the workshops of the court, they satisfied the orders of the palace, whether for the illustration of novels or historical chronicles, such as the . A form of exploitation of the story could also motivate the sponsor: for example, were produced for the Minamoto clan (winner of the Genpei War), and the was created to extol the deeds of a samurai in search of recognition from the . These works were, it seems, intended to be read by nobles. Nevertheless, Seckel and Hasé assert that the separation between the secular and the religious remains unclear and undoubtedly does not correspond to an explicit practice: thus, the aristocrats regularly ordered to offer them to a temple, and the religious scrolls do not refrain from representing popular things. So, for example, the presents a rich overview of medieval civilization. Colophons and comparative studies sometimes allow for the deduction of the name of the artist of an : for example, the monk signed the , historians designate as the author of the and the , or for part of the . Nevertheless, the life of these artists remains poorly known, at most they seem to be of noble extraction. Such a background is particularly implied by the always very precise depictions in of the imperial palace (interior architecture, clothing and rituals) or official bodies (notably the ). The illustrates that point well, as the precision of both religious and aristocratic motifs suggests that the painter is close to those two worlds. Perhaps a more famous artist is Fujiwara no Nobuzane, aristocrat of the Fujiwara clan and author of the , as well as various suites of realistic portraits (, a school he founded in honour of his father Fujiwara no Takanobu). Among the temple workshops, it is known that the Kōzan-ji workshop was particularly prolific, under the leadership of the monk Myōe, a great scholar who brought in many works from Song dynasty China. Thus, the Jōnin brushstrokes on the or the portrait of Myōe reveal the first Song influences in Japanese painting. However, the crucial lack of information and documents on these rare known artists leads Japanese art historians rather to identify styles, workshops, and schools of production. From the 14th century, the , and even for a time the of the , were headed by the Tosa school, which, as mentioned above, continued painting and the manufacture of despite the decline of the genre. The Tosa school artists are much better known; Tosa Mitsunobu, for example, produced a large number of works commissioned by temples (including the ) or nobles (including the ). The competing Kanō school also offered a such few pieces, on command: art historians have shown strong similarities between the (12th century) and the (17th century) by Kanō Tan'yū of the Kanō school, probably to suggest a link between the Minamoto and Tokugawa clans, members of which were, respectively, the first and last shoguns who ruled all of Japan. Materials and manufacture The preferred support medium for is paper, and to a lesser extent silk; both originate from China, although Japanese paper () is generally of a more solid texture and less delicate than Chinese paper, as the fibres are longer). The paper is traditionally made with the help of women of the Japanese archipelago. The most famous colors are taken from mineral pigments: for example azurite for blue, vermilion for red, realgar for yellow, malachite for green, amongst others. These thick pigments, named in Japanese, are not soluble in water and require a thick binder, generally an animal glue; the amount of glue required depends on how finely the pigments have been ground. As are intended to be rolled up, the colours must be applied to them in a thin, flat layer in order to avoid any cracking in the medium term, which limits the use of patterns (reliefs) predominant in Western painting. As for the ink, also invented in China around the 1st century CE, it results from a simple mixture of binder and wood smoke, the dosage of which depends on the manufacturer. Essential for calligraphy, it is also important in Asian pictorial arts where the line often takes precedence; Japanese artists apply it with a brush, varying the thickness of the line and the dilution of the ink to produce a colour from a dark black to a pale gray strongly absorbed by the paper. Scrolls of paper or tissue remain relatively fragile, in particular after the application of paint. are therefore lined with one or more layers of strong paper, in a very similar way to (Japanese hanging scrolls): the painted paper or silk is stretched, glued onto the lining, and then dried and brushed, normally by a specialized craftsman, known as a (literally, 'master in sutra'). The long format of poses specific problems: generally, sheets of painted paper or silk long are lined separately, then assembled using strips of long-fibre Japanese paper, known for its strength. The lining process simply requires the application of an animal glue which, as it dries, also allows the painted paper or silk to be properly stretched. Assembly of the is finalised by the selection of the , which is quite thin, and the connection of the , which protects the work once it is rolled up with a ; for the most precious pieces painted with gold and silver powder, a further is often made of silk and decorated on the inside. Artistic characteristics General The currents and techniques of art are intimately linked and most often part of the , readily opposed at the beginning to Chinese-style paintings, known as . , a colorful and decorative everyday art, strongly typifies the output of the time. Initially, mainly designated works with Japanese themes, notably court life, ceremonies or archipelago landscapes, in opposition to the hitherto dominant Chinese scholarly themes, especially during the Nara period. The documents of the 9th century mention, for example, the paintings on sliding walls and screens of the then Imperial Palace, which illustrate poems. Subsequently, the term referred more generally to all of the Japanese style paintings created in the 9th century that expressed the sensitivity and character of the people of the archipelago, including those extending beyond the earlier themes. Miyeko Murase thus speaks of "the emergence of national taste". Different currents of paintings are part of the according to the times (about the 10th and 14th centuries), and are found in . The style, composition and technique vary greatly, but it is possible to identify major principles. Thus, in relation to style, the Heian period produced a contrast between refined court painting and dynamic painting of subjects outside the court, while the Kamakura period saw a synthesis of the two approaches and the contribution of new realistic influences of the Chinese wash paintings of the Song dynasty. In relation to composition, the artists could alternate calligraphy and painting so as to illustrate only the most striking moments of the story, or else create long painted sections where several scenes blended together and flowed smoothly. Finally, in relation to technique, the classification of , although complex, allows for two approaches to be identified: paintings favoring colour, and those favoring line for the purpose of dynamism. The particular format of the , long strips of paintings without fixed limits, requires solving a number of compositional problems in order to maintain the ease and clarity of the narrative, and which have given rise to a coherent art form over several centuries. In summary, according to E. Saint-Marc: "We had to build a vocabulary, a syntax, solve a whole series of technical problems, invent a discipline that is both literary and plastic, an aesthetic mode which finds its conventions [...] in turn invented and modelled, frozen by use, then remodelled, to make it an instrument of refined expression." Styles and techniques Overview of the Heian period styles Specialists like to distinguish between two currents in the , and thus in the , of the Heian period, namely the ("painting of woman", meaning "woman"), and ("painting of man", meaning "man"). In the Heian period, these two currents of also echoed the mysteries and the seclusion of the Imperial Court: the style thus told what happened inside the court, and the style spoke of happenings in the populace outside. Court style: fully transcribed the lyrical and refined aesthetic of the court, which was characterized by a certain restraint, introspection and the expression of feelings, bringing together above all works inspired by "romantic" literature such as the . The dominant impression of this genre is expressed in Japanese by the term , a kind of fleeting melancholy born from the feeling of the impermanence of things. These works mainly adopted the so-called (constructed painting) technique, with rich and opaque colours. In of the 13th century, in which the style was brought up-to-date, the same technique was used but in a sometimes less complete manner, the colours more directly expressing feelings and the artists using a more decorative aesthetic, such as with the very important use of gold dust in the . A characteristic element of the resides in the drawing of the faces, very impersonal, that specialists often compare to Noh masks. Indeed, according to the technique, two or three lines were enough to represent the eyes and the nose in a stylized way; E. Grilli notes the melancholy of this approach. The desired effect is still uncertain, but probably reflects the great restraint of feelings and personalities in the palace, or even allows readers to identify more easily with the characters. In some of the Heian period, the artists rather expressed the feelings or the passions in the positions as well as in the pleats and folds of the clothes, in harmony with the mood of the moment. Popular style: The current of the style was freer and more lively than , representing battles, historical chronicles, epics and religious legends by favouring long illustrations over calligraphy, as in the or the . The style was based on soft lines drawn freely by the artist in ink, unlike constructed paintings, to favour the impression of movement. The colours generally appeared more muted and left the paper bare in places. If the term is well attested in the texts of the time, and seems to come from the illustrations of novels by the ladies of the court from the 10th century, the origins of the are more obscure: they arise a priori from the interest of the nobles in Japanese provincial life from the 11th century, as well as from local folk legends; moreover, several very detailed scenes from the clearly show that its author can only have been a palace regular, aristocrat or monk. In any case, there are still several collections of these folk tales of the time, such as the . Unlike the court paintings, the more spontaneous scrolls such as the or the display much more realism in the drawing of the characters, and depict, amongst other themes, humour and burlesque, with people's feelings (such as anger, joy and fear) expressed more spontaneously and directly. Kamakura period realist painting During the Kamakura period, the two currents of ( and ) mingled and gave birth to works that are both dynamic and vividly coloured, in the manner of the . Furthermore, the majority of also transcribed the realistic tendencies of the time, according to the tastes of the warriors in power. The thus shows in great detail the weapons, armour and uniforms of the soldiers, and the individually portrays the more than two hundred panicked figures who appear on the section depicting the fire at the door. Realistic painting is best displayed in the portraits known as , a movement initiated by Fujiwara no Takanobu and his son Fujiwara no Nobuzane. These two artists and their descendants produced a number of of a particular genre: they were suites of portraits of famous people made in a rather similar style, with almost geometric simplicity of clothing, and extreme realism of the face. The essence of the was really to capture the intimate personality of the subject with great economy. Among the most famous scrolls are the , composed of 131 portraits of emperors, governors, ministers and senior courtiers (by and , 14th century), and the by Nobuzane, whose ink painting () enhanced with very discreet colour illustrates perfectly the lines. Additionally, there is the , a work of a more idealized than realistic style, which forms a portrait gallery of the Thirty-Six Immortals of Poetry. More generally, humans are one of the elementary subjects of , and many works of the Kamakura period incorporate techniques, such as the or the . Chinese landscape and Song dynasty wash paintings The style therefore characterised almost all , and Chinese painting no longer provided the themes and techniques. However, influences were still noticeable in certain works of the Kamakura period, in particular the art, so famous today, of the Song dynasty wash paintings, which was fully demonstrated in the grandiose and deep landscapes sketched in ink, by Ienaga. Borrowings also remained visible in religious scrolls such as the or the . This last work presents many landscapes typical of Japan according to a perspective and a rigorous realism, with a great economy of colors; various Song pictorial techniques are used to suggest depth, such as birds' flights disappearing on the horizon or the background gradually fading. Pictorial techniques technique The classic painting technique is called , used especially in most of the works of the style. A sketch of the outlines was first made in ink before applying the colours flat over the entire surface of the paper using vivid and opaque pigments. The outlines, partly masked by the paint, were finally revived in ink and the small details (such as the hair of the ladies) were enhanced. However, the first sketch was often modified, in particular when the mineral pigments were insoluble in water and therefore required the use of thick glue. Colour appears to be a very important element in Japanese painting, much more so than in China, because it gives meaning to the feelings expressed; in the , the dominant tone of each scene illustrating a key moment of the original novel reveals the deep feelings of the characters. During the Kamakura period, the different stages of were still widely observed, despite variations (lighter colours, lines more similar to Song dynasty wash paintings, etc.). Ink line and monochrome painting Even though coloured often occupy a preponderant place, one finds in contrast monochrome paintings in India ink ( or ), according to two approaches. First, ink lines can be extremely free, with the artist laying on paper unconstrained soft gestures that are especially dynamic, as it is mainly the sense of movement that emerges in these works. The painter also plays on the thickness of the brush to accentuate the dynamism, as well as on the dilution of the ink to exploit a wider palette of grey. Among such scrolls, the , formerly probably wrongly attributed to Toba Sōjō, remains the best known; Grilli describes the trait as a "continual outpouring". The second approach to monochrome paintings is more constructed, with fine, regular strokes sketching a complete and coherent scene, very similar to the first sketch in the works before the application of the colours; according to some art historians, it is also possible that these are simply unfinished. The fits perfectly with this approach, accepting only a few fine touches of red, as do the and the . Several somewhat amateurish illustrations of classic novels remain from late medieval times and the decline of the . By contrast with Western painting, lines and contours in ink play an essential role in , monochrome or not. Sometimes, however, contours are not drawn as usual: thus, in the , the absence of contours is used by the artist to evoke the Shinto spirit in Japanese landscapes. Originally from China, this pictorial technique is now called ('boneless painting'). Spatial and temporal composition Transitions between scenes The juxtaposition of the text and the painting constitutes a key point of the narrative aspect of . Originally, in the illustrated sutras, the image was organized in a long, continuous frieze at the top of the scroll, above the texts. That approach, however, was quickly abandoned for a more open layout, of which there are three types: Alternation between texts and paintings (), the former endeavouring to transcribe the illustrations chosen by the artist. Court style paintings () often opted for this approach, as paintings more readily focused on important moments or conveyed a narrative. Intermittence, where the texts appeared only at the beginning or at the end of the scroll, giving pride of place to continuous illustrations ( or ). This type was often used in epic and historical chronicles; the best-known examples are the and the . Sometimes, the texts were even hosted by a separate handscroll. Paintings interspersed with text, i.e. the text was placed above the people who were speaking, as in the Buddhist accounts of the , the or the . The balance between texts and images thus varied greatly from one work to another. The author had a broad "syntax of movement and time" which allowed him to adapt the form to the story and to the feelings conveyed. The scrolls with continuous illustrations () naturally made the transitions more ambiguous, because each reader can reveal a larger or smaller portion of the paintings, more or less quickly. In the absence of clear separation between scenes, the mode of reading must be suggested in the paintings in order to maintain a certain coherence. Two kinds of links between scenes were used by the artists. First, there were links by separation using elements of the scenery (traditionally, river, countryside, mist, buildings) were very common. Secondly, the artists used a palette of transitional elements suggested by the figures or the arrangement of objects. Thus, it was not uncommon for characters to point the finger at the following painting or for them to be represented travelling to create the link between two cities, or for the buildings to be oriented to the left to suggest departure and to the right to suggest the arrival. More generally, Bauer identifies the notion of off-screen (the part of painting not yet visible) that the painter must bring without losing coherence. Perspective and point of view The space in the composition of an constitutes a second important instance of the narration over time. As the scroll is usually read from right to left and top to bottom, the authors mainly adopt plunging points of view (, 'bird's-eye perspective'). However, the low height of the forces the artist to set up tricks such as the use of long diagonal vanishing lines or sinuous curves suggesting depth. Indoors, it is the architectural elements (beams, partitions, doors) that are used to set up these diagonals; outdoors, the diagonals are set up by the roofs, walls, roads and rivers, arranged on several planes. In painting there is no real perspective in the Western sense – one that faithfully represents what the eye perceives – but, rather, a parallel or oblique projection. The arrangement of the elements in an scene is based on the point of view, including the technique known as . As mentioned above, scenes are most commonly painted when viewed from above (bird's eye view) in order to maximize the space available for painting, despite the reduced height of the scrolls, while leaving part of the background visible. In the interior scenes, the simplest technique was developed by from the Chinese Tang artists: only three walls of the room are drawn, in parallel perspective; the point of view is located in the place of the fourth wall, a little higher up. When the need to draw several planes – for example the back of the room or a door open to the next one – arose, the artists proceeded by reducing the size (of the scale). The more general scenes in which the story evolves, such as landscapes, can be rendered from a very distant point of view (as in the or the ). In the and the , the painter opted mainly for a side view, and the development of the story depends on a succession of communicating planes. However, the Japanese artists imagined a new arrangement for which quickly became the norm for portraying interiors. It was called (literally, 'roof removed'), and involves not representing the roofs of buildings, and possibly the walls in the foreground if necessary, to enable a depiction of the interior. Unlike the previous arrangement, the point of view located outside the buildings, still high up, because the primary purpose of is to represent two separate narrative spaces – for example two adjoining rooms, or else inside and outside. The genesis of this technique is still little known (it already appears in the biography on wooden panel of Prince Shōtoku), but it already appeared with great mastery on the Court style paintings () in the 12th century. In the , the composition is closely linked to the text and indirectly suggests the mood of the scene. When Kaoru visits Ukifune, while their love is emerging, the artist shows the reader two narrative spaces thanks to the : on the veranda, Kaoru is calm, posed in a peaceful space; inside the building, by contrast, Ukifune and her ladies-in-waiting, are painted on a smaller surface, in turmoil, in a confused composition which reinforces their agitation. More generally, an unrealistic composition (for example from two points of view) makes it possible to suggest strong or sad feelings. The technique was also used in a variety of other ways, for example with a very high point of view to reinforce the partitioning of spaces, even in a single room, or by giving the landscape a more important place. Ultimately, the primary goal remained to render two narrative stages, and therefore two distinct spaces, in the same painting. was therefore used extensively, sometimes even as a simple stylistic instance unrelated to feelings or text, unlike in the . Finally, the scale of an also makes it possible to suggest depth and guide the arrangement of the elements. In Japanese painting, the scale depends not only on the depth of the scene, but also often on the importance of the elements in the composition or in the story, unlike the realistic renderings in Chinese landscape scrolls. Thus, the main character can be enlarged compared with the others, depending on what the artist wants to express: in the , Ippen is sometimes depicted in the background in a landscape the same size as trees or buildings, so that the reader can clearly identify it. Changes in scale can also convey the mood of the moment, such as the strength of will and distress of Sugawara no Michizane in the . For Saint-Marc, "each element takes [more generally] the importance it has in itself in the painter's mind", freeing itself from the rules of realistic composition. Narrative rhythm The narrative rhythm of arises mainly from the arrangement between texts and images, which constitutes an essential marker of the evolution of the story. In Court style paintings (), the artist could suggest calm and melancholy via successions of fixed and contemplative shots, as, for example, in the , in which the scenes seem to be out of time, punctuating moments of extreme sensibilities. By contrast, more dynamic stories play on the alternation between close-ups and wide panoramas, elisions, transitions and exaggeration. In such stories, the narrative rhythm is devoted entirely to the construction of the scroll leading to the dramatic or epic summit, with continuously painted scrolls allowing the action to be revealed as it goes by intensifying the rhythm, and therefore the suspense. The burning of Sanjō Palace in the illustrates this aspect well, as the artist, by using a very opaque red spreading over almost the entire height of the paper, depicts a gradual intensification of the bloody battles and the pursuit of Emperor Go-Shirakawa until the palace catches fire. Another famous fire, the Ōtenmon Incident in the , adopts the same approach, by portraying the movements of the crowd, more and more dense and disorderly, until the revelation of the drama. Japanese artists also use other composition techniques to energize a story and set the rhythm: the same characters are represented in a series of varied sets (typically outdoors), a technique known as repetition (). In the , a composition centered on Kanazawa Castle gradually shows the capture of the castle by the troops of Minamoto no Yoshiie, creating a gradual and dramatic effect. In the , the tower to which Kibi no Makibi (or Kibi Daijin) is assigned is painted to depict each challenge won by the protagonist. Another narrative technique characteristic of is called : it consists of representing the same character several times in a single scene, in order to suggest a sequence of actions (fights, discussions, trips) with great space savings. The movement of the eye is then most often circular, and the scenes portray different moments. can equally suggest either a long moment in one scene, such as the nun in the who remains in retreat in Tōdai-ji for several hours, or a series of brief but intense actions, such as the fights in the and the . In the , the artist offers a succession of almost "cinematographic" shots alternately showing the distress of Zenmyō, a young Chinese girl, and the boat carrying her beloved away on the horizon. Calligraphy As noted in the history section above, the emergence of the syllabary contributed to the development of women's court literature and, by extension, the illustration of novels on scrolls. were therefore used on , although the Chinese characters remained very much also in use. In some particular scrolls, other alphabets can be found, notably Sanskrit on the . In East Asia, calligraphy is a predominant art that aristocrats learn to master from childhood, and styles and arrangements of characters are widely codified, although varied. In the context of , calligraphic texts can have several purposes: to introduce the story, to describe the painted scenes, to convey religious teachings or to be presented in the form of poems ( poetry remains the most representative of ancient Japan). For the richly decorated court-style paintings (), like the , the papers were carefully prepared and decorated with gold and silver dust. The text of an had more than merely a function of decoration and narration; it could also influence the composition of the paintings. The have been widely studied on this point: art historians have shown a link between the feeling conveyed by a text and the dominant colour of the accompanying paint, a colour which is also used for the decorated paper. In addition, the composition of the paintings may make it possible to understand them in accordance with the text: for example, the characters in the story may have been painted on a scene in a palace in the order of their appearance in the text. Other specialists in turn have insisted on the importance of the text in the positioning of the paintings, an important point in the Buddhist , in which the transmission of dogmas and religious teachings remained an essential goal of the artist. A Japanese art According to Peter C. Swann, the production of was Japan's first truly original artistic movement since the arrival of foreign influences. China's influence in and pictorial techniques remained tangible at the beginning, so much so that historians have worked to formalise what really constitutes art as Japanese art. In addition to the style, specialists often put forward several elements of answers: the very typical diagonal composition, the perspective depending on the subject, the process of , the sensitivity of colours (essential in ), the stereotypical faces of the characters (impersonal, realistic or caricatured), and finally the hazy atmosphere. K. Chino and K. Nishi also noted the technique of (literally, 'roof removed'), unprecedented in all Asian art. Saint-Marc commented that some of these elements actually existed previously in Chinese painting, and that the originality of was in the overall approach and themes established by the Japanese artists. The originality of art is also to be sought in its spirit, "the life of an era translated into formal language". The court style paintings () are part of the aesthetic of (literally 'the pathos of things'), a state of mind that is difficult to express, but which can be regarded as a penchant for sad beauty, the melancholy born of the feeling that everything beautiful is impermanent. D. and V. Elisseeff define this aspect of as the , the feeling of inadequacy, often materialized by a properly Japanese humour. But outside the court, the popular style (), the art of everyday life, come closer to the human and universal state of mind. Historiographical value Depiction of everyday Japanese life Sustained production of through the Heian, Kamakura and Muromachi periods (about 12th–14th centuries) created an invaluable source of information on the then-contemporary Japanese civilization. have been greatly studied in that respect by historians; no other form of Japanese art has been so intimately linked to the life and culture of the Japanese people. A large project of the Kanagawa University made a very exhaustive study of the most interesting paintings across fifteen major categories of elements, including dwellings, elements of domestic life and elements of life outside the home, according to ages (children, workers, old people) and social class. Although the main characters are most often nobles, famous monks or warriors, the presence of ordinary people is more or less tangible in an immense majority of works, allowing a study of a very wide variety of daily activities: peasants, craftsmen, merchants, beggars, women, old people and children can appear in turn. In the , the activity of women is particularly interesting, the artist showing them preparing meals, washing clothes or breastfeeding. The presents 142 artisans from the Muromachi period, ranging from a blacksmith to a maker. The clothing of the characters in are typically true-to-life and accurately depict contemporary clothing and its relationship to the social categories of the time. In military-themed scrolls, the weapons and armour of the warriors are also depicted with accuracy; the , for instance, depicts many details, in particular the armour and harnesses of horses, whilst the depicts the fighting styles of the Japanese during the Mongol invasions of Japan, whose tactics were still dominated by the use of the bow. Finally, the offers a unique insight into certain details of the uniforms of police officers (known as ). The aesthetics, alongside the rendering of people's emotions and expressions of feelings, also show a distinct cleavage between the common people and the aristocracy. For depicting commoners, emotions such as fear, anguish, excitement and joy are rendered directly and with clarity, whereas aristocratic instead emphasise refined, but less direct, themes such as classical romance, the holding of ceremonies, and nostalgia for the Heian period. Historical, cultural and religious reflection Depending on the subjects addressed, also form an important historiographical source of information about more than just everyday life, including historical events, culture and religion. Among these kinds of , the comes in the form of a calendar of several annual ceremonies and rites celebrated at court. By their symbolic importance and the complexity of their codes, these events, as well as some more popular festivals, absorbed much of the energy of the Heian period aristocracy. During the subsequent Kamakura period, the forty-eight scrolls of the formed an unpublished catalogue of the culture and the society of the time, while recounting, in a proselytising way, the establishment of the first Pure Land school in Japan. The architecture of the places used as a setting for an can present a great level of visual detail in relation to period structures. The thus offers an insight into the architectural style, marked by a mixture of influence from Tang China and traditional Japan, such as bark roofs. More interesting still, the details a wide variety of buildings (temples, shrines, palaces, dwellings) taken from life with an unprecedented realism by the painter monk , so that the buildings preserved today are easily recognizable. can also include various elements of life in the city or in the country, such as the market in the shopping district of Osaka. Another notable example, the gives a unique sketch of the great Buddha original of Tōdai-ji, which burned in 1180. very often take historical or religious events as a source of inspiration: the narrative value of the story (the true story) informs contemporary historians as much about the story as about the way of perceiving this story at the time (there is sometimes a gap of several centuries between the time of the story and the time of the painter). Amongst the most interesting information in an may be details of the construction of ancient temples, of religious practices and finally of the unfolding of battles and major historical events, such as the Mongol invasions, the Genpei War or even the Ōtenmon political conspiracy. Notable examples Art historians, in their writings, have repeatedly emphasized the specific techniques of art through some characteristic scrolls. The , dated approximately between the years 1120 and 1140, illustrate The Tale of Genji in the refined and intimate style of the court (), but only a few fragments of four scrolls remain today. The scene shown here depicts Prince Genji's final visit to his dying beloved, Lady Murasaki. In the composition, the diagonals reveal the emotion of the characters. First, Lady Murasaki appears at the top right, then the lines guide the eye to the prince in the lower centre, who appears to be crushed by sorrow. Then, the reading continues, and, at left, several months have passed, showing the garden of lovers devastated by time, echoing the loved one lost. The colors are darker than usual. In this scene, all of the classic pictorial elements of the of the genre are visible: the diagonals that guide the eye, the , the , and the colours affixed evenly over the entire surface, with the technique. The provides a popular and humorous narrative of three episodes from the life of the Buddhist monk Myōren (founder of Chōgosonshi-ji), emphasizing the line and light colors of the . The most precise estimates place it between 1157 and 1180, and the quality of the descriptions of the temples and the palace suggests that the artist is familiar with both ecclesiastical and aristocratic circles. Myōren, who lived as a hermit in the mountains of Kyoto, used to send a magic bowl by air to the nearby village, in order to receive his offering of rice. One day, a rich merchant became tired of this ritual and locked the bowl in his attic. To punish him, Myōren blew up the whole granary containing the village harvest, as painted in the scene shown here; in that scene, known as the flying granary, the artist fully represents the popular feelings, fear and panic at seeing the harvest disappear. The movements of the crowd and the expressive, almost burlesque faces of the landscapes contrast with the tangible restraint in the . So, this fits into the genre, marked by dynamic ink lines, light colors revealing the paper, and themes of everyday life. The recounts the historical events of the Heiji rebellion, an episode in the civil war between the Taira and Minamoto clans at the end of the Heian era. Of the numerous original scrolls, formed in the second half of the 13th century, probably over several decades, only three remain, together with various fragments. The first scroll, which depicts the Siege of Sanjō Palace, is one of the most renowned in the art of , due to its mastery of movement and setting up of the narrative to the climax: the fire, which spreads over almost the entire height of the scroll in the scene shown here. At the seat of the fire, extremely realistically represented soldiers, equipped with weapons and armor, fight violently, while the aristocrats who try to flee are savagely massacred (here, one is slaughtered by a shaggy soldier). The palace fire echoes that in another, older, scroll, the , which is renowned for its mix of colorful and refined scenes. The twelve scrolls of the narrate the biography of the holy monk Ippen, founder of the school of Pure Land Buddhism. They were painted in 1299 by the monk-painter , disciple of Ippen, on silk, probably because of the importance of the character. Ippen, cantor of salvation for all souls and dancing prayers (), travelled throughout Japan to transmit his doctrine to men, peasants, townspeople and nobles. The is renowned for its many strong scenes of landscapes typical of Japan, so realistic that they can still be recognised perfectly today. The scene shown here, in which Ippen and his disciples arrive at Kyoto by the bridge over the Kamo River, illustrates the unique style, which draws its inspiration from both the classic realism of Kamakura art and the wash painting of the Song dynasty. The result, so admired by specialists, appears very close to deep and spiritual Chinese landscapes with rough ink strokes, while retaining a Japanese iconography through the freedom taken with perspective (the characters in particular are disproportionate) and the elements of daily life. The , painted around 1218–1230, illustrates the legend of two Korean monks who founded the Kegon sect in their country in the 12th century. One of them, Gishō, made a pilgrimage to China in his youth to complete his Buddhist education. There, he met a young Chinese girl, Zenmyō, who fell in love with him. Alas, on the day he was due to depart, the latter arrived late at the port and, in despair, rushed into the water, swearing to protect her beloved forever. She then transformed into a dragon and became a protective deity of the Kegon school, according to legend. The well-known scene shown here, in which Zenmyō, transformed into a dragon, carries Gishō's ship on her back, features supple and fine lines as well as discreet colors that do not mask the brushstrokes; this style also seems inspired by the wash painting of the Song dynasty to which the very Japanese sensitivity for colors has been added. In fact, the sponsor of the roll, the monk Myōe of Kōzan-ji, appreciated the art of the Asian continent and brought to Japan several contemporary Chinese works, which probably inspired the artists of his painting workshop. The original scrolls of the , reporting the facts about the life and death of Sugawara no Michizane, scholarly minister to the Emperor during his lifetime, and deified according to legend as a of studies and letters, demonstrate a sensitivity in mixing Buddhism and, above all, Shinto. The scrolls were actually intended for the Shinto shrine of Kitano Tenmangū in Kyoto; the last two of eight scrolls narrate the foundation and miracles. However, the thematic division of the work appears unfinished, the sketch of a ninth scroll having been brought to light. In the scene shown here, Michizane, unjustly condemned to exile, calls out to the gods in his misfortune. The composition of the painting testifies to a very Japanese sensitivity; Michizane is disproportionately depicted to underline his grandeur and determination in the face of dishonour, while the vividly colored and almost contourless () landscape is imbued with Shinto animism. The mists resembling long opaque ribbons are further features of , although also present in a different form in Chinese art. See also Cantastoria Moving panorama List of National Treasures of Japan (paintings) References Notes Citations Bibliography Journal articles and conference proceedings Works specialising in Works focusing on a specific General books on the art of Japan External links Emakimono Buddhist art Entertainment in Japan History of art in Japan Illustration Japanese art terminology Japanese chronicles Monogatari Japanese words and phrases Japanese historical materials
5246326	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bermuda%20Militia%20Artillery	Bermuda Militia Artillery	The Bermuda Militia Artillery was a unit of part-time soldiers organised in 1895 as a reserve for the Royal Garrison Artillery detachment of the Regular Army garrison in the Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda. Militia Artillery units of the United Kingdom and Colonies were intended to man coastal batteries in times of war, which were manned by under-strength numbers of regular army gunners in peace time. The unit was embodied during both world wars, fulfilling its role within the garrison, and also sending contingents overseas to more active theatres of the wars. History Bermuda had maintained its own militias (in which all able-bodied, adult males, free or enslaved, were required to serve) since British rule officially began in 1612. With the buildup of the Royal Naval Dockyard and the attendant Regular Army garrison in the years following the American War of Independence, however, the Government of Bermuda quickly lost interest in funding a militia that seemed superfluous. Following the American War of 1812, it ceased to renew the Militia Act, and the military reserve was allowed to lapse. For the next eight decades, the Secretary of State for War, and the Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Bermuda implored the local government in vain to raise a military reserve force as vast funds were channelled into building up the colony's defences. The colonial government, however, feared being saddled with the entire cost of maintaining the garrison, and was also concerned of the social discord that would result from raising either racially integrated or segregated units. Major General Sir William Reid, Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Bermuda from 1839 to 1846, was forced to raise a body of voluntary reservists without the assistance of the local government, which recruited part-time soldiers into the regular army and the Board of Ordnance military corps without racial discrimination, although relatively few white Bermudians enlisted. Those serving in the army were trained as light infantry, with an emphasis on amphibious operations. Although this unit was short-lived, other Bermudians appear to have continued to serve on a local-service, and presumably part-time, basis (many others simply enlisted as regular full-time soldiers) with the regular detachments in Bermuda (note First Sergeant Robert John Simmons of the 54th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, who died of wounds as a prisoner of war following the assault on Battery Wagner. Simmons was described by abolitionist, lecturer, novelist, playwright, historian and former slave William Wells Brown as "a young man of more than ordinary abilities who had learned the science of war in the British Army". Simmons was 26 when he died, and too young to have served under Reid's scheme). In Britain, too, many citizens felt the government was neglecting the defence of that island by deploying much of the army around the World on garrison duty. The Militia and the Yeomanry (which could no longer rely on compulsory service), together with the regular army units that did remain in Britain, were unable to field forces thought adequate for the defence of the island against a large, modern continental army. Following the Crimean War, when reserve forces had to be dispatched to the war zone, it was realised that the British Army's Imperial garrison obligations not only left Britain vulnerable, but also did not leave aside sufficient uncommitted forces to compose an effective expeditionary force such as had been required in the Crimea. Britain's primary motivation in supporting the Ottoman Empire against Russia was to prevent the border of the Russian Empire advancing to meet that of British India. Potential Russian interference with Britain's East Asian trade was also a concern. Following the Indian Mutiny of 1857, it was feared that Indian units might be encouraged to mutiny should there be a Russian invasion, and might mutiny in any case were British units in India reduced in number. As funds for the increase of the British Army were not forthcoming, and with the threat of invasion by France, the government tackled these issues by raising a Volunteer Force of part-time soldiers in 1859. Composed primarily of locally organised Volunteer Rifle Corps, this force could be embodied in times of emergency, but its volunteers could not be compelled to serve abroad. Although the volunteer rifle corps would prove popular, the most immediate requirement was for artillerymen to man the coastal batteries that were the first line of defence. To make up the shortfall of reserve gunners, a number of existing Militia infantry regiments were retrained as the Militia Artillery that, along with the remainder of the Militia, the Yeomanry, and the Volunteer Force, would be merged into the Territorial Force (subsequently the Territorial Army) in 1908, when terms-of-service (a set number of years for which the recruit was obligated to serve), among other changes, were introduced to the former volunteer units (from which soldiers could previously quit with fourteen days notice, except while embodied for training or active service). Terms of service had already applied to Militia soldiers. In addition to creating these part-time reserve forces, the British Government sought to redeploy regular army units from imperial garrisons back to Britain, where they could be used for defence or to compose expeditionary forces to be sent overseas to war zones, and replacing them with full-time or part-time units raised locally. This proved difficult to accomplish. In some parts of the Empire, removing British Army regiments would invite insurrection, insurgency, or invasion (such as India, ever under threat from the Russian Empire, and which suffered the Great Mutiny of native regiments in 1857). Bermuda, while less likely to suffer insurrection, was an inviting target to Britain's potential enemies, notably the United States of America, thanks to its strategic location and the important Imperial defence assets located there, such as the Royal Naval Dockyard. Regular units could not be removed, therefore, 'til local reserves had been raised to replace them. As neither the London nor the Hamilton government was keen to pay for these units, decades more would pass before the regular army garrison in Bermuda began to be drawn down. Bermuda's new tourism industry, pioneered in the latter 19th century by Princess Louise, Samuel Clemens and others, provided the Secretary of State with the leverage to compel the colonial government. He withheld his approval of American investment into the new Princess Hotel and the dredging of the shipping channel into St. George's Harbour as the first could provide a pretext for invasion (by the US, to protect the interests of its nationals), and the latter would make it easier for an enemy force to invade. The Secretary wrote that he could not approve either project while Bermuda contributed nothing to her own defence. Accordingly, the Parliament of Bermuda passed three acts drafted by the London Government authorising the creation of voluntary, part-time artillery, rifle, and sappers-and-miners (engineers) units. The last unit was not raised, and the Royal Engineers 27th Company (Submarine Mining), which had been permanently reassigned from Halifax, Nova Scotia, to Bermuda in 1888 (part of the company had been split off to create the new 40th Company, which remained in Halifax), continued to maintain the mine defences unaided. A reserve unit of engineers, the Bermuda Volunteer Engineers, would not be raised for another four decades. Foundation The Bermuda Militia Artillery (BMA), however, was raised in 1895. Although it was titled as a militia, it was in practice a voluntary organisation, akin to those of the Volunteer Force, except that volunteers for the Militia were enlisted for a term of service whereas members of the Volunteer Force could resign with fourteen days notice (except while embodied for training or active service). The old militia, in England and Wales, as well as in Bermuda, had been a body of men who gathered annually to train, and could be called out and embodied in times of emergency. All males of military age who were fit to serve were required to do so. By the early 19th century, the militia in Britain had become a smaller, voluntary force, from which the British Army often recruited trained soldiers. In Bermuda, which had seen the buildup of a regular army garrison, the militia had been allowed to lapse, but the American War of 1812 led to its resurrection. After the war, however, no further Militia Acts were passed and it ceased to exist. Historically, the Militia Artillery (in Britain and in Bermuda) had been seen as the most critical component. Whereas the Militia infantry and the mounted units had embodied only for annual training, or during times or war or emergency (which included quelling the Privateer Riots in Bermuda), a standing force of the Militia Artillery had been required to maintain the coastal artillery defences in Britain and Bermuda, guarding against attacks that might come at any time. Also, the skills of the artilleryman required more training to acquire and maintain, and annual training camps were not sufficient, which led to more emphasis being placed on the requirements of the artillery. Advances in artillery and tactics, by the mid-19th century, had actually increased the importance of the militia gunners in Britain. In Bermuda, roughly five hundred artillery pieces were emplaced by mid-century, but without the support of a militia, the regular gunners were sufficient to man only a fraction of them. Although not a continuation of the original militia, the titling of the new Bermudian artillery reserve as the Bermuda Militia Artillery, rather than as the Bermuda Volunteer Artillery, followed the practice then current in Britain for similar units, which, though voluntary, were a continuation of the old militia. The other volunteer unit raised at the same time as the BMA, the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps BVRC), restricted its recruitment to whites, and the BMA was made up almost entirely of blacks, although its officers were white. Although BVRC recruits, originally, could quit their corps with fourteen days notice, as with UK volunteer rifle regiments, BMA recruits enlisted for six years. After 27 days of basic training, they were liable only to attend annual camp. While in camp, they were subject to the Army Act, and military law. The BMA wore the standard Royal Artillery uniform, and cap badge. Soldiers were originally recruited on a voluntary basis, though conscription was introduced during the Second World War, and re-introduced during the 1950s. Small contingents were sent to England in 1897, to take part in Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, and in 1902, for the coronation of King Edward VII. At the first camp, in 1896, the unit had a single company with a strength of 10 men and three officers. A second company was added as its strength grew to more than 200 over the next decade, but, as recruitment fell, its numbers dropped below 100 men again by 1914. The unit was already embodied for annual camp when war was declared in 1914. The First World War During the First World War, two contingents served as part of the larger Royal Garrison Artillery detachment to the Western Front. The first, 201 officers and men, under the command of Major Thomas Melville Dill, left for France on 31 May 1916. A second contingent, of two officers and sixty other ranks, left Bermuda on 6 May 1917, and was merged with the first contingent in France. The contingent, titled the Bermuda Contingent, Royal Garrison Artillery, served primarily in ammunition supply, at dumps, and in delivering ammunition to batteries in the field. The Contingent served at the Somme from June to December 1916. They were then moved away from the Front, serving on docks until April, 1917, when they were attached to the Canadian Corps, serving in the Battle of Vimy Ridge. They took part in the Battle of Passchendaele (or the Third Battle of Ypres), from 24 June until 22 October, where three men were killed, and several wounded. Two men received the Military Medal. A total of 10 Gunners are commemorated on the CWGC Website. In Bermuda, the BMA was demobilised on 31 December 1918, and when the overseas contingent returned in July, 1919, it was to no unit. Thirty men who chose to remain on temporarily re-enlisted in the RGA, and the rest were demobilised. Field Marshall Sir Douglas Haig commended the contingent, writing: Between the wars This was not the end for the BMA, however, as it was re-constituted for the annual camp of 1920, when fifty new recruits joined six officers and 154 other ranks who had enlisted before or during the war. In 1921, one company was tasked with providing mobile detachments, and the other for serving at fixed batteries. In 1924, the Royal Garrison Artillery was amalgamated again with the Royal Field Artillery as the Royal Artillery, although the Royal Horse Artillery remained as a separate arm within the Royal Regiment of Artillery. In 1928, the last of the regular army Royal Artillery detachments, along with the Royal Engineers Fortress Company which manned searchlights at the batteries, were withdrawn from Bermuda due to post-war reductions in expenditure. By 1935, all of the batteries in Bermuda became inactive, except the Examination Battery at Saint David's Head, which the BMA assumed complete responsibility for operating. Also in 1928, the BMA was reorganised along the lines of the Territorial Army. Although it ceased at this point to be a militia unit, it was not re-titled as the Militia Artillery units in the United Kingdom had been. With re-organisation as a territorial unit, training requirements became a weekly drill night, plus an annual two week camp. All of its enlisted men were discharged, and the unit slowly began to rebuild its strength through new recruitment. In 1930, the War Office also ceased funding annual camps outside of the British Isles, citing a lack of funds, and the Bermuda government began funding training. Although the colonial government began paying a contribution towards the costs of the BVRC during this period, the Imperia government remained completely responsible for funding the BMA until its re-organisation in 1951. In 1931, a new territorial unit, the Bermuda Volunteer Engineers (BVE), was raised to take up the role of manning the search light detachment at Saint David's Battery (and in 1940 it also absorbed the BVRC signals element, providing wireless communications for the garrison). In 1936, on the occasion of the death of King George V, the BMA was involved in what could have been a severe international incident. The BMA had been instructed to fire a memorial salute from one of the two 4.7" guns at Saint David's Battery. This salute was to consist of seventy blank rounds, one for each year of the King's life, fired at one-minute intervals. Because of the difficulty of storing ammunition in Bermuda's humid climate, there proved to be only twenty-three rounds of blank ammunition in stock, and the remainder used were all headed ammunition. As the firing was to commence at 8am (on 21 January), and it was thought unlikely any vessels would be in the danger area, it was decided to proceed with the salute, ensuring the guns were elevated for maximum range (8,000 yards), out to sea. The firing began at 08:00, and was over seventy minutes later. What the BMA gunners were unaware of, however, was that a Colombian Navy destroyer, the ARC Antioquia, was at the receiving end of their barrage. The destroyer. built in Portugal by a British company, was under the command of a retired Royal Naval officer (part of the British Naval Mission to Colombia), and was arriving at Bermuda to undergo repairs at the HM Dockyard. Although the ship's crewmembers were alarmed to find themselves on the receiving end of an artillery barrage, the ship fortunately was not hit. The Second World War In 1939, a new battery of two 6" guns was constructed at Warwick Camp. Despite this, the manpower requirements of the BMA simply did not make full use of the number of black males available for military service when the war began. Rather than integrate the BVRC or the BVE, it was decided to raise a second infantry unit, the Bermuda Militia Infantry, to recruit blacks, and this was grouped administratively with the BMA. Forces throughout the Empire were mobilised on 3 September 1939, in anticipation of the declaration of war. Unlike in the Great War, when the two local units relied entirely on volunteers, conscription was introduced soon after the outbreak of hostilities, with blacks directed into the BMA or BMI, and whites into the BVRC. Volunteers and conscripts served full-time for the duration of the War. In June, 1940, the BVRC sent a small contingent of volunteers to the Lincolnshire Regiment depot in England. A handful of volunteers from the BMA and the BVE travelled with them, separating in England to join the regular artillery or engineers. The BMA contribution to that contingent consisted of a single officer, Lieutenant Patrick Lynn Purcell, who, like most of the BMA's white officers, had begun his service in the ranks of the BVRC. Purcell would serve with the a coastal artillery detachment of the Royal Artillery in Sierra Leone, due to his similar experience with the BMA. He eventually transferred to the Lincolnshire Regiment, serving in North West Europe, and, having reached the rank of Major, being appointed Press Officer of the British Area of Occupation in Germany, following victory in Europe. The 1940 contingent was to be the last from Bermuda for nearly four years. Some members of the Bermuda Militia were selected for pilot training at the Bermuda Flying School, and sent on to the Royal Air Force. After the school closed in 1942 (due to a surplus of trained pilots), the organisation overseeing it was converted into a recruiting and selection arm of the Royal Canadian Air Force, sending 60 volunteers, primarily from the various local military units, to that service for aircrew training before the end of the War. Second-Lieutenant Richard Masters Gorham, who had been commissioned into the Bermuda Militia Artillery from the ranks of the Bermuda Volunteer Engineers on 20 December 1940, to replace Second Lieutenant Francis J. Gosling (who had trained as a pilot at the Bermuda Flying School and was to depart for the United Kingdom in January for transfer to the Royal Air Force) learnt of an instruction from the Army Council that prevented commanding officers from barring officers under their command from taking any training course for which they volunteered. Gorham and Second-Lieutenant Michael F. Gregg (who had been commissioned into the Bermuda Militia Artillery from the ranks of the Bermuda Volunteer Engineers on 28 May 1941) relinquished their Bermuda Militia Artillery local-service commissions on 27 June 1942 in order to receive regular Royal Artillery emergency commissions on 8 July 1942. Trained as pilots by the Royal Air Force, they served in air observation post squadrons controlled by the Royal Air Force but with gunners as pilot-fire controllers. Gorham served in North Africa and Italy. In Italy, while in command of B Flight of 655 Squadron, he played the decisive role in the Battle of Monte Cassino when he spotted a German division moving in half-tracked German Armoured Personnel Carriers to counter attack the British 5th Division and the Polish Corps, which were themselves attacking the German-occupied monastery. Contacting the senior Royal Artillery fire control officer on the ground. All two-thousand field guns within range were switched from their local targets and placed under his control. Gorham directed their fire down onto the German Division. The guns fired for hours, with Gorham taking turns with other AOP pilots. The German division was completely destroyed, and the Allied ground forces broke through four days later. For this action, Gorham received the Distinguished Flying Cross, a relative rarity for an Army officer. After the war, Gorham would serve as a captain, second-in-command of the Bermuda Rifles (as the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps was retitled in 1949). On his retirement in 1954, He retired from the army with the substantive rank of captain, he was awarded the honorary rank of colonel in the Royal Artillery and was subsequently knighted. Despite that steady outward trickle, however, fears of weakening the garrison meant that a moratorium on further drafts from the island was in force until 1943. By then, the likelihood of a German attack, or sabotage, had greatly diminished, and American forces, including artillery detachments, had been built-up on the island. This meant that local forces could be spared for service overseas, and both the BVRC and the Bermuda Militia detached companies to send across the Atlantic. The Bermuda Militia force, composed of members of the BMA and the BMI, trained with the BVRC contingent as an infantry force at Prospect Camp. The BVRC contingent was sent to the Lincolns in 1944. The Bermuda Militia contingent, however, proceeded to North Carolina, where it formed the training cadre of a new regiment, the Caribbean Regiment, being formed on a US Army base in North Carolina. Contingents, mostly of new recruits, were sent from various West Indian territories. In North Carolina, they were assessed for fitness, then trained as infantry. The unit was then posted to Italy in 1944. After serving briefly in the field, the Regiment escorted a shipment of Axis prisoners to Egypt, then remained there as prisoner-of-war (POW) camp guards until the end of hostilities. The Caribbean Regiment was disbanded after the war, and the Bermuda Militia contingent members returned to their original units in Bermuda. The BMI, along with the BVE, was disbanded in 1946. The BMA and the BVRC were both reduced to a skeleton command structure before recruitment for both units began again in 1951. The two were then grouped together, by the Defence (Local Forces) Act, 1949, under the command of Headquarters, Local Forces. Post war The military garrison existed primarily to defend the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda located on Ireland Island. It was announced in 1950 that the dockyard would be closed, and the military garrison was withdrawn along with it. The last Imperial Defence Plan was produced in 1953, and this was the last year in which the BMA and the BVRC were tasked under it. The Regular Army was withdrawn, ostensibly, on 25 April 1953, but detachments would be posted on the island until 1957 when a company of the Duke Of Cornwall's Light Infantry (DCLI) was withdrawn. The local territorials might have been disbanded as their role had disappeared, but the Bermuda Government chose to maintain both remaining units, entirely at its own cost. The last coastal artillery pieces were removed from use in 1953, however, and, rather than integrate the BVRC, it was decided to convert the BMA to the infantry role. The unit continued to wear the Royal Artillery uniform and cap badge, but was re-organised, equipped and trained. This also required changes to the rank and command structure as an infantry unit requires more junior NCOs than a comparably-sized artillery unit. As an infantry unit, it was relocated to Warwick Camp, along with the Bermuda Rifles. Conscription was reintroduced, to the Bermuda Rifles in 1957, and to the BMA in 1960, although both units remained part-time. The permanent staff members of the BMA were now provided by Regular Army infantry units, instead of artillery units. In 1965, with racial segregation rapidly becoming politically inexpedient, it was decided to end the unnecessary duplication of effort and the BMA was amalgamated with the Bermuda Rifles (as the BVRC had been renamed) on 1 September, to create the Bermuda Regiment (since 2015, the Royal Bermuda Regiment). Originally, the part-time reserve units in Bermuda, the Channel Islands and Malta had numbered collectively (as 28th, circa 1945) in the British Army order of precedence, but were ordered within that according to the placement of their parent corps in the regular army. This meant, that the Bermuda Militia Artillery (BMA), as part of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, preceded the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps (BVRC) despite being the second of the two to be raised. Today, the Royal Bermuda Regiment, as an amalgam of the BMA and BVRC, is 28th. See also Militia Artillery units of the United Kingdom and Colonies Bermuda Garrison Royal Bermuda Regiment Royal Artillery British Army Territorial Army (United Kingdom) References Part of Bermuda Garrison Military of Bermuda External links BMA History by Jennifer Hind POTSI (archive): BMA Images POTSI (alternate archive): BMA Images POTSI (alternate archive): Commanders and Adjutants of the BMA since formation, by Jennifer Hind Military of Bermuda British colonial regiments 1895 establishments in Bermuda Artillery units and formations of the British Army Militias Military units and formations of Bermuda in World War II Units and formations of the Royal Artillery Militia regiments of the Royal Artillery
5247064	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkmar%20Wentzel	Volkmar Wentzel	Volkmar Kurt Wentzel (February 8, 1915 – May 10, 2006) was a German American photographer and cinematographer. He worked for nearly 50 years for the National Geographic Society as a darkroom technician and photographer, and his professional and personal work was highly acclaimed. He was one of the first people to take photographs of then-little known country of Nepal, and was noted for documenting the final years of many of the traditional tribal kingdoms of Africa. Early life Wentzel was born February 8, 1915, in the city of Dresden in what was then the Kingdom of Saxony (now Freestate of Saxony) in Germany. He was one of four boys born to Dr. Fritz Gustav Wentzel (a chemist) and his wife, Verna Jatho Wentzel. His father was an amateur photographer who sold photographic chemicals. His father was also a friend of the photochemical pioneer Hinricus Lüppo-Cramer, and preserved much of Lüppo-Cramer's work after his death. Volkmar Wentzel later said his father would sometimes punish his sons by making them take a "time-out" in his photographic darkroom, but that Volkmar soon learned to love the space. "This was a terrifying, almost traumatic experience, until by accident, with the flick of the darkroom's amber-red inspection light switch, the magic world of photography, my lifetime love, was revealed," he later said. When Wentzel was nine years old, he and his father built a wooden pinhole camera and his first photographs were of statues in the Grosser Garten near their home. Post-World War I Germany was ravaged by economic and political dislocation. Dr. Wentzel was offered a job as director at an Ansco photographic paper manufacturing plant in Binghamton, New York, so the family moved to the United States in 1926. Wentzel's mother died in 1931, and his father (burdened with a demanding job, and writing books on photographic materials) became unable to adequately care for his four teenage sons. Wentzel and a friend, Bill Buckley, sold some personal items, pooled the money they had earned from their newspaper home delivery jobs, and decided to settle in South America. They dropped out of high school and departed Binghamton in February 1934, arriving in D.C. after three days of walking and hitchhiking. Naïvely intending to spend the night with President Franklin D. Roosevelt, they walked through the deserted grounds and to the north entrance of the White House only to find that the president was not in residence. They slept that night in a YMCA at Farragut Square. But when they awoke in the morning to find their bedroom full of cockroaches, the boys divided their money (each received $70) and parted. Although Buckley said he was returning to Binghamton, Wentzel rented a room in the Lafayette Square townhouse of Roosevelt aide Thomas Gardiner Corcoran. Wentzel soon moved to West Virginia. While staying at Corcoran's home, he met German-born architect Eric Menke (who had come to D.C. to work on a proposed Municipal Center), who told Wentzel about a burgeoning artists' colony in Aurora, West Virginia. The colony offered to pay Wentzel $2.50 a week to care for the cabins and studios on the property; he accepted, and moved to Aurora in the summer of 1935. Early photographic career Beginnings in Aurora The artists' colony in Aurora consisted of a log cabin tavern on U.S. Route 50, and a lodge and studios (of various sizes, and constructed of various kinds of materials) in the nearby woods. Among the artists, diplomats, philosophers, and writers staying at the colony were the painter Robert Gates and his wife, the physician David Lindsay Watson, the psychiatrist Sigurd Graven and his wife, and the former Latvian diplomat Arved Kundzin. Menke suggested that, to make ends meet, Wentzel use the Voigtländer camera his father had given him to photograph the local area and make postcards for sale. Wentzel converted an old pump house across Route 50 from the tavern into a darkroom, although light leaking through cracks in the walls, around the door, and from the ceiling forced Wentzel to primarily use it at night. During his stay in Aurora, Wentzel finished high school. Local artist Tom Hood argued that Wentzel should abandon high school in order to help with a national puppetry tour being organized by some Aurora theater people. But an architect friend in Aurora encouraged Wentzel to stay in school, and he did. At first, Wentzel bartered his photographs for food. But it was not until First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt stopped at the tavern and bought three of Wentzel's postcards that Wentzel felt he had a career in photography. (Roosevelt was on her way to Arthurdale, West Virginia. This was a newly built experimental community she had sponsored which taught destitute coal miners subsistence farming. It also taught them local art, craft, and musical traditions so that these traditions might be preserved, the miners might sell crafts for sale, and to create a reason for tourists to come to the town.) Washington, D.C. Encouraged by Roosevelt's purchase, Wentzel moved back to Washington, D.C., in 1935. Once more, he rented a room in a townhouse on Lafayette Square. He received a job as a darkroom technician (at $12.50 a week) with the Underwood & Underwood portraiture and news agency studio. (He later described the job as a "sweat shop".) He was mentored by news photographer Clarence Jackson, and one of his first assignments (to take portraits of the wife of the French ambassador) was published in the Washington Star newspaper. His superiors were so impressed that they gave him a Speed Graphic camera for his own use. His daytime job left Wentzel little opportunity to take photographs. However, he took courses in photography at the Corcoran School of Art and had several mentors at Underwood & Underwood. His friend Eric Menke bought Wentzel a copy of Paris de Nuit (Paris By Night), a book of nighttime photographs of Paris by the renowned Hungarian photographer Brassaï. Inspired by Brassaï's work, Wentzel began taking photographs of Washington, D.C., by night, sometimes staying up until dawn to learn night photography techniques and find new ways to photograph well-known buildings and landmarks. Wentzel submitted some of these prints to the Royal Photographic Society in early 1936, and over the next six months they were displayed in galleries throughout Europe—winning several prizes. In late 1936, while passing the National Geographic Society, Wentzel decided on the spur of the moment to ask for a tour of their photographic facilities. The request was granted, and Wentzel toured the lab with his photographs of the city under his arm. The employee giving the tour told Wentzel he was quitting, and Wentzel applied for the position after the tour ended. The personnel director was initially dismissive of Wentzel's interest in the job, but was impressed with the awards his photographs had won. He was granted a job interview, and offered a position in the photography lab in late December 1936. Career at National Geographic Wentzel's first day at National Geographic was January 2, 1937. Two months after he started at National Geographic and in celebration of Wentzel's high school diploma, Wentzel's father gave him $135 to buy of land near Aurora. Wentzel built a home on the property in 1973, and lived there and in Washington, D.C., for the rest of his life. Only a darkroom technician, Wentzel did not have to wait long before he had the opportunity to become a photographer for the Society's magazine. In late 1937, a photographer working on an article on West Virginia was pulled from that assignment and sent to Europe. Due to his familiarity with the state, Wentzel was ordered to complete the photographic assignment. Several of his images appeared in the August 1940 issue of National Geographic. Over the next 48 years, Wentzel was the photographer for 35 stories in National Geographic, and photograph and author for another 10. Wentzel left the magazine at the outbreak of World War II and enlisted in the United States Army Air Corps, where he was assigned photo interpretation duties. He served a portion of his service on the island of Okinawa. Returning to his job after the war, Wentzel received a number of important assignments. One of his first assignments was to conduct a photographic survey of India. He transformed a U.S. Army ambulance into a mobile darkroom, and traveled more than throughout the subcontinent. He crossed into Tibet on foot and by animal. His photographs were some of the first of then-little known Nepal, and some of the last of feudal India. While in Nepal, he also shot a motion picture, "Exploration in Nepal," which was the first film to be taken in that region. He later traveled widely around the globe, photographing people and landscapes in Angola, Cameroon, Cape Horn, Mali, Mozambique, Newfoundland, Norway, South Africa, and Swaziland. He was one of the last photographers to document the fast-vanishing African kingdoms and their still largely intact tribal life. By the time he retired, he was one of the magazine's most widely traveled photographers. Not all of his travels took him far from home, however. After the assassination of President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, Wentzel was one of a small number of photographers and reporters who realized that the president's body would arrive at the White House early in the morning of November 23. Wentzel photographed the arrival of Jacqueline Kennedy and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy at about 4:20 AM as they and a Marine honor guard escorted the president's coffin from the ambulance into the White House. In the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, Wentzel became an advocate for saving, preserving, and archiving National Geographic's photographic negatives, plates, and prints, many of which were being lost due to damage (such as improper storage or pests) or because untrained staff didn't realize their value and destroyed them to obtain filing space. Wentzel was named Director of the National Geographic Society Photographic Archives, and put in charge of the preservation and archive effort—which helped save more than 10 million images and artworks. Wentzel retired from National Geographic in 1985. In 1981, he and his wife purchased farm and farmhouse (built in 1868) near his original property in Aurora. He and his wife lived in their farm house as well as at a home at 3137 N Street NW in Washington. In 2001, he helped co-found the Aurora Project, an artist-in-residence program in West Virginia, where painters, writers and musicians are given time and space to work. The donation included his long-time darkroom on his original 13.5 acre property. Family, death, and legacy Wentzel produced photographs for himself as well as for the National Geographic. During his lifetime, he created more than 12,000 of his own images. Wentzel's photography was exhibited by the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Royal Photographic Society, the Smithsonian Institution, the Washington Center for Photography, and the West Virginia Cultural Center, among others. His prints have also been displayed in numerous private galleries around the world, and have sold for thousands of dollars each. His photographic works also won awards. In 1950, the White House News Photographers Association (WHNPA) awarded one of his photos third place in the "Personalities" category. His 1958 photograph of a quadrille on New Year's Eve at the Spanish Embassy in Washington, D.C., won first place from WHNPA. On August 16, 1960, an automatic camera of Wentzel's captured Captain Joseph Kittinger making a 102,800 foot (31,333 m) skydive which set the record for the highest parachute jump of all time. WHNPA also gave this image a first prize. In 2003, the state of West Virginia named him one of 55 "History Heroes" for helping to document, preserve, and promote the state's history. Wentzel's work is highly acclaimed. Fellow National Geographic photographer Thomas Y. Canby called him an innovative, brilliant, "great man". Jane Livingston, chief curator at the Corcoran Gallery of Art, said his career was a "prolonged, quiet unfolding of genius." Among his more notable photographic articles were: "Washington, D.C.: The Nation's Capital by Night" (National Geographic, April 1940). "Atlantic Odyssey: Iceland to Antarctica" (National Geographic, December 1955) "History Awakens at Harpers Ferry" (National Geographic, March 1957). "The White Horses of Vienna" (National Geographic, September 1958) "Life in Walled-Off Berlin" (National Geographic, June 1961) "Mozambique: Land of the Good People" (National Geographic, August 1964) His photographs were also featured in three books: Washington By Night, (1992) edited by James Goode. Odysseys and Photographs: Four National Geographic Field Men: Maynard Owen Williams, Luis Marden, Volkmar Wentzel, Thomas Abercrombie, (2008) by Leah Bendavid-Val. In Focus: National Geographic Greatest Portraits, (2010) by the editors of National Geographic. Wentzel was often asked how he managed to put his subjects at such ease while photographing them. He observed that he read as many ethnographic studies of a region as possible, to avoid making culturally insensitive errors. He also tried to pick up a few words of the local language, and be as courteous as possible. He said that he often made friends with the people he was photographing. "After we got to be friends, I would just back up and take the picture. That was a good part of my technique," he said. He also brought a small musical box along with him, which helped to ease suspicion and win friends (especially among children). His choice of equipment also influenced his style. Wentzel told an interviewer in 1999 that, while in Africa, he used only lightweight 35 mm film cameras such as a Nikon or an Olympus OM-2. For more formal portraits, however, he used an 85mm portrait lens and Kodachrome film. When printing his photographs, he preferred the Ilfochrome process (which turned photographic slides into prints) and the gelatin silver print process. Wentzel married Viola Kiesinger, daughter of German Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger. The couple had three children: Cecilia, Christina, and Peter. Wentzel died of a heart attack on May 10, 2006, at Sibley Memorial Hospital in Washington, D.C. References Bibliography Bendavid-Val, Leah. National Geographic: The Photographs. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2008. Bendavid-Val, Leah. Odysseys and Photographs: Four National Geographic Field Men: Maynard Owen Williams, Luis Marden, Volkmar Wentzel, Thomas Abercrombie. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2008. Canby, Thomas Y. From Botswana to the Bering Sea: My Thirty Years With National Geographic. Washington, D.C. : Island Press/Shearwater Books, 1998. Davis, Jeffrey R.; Johnson, Robert; and Stepanek, Jan. Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine. Philadelphia, Pa.: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008. Hirshson, Stanley P. General Patton: A Soldier's Life. New York: Perennial, 2002. Hoffman, Nancy. Eleanor Roosevelt and the Arthurdale Experiment. North Haven, Conn.: Linnet Books, 2001. In Focus: National Geographic Greatest Portraits. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2010. Kittinger, Joseph W. and Caidin, Martin. The Long, Lonely Leap. New York, Dutton, 1961. Krell, Alan. The Devil's Rope: A Cultural History of Barbed Wire. London: Reaktion Books, 2002. Mayo, John B. Bulletin From Dallas: The President Is Dead. New York: Exposition Press, 1967. Ostroff, Eugene. Pioneers of Photography: Their Achievements in Science and Technology. Boston, Mass.: The Society for Imaging Science and Technology, 1987. Photographs, Then and Now. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 1998. Wentzel, Volkmar Kurt. Washington By Night. James Goode, ed. Golden, Colo.: Fulcrum, 1998. Wood, John. The Art of the Autochrome: The Birth of Color Photography. Iowa City, Ia.: University of Iowa Press, 1993. External links Aurora Project (link broken) "Honoring Volkmar Wentzel." Rep. Alan B. Mollohan, United States House of Representatives, February 17, 2005 – video of a commemoration (link broken) "Remembering Kurt." National Geographic Magazine. September 2006 – an online retrospective of some of his photographs "Volkmar Wentzel Papers, 1947–1994." Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery Archives. Smithsonian Institution. 20th-century American photographers 1915 births 2006 deaths Photographers from Dresden Artists from Washington, D.C. American cinematographers People from Preston County, West Virginia Emigrants from the Weimar Republic to the United States Artists from Binghamton, New York
5247146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult%20Film%20Association%20of%20America	Adult Film Association of America	The Adult Film Association of America (AFAA) was the first American association of pornographic film producers. It fought against censorship laws, attempted to defend the industry against prosecution for obscenity, and held an annual adult film awards ceremony. Founded in 1969, it continued separate operation until 1992 when it merged with Free Speech Legal Defense Fund. The organization was also host to the Erotic Film Awards which were held from 1977 until 1986. History Origin, 1970s and 1980s It was founded in 1969 in Kansas City, with Sam Chernoff of Astro-Jemco Film Co. as the first president. Other notable presidents included film producer David F. Friedman, elected the third president in 1971, and re-elected four times before becoming Chairman of the Board, and erotic actress and magazine publisher Gloria Leonard, who became president in 1986. It held adult film awards ceremonies for 10 years during the Golden Age of Porn. The first awards ceremony was held July 14, 1977, at the Wilshire Ebell Theatre in Los Angeles while religious protesters picketed outside, as they would several years thereafter. "These feverish protesters are such a familiar part of the ritual, they really should be listed in the program," sex news magazine Cheri stated after the 1983 awards. With the advent of pornography on video, in early 1986 the AFAA renamed itself Adult Film and Video Association of America (AFVAA) and added a new award category, best adult video. The 10th annual awards, held at the Sheraton Premiere Hotel in Los Angeles on June 29, 1986, were the last. The association changed its name again in 1987 to the Adult Video Association (AVA). No awards were given for 1987. Instead, in mid-1988 they were replaced by an annual Night of the Stars dinner-dance and legal fundraiser, the fifth of which it held in June 1992 with more than 500 people in attendance, the association's biggest show ever. Lifetime Achievement Awards were presented at the Night of the Stars, however, film awards were discontinued. 1990s By February 1992, the tables were turned – association members "picketed the Public Forum on Pornography sponsored by religious groups who hope to institute morality codes back into all movies made." In October 1992, Video Vixens Trading Cards for collectors were released with part of the profits going to the AVA. That same month, the AVA and Free Speech Legal Defense Fund, which had been organized in 1991, unified to create a new umbrella organization, the Free Speech Coalition (FSC). Its role as the trade association of the adult entertainment industry was taken over by the FSC, which acknowledges the AFAA as its first ancestor. AFAA award history Pornographic actress Marilyn Chambers presented the very first award for best erotic motion picture to the L. Sultana production of The Opening of Misty Beethoven, while runner-up was Count the Ways, produced by Virginia Ann Perry. Jennifer Welles and Jamie Gillis were the first winners in the best actress and best actor categories. Pornographic actor John Holmes told the crowd at the first year's awards, "In the not-too-far distant future we will proudly say that we were pioneers." Retroactive awards of merit were also given to five movies considered best from 1955 to 1975: Tonight for Sure, Not Tonight, Henry! Trader Hornee and Sometime Sweet Susan. Deep Throat was also honored as one of the top-grossing of all movies, including mainstream films, of 1972. Board chairman Friedman said the AFAA was "much too busy fighting legal battles" in the early days to hold awards ceremonies, so these special awards were intended to make up for not having presented them in the past. For a time the most notable erotic film awards were those of the AFAA, considered to be "the closest thing the porn world's got to filmdom's Oscar derby." Many stars would arrive in chauffeur-driven limousines while some would vie for attention by arriving in a four-horse carriage, a Roman chariot, a horse or even an elephant. The third annual awards "drew a festive crowd of some 600 porn-people plus several hundred hard-core fans to the Hollywood Palladium." Subsequent awards shows even attracted celebrities such as The Godfather director Francis Ford Coppola, singer Stephen Bishop and gonzo journalist Hunter S. Thompson to be part of the audience and comedian Jackie Gayle and singer Jaye P. Morgan of The Gong Show to be part of evening's entertainment. The fifth and eighth awards ceremonies were videotaped and offered to cable and subscription television and for sale on VHS cassettes while the seventh was taped for an August 1983 broadcast on Playboy TV. Other awards during the porno chic era included Adam Film World's X-Caliber awards, first given out in 1975 and based on votes of fans, Hustler magazine's Erotic Movie Awards, first presented in 1977 and the Critics Adult Film Awards, bestowed by a New York-based group of East Coast adult sex film critics from 1981 to 1987. By the third awards ceremony in 1980, although the concept was seen as positive, adult entertainment magazine Genesis reported they were "beginning to generate as much controversy as the regular Academy Awards, or more." While it seemed "politicking" gave the Best Film award to Legend of Lady Blue over heavy favorites Sex World and Take Off, the "most glaring lack of any validity" was shown by giving the best actor award to Aldo Ray. "The Erotica Awards are supposed to be presented to sex-film performers who both 'act' well and 'perform' well. In Sweet Savage, not only did Aldo Ray not 'act' particularly well—his part was simply gratuitous...he never even performed at all. The fact is he never even took his clothes off, nor did he show up to receive his award." Aside from that, Sweet Savage was released "well into 1979" and the films nominated were supposed to have been released in 1978, leaving the impression the AFAA gave him the award to "capitalize on his name and to obtain more media coverage." Adam Film World Guide, however, reported the following year's awards, which were presented in July 1981, "covered films released from mid-1980 to the middle of '81", which could have meant Sweet Savage was eligible for awards in 1979 if the same time frame was considered. Meanwhile, Adam Film World noted Ray's award "was not surprising considering that one of the announced functions of the aFAA and its annual awards is to upgrade the image of the adult film industry in the public eye." Originally the Erotica Awards were determined by vote of the "association's membership of more than 700 producers, distributors and theater operators." However, in later years the AFAA ceremony was increasingly accused of bias, with a "belief among some that the West Coast producers were controlling what films received the awards" after Amanda By Night was passed over for best film at the 1981 awards. Starting with the awards presented in 1982, the AFAA decided to appoint an independent jury of three persons not associated with the adult film industry to make the final choices from the five finalists in each category. Jurors subsequently included an assortment of men and women such as a sexologist, author Robert Rimmer and journalists such as Brendan Gill of The New Yorker and other publications including Daily Variety, Playboy, USA Today and the Los Angeles Herald Examiner. However, criticism continued, especially for the best erotic scene victory of Virginia in 1984, which led to the founding of the X-Rated Critics Organization and its Heart-On Awards. The role of adult film awards has been mostly supplanted by the AVN Awards, which also launched in 1984. Credo The AFAA had a credo that "recognized the responsibilities of adult filmmakers to the general public": 1. That films of adult subject matter will be produced for and exhibited to adult audiences and that persons not of legal age will not be admitted. 2. That the definition of an "adult" is that designation set by the constituted authorities of the community but in no event any persons under the age of 18 years. 3. That we will produce and exhibit only films that are in conformity with the Free Speech Provisions of the Constitution of the United States of America. 4. That we will respect the privacy of the general public in our advertising and public displays. 5. That we in no manner will condone, produce or exhibit child pornography in any form. Erotic Film Awards The AFAA awards were called the Erotic Film Awards and the trophy, known as the Erotica Award, was a golden statuette "in the form of a shapely nude holding high a rampant spear in an obvious attitude of erotic excitement." Winners are shown below in the year the awards were presented: Best Picture Best Adult Video Best Actress {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Year ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Award ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Recipient ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Image \|- \| rowspan=2\|1977 \| Winner \|Jennifer Welles – Little Orphan Sammy \| rowspan=20\| \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Annette Haven \|- \| rowspan=2\|1978 \| Winner \|Georgina Spelvin – Desires Within Young Girls \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1979 \| Winner \|Desireé Cousteau – Pretty Peaches \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Abigail Clayton, Carol Connors, Samantha Fox, Amber Hunt, Gloria Leonard, Sharon Mitchell, Tamara Morgan, Rhonda Jo Petty, Maurene Spring, Serena, Sharon Thorpe, Bambi Woods \|- \| rowspan=2\|1980 \| Winner \|Samantha Fox – Jack 'N' Jill \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Lesllie Bovee – Misbehavin, Gloria Leonard – All About Gloria Leonard, Candida Royalle – Proball Cheerleaders, Serena – Ecstasy Girls, Georgina Spelvin – For Richer For Poorer \|- \| rowspan=2\|1981\| Winner \|Samantha Fox – This Lady Is A Tramp \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1982\| Winner \|Georgina Spelvin – The Dancers \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Chelsea Manchester – Nothing To Hide; Annette Haven – nominated twice, for Wicked Sensations & Skintight; Mai Lin – Oriental Hawaii \|- \| rowspan=2\|1983\| Winner \|Veronica Hart – Roommates \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Samantha Fox – Undercovers; Kelly Nichols – Roommates; Loni Sanders – Never So Deep; Marlene Willoughby – Foxtrot \|- \| rowspan=2\|1984\| Winner \|Kelly Nichols – In Love \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Arlene Manhattan – Aphrodesia's Diary; Jessie St. James – Between Lovers; Georgina Spelvin – The Devil in Miss Jones Part II; Veronica Hart – Little Girls Lost; Shauna Grant – nominated twice, for Suzie Superstar & Virginia \|- \| rowspan=2\|1985\| Winner \|Rachel Ashley – Every Woman Has A Fantasy \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Angel – L'amour; Lisa De Leeuw – Dixie Ray, Hollywood Star; Victoria Jackson – Firestorm; Kelly Nichols – Great Sexpectations \|- \| rowspan=2\|1986\| Winner \|Gloria Leonard – Taboo American Style (The Miniseries) \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Tish Ambrose – Corporate Assets; Laurie Smith – Snake Eyes; Ginger Lynn – nominated twice, for The Grafenberg Spot & Trashy Lady \|} Best Actor Best Supporting Actress Best Supporting Actor Best Director Best Screenplay {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Year ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Award ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Recipient \|- \| rowspan=2\|1977\| Winner \|The Opening of Misty Beethoven – Henry Paris\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Portrait of a Seduction \|- \| rowspan=2\|1978\| Winner \|Desires Within Young Girls – Edward E. Paramore III & Ramsey Karson\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1979\| Winner \|Legend of Lady Blue – A. Fabritzi\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Bad Penny, Dirty Lilly, Erotic Adventures of Candy, Girls of Pussycat Ranch, Hot Skin, Little Girls Blue, Little Orphan Dusty, Sweet Savage, Sex World, Take Off, The Health Spa \|- \| rowspan=2\|1980\| Winner \|The Ecstasy Girls – Bill Aaron & Ted Paramore\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Easy – Anthony Spinelli, Jack 'N' Jill – Billy S. Schaeffer, Misbehavin' – B. Slobodian/C. Vincent, Proball Cheerleaders – Jess Pearson \|- \| rowspan=2\|1981\| Winner \|The Budding of Brie – Dorris Borrow & Henri Pachard\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1982\| Winner \|The Dancers – Michael Ellis\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Neon Nights – Anne Randall; Games Women Play – Chick Vincent & Jimmy James; Nothing to Hide – Michael Ellis; Outlaw Ladies – Henry Pachard \|- \| rowspan=2\|1983\| Winner \|Roommates – Chuck Vincent & Rick Marx\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Body Talk – Avon Coe & Art Lester; Never So Deep – Paula & Gerard Damiano; Foxtrot – Anne Randall; Undercovers – Anne Rhine; I Like To Watch – Paul Vatelli \|- \| rowspan=2\|1984\| Winner \|In Love – Rick Marx & Chuck Vincent\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| The Devil in Miss Jones Part II – Henri Pachard & Ellie Howard; Little Girls Lost – Ted Roter; Scoundrels – Anne Randall; That's Outrageous – F. J. Lincoln \|- \| rowspan=2\|1985\| Winner \|Dixie Ray, Hollywood Star – Dean Rogers\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1986\| Winner \|Raw Talent – Joyce Snyder\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Snake Eyes – Anne Randall; Taboo American Style (The Miniseries) – Henri Pachard & Rick Marx; Corporate Assets – Thomas Paine; Trashy Lady – Steve Scott & Will Kelly \|} Best Erotic Scene {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Year ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Award ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Recipient \|- \| rowspan=2\|1984\| Winner \|Virginia – John Seeman, producer (the final scene with Paul Thomas & Shauna Grant was the one shown at the awards ceremony) \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Aphrodesia's Diary – Serge Lincoln; Flesh and Laces, Part I and II – Hollywood International; Hot Dreams – Warren Evans; Reel People – Richard Frazzini; Sexcapades – David Stone; Suzie Superstar – Cal Vista International \|- \| rowspan=2\|1985\| Winner \|Firestorm – Cecil Howard (the "red scene" group grope with Victoria Jackson, George Payne, Sharon Kane & Michael Bruce) \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Body Girls – Caribbean Films; Good Girl/Bad Girl; Stud Hunters – Suze Randall; Trinity Brown – Cal Vista International \|- \| rowspan=2\|1986\| Winners (tie) \|New Wave Hookers – Gregory Dark (the three-way scene with Ginger Lynn, Steve Powers & Tom Byron) and Passage Thru Pamela – Buncco, Inc. (the transsexual scene) \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| The Grafenberg Spot – Mitchell brothers; Snake Eyes – Cecil Howard; Too Good To Be True – Cottonwood Productions \|} Best Foreign Film Best Musical Score {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Year ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Award ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Recipient \|- \| rowspan=2\|1977\| Winner \|Les félines – Vladimir Cosma\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1978\| Winner \|Seven Into Snowy – Mayloo Music \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1979\| Winner \|Sex World – Berry Lipman\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Candy Stripers, Deep Roots, Erotic Adventures of Candy, Legend of Lady Blue, Little Orphan Dusty, Sex Flicks, Sweet Savage, Take Off, The Health Spa \|- \| rowspan=2\|1980\| Winner \|The Ecstasy Girls – Ronni Romanovitch\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| For Richer For Poorer – Gerard Damiano; Frat House – Sven Conrad; Libriana, Bitch of the Black Sea – Bob Freeman; Ms. Magnificent – Lon Jon; Telefantasy – Pacific Coast \|- \| rowspan=2\|1981\| Winner \|Amanda By Night – Ronny Romanovitch\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1982\| Winner \|Rhinestone Cowgirls – Randy Rivera\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Outlaw Ladies – Jhana Productions; Nothing To Hide – Ronny Romanouvich; The Dancers – Chet Moore and Jim Moore; Beauty Pageant – Bob Lind; Bad Girls – Bill King \|- \| rowspan=2\|1983\| Winner \|Roommates – Jonathan Hannah\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Body Talk – David Henry; Irresistible – Geoffrey Pekofsky; The Mistress – Ronny Romanovitch; I Like To Watch – 3 Bells West \|- \| rowspan=2\|1984\| Winner \|Suzie Superstar – Horizon\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| The Devil in Miss Jones Part II – Barry Levitt; Scoundrels – David Ogrin & Peter Lewis; That's Outrageous – Vern Carlson; Too Much Too Soon – Shamus Music \|- \| rowspan=2\|1985\| Winner \|Firestorm – Peter Lewis & David Ogrin\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| All The Way In; L'amour – Daniel Boules; Stud Hunters – George Michaelski; Dixie Ray, Hollywood Star – Daryll Keen \|- \| rowspan=2\|1986\| Winner \|New Wave Hookers – The Plugz\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Hyapatia Lee's The Ribald Tales of Canterbury – Lexi Hunter; Squalor Motel – Slavin \|} Best Song Best Art and Set Decoration {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Year ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Award ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Recipient \|- \| rowspan=2\|1977\| Winner \|Les félines – Andre Gillette\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1978\| Winner \|Desires Within Young Girls – Brent Barrydown\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1979\| Winner \|Sex World – Bill Wolf\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Candy Stripers, Captain Lust, Erotic Adventures of Candy, Health Spa, Legend of Lady Blue, Girls of Pussycat Ranch, Skin Flicks, Sweet Savage, Take Off \|- \| rowspan=2\|1980\| Winner \|The Ecstasy Girls – Valdesta\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| All About Gloria Leonard – Howard A. Howard; Fantasy – P. Reisenwitz/G. Damiano; For Richer For Poorer – Gerard Damiano; Small Town Girls – Ektor Carranza \|- \| rowspan=2\|1981\| Winner \|Urban Cowgirls – Ektor Carranza\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1982\| Winner \|Pandora's Mirror – Maria Ranoldi\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Outlaw Ladies – Eddie Heath; Games Women Play – Pat Finnegan; Bad Girls – Svetlana; Nothing To Hide – B. C. Lewis & Marti Maxwell; Oriental Hawaii – Eddie Duncan \|- \| rowspan=2\|1983\| Winner \|Café Flesh – Paul Berthell/Steve Sayadian\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Body Talk – Avon Coe & Art Lester; Blonde Goddess – Bill Eagle; Casanova Part II – Maria Pia Tobalina; Foxtrot – Oslak Vabo & Anne Randall \|- \| rowspan=2\|1984\| Winner \|...In The Pink – Andre Nichipolodas\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| The Devil in Miss Jones Part II – Eddie Heath; Scoundrels – Lynn Jefferies; Suzie Superstar – Robert McCallum; Virginia – Karen Fields \|- \| rowspan=2\|1985\| Winner \|Dixie Ray, Hollywood Star – Brian Costales\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1986\| Winner \|Dames – Jules Burke\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Trashy Lady – Steve Scott; Hyapatia Lee's The Ribald Tales of Canterbury – Redi-Set; New Wave Hookers – Pez. D. Spenser; Squalor Motel – Michelle Seffman \|} Best Cinematography {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Year ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Award ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Recipient \|- \| rowspan=2\|1977\| Winner \|Femmes de Sade – Alex de Renzy\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1978\| Winner \|Baby Face – Alex de Renzy\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1979\| Winner \|Take Off – Joao Fernandez\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Captain Lust, Erotic Adventures of Candy, Hot Skin, Legend of Lady Blue, Little Girls Blue, Pretty Peaches, Sweet Savage, The Health Spa \|- \| rowspan=2\|1980\| Winner \|The Ecstasy Girls – Mike Stryker\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Fantasy – Harry Flecks, Jack 'N' Jill – Larry Revine, People – J. Fernandes/J. McCalmont, Proball Cheerleaders – Jack Genero \|- \| rowspan=2\|1981\| Winner \|Urban Cowgirls – Ken Gibb\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1982\| Winners (tie) \|Games Women Play – Larry Revene and Nothing To Hide – Jack Remy\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Skintight – Mike Stryker; Outlaw Ladies – Leroy Reoene; Bad Girls – Jean Petrov; Oriental Hawaii – Carlos Tobalina \|- \| rowspan=2\|1983\| Winner \|Foxtrot – Felix Daniels & Charles K. White\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Never So Deep – Harry Flex; Roommates – Larry Revene; Casanova Part II – Carlos Tobalina; I Like To Watch – Paul G. Vatelli \|- \| rowspan=2\|1984\| Winner \|Virginia – Rahn Vickery\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Aphrodesia's Diary – Gerard Loubeau; The Devil in Miss Jones Part II – Larry Revene; Flesh and Laces, Part I and II – Carlos Tobalina; Glitter – Roberta Findlay; Suzie Superstar – Robert McCallum \|- \| rowspan=2\|1985\| Winner \|Dixie Ray, Hollywood Star – Fred Andes\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1986\| Winner \|Trashy Lady – Tom Howard\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Snake Eyes – Sven Nuvo; The Grafenberg Spot – Jon Fontana; Beverly Hills Exposed – Robert McCallum; New Wave Hookers – Jr. "Speedy" Bodden \|} Best Costume Design {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Year ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Award ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Recipient \|- \| rowspan=2\|1977\| Winner \|Femmes de Sade – Carol Maniscalco\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| No other nominees \|- \| rowspan=2\|1978\| Winner \|Baby Face – Carol Maniscalo\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1979\| Winner \|Take Off – Alexis Blassini\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Candy Stripers, Captain Lust, Erotic Adventures of Candy, Health Spa, Little Girls Blue, Pretty Peaches, Star Babe, Sweet Savage \|- \| rowspan=2\|1980\| Winner \|Chopstix, the Motion Picture – Foreign Delights\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Ecstasy Girls – Valdesta; Libriana, Bitch of the Black Sea – Pezda Vanutcka; Ms. Magnificent – Debbie Shine; Proball Cheerleaders – Marie Christie \|- \| rowspan=2\|1981\| Winner \|Urban Cowgirls – Cheree Eastmore\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1982\| Winner \|Country Comfort – Sarah Yesko\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Games Women Play – Eddie Heath; Oriental Hawaii – Maria Pia Tobalina; Bad Girls – Cindy Matzker; Pandora's Mirror – Renata Ranoldi \|- \| rowspan=2\|1983\| Winner \|1001 Erotic Nights – Victoria Donne\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Café Flesh – Polly Ester; Blue Jeans – Fran Schifrin & Guiliana Schnitzler; Irresistible – Debbie Shine; Casanova Part II – Maria Pia Tobalina \|- \| rowspan=2\|1984\| Winner \|The Devil in Miss Jones Part II – Eddie Heath\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Between Lovers – Raynor Shine; Scoundrels – Lynn Jefferies; Suzie Superstar – Enjoy Costumes \|- \| rowspan=2\|1985\| Winner \|Sexorama – Dani Morrison\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1986\| Winner \|Dames – Raynor Shine\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Bordello – Eddy Heath; Hyapatia Lee's The Ribald Tales of Canterbury – Sheri Eastmore; New Wave Hookers – Gregory Dark & John D. Arc; Trashy Lady – Arley \|} Best Editing {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Year ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Award ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Recipient \|- \| rowspan=2\|1977\| Winner \|The Opening of Misty Beethoven – Henry Paris\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1978 \| Winner \|Baby Face – Richard Chasen & Bill Westwick\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1979\| Winner \|Legend of Lady Blue – Vilmos Vasquez\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Bad Penny, China Cat, Deep Roots, Erotic Adventures of Candy, Here Comes the Bride, Hot Skin, Little Girls Blue, Pretty Peaches, Sensual Encounters, Sex World, The Health Spa \|- \| rowspan=2\|1980\| Winner \|Jack 'N' Jill – Martha Ubell\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Chopstix – Mason Girard; Ecstasy Girls – Terrance O'Riely; Fantasy – P. Riesenwitz/G. Damiano; Misbehavin – Chuck Vincent; Proball Cheerleaders – Cine Enterprises \|- \| rowspan=2\|1981\| Winner \|Talk Dirty To Me – Tim McDonald\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nominees \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1982\| Winner \|Outlaw Ladies – Arlo Schiffin\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Nothing to Hide – Terrance O' Reilly; Games Women Play – James Macreading; Bad Girls – David I. Frazer; Skintight – Hayes Dupree \|- \| rowspan=2\|1983\| Winner \|Roommates – James Macreading\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Never So Deep – Paula & Gerard Damiano; Talk Dirty To Me II – Tim McDonald; The Mistress – Terrance O'Reilly; Café Flesh – Snowflake Films; Foxtrot – Oslak Vabo \|- \| rowspan=2\|1984\| Winners (tie) \|The Devil in Miss Jones Part II – Ted Ryan and Virginia – Farouk Ibenson & Skip Mason\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Flesh and Laces, Parts I and II – Rob Freeman & Alberto Soria; Glitter – Roberta Findlay; Too Much Too Soon – Snowflake Films \|- \| rowspan=2\|1985\| Winner \|Dixie Ray, Hollywood Star – Peter Stootsberry & Frank A. Coe\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1986\| Winners (tie) \|Taboo American Style (The Miniseries) – Jim McReading and Snake Eyes – Oslak Vabo\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Finalists \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Trashy Lady – Steve Scott; Passion Pit – Michele M. Bale; The Adventures of Rick Quick – Kristin Leavenworth \|} Best Trailer Best Advertising Campaign Special Awards {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Year ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Award ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Recipient ! style="background:#89CFF0"\|Image \|- \| rowspan=6\|1977\|Deep Throat Award \|Plymouth Films, producers of Deep Throat, for its box-office success \| rowspan=22\| \|- \|Best Adult Film 1955-60 \|Tonight for Sure – Francis Ford Coppola \|- \|Best Adult Film 1961-65 \|Not Tonight, Henry! – Ted Paramore beat Sinderella and the Golden Bra \|- \|Best Adult Film 1966-70 \|Trader Hornee – David F. Friedman beat Starlet (also by Friedman) \|- \|Best Adult Film 1971-75 \|Sometime Sweet Susan beat The Devil in Miss Jones \|- \|Literary Man of the Year \|Prof. Arthur Knight, film critic, historian, and teacher at the University of Southern California film school \|- \| rowspan=3 style="background:#F2F2F2"\|1978\| style="background:#F2F2F2"\|Man of the Year \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\|Larry Flynt, publisher of Hustler, and Gene Reeves, the attorney who was with him when Flynt was shot on March 6, 1978, in Georgia. \|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\|Literary Man of the Year \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\|Al Goldstein\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\|Best Media Man \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\|Bruce Williamson of Playboy \|- \| 1979\|Literary Man of the Year \|Dr. Wardell B. Pomeroy of the Institute for Sex Research \|- \|style="background:#F2F2F2"\| 1980\| style="background:#F2F2F2"\|Media Man of the Year \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\|Jim Harwood of Daily Variety \|- \| rowspan=5 \|1981\| Media Man of the Year \|David Shute\|- \| Woman of the Year \|Virginia Ann Perry-Rhine, a past AFAA president \|- \| Man of the Year Award \|David F. Friedman, a past AFAA president and current board chairman \|- \| Pioneer Woman of the Year \|Ava Leighton\|- \| Pioneer Man of the Year \|Dan Sonney\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\|1982\| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1983\|Pioneer Man of the Year Award \|Louis K. Sher\|- \|Life Achievement Award \|Vincent Miranda\|- \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| 1984\| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Award of Merit \| style="background:#F2F2F2"\| Dr. Lois Lee, founder of Children of the Night, on which Children of the Night was partially based on. \|- \| 1985\|Pioneer of the Year Award \|\|Paul Mart'\|- \|} Lifetime Achievement Awards After the Erotic Film Awards were discontinued, the association resumed presenting Lifetime Achievement Awards at its annual "Night of the Stars" fundraising event, starting in mid-1988. When the association merged into the Free Speech Coalition in late 1992, the new coalition took over the tradition. Actresses 1988: Nina Hartley 1989: Sharon Kane 1990: Kay Parker 1991: Georgina Spelvin 1992: Marilyn Chambers Actors 1988: Joey Silvera 1989: John Leslie 1990: Eric Edwards 1991: Paul Thomas 1992: Herschel Savage Directors 1988: Anthony Spinelli 1989: Gerard Damiano 1990: Alex de Renzy 1991: Henri Pachard 1992: Cecil Howard Joel T. Warner 'Good Guy' Award 1988: Mike Horner 1989: Al Bloom 1990: Hal Freeman 1991: Mel Kamins & Bobby Lilly 1992: Russ Hampshire Hal Freeman 'Freedom Isn't Free' Award 1989: Al Goldstein 1990: Bob Guccione 1991: Barry Freilich 1992: Phil Harvey Notes Adam Film World recorded the winner of this category in 1979 as having been a tie between Roger Caine and John Seeman. Cinema-X magazine recorded Roger Caine as the sole winner. This award was called "Best Foreign Language Film" at the 1977 and 1981 awards shows. It was not awarded after 1981. IMDb states this movie, while advertised as the first X-rated movie made in Russia, was actually made in the U.S. Adam Film World reported both Seven Into Snowy as winner of "Best Musical Score" and also Get Your Nose Out Of My Pantyhose won "Best Original Musical Score", a different award, in 1978. However, the AFAA's seventh and eighth annual programs, which list previous years' winners, make no mention of Get Your Nose Out of My Pantyhose or any separate "Original" score award. As well, IMDb states "Get Your Nose Out of My Pantyhose" is not a movie, but a song from a movie called Breaker Beauties, so Adam Film World's report of an "Original" score award may be erroneous. The official 8th Annual AFAA Erotic Film Awards program lists both songs as having won the award, however Jim Holliday's Only the Best book only mentions "With You" from Roommates as winning. Cheri magazine's coverage of the awards doesn't mention the category at all. This award was called "Best Production Values" at the 1979 and 1980 awards shows. Adam Film World' and Cinema Blue coverage of the first Erotica Awards both listed Not Tonight, Henry! as having won "Best Adult Film 1961-65" and Tonight For Sure as having won "Best Adult Film 1955-60". However, Not Tonight, Henry! premiered Dec. 30, 1960 in Los Angeles, while Tonight For Sure premiered in L.A., Oct. 25, 1962, so it's likely an error by the AFAA resulted in each film being given the award for the other's time period. Nominee Sinderella and the Golden Bra was listed in the correct time period. Jim Holliday's book, Only the Best'', lists the movies as having won in the correct time periods, however. References IMDb: Adult Film Association of America Listing of film awards handed out by the association Sex industry in the United States American pornographic film awards Adult industry awards American pornography Awards established in 1977 American film awards 1969 establishments in Missouri
5247225	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Indianapolis%20500	2006 Indianapolis 500	The 90th Indianapolis 500 was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana on Sunday May 28, 2006. Sam Hornish Jr. won from the pole position. It was Hornish's first and only win at Indianapolis, and the record fourteenth Indy victory for Penske Racing. Hornish would later win the IndyCar Series championship, the second driver in a row to sweep the Indy 500 and season championship in the same season. In one of the most dramatic finishes in Indy history, 19-year old rookie Marco Andretti took the lead with three laps to go, after passing his father Michael Andretti on the outside of turn one. Marco Andretti battled Sam Hornish Jr. over the final two laps, holding off the challenge until the final straightaway. On the final lap, Hornish passed Marco Andretti about 450 feet from the finish line to take the win. It was the first time a driver successfully made a pass for the lead on the final lap for victory in the 90-year history of the event. The margin of victory was 0.0635 seconds - just over one car-length - which was the second-closest finish in Indy history at the time. (As of 2019, it is the third-closest). Hornish had earned the pole in qualifying with a four-lap average of , and second place Marco Andretti was unanimously voted the Rookie of the Year. Defending race winner and defending IndyCar champion Dan Wheldon dominated much of the race, leading 148 of the 200 laps. However, a small tire puncture forced him to make his final pit stop earlier than planned, which coupled with an untimely caution period, saw him slip to fourth at the finish. The race was sanctioned by the Indy Racing League and was part of the 2006 IndyCar Series season. With a high temperature of , it was one of the hottest days on record for the running of the Indy 500. Rain and cold temperatures washed out the first weekend of time trials, and washed out or delayed numerous days of practice. Race weekend, however, was sunny with no precipitation. Background Chevrolet and Toyota withdrew from the series, leaving Honda as the sole engine provider for all teams for 2006 through 2011. Three races preceded the Indy 500, and Hélio Castroneves, with two wins and one second place, held a large points lead going into the month of May. A new series initiative introduced the use of ethanol fuel. As part of a two-year roll-out, all entries for 2006 were required to utilize a 10% ethanol/90% methanol fuel blend (E10). Previously, from 1974 to 2005, methanol was the only fuel permitted, and from 1965 to 1973, the rules were crafted in such a fashion as to encourage the use of methanol in order to be competitive. Team and driver changes Several drivers shuffles occurred during the offseason. Defending Indy 500 winner and 2005 IndyCar champion Dan Wheldon switched from Andretti Green Racing to Ganassi. Wheldon started off the season with a victory at the season opener at Homestead. However, the race was marred by the death of Paul Dana during the morning practice session. Marco Andretti moved up from the Indy Lights series and took over the vacated spot at Andretti Green Racing. In December, team owner Michael Andretti announced he would come out of retirement to race at Indy, alongside his son. Similarly, owner/driver Eddie Cheever announced he would get back into the car, participating in four races, including Indy. Tomas Scheckter moved from Panther to Vision Racing. Vítor Meira took over the vacant spot at Panther, leaving the Rahal team. Paul Dana was signed as the third car for RLR, but was replaced by Jeff Simmons after his tragic fatal crash. Rahal maintained the services of Buddy Rice and Danica Patrick. After a brief retirement, Al Unser Jr., who missed the 2005 race, signed with Dreyer & Reinbold Racing. Unser would race alongside teammate Buddy Lazier, who signed on for a partial season ride at DRR. Hemelgarn Racing signed P. J. Chesson with financial backing from NBA basketball player Carmelo Anthony. An aggressive marketing campaign nicknamed the entry "Car Melo", and also acquired the services of Jeff Bucknum for a two-car effort. However, by month's end, a disastrous result saw the two cars crash out together on lap 2, placing 32nd-33rd respectively. Hemelgarn subsequently closed its doors for the remainder of the season. Race schedule Practice (week 1) Rookie Orientation - Sunday May 7 Opening day featured rookie orientation and refresher tests. The day opened with the Andretti family celebrating three generations (Mario, Michael, and Marco) taking a ceremonial lap around the track together. Michael Andretti, Al Unser Jr., and Arie Luyendyk Jr. participated in refresher tests. Rookies P. J. Chesson and Marco Andretti passed the four-phase rookie test. Townsend Bell took only "shake down" laps. Michael Andretti (220.999 mph) was the fastest car of the day. Rookie Orientation - Monday May 8 The second day of rookie orientation saw Thiago Medeiros pass the rookie test. Townsend Bell (221.381 mph) was the fastest car of the day. Tuesday May 9 The first full day of veteran practice. Sam Hornish Jr. (224.811 mph) was the fastest car of the day. Wednesday May 10 Sam Hornish Jr. (226.056 mph) was the fastest car of the day. The track closed early due to rain at 3:30 p.m. Thursday May 11 Rain delayed the start of practice until nearly 2 p.m. Marty Roth spun in turn two, but made no contact. Sam Hornish Jr. (226.789 mph) was the fastest car of the day. "Fast" Friday May 12 Rain washed out practice for the day. Time trials (first weekend wash out) Saturday May 13 Time trials was scheduled for four days. The "11/11/11" format was to be utilized, with eleven positions available on pole day. However, rain washed out time trials for the day. Pole day qualifying was rescheduled for Sunday May 14. Sunday May 14 The "11/11/11" format was scheduled to be used, and thus 22 position were to be open for qualifying on Sunday May 14. Rain continued to fall, but the track dried shortly after 1 p.m. The cars took to the track for practice for about an hour, and Dan Wheldon turned the fastest lap of the month at 228.663 mph. At 2:15 p.m., the rain resumed, and the track was closed for the day. Time trials was washed out for the entire weekend for the first time since 1983. Practice (week 2) Wednesday May 17 Sam Hornish Jr. (224.381 mph) was the fastest car of the day. Rain closed the track early at 4:26 p.m. Thursday May 18 Rain kept the track closed until 3:45 p.m. Arie Luyendyk Jr. and Thiago Medeiros suffered crashes. The brief session was ended at 5:52 p.m., as rain fell again. Sam Hornish Jr. (224.381 mph) was the fastest car of the day. "Fast" Friday II May 19 Sam Hornish Jr. (227.925 mph) was the fastest car of the day. Hornish led the speed charts on all three practice days during the second week. Marty Roth spun but made no contact. Jeff Simmons crashed in turn one, but was uninjured. Time trials (second weekend) Pole Day - Saturday May 20 Since the first two days of time trials were rained out, 33 positions were available for time trials on May 20. The field was filled to 32 cars by the end of the day. Sam Hornish Jr., won the pole with the fastest four-lap qualifying speed of . Only one driver waved off during the day. Dario Franchitti experienced engine trouble after three laps, but later completed his attempt after an engine change. Although the new qualifying rules allowed qualified cars to be withdrawn and re-qualified in hopes of gaining a better starting position (with a maximum of three attempts per day), only one driver took the opportunity to do so. Townsend Bell's qualification run of was withdrawn, and he achieved an average of on his second attempt. This improved his starting position by only one spot. Bump Day - Sunday May 21 The day opened with one position open in the field, and two drivers prepared to make an attempt. Rookie Thiago Medeiros, who had crashed his lone car on Thursday, returned to the track for practice. Most of the afternoon focused on race day practice for already-qualified cars. Sam Hornish Jr. (226.256 mph) led the speed charts for practice laps, capping off a month where he led the speed chart every day he took practice laps except one. Marty Roth was the only driver besides Medeiros that was looking to make an attempt. At 3:30 p.m., polesitter Sam Hornish Jr. spun in turn one and hit the outside wall while practicing in a backup car. He was uninjured. With about an hour to go, A. J. Foyt brought a backup car to pit lane, driver Ryan Briscoe was getting settled into the car, fueling rumors of a late qualifying run. At 5:08 p.m., Thiago Medeiros completed a qualifying attempt, and filled the field to 33 cars, however he was slowest and now on the bubble. With 23 minutes left in the day, Marty Roth spun during a practice run, and crashed into the outside wall in turn 1. He was not injured, but the car was wrecked, and his chances to qualify were finished. The day ended with Medeiros the only car to complete an attempt for the afternoon with Briscoe deciding against making a run. Carb Day - Friday May 26 Sam Hornish Jr. once again led the speed charts (220.698 mph). It was the ninth day of the month that Hornish completed the fastest practice lap. Penske Racing with driver Hélio Castroneves won the 30th Annual Checker's/Rally's Indy 500 Pit Stop Challenge. Qualifying chronology Starting grid - Former Indianapolis 500 Winner - Indianapolis 500 Rookie Failed to qualify 25 - Marty Roth — Wrecked during practice. Race summary Start After considerable rain during the month, race day was sunny and hot. Temperatures topped out at , one of the hottest days for the Indy 500 on record. Due to the state of Indiana observing Daylight Saving Time, the start of the race was scheduled for 1:11 p.m. EDT. Mari Hulman George gave the command to start engines at 1:04 p.m. EDT, and all 33 cars pulled away for the pace laps, with Lance Armstrong driving the pace car. Sugar Ray Leonard waved the green flag to start the race, and polesitter Sam Hornish Jr. took the lead into turn one. Down the back stretch, Hélio Castroneves passed Hornish for the lead, and Dan Wheldon moved into second. Castroneves led the opening lap. On the second lap in turn two, Jeff Bucknum spun out and collected his teammate P. J. Chesson, taking both of the entries from Hemelgarn Racing out of the race and sadly out for the remainder of the season. First half After the Hemelgarn incident, a long period of green-flag racing ensued, lasting 60 laps. During this period, Dan Wheldon dominated the race, briefly losing then regaining the lead during a round of green-flag pit stops around laps 36-39. By lap 64, Wheldon had built up a 19-second lead—nearly half a lap—over the next nearest competitor, and after 65 laps had lapped twenty-five of the other cars in the race, including all five of the other former 500 winners, leaving only eight cars on the lead lap. The field tightened during a yellow flag on lap 67 due to a crash by Tomas Scheckter. The crash sent debris into the inside grandstand, injuring five spectators, none seriously. Wheldon maintained the lead through a series of pit stops, and led at the halfway point. Second half Wheldon gave up the lead briefly during pit stop on lap 108, which allowed Scott Dixon to lead. On lap 110, Hélio Castroneves struck Buddy Rice from behind, taking out both cars. It was the first time two former winners had been involved in the same crash in the Indy 500 since 1992. It was also the first time in his career that Castroneves failed to finish the race. Sam Hornish Jr., took the lead from Wheldon on lap 130. Wheldon, however, would regain the lead on lap 145 and hold it through lap 182. On lap 149, Al Unser Jr. precipitated a caution period after spinning down the back-stretch and crashing in turn 3. During the caution, Jeff Simmons left the pit area with the fuel hose nozzle still attached. The hose tore, and Simmons's car dropped the nozzle out on the track in turn 3. On lap 150, the leaders pitted. Sam Hornish Jr. started to pull out of his pits with the hose still attached. The hose ripped, but Hornish stopped in the pits allowing the crew to disengage the nozzle. Team owner Roger Penske accepted responsibility for the error, having told Hornish to go before the fueling was complete. Fuel spilled in the pit stall, but Hornish was able to return to the track and stay on the lead lap. Still under caution on lap 155, the field was preparing to go back to green when Jeff Simmons wrecked in the north chute. The caution was prolonged. On lap 160, Michael Andretti and Sam Hornish Jr. ducked into the pits to top off their fuel. Both would be able to make it to the finish without another pit stop. On lap 163, the green came back out with Dan Wheldon leading. Sam Hornish Jr. was assessed a "drive-through" penalty (being required to drive once through pit road, without stopping, obeying the pit road speed limit). Hornish returned to the track over 30 seconds behind the leader. With twenty laps to go, Dan Wheldon and Tony Kanaan were running nose-to-tail in 1st-2nd. Eighth place Sam Hornish Jr. was less than 10 seconds ahead of them, barely clinging to the lead lap. Down the backstretch on lap 183, Wheldon came up on the lapped car of Kosuke Matsuura, and was momentarily blocked. Kanaan darted into the lead on the inside. But in turn three, Kanaan and Wheldon split the slower car of Max Papis, going three-wide through the northchute. Wheldon got up into the marbles in turn four, and punctured a tire. As they went through turn one on lap 184, Wheldon nearly got sideways, and he had to back off his pace. Wheldon headed for the pits, but lost several seconds on his in-lap. Tony Kanaan was now in front, with Andretti Green Racing teammates holding the top four spots (Kanaan, Marco Andretti, Dario Franchitti, and Michael Andretti). Seven cars were on the lead lap, with Hornish in 6th and Wheldon now down to 7th, both clinging to the tail end of the lead lap. Late Race Caution and Finish Marco Andretti, running second, went to the pits for fuel on lap 190. As Marco Andretti was pitting, Felipe Giaffone crashed in turn two, bringing out the yellow. Marco Andretti (legally) slipped by the pace car exiting the pits, and avoided losing a lap in the shuffle. Leader Tony Kanaan, who still needed to pit, was stuck out on the track as the pits were closed at the onset of the yellow. The pits re-opened as the field came by for lap 193. Kanaan and Dario Franchitti ducked into the pits for fuel. Fan-favorite Michael Andretti stayed out on the track, and assumed the lead. Michael had come out of retirement to race with his 19-year-old son Marco, who cycled up to second place. In his 15th Indy 500, Michael was still looking for his first Indy victory. Scott Dixon was lined up third, and Sam Hornish Jr. was now up to fourth. The green came out with 4 laps to go. Michael Andretti led the field, with his son Marco close behind in second. Hornish made a desperate pass deeper in the field, and emerged in third place as the field exited turn 2. With three laps to go, Marco Andretti pulled outside of his father down the frontstretch, and passed his father for the lead in turn 1. Marco began to pull away as Michael now assumed a blocking role to protect his son's lead. Down the backstretch, Michael tried but failed to hold off the charging Hornish, and Hornish took over second place. With two laps to go, Marco led Hornish by a half second, with Michael still in third. Down the back stretch, Hornish tried to squeeze past Marco as they approached turn three. He was pinched down, and ran out of race track, and had to back off. Hornish lost his momentum, and Marco pulled out to a 1-second lead at the start/finish line with one lap to go. On the final lap, Marco held his lead down the back stretch. In turn three, however, Hornish began to reel him in. As the two cars exited turn four, Hornish executed a slingshot pass in the final 400 feet. He beat Marco Andretti to the finish line by 0.0635 seconds, the equivalent of about . It was the second-closest finish in Indy 500 history. It was also the first time in Indy history that a driver made a pass for the lead to win the race on the final lap. Afterwards, Hornish commented on his last-second pass, "I figured I came all this way, I ought to give myself one more shot at it. I kind of looked at it as, I was going to drive over him if I had to. For Marco to come as a rookie and drive like that he should be proud no matter what." Third-place finisher Michael Andretti had high praise for his son: "I felt so bad for Marco, but I'm so proud. He drove a hell of a race. I drove with him a hell of a lot in that race. He drove like a champion. He drove like he's been out there 10 years." But Marco wanted more: "I do not want to wait until next year. I have to take advantage of everything because second's nothing," he said. After leading 148 laps, 2005 winner Dan Wheldon failed in his bid to win back-to-back races. He recovered from the punctured tire on lap 183 to finish in the top five. On the final lap, while most of the attention was focused on Andretti and Hornish, Wheldon slipped by Tony Kanaan for position going into turn three, and came home fourth. Box score *C Chassis: D=Dallara; P=Panoz. All cars in the 2006 Indianapolis 500 used Honda engines and Firestone tires. = Former Indianapolis 500 winner; = Indianapolis 500 rookie Race statistics Race notes For the first time, Honda was the sole engine supplier to the field. It is believed that for the first time in Indianapolis 500 history, that the race was run without a single engine problem during the entire month. In Hornish's seven tries at the Indy 500, this was the first that he had even completed . It was the 14th Indianapolis 500 win for Roger Penske as an owner. This was the first Indianapolis 500 in which the leader of lap 199 did not win the race. The second- and third-place finishes by Marco and Michael Andretti were the 49th and 50th unsuccessful attempts to win the 500 by members of the Andretti family as drivers (Michael Andretti was a winning owner in 2005 then would be again in 2007, 2014, 2016, and 2017) since patriarch Mario Andretti's sole win in 1969, extending what is popularly called the "Andretti Curse" at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. A few weeks after the race, Tom Carnegie announced his retirement after 61 years, making the 2006 500 his final race as track announcer. ABC Sports utilized Side-By-Side for the first time during the Indianapolis 500. Broadcasting Radio The race was carried live on the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network. Mike King served as chief announcer. For the second year in a row, pit reporter Kevin Olson conducted a pre-race interview with David Letterman. This would be the final 500 on the radio for Adam Alexander. Television The race was carried live flag-to-flag coverage in the United States on ABC Sports, except in Indianapolis on WRTV, where it was tape delayed to primetime due to the seats not completely sold out. After a critically unpopular season as chief announcer for the IndyCar series on ABC/ESPN, Todd Harris was removed from the broadcast booth. Veteran announcer Marty Reid took over as play-by-play. Scott Goodyear returned as driver analyst. Joining them in the booth was 1989 NASCAR Winston Cup Champion Rusty Wallace, who served as co-analyst with Goodyear. For the first time ever, the broadcast utilized the Side-By-Side feature during commercial breaks. This was also the final "500" broadcast solely in standard-definition. Gallery Notes Works cited 2006 Indianapolis 500 Daily Trackside Report for the Media Indianapolis 500 History: Race & All-Time Stats - Official Site Indianapolis 500 races Indianapolis 500 Indianapolis 500 Indianapolis 500
5247267	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick%20Donovan	Dick Donovan	Richard Edward Donovan (December 7, 1927 – January 6, 1997) was an American Major League Baseball pitcher who played for the Boston Braves (1950–1952), Detroit Tigers (1954), Chicago White Sox (1955–1960), Washington Senators (1961) and Cleveland Indians (1962–1965). He batted left-handed and threw right-handed, stood tall and weighed . A Boston native, Donovan graduated from North Quincy High School and served in the United States Navy during and after World War II. Signed by the hometown Braves, he reached the major leagues in 1950 but was used sporadically over the next several years. While pitching for the minor league Atlanta Crackers, he learned how to throw a slider, and this helped him claim a spot in the White Sox' rotation in 1955. He was an All-Star in his first major league season, winning 15 games with only nine losses. In 1956, he led the American League (AL) with a 1.155 walks plus hits per innings pitched. He led the AL with a .727 winning percentage in 1957, going 16–6, and he won 15 games for the White Sox in 1958. He pitched in the 1959 World Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers, losing Game 3 but earning the save in Game 5. Donovan struggled in 1960 and was moved to the bullpen, then got selected in the expansion draft by the Senators after the season. He had his best year with the new club in 1961, leading the AL with a 2.40 earned run average (ERA), though his won-loss record was just 10–10. Traded to the Indians for Jimmy Piersall after the season, he won 20 games his first year with Cleveland. Donovan pitched three more years for the Indians after that before getting released midway through 1965. Following his baseball career, he sold insurance and held other jobs in the Quincy, Massachusetts area before dying of cancer in 1997. Donovan was unusually good at hitting for a pitcher, homering 15 times in his big-league career. Early life Donovan was the youngest of five children of Jeremiah and Gertrude Donovan. He grew up in Boston and attended North Quincy High School, where he played shortstop until his senior year, when he switched positions and became a pitcher. Donovan also pitched for the Catholic Youth Organization. Ken Coleman, broadcaster for the Cleveland Indians, told the story that once, Donovan was invited to pitch for the American Legion All-Star team in an exhibition game. Upon arriving at the park, he was told that he would merely be used in the bullpen. Protesting that he had been promised more, Donovan left the field and went home. "To me, this incident typified the makeup of Dick. He still has the determination to do what he thinks is right, and has the wonderful ability to see the humor in a situation," Coleman said. Donovan's pitching attracted the attention of Boston Braves' scout Jeff Jones, who signed him after his senior year and proclaimed him "the fire-ballingest pitcher” he had seen since spotting Bob Feller pitching in high school. Donovan graduated during World War II, though, and he served three years in the United States Navy before beginning his professional career in 1947. Career Early years Donovan's career started far south of his home, with the Fort Lauderdale Braves of the Class C Florida International League. He had a 7–15 record and a 4.17 earned run average (ERA) in his first professional season but still got promoted to the Class B Evansville Braves of the Illinois-Indiana-Iowa League. With Evansville in 1948, he had a 12–9 record and a 3.08 ERA. He moved on to the Hartford Chiefs of the Class A Eastern League in 1949, posting a 12–6 record and a 2.66 ERA and earning a promotion to the Class AAA Milwaukee Brewers of the American Association, the Braves' top farm team, for a couple games. By 1950, Donovan was one of three rookie pitching prospects looking to make it with the Boston Braves, along with Norman Roy and George Uhle, Jr. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette wrote, "The best of the prospects seems to be Roy, who had a great year in 1949 at Milwaukee." Uhle apparently got hurt (he only appeared in four games in the minors that year and never pitched again), but Roy and Donovan both made the Braves out of spring training, Donovan as a starter. He made his major league debut on April 24, giving up six runs (five earned) in innings and taking the loss in a 6–4 defeat to the Brooklyn Dodgers. Donovan lost his next start, moved to the bullpen, then went to Milwaukee after appearing in two more games. He was called up in June and in September but spent most of the rest of the year in the minors. In 10 games (three starts) his rookie year, Donovan had an 0–2 record, an 8.19 ERA, nine strikeouts, and 34 walks in innings. His numbers were not much better at Milwaukee, where in 19 games (10 starts) he had a 3–6 record, a 6.24 ERA, 44 strikeouts, and 33 walks in 75 innings. In 1951, Donovan started the season with the Braves again but was again moved to the bullpen after two starts. He had a 5.27 ERA (with no record) in eight games with the Braves and did not appear for them after June 5. Spending most of the season with Milwaukee, Donovan had more success with the Brewers in 1951. He had a 7–5 record, a 3.28 ERA, 88 strikeouts, and 59 walks in 129 innings, and he helped the Brewers win the American Association pennant. However, he did not pitch for the Braves in September. Similarly to his previous two years, Donovan started the season with the Braves, then spent most of the year in Milwaukee, with the exception of a brief call-up in late May to early June. In his only two starts, he gave up six runs in one and was pulled from the game in the other after walking the first three hitters. He had a 5.54 ERA and an 0–2 record with the Braves. With Milwaukee, he appeared in 16 games (12 starts), posting a 4–6 record, a 4.55 ERA, 36 strikeouts, and 43 walks in 91 innings. Donovan hoped to remain in Milwaukee for the 1953 season, because the Braves moved there from Boston. However, he failed to make the team out of spring training this time, and the Braves tried to send him to their new AAA affiliate, the Toledo Mud Hens. Fearing he would remain in the minor leagues, Donovan requested a trade. “I believed I could win in the major leagues and wanted a chance to prove it," he said. John Quinn denied his request at first, then made him available, but he rejected all deals other teams tried to make for Donovan. Finally, Gene Mauch, Donovan's former roommate and manager of the Braves' Class AA affiliate, convinced Donovan to come play for the Atlanta Crackers of the Southern Association. "That was the best thing that ever happened to me,” Donovan said of getting sent to Atlanta. “It brought me under the wing of [Whitlow] Wyatt." A former pitcher for the Dodgers, Wyatt taught Donovan how to throw a slider while the prospect was at Atlanta. Donovan appeared in 32 games (19 starts) for Atlanta, posting an 11–8 record, a 3.71 ERA, 132 strikeouts, and 51 walks in 182 innings. He got his wish after the season, when the Braves sold his contract to the Detroit Tigers. Donovan made the Tigers out of spring training but only appeared in two games before Detroit returned him to the Braves on May 13. He was happy to accept another assignment to Atlanta, where Wyatt was now the manager. He responded with his best minor league season yet. In 27 games (all starts) for Atlanta, he had an 18–8 record and a 2.69 ERA for the team. Donovan also managed to hit well for the Crackers, slugging 12 home runs and having 32 runs batted in. The Crackers won the Southern Association pennant, and Donovan was named their Most Valuable Player. After the minor league season, the Chicago White Sox purchased his contract from Milwaukee. Chicago White Sox Donovan made the White Sox out of spring training in 1955, as a reliever. However, he was quickly added to the rotation after Bob Keegan, an All-Star who had won 16 games with the White Sox the year before, developed a bone spur on his heel. He finally got his first career win on April 29, in a four-hit shutout of the Boston Red Sox. At the plate, he hit his first career home run July 3 against Hall of Famer Bob Lemon in a 14–9 loss to the Cleveland Indians. With a 10–2 record at the All-Star break, Donovan returned to Milwaukee as a member of the American League (AL) All-Star Team, though he did not pitch in the game. His record was 13–2 on July 20; Donovan lost his next two starts in July, then suffered appendicitis and missed a month recovering. He won his first start back on August 21, then went on a five-game losing streak, posting an 8.07 ERA over that span. In his final start of the year, September 24, he threw a five-hit shutout against the Kansas City Athletics. Donovan finished his first full season in Major League Baseball (MLB) with a 15–9 record, a 3.32 ERA, five shutouts, 88 strikeouts, and 48 walks in 187 innings. In his first start of the 1956 season April 20, Donovan gave up three runs in innings and contributed a two-run home run against Lou Kretlow of Kansas City; he got a no-decision, but the White Sox won 5–3. Wins were few and far between for Donovan, who finished July with a 4–7 record and a 5.02 ERA. A six-game winning streak and a 2.01 ERA in the last two months improved his numbers by season's end. When he faced Kansas City on August 15, he limited the Athletics to two hits in a 10–0 shutout. Against Cleveland on August 31, he matched zeroes on the scoreboard with Hall of Famer Early Wynn for nine innings, then won the game in the 10th when his RBI single against Wynn gave the White Sox a 1–0 victory. In 34 games (31 starts), he had a 12–10 record, a 3.64 ERA, three shutouts, 120 strikeouts, and 59 walks in innings. He led the league with a 1.155 walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP). Donovan threw a shutout against Cleveland on May 25, 1957, allowing a second-inning double to Eddie Robinson that was the only hit for the Indians. He relinquished four runs in his next start against Cleveland on May 30 but had three hits and drove in three runs in a 6–4 victory over the Indians. On July 20, Donovan threw another one-hit shutout in a game against the Red Sox, with Ted Williams's fourth-inning single being the only hit for Boston. Possessing an eight and three record on July 3, he won seven games in a row, a streak that did not end until August 29, in an 11-inning, 2–1 loss to the Yankees. Donovan, as a member of the White Sox, led the AL in winning percentage, posting a 16–6 record for a .727 winning percentage (tied with Tom Sturdivant, who posted the same numbers with the Yankees). His 16 wins were tied for third in the AL with Sturdivant and Tom Brewer, behind Jim Bunning's and teammate Billy Pierce's 20. He also led the league with 16 complete games and struck out 88 in innings. Donovan finished 13th in AL Most Valuable Player (MVP) Award voting and came in second to the National League's Warren Spahn in Cy Young Award voting, in an era where the Cy Young was only presented to one pitcher for both leagues. It looked like Donovan would have the opposite winning percentage in 1958, after he got off to a 3–10 start with an ERA of 4.29. In the midst of the 3–10 start, on June 15, he shut out the Baltimore Orioles in the second game of a doubleheader. The second half of the season was different, as Donovan won 12 of 16 decisions and posted a 2.01 ERA. On August 3, he held the Yankees to one run and singled home a run off of Whitey Ford in a 3–1 victory. He threw back-to-back shutouts against the Tigers August 29 and September 3. In 34 starts, Donovan had a 15–14 record, a 3.01 ERA, four shutouts, 127 strikeouts, and 58 walks in 248 innings. He had the lowest walks per nine innings (1.9) of all AL pitchers and finished 25th in MVP voting. Donovan was part of the "Go-Go Sox" team that won Chicago's first AL pennant since 1919. After winning his first start in 1959, he went six weeks without winning a game. "There's been nothing wrong with my stride or rhythm," said Donovan. "I just seem more prone to lapses in concentration this year." May 12, he hit a two-run home run against Ike Delock but took a no-decision after running into trouble in the seventh inning; however, the White Sox beat Boston 4–3. A sore shoulder kept him out between July 21 and August 16. In late-August, the White Sox faced Cleveland, a competitive team that trailed them by 1.5 games in the standings, for a four-game series. Donovan took the opportunity to throw his lone shutout of the year, defeating them 2–0 on August 29. The White Sox took a 5.5 game lead after sweeping the Indians, and 10,000 appreciative fans showed up to welcome them back to Midway International Airport when they returned to Chicago. Donovan was 9–6 on September 2 but lost his last four decisions to finish 9–10. He appeared in 31 games (29 starts) for the White Sox, posting a 3.66 ERA and striking out 71 in innings pitched. The White Sox faced the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 1959 World Series. Donovan got the start in Game 3 and held the Dodgers to one baserunner through the first six innings. After getting two outs in the seventh, though, he walked Norm Larker and Gil Hodges on nine pitches, prompting manager Al López to replace him on the mound with Gerry Staley. Staley gave up a single to pinch-hitter Carl Furillo, allowing two runs to score, and Donovan took the loss in the 3–1 defeat. In Game 5, Donovan was called on in the eighth inning with one out after the Dodgers had loaded the bases, with the White Sox clinging to a 1–0 lead. He got Furillo to hit into a pop fly, then got Don Zimmer to fly out to left field before pitching a scoreless ninth to earn the save for the White Sox. Donovan was also used in Game 6, but he gave up three runs (including a home run to Wally Moon) without recording an out as the White Sox lost the game 9–3 and the Dodgers won the World Series. During spring training in 1960, the Associated Press reported a rumor that the White Sox were looking to trade Donovan and Earl Battey to the Tigers for Paul Foytack. Nothing came of it, and Foytack had a bad year for the Tigers, going 2–11 with a 6.14 ERA. However, Donovan did not fare much better with the White Sox, perhaps due to a sore arm. He posted a 6.75 ERA in his first 10 games (seven starts), never making it past the seventh inning. After only going innings in a no-decision (eventual loss) against Detroit on June 2, Donovan was removed from the rotation in favor of Russ Kemmerer. He made just one more start for the club all year, a July 29 game against the Senators in which he relinquished three runs in innings in an eventual 7–5 loss. His ERA improved somewhat in the bullpen, but it was still 5.38, the highest it had been in any of Donovan's full major league seasons. This was not reflected in his won-loss record, as he finished the season with a 6–1 mark. Still, the White Sox left him unprotected from the expansion draft after the season, and Donovan became an original member of the new Washington Senators franchise. Washington Senators Sports Illustrated did not expect much from Donovan entering the year; their preview of the first-year Senators stated, "In two seasons, 1957–58, Dick Donovan won 31 games for the White Sox. Perhaps he will remember how he did it." Donovan started the first game in the expansion Senators' history, against his old team, the White Sox. He had a 3–2 lead through the sixth inning, but errors by Gene Woodling and Dale Long allowed a couple unearned runs to score, and the Senators lost 4–3. After the game, someone wished Donovan better luck next time; the angry pitcher nearly spit out of rage. Donovan would often be a tough-luck loser that season, losing his first five decisions of the season by one run, including 1–0 loss to Minnesota on April 23. He did not win a game until June 2, against Kansas City. For his second victory, Donovan threw a shutout in the first game of a June 9 doubleheader against his old team the White Sox, but it took the Senators 10 innings to get him a run to give him the win. Through June 30, he was 3–8, but he went 7–2 the rest of the way. Despite his losing record, he was the Senators' lone representative at both of the year's All-Star Games, pitching two scoreless innings in the first one at Candlestick Park. "Donovan is a real professional,” Senators' manager Mickey Vernon said. “He knows how to pitch and gives you an all-out effort. Dick just doesn’t throw the ball -- he has every pitch planned." His record was just 10–10 at season's end, but his pitching was the best of his career, as his 2.40 ERA (a career-low) led the American League. In innings, he gave up only 138 hits, leading the AL with a 1.026 WHIP. He finished 17th in MVP voting. Shortly after the season, on October 5, the Senators traded him, Gene Green, and Jim Mahoney to the Cleveland Indians for Jimmy Piersall. Cleveland Indians With the Indians in 1962, Donovan had better luck. Used as the Indians' Opening Day starter, he shut out the Red Sox on April 10. In fact, he did not allow a run until his third game of the year, starting the season with 19 scoreless innings. He commenced with an 8–0 start, becoming the first pitcher in the major leagues to eight wins on May 24. Donovan was selected to the AL All-Star team in both games, allowing a run over two innings in the first one and not pitching in the second one. Twice during the year, he hit two home runs in a game—May 18 against Detroit and August 31 against Baltimore; the Indians won both instances. He limited the Orioles to two hits July 2 in a 2–0 victory. On August 26, he limited Boston to two hits in a 4–0 victory; the shutout was his third of the year against the Red Sox. During a game on September 4, he limited the White Sox to two runs through 12 innings but took the loss after giving up a run in the 13th. Donovan was rewarded for his performance in 1962, when he won 20 games for the first time in his career. In 34 starts, he had 16 complete games and five shutouts (most in the AL) in 250 innings pitched, all of them new career-highs, for Cleveland. His ERA was 3.59. After the season, he finished fifth in MVP voting, and the Sporting News named him its AL Pitcher of the Year. The Indians named him their Man of the Year and gave him a $40,000 contract for 1963. Despite his success in 1962, Donovan was the Indians' third starter for 1963, behind Mudcat Grant and Sam McDowell. On July 5, he held the Yankees to one run, had two hits, and scored a run in a 4–1 victory. Through August 3, he had a 6–10 record, but he won his next four starts by pitching four complete games in a row, including back-to-back shutouts August 8 and August 14 (when he held the White Sox scoreless for 11 innings in a 1–0 victory). In 30 starts, he had an 11–13 record, a 4.24 ERA, three shutouts, 84 strikeouts, and 28 walks in 206 innings. For the second year in a row, he led the league in walks per nine innings, with a 1.2 mark. Donovan held the Los Angeles Angels to two runs over eight innings and drove in a couple of his own with a single against Ken McBride in a 3–2 victory over the Angels on April 23, 1964. Through August 8, though his record was close to .500 at 6–7, his ERA was 4.72. After that, he was removed from the rotation. Though he made four more starts for the Indians that season, they were all in doubleheaders. Against the White Sox in the second game of a doubleheader during September 6, he relinquished 16 hits but lasted into the 13th inning, when Pete Ward finally drove in a run to give Chicago a 3–2 victory. In 30 games (just 23 starts), he had a 7–9 record, a 4.55 ERA, no shutouts, 83 strikeouts, and 29 walks in innings. In 1965, Donovan was again a starter for the Indians, but only for his first two games, after which he was moved to the bullpen. He had not made it through the sixth inning in either of his starts, and the Indians wanted to give more starts to prospects like Sonny Siebert and Luis Tiant. Used all but once in relief after that, he was released June 15 after posting a 5.96 ERA in 12 games. “I figure baseball was good to me,” Donovan said. “I was good to a lot of people in baseball too -- the hitters. It will be nice to take it easy if I don't go with another club.” During a 15-year major league career, Donovan compiled 122 wins, 880 strikeouts, and a 3.67 ERA, with 101 complete games, 25 shutouts and five saves. In 2,017 innings pitched, he allowed 1,988 hits and 495 walks. Playing style Donovan threw three pitches: a fastball, a curveball, and a slider. He learned the slider while pitching for Atlanta, when coach and later manager Whitlow Wyatt helped teach it to him. In 1955, when he finally stuck in a major league team's rotation, Sports Illustrated called it "one of the most effective pitches in baseball." Among pitchers, Donovan was also an unusually gifted hitter. In 1954, he was the team MVP for Atlanta after hitting 12 home runs and driving in 38 runs in only 27 games. With the White Sox, he was frequently used as a pinch-hitter. At the plate in his 15-year major league career, Donovan posted a .163 batting average (113-for-694) with 67 runs, 15 home runs, 64 RBI, and 78 walks. Personal life On February 7, 1959, Donovan married Patricia Casey, a Quincy, Massachusetts, resident who was a stewardess for United Airlines. The couple had two children, Peter and Amy. His friend Wyatt gave him the idea to sell insurance, and Donovan had a home business selling insurance during his MLB career. In 1963, he earned his stockbroker's license and joined the Boston-based firm Eastman & Dillon. After his baseball career, he served as the executive vice president for Bache & Co. In 1980, he opened a real estate appraisal office in Quincy, which he ran until 1994. Additionally, Donovan served as distributor with Earth Care Products, a Quincy company that makes products out of recycled plastic. He died from cancer on January 6, 1997. See also List of Major League Baseball all-time leaders in home runs by pitchers References External links Dick Donovan - Baseballbiography.com 1927 births 1997 deaths American League All-Stars American League ERA champions Atlanta Crackers players Baseball players from Boston Boston Braves players Chicago White Sox players Cleveland Indians players Deaths from cancer in Massachusetts Detroit Tigers players Fort Lauderdale Braves players Evansville Braves players Hartford Chiefs players Major League Baseball pitchers Milwaukee Brewers (minor league) players North Quincy High School alumni Sportspeople from Quincy, Massachusetts Baseball players from Norfolk County, Massachusetts Washington Senators (1961–1971) players United States Navy personnel of World War II
5247499	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supergroup%20%28TV%20series%29	Supergroup (TV series)	Supergroup is an American reality television show which aired on VH1 in 2006. The show followed five well-known hard rock and heavy metal musicians over a 12-day period during which they lived together in a Las Vegas mansion owned by Nico Santucci in order to create, plan and perform a live show together. The show, which aired in seven segments, starred band members Sebastian Bach, Jason Bonham, Scott Ian, Ted Nugent and Evan Seinfeld. Doc McGhee, who had previously worked with Bach and his band Skid Row, appeared as the band's manager. Journalist Lonn Friend and photographer Ross Halfin, who were long-time contributors for other VH1 features such as Behind the Music, appeared on the show. Band The members of the band dubbed their band project Damnocracy, suggested by lead singer Sebastian Bach after hearing Scott Ian say "a god damn democracy, but we can't use 'god damn'" in response to their inability to come up with a band name everybody liked. Previously, the name FIST was also suggested by Sebastian Bach, saying that it means the five of them coming together, like fingers forming a fist. Eventually Sebastian and Ted agreed they had grown to dislike the name FIST. Another name that was suggested was "Rawdog", then flipped around to "Godwar" by Evan Seinfeld, to which Bach replied that he did not want a band name that he "…had to think about". Ted Nugent suggested the name "Hunting Deer With a Bow and Arrow". Yet another name that was suggested by Bach was "Savage Animal", but no one else liked the name. Bach liked it because it "rolled off the tongue" and because "rock and roll is a 'savage animal'." Savage Animal became one of the more popular names and became associated with the show, as many people laughed at its cliché title, despite Bach's ardent enthusiasm for the name. Bach's enthusiasm for the name Savage Animal became a popular subject of parody over the internet, with websites like YTMND and YouTube having made videos referencing that particular instance. The "Savage Animal" mania has gone as far as for Bach to be listed as a member of "Savage Animal" instead of "Damnocracy", intentionally or not, on some websites. One initially proposed name was "Celebutard", a name suggested by Bach prior to "Savage Animal". This name was quickly laughed away. The band's assumed manager was Doc McGhee, who has managed the likes of KISS, Scorpions, Mötley Crüe, and Night Ranger. Doc had previously worked with Sebastian Bach in the rock band Skid Row. The band did not release any albums and disbanded in 2010. Its members returned to their original bands or moved on to new projects. Band members Sebastian Bach – lead vocals Ted Nugent – lead guitar, backing vocals Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Evan Seinfeld – bass guitar, backing vocals Jason Bonham – drums, percussion Episodes Original airing dates Episode 1 – May 21 Episode 2 – May 28 Episode 3 – June 4 Episode 4 – June 11 Episode 5 – June 18 Episode 6 – June 25 Episode 7 – July 2 Episode 1 The band members and Doc meet for the first time for the project. The band starts to explore their "creative space", a large mansion in Las Vegas. On the first rehearsals, they click musically, but are unable to come up with a name. They also meet Danushka Lysek, their chef for the upcoming two weeks, who immediately becomes a constant and easy target for tormenting, and a two-man PR team, whom they immediately disregard as business professionals. The first song also starts to take shape, but an unexpected problem occurs when the rehearsal space turns out to be less proficient for studio recording than expected. Episode 2 Jason Bonham has to leave because of two Foreigner shows he has to perform at, so the management gets Kid Beyond, a human beatboxer to fill in, as well as a fashion stylist to "update their image" — the band protests vehemently to both approaches (with Bach literally slamming the door in the beatboxer's face). They do, however, manage to settle on a name, "Fist", which Sebastian explains by "five fingers coming together". Evan and Sebastian start to shape up the lyrics for their first co-written song, but while Evan insists on leaving for a dinner that he was hosting for the group, Sebastian stays and decides to work on the song, along with newly arrived recording engineer Kirk Moll, while Ted leaves to jam with Joe Bonamassa. Episode 3 The band shows Doc their first song, but Doc is not impressed. Sebastian considers that it's because of an old rift between him and Doc. Evan decides to figure out what happened and talks to Doc, who explains his side of the story. The band meets two graphic artists, who are to design the band logo. Valerie, the PR person, tells the band that Ross Halfin is coming from England to photograph them later that day. Sebastian insists on taking a jog and a makeover against the majority's will, seemingly upsetting the rest of the group, especially Jason. During the wardrobe-check for the shoot, the group meets "Heatherette", a styling team, who presents the group a (perhaps deliberately) outrageous set of clothes. (Jason calmly remarks "I'm English", upon being presented a star-spangled jacket.) The group protests, except for Sebastian who picks out a jumpsuit, but is outvoted by the rest of the band, after pointing out that his choice is embarrassing to the rest of the band. At the photoshoot, Ross matches up Sebastian in verbal swashbuckling, much to the amusement of the rest of the band and the PR-team. The next day, Evan explains his talk with Doc to Sebastian, who decides to settle things with Doc later. Sebastian also discovers the wine-cellar, and shows his discovery to Scott, who explains that the wine he's drinking is "two-buck Chuck", an extremely cheap brand. Sebastian pulls Doc aside at dinner and tries to talk to him, but neither of them shows any enthusiasm to settle things long-term. Ted and Sebastian start to have second thoughts about the name "FIST". Sebastian has an interview scheduled, but he becomes hard to find and to convince after he decides to "be ready". During a rehearsal, Jason's thumb becomes numb and painful, so he visits a doctor and gets an X-ray, who advises a week of rest — something Jason obviously does not have time for. While Doc tries to enlist famed producer Rob Cavallo to help the band, Scott is visited by his wife (listed by VH1 as "fiancee") Pearl Aday. The band also disregards the idea of writing a ballad. Episode 4 Doc enlists Rob Cavallo to tell his opinion about their first song, "Take It Back". Cavallo voices his dislike of the song, telling the band that it's "dated" (which Ted considers an insult) and that the beat should be "more punk-like" (which insults Jason). The band, nevertheless, realizes that their views on the song are far too subjective, and sometimes they need a reality check. Evan finally gets his revenge on Ted, and with the help of Scott, he wakes Ted up by putting his bass amp in front of Ted's door, cranking it up to the maximum and placing the bass nearby so it feeds back and resonates loudly. Ted acknowledges the effort, although he states that his door handle broke, so he could not display a white flag to surrender. The band, much to the dismay of the management, decides to ditch the name "FIST", and starts wondering about another one. Evan and Scott come up with "Godwar", partly because it's "raw dog" spelled backwards. Sebastian (according to Jason, not entirely surprisingly) disregards the name, and insists on his choice, "Savage Animal", albeit at this radio interview, he only mentions that the band has a couple of ideas. During the final band meeting, Scott notes that things would work much better if it was not for the "damn democracy", which ignites Sebastian to come up with "Damnocracy". The band (and the management) finally agrees. Sebastian's wife Maria Bierk and Evan's wife Tera Patrick also arrive. Sebastian also starts to show the repercussions of his wine consumption, at one point having a near-romantic talk to a quite puzzled Scott about how he would never change a guitar player. He also insists that the band should watch his performance on TV in the show The Gilmore Girls — something no one really seems to enjoy besides him. At dinner, Jason notes that Robert Plant and Jimmy Page recommended the band to do a cover of the Led Zeppelin song, "Out on the Tiles", because Zeppelin never performed it live. Since it's a song that was born after an idea by Jason's father, John Bonham (whose death also had its 25th anniversary in 2005), the band decides to pay tribute and rehearse the song, albeit all of them point out that playing a Led Zeppelin song recommended by Led Zeppelin comes with a large responsibility. The song's vocal range, however, seems to be a difficulty for Sebastian, who also insists on having constant eye-contact with Jason during songs, something that Jason does not quite understand. Tera and Evan decide to do a photo shoot, only to later convince Maria to join in and make some photos together. Sebastian enjoys this immensely, but Ted says he is turned off by public displays of sex and leaves. Episode 5 The band discusses their next day warm-up performance, during which Sebastian and Jason debate their stage show, and while Sebastian insists that the drummer look him in the eye, Jason simply prefers to play his own thing and others to follow. Ted takes Scott and Evan to a shooting range, where they fire various heavy weaponry. Jason stays home, because he does not like the idea, while Sebastian stays to take a rest. Ted's wife Shemane also arrives, and voices concern about her attitude not being a "rock-star wife" and not fitting in with the other wives, and the band's constant swearing. Chris, a graphic artist, brings a promotional painting of the superheroic likenesses of the band that he was working on, which amazes the group, save Scott, who's a bit sad about his character looking like "mashed potato". Jason suggests to auction the picture for charity. Sebastian eventually reaches a low point in inebriation, and starts to ramble during a rehearsal and recording session of a ballad they recently wrote. He insists on Evan to noogie him, and when that happens, the two jokingly start to wrestle on the floor. As soon as Scott can be heard "Here we go..." (and later noting that "I just looked at Jason and said, 'This is gonna get serious in about ten seconds'", possibly referring to experiences he previously talked about in Behind the Music when Anthrax's Charlie Benante and Frank Bello would fight the same way in the studio), Sebastian turns Evan over and pushes him on the floor, not realizing that Evan hits his head on a nearby amp. Evan becomes furious, pushes Sebastian away and tries to punch him. While Sebastian insists that he's just playing, Evan storms out from the room. Scott and Jason try to mediate, but Sebastian also storms out. The next day, while Jason updates Ted with the news, Evan is still furious about Sebastian being out of control. Sebastian goes to him to apologize, attributing his out of control behavior to the wine. They end up settling things, but Evan clearly states that Sebastian has to cut down on his drinking. The band gets ready for the performance, although Scott and Jason are worried about playing to "five tourists and ten people holding up Skid Row album covers". The gig eventually turns out to be quite popular, as the band plays "Sin City" (AC/DC) and "Cat Scratch Fever". The group is satisfied, although Doc points out that the songs were not as tight as they could have been, something which the band decides to work on. The band decides to celebrate at a sushi restaurant, joined by Nikki Benz and Lexie Marie, models for TeraVision, invited by Tera. Evan is shocked to notice that Sebastian is drinking again. Episode 6 Ted goes to a radio promo show as a guest DJ, but flips out when the host decides to play Puddle of Mudd instead of Ted's music during the interview. Evan, meanwhile, is still distraught about Sebastian drinking the night before, and starts to complain to other members, to which Doc responds with "you've been here 12 days... try 12 years" and they all conclude that Sebastian needs serious help. T.L., the stylist shows up again with a set of clothes to try, with little luck on Evan, Scott or Ted, but is able to convince Jason to wear a cowboy hat, while Sebastian insists on a leather jacket which is visibly too small on him. The band expands their playlist with Biohazard's song "Punishment", but Evan is concerned about Ted learning the song. Upon trying to show Ted the riffs, Evan ends up expressing his sadness about Sebastian's drinking problem, and tells Ted that if there's anyone who can convince him to stop, it's probably Ted, since Sebastian feels a paternal bond with him. Ted takes up the task, and has a tough talk with Sebastian, explicitly forbidding him any alcoholic drink. Sebastian is shocked, but promises to comply, and eventually adopts Ted as his "dad". The group goes to a guitar store for a promotional signing, only to see that they can in fact have rabid fans at their show, some of them being lifetime fans of their respective bands. Back at home, upon practicing "Punishment", Jason admits that he's not familiar with the song, but promises to learn it as soon as he can. At dinner, Ted and Shemane invite the whole band to their farm, something which the band is a little surprised but extremely happy about. Sebastian points out in front of everyone that he's not drinking, and insists on not ever doing so, in fright of Ted's repercussions. Jason proceeds to learn "Punishment", and although first a bit alienated, he ends up admiring the song for bringing new elements to his style of drumming. Sebastian goes running in the nearby mountains, and enjoys the first day of his complete sobriety. Ted also learns the song, and he points out that while it's not his kind of music, he insists on playing it with full attitude, to the great satisfaction of Evan. Doc takes the band to the Fremont Street Experience, for reasons unknown to them. When they arrive, they are shown a cartoon animation of the group represented as a superhuman rock group, destroying various "bubblegum pop" icons and joining forces upon seeing a searchlight with the Damnocracy logo (akin to the Bat-Signal). The band, for the first time in the show, genuinely agrees on the quality and effect of the animation. Evan and Sebastian stay in downtown Vegas to spend a romantic night with their respective wives. Episode 7 It's the day of the concert, and everyone starts to show signs of nerve and excitement. To calm down the other members, Ted arranges a barbecue to raise their spirits; at the barbecue, all band members express how much they enjoy the current project and agree to treat the project as an actual band instead of a one-off performance. Upon asked about the band's future, Sebastian expresses concern about the business side of Damnocracy, as it is unknown who owns the rights to the band's name. This eventually turns out to be in reaction to a prior problem, where during his time in Skid Row, it turned out that Sebastian did not own any legal rights to the band name "Skid Row". While Doc does not understand the reason for this (as Sebastian was only the second singer of Skid Row), Sebastian and Doc talk through the issue and clear up matters. Evan, however, suddenly packs up and storms out from the house with Tera without giving any reason to anyone, leaving the entire band and management alike in confusion. The band, however, has to leave immediately to do a soundcheck. The group meets the first members of their future audience, and proceeds to go to the soundcheck, to be joined by Evan 45 minutes later. The soundcheck brings out some classic technical problems such as wrong monitoring and broken or malfunctioning equipment, infuriating Scott for the first time during the show. After problems are resolved, the band prepares for the show backstage, being extremely excited about the performance. The concert starts with the Motörhead classic "Ace of Spades", and the band enjoys complete comfort on stage as they head into AC/DC's "T.N.T.", Skid Row's "Youth Gone Wild", and Anthrax's "Only". They also perform "Punishment", the song they feared so much, but in retrospect, all of them confess that it was probably the tightest song during the whole set. The group dedicates "Out on the Tiles" to the late John Bonham, and while Sebastian audibly has a tough time with the song, Jason performs a spectacular roll-off at the end. "Stranglehold" delivers a bit of a tension, when Sebastian continues to throw Damnocracy T-shirts in the crowd during Ted's guitar solo, but the band nevertheless continues with their own song, "Take It Back", the song previously labeled "dated", which, regardless, receives a large ovation. During "Sin City", however, Sebastian shocks the band by pulling out a bottle of Jack Daniel's and guzzling part of it down on crowd request. A suspicious Ted takes part of the drink, and lights up to realize that it's in fact simple tea. The band closes the show with Cat Scratch Fever. In retrospect, all band members express their joy with the project, and hope to work again on either an album or a tour. And at the end of the final seventh episode, viewers were left with a text message saying that Damnocracy had continued to rehearse and make new music after shooting wrapped. However, at the end of the text, the band was still willing to continue with even more rehearsing and making new music but they could not pull Ted Nugent away from going hunting. Premiere concert setlist Performed at The Empire Ballroom on March 5, 2006: "Ace of Spades" (Motörhead) "Free for All" (Ted Nugent) "T.N.T." (AC/DC) "Out on the Tiles" (Led Zeppelin) "Only" (Anthrax) "Take It Back" (Damnocracy) "Punishment" (Biohazard) "Stranglehold" (Ted Nugent) "Sin City" (AC/DC) "Youth Gone Wild" (Skid Row) "Cat Scratch Fever" (Ted Nugent) "Whole Lotta Love" (Led Zeppelin) (Note: This is a reported song order - the show might have presented the concert in an edited order.) Supergroup II VH1 greenlit a second season of Supergroup which would have had an all female ensemble. Ann Wilson of Heart, Charlotte Caffey of The Go-Go's, and drummer Stefanie Eulinberg of Kid Rock fame were slated to take part. Financial and scheduling difficulties put a halt on the project and it never happened. References External links Audio of Jason Bonham talking about his experience on the show Heavy metal television series VH1 original programming 2000s American reality television series 2006 American television series debuts 2006 American television series endings
5247841	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20National%20Bank%20of%20Omaha	First National Bank of Omaha	First National Bank Omaha is a bank headquartered in Omaha, Nebraska. The namesake and leading subsidiary of First National of Nebraska, it is the third largest privately held bank subsidiary in the United States with $17 billion in assets and 4320 employees. Chartered and headquartered in Omaha, Nebraska, United States, the bank's services include corporate banking, investment banking, retail banking, wealth management and consumer lending in Nebraska, Iowa, Colorado, Texas, Kansas, South Dakota and Illinois, operating a total of 109 branches throughout the Midwest. History In 1856, a group of settlers from Kanesville, Iowa crossed the Missouri River to picnic in the newly named Nebraska Territory. One of the visitors, Thomas Davis, helped found Omaha when he donated $600 in gold dust for an official charter. He eventually served on First National Bank's board of directors. Two immigrant brothers from Ohio, Herman and Augustus Kountze, opened Kountze Brothers Bank in 1857. Omaha's first bank opened its doors and started trading primarily in gold dust and buffalo hides. Kountze Brothers Bank received national charter #209 in 1863. First National Bank is now the oldest national bank west of the Missouri River. In 1863, they also began doing business as First National Bank of Omaha and brought in additional investors, including Edward Creighton, who served as president. In 1883, Herman Kountze speculated on land in North Omaha, eventually developing an affluent Omaha suburb called Kountze Place in the former town of Saratoga. The panic of 1893 sparked the worst depression of the 19th century. In 1895, twelve businessmen from Omaha, including Herman Kountze, started the Knights of Ak-Sar-Ben. Their stated mission was "to build a more prosperous Heartland, where communities can flourish and every child can succeed". In 1898, Herman Kountze donated the use of of his Kountze Place development for the Trans-Mississippi Exposition, one of the crowning events in Omaha's history. Featuring a lagoon filled with Venetian gondolas, it attracted 2.6 million visitors at a time when Omaha's population was roughly 100,000. 1900 to 1949 In 1913, First National Bank became one of the first banks to specifically target women with a Ladies' Department. Staffed with female tellers, it helped make banking a mainstream activity for women. During a five-year span ending in 1933, the Great Depression caused more than 750 Nebraska banks to close. On one Saturday in August, depositors began withdrawing their funds en masse from Omaha banks. When their requests were met, the banks proved their solvency; if not, the banks faced almost certain collapse. During this period, the bank extended their hours. 1950 to 1999 In 1953, under the leadership of John Lauritzen, First National Bank became the first bank in the region and the fifth in the nation to issue its own credit card. Also in 1953, First National Merchant Solutions began processing for 125 merchants. In 1971, employees started moving into the 22-story First National Center. Attached to a 420-room hotel and a 550-stall parking garage, it became one of the most modern buildings in the region, providing economic development in downtown Omaha. 2000 to present In 2000, First National Bank designated two parcels of green space for the city of Omaha. They are the current sites of two sculpture parks called "Spirit of Nebraska's Wilderness" and "Pioneer Courage". Working in tandem, the two sculptures join to make one of the largest bronze sculptures in the world. In 2002, First National Bank completed construction on the First National Tower, the tallest building between Chicago and Denver. It was announced on February 8, 2008, that Mills County Bank in Glenwood, Iowa and Silver City, Iowa would transition to First National Bank of Omaha, effective February 9, 2008. The full transition to First National Bank was completed on June 20, 2008. In March 2008, First National Bank opened a new branch with their new partnership with Scooter's Coffeehouse, started in Bellevue, Nebraska and have their operations based out of Omaha. This new branch is located in the Old Market in Downtown Omaha. Beginning September 30, 2010, it was announced that First National of Nebraska consolidated its bank charters of First National Bank of Colorado, in Fort Collins, Colorado; First National Bank of Kansas, in Overland Park, Kansas; and Castle Bank, in DeKalb, Illinois, with its First National Bank of Omaha charter. In August 2016, First National Bank of Omaha was disciplined for numerous deceptive marketing and unfair billing practices, affecting hundreds of thousands of consumers between 1997 and 2013. In dual civil enforcement actions, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) and the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) penalized the bank with fines of $4.5 million and $3 million, respectively. The bank entered into consent decrees accepting the civil penalties without admitting fault, committing to end the illegal practices, and pledging to make restitution to the people harmed by the bank's actions. The CFPB identified $27.75 million in restitution owed by First National Bank of Omaha to about 257,000 consumers, determining that the bank "[d]isguised the fact that it was selling" debt cancellation products to customers waiting for card activations over the phone, "[d]istracted consumers into making a purchase" of those products, marketed those products to people who were ineligible for some of the benefits, "[h]indered consumers from obtaining debt cancellation product benefits", and "[m]ade cancellation of debt cancellation products difficult". Additionally, some cardholders were "[b]illed for credit monitoring services not provided". In the OCC action, additional restitution was ordered for "customers who enrolled in and paid for identity theft protection products between December 1997 and July 2013, but did not receive the full benefit of the products". The bank apologized to its customers, alleging that one of its contractors, Affinion, and its subsidiary Trilegiant, were responsible for some of the problems. On February 22, 2018 the bank announced it would not renew its contract with the National Rifle Association of America (NRA) as a result of customer feedback after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Florida. The bank had offered special branded Visa cards to NRA members to support the group. Historical leadership Presidents After three years as the President of FNBO, Rajive Johri retired on January 6, 2009. Dan O'Neill, who is also the president of First National of Nebraska, has succeeded Johri as president. According to Bruce Lauritzen, Johri engineered the growth of the credit card division, introduced the bank's online savings product and opened up the first branches in Iowa. Branches Currently, First National Bank has branches in Nebraska, Iowa, Texas, Colorado, Kansas and Illinois. On September 6, 1984, FNBO acquired David City Bank in David City. On May 31, 1988, FNBO acquired First Security Bank & Trust Co. in Beatrice. On November 21, 1989, FNBO acquired First of Omaha Savings Co. in Omaha. Texas is also the home to four branches, although they operate under the name of First National Bank Southwest. On December 15, 2000, FNBO acquired First State Bank in Frisco. The initial branches in Glenwood opened on January 1, 1883, as Mills County State Bank. On May 1, 2001, they changed their name to Mills County Bank, N.A. On February 9, 2008, they merged with First National Bank of Omaha. The first branch in Council Bluffs opened on July 28, 2008. The first First National Bank Iowa branch opened in Des Moines on June 30, 2008. In the June 19, 2008, edition of the Omaha World-Herald, Johri said that First National had planned to open a branch office in Des Moines, Iowa during the summer, but due to the recent flooding in the area, the opening date was pushed back to the fall. First National Bank Colorado Branches in Colorado: Fort Collins, Boulder, Brighton, Broomfield, Denver, Evans, Fort Lupton, Greeley, Johnstown, Kersey, Longmont, Louisville, Loveland, Platteville, Wellington, Westminster, and Windsor Since 1881, First National Bank has been in business in Colorado. First National Bank of Fort Collins was formed on May 15, 1934 with the original name of First National Bank. Its name was changed to First Interstate Bank of Fort Collins, National Association on June 1, 1981. On June 13, 1994, the name was changed back to First National Bank. Union Colony Bank in Greeley, Colorado was acquired by First National Bank February 15, 2008. On February 15, 2008, First National Bank of Colorado, First National Bank of Fort Collins and Union Colony Bank merged under First National Bank Colorado. First National Bank Kansas Branches in Kansas: Fairway, Olathe, Overland Park, and Shawnee First National Bank of Kansas (FNBK) was chartered in 1993 when FNNI purchased approximately $80 million deposits from a failed financial institution. The bank purchased additional deposits approximating $220 million from another financial institution in 1994. To profitably invest this large deposit base, FNBK purchased credit card receivables from an affiliated bank. Most of the receivables originated outside the bank's assessment area. While credit card receivables still represent a large percentage of bank assets, credit card lending is not a strategic goal for the bank. First National Bank Illinois Branches in Illinois: Lake in the Hills, Huntley, Marengo, Harvard, Belvidere, Dekalb, Sycamore, Sugar Grove, Oswego, Sandwich, and Yorkville. FNBO Direct FNBO Direct, a division of First National Bank of Omaha, started operations in November 2006 at a 5.25% annual percentage yield (APY). FNBO Direct launched a nationwide campaign to promote their online savings account on May 1, 2007. In honor of the bank's 150th anniversary, the APY was placed at 6.0% for 150 days from May 1 through September 28, 2007. In an e-mail sent to customers at the end of August, it was announced that the FNBO Direct Credit Card will give a competitive interest rate and cash back rewards that would be deposited directly into the online savings account. The credit card product launched to a selected number of customers that currently have an online savings account on September 26, 2007. On November 28, 2007, FNBO Direct launched an Online Billpay account as well as offering a certificate of deposit available, at first, for four different terms (9 month, 12 month, 18 month, and 24 month). Currently, customers are able to choose from a six-month term as well. First National Merchant Solutions In addition to being a top-10 payment processor, First National Merchant Solutions is also the 4th largest bank processor in the United States and is the 6th largest in-house processor of credit cards. In 1967, First National Bank of Omaha automated many of its manual credit card processes and was the first credit card processing center in the nation to offer descriptive billing statements. In 1988, First National Bank of Omaha became the first processor to develop authorization slips for restaurants with a blank area for including tip. A couple of years later, FNBO's acquiring division was renamed to First of Omaha Merchant Processing. First of Omaha Merchant Processing received the 1994 Member Service Quality Performance Award for Best Copy Performance by an acquirer with Visa sales over $1.5 billion. In 2002, First of Omaha Merchant Processing changed its name to First National Merchant Solutions. A year later, FNMS celebrated its 50th year of processing payments. First National Merchant Solutions became one of the first processors to offer merchants ACH and credit card transactions in the same batch file in 2004. The following year, First National Merchant Solutions introduced First Resolution OnlineTM, the first chargeback management tool in the market to allow merchants to resolve chargebacks online. FNBO also underwrites for two large ISO's, International Merchant Services, located in Westmont, Illinois, and Merchant Services, Inc. of Farmingdale, New Jersey. On April 1, 2010, TSYS announced that they would be acquiring 51% of the merchant division, and the remaining 49% would remain under the ownership of FNBO. The new name of the company is First National Merchant Solutions, LLC (FNMS). It was announced on January 4, 2011, that TSYS would acquire the remaining 49% of the company, thus changing their name to TSYS Merchant Solutions. First Bankcard In 1953, First National's consumer finance operation launched its "First Charge" card which remains to this day the most profitable innovation in First National's long history. The bank issued a simple little card, which was nothing more than a white piece of plasticized paper, complete with a green logo, and an inscription which spelled "First Charge Account Service" and a red number which served to identify the cardholder. First Bankcard is one of the top three banks serving the credit card needs of other financial institutions, including Union Bank of California and People's Bank. First Bankcard also services credit cards for Major League Lacrosse, World of Warcraft, Scheels All Sports, just to name a few. SunTrust Bank announced on December 12, 2006, that it signed an agreement with Atlanta-based InfiCorp Holdings, Inc. (subsidiary of First National of Nebraska) for issuing consumer credit cards. Under terms of the agreement, InfiCorp will market, originate and service SunTrust-branded cards starting in the first quarter of 2007, focusing on SunTrust clients. Interest rate lawsuit An Iowa resident by the name of Fred Fisher received an unsolicited BankAmericard from First National Bank Omaha, in February 1969. Fisher filed a complaint against the Omaha bank on September 3, 1971, for exporting Nebraska's higher interest rates to his state. He told the U.S. District Court that since the Iowa legislature had fixed the usury ceiling at nine percent, First National was breaking the law by charging him 18 percent for advance of up to $500. Marquette threatened by taking the Omaha bank to the U.S. Supreme Court if necessary if their practice continued. The Marquette bank offered credit cards for a $10 fee at a flat rate of 12 percent interest on outstanding credit. First National required no fee and it charged 18 percent interest for credit up to $500 and 12 percent on all additional balances. Marquette began to lobby for the passage of a state law designed to put a 12 percent ceiling on all bank credit card outstandings. In May 1976, about one month after that measure was signed into law, Marquette filed a suit to make its Omaha rival conform to the 12 percent limit. The decision maintained that the 115-year-old National Bank Act takes precedence over usury statues in individual states. Justice William J. Brennan Jr. wrote that the 1863 law permitted a national bank to charge interest at the rate allowed by the regulations of the state in which the lending institution is located. On July 25, 1979, the Iowa Supreme Court overturned their decision that was made on August 30, 1978. Buildings The Northern Natural Gas Building is located at 2223 Dodge Street in Omaha, Nebraska, United States. It is a 260ft (79 m), 19-story skyscraper. This building housed the credit card operations until the opening of the First National Tower in 2002. First National Business Park is located at just north of Boys Town in West Omaha. First National Business Park is located at 144th & Dodge Streets. First National Bank occupies 14010 FNB Parkway. There is also a bank branch located at the business park at 14310 FNB Parkway. Valmont Industries has their corporate headquarters located at One Valmont Plaza, which is also located in the Business Park. It was announced on October 23, 2008, that Yahoo will be coming to the Omaha Metro Area. Yahoo stated that the First National Business Park will be the home to the customer care center that should open next April. First National Center is a 22-story office building in downtown Omaha. The building is attached to a 420-room hotel and a 550-stall parking garage. The First National Center is located at 1620 Dodge St in downtown Omaha. The hotel that is joining the First National Center is the Doubletree Hotel. With the completion of the First National Technology Center, FNBO became the first business in the country to utilize hydrogen fuel cells. In 2008, ComputerWorld named First National of Nebraska as the third best in a top 12 list of "Green-IT Companies" In 2012, First National Bank of Omaha upgraded its fuel cell system to a PureCell Model 400. The fuel cell is installed in the main floor of the building and provides 400kW of heat and power to the facility. The First National Bank Tower is a 634 ft (193 m), 45-story skyscraper at 1601 Dodge Street in downtown Omaha. Built in 2002, it is currently the tallest building in Nebraska, as well as the tallest building between Minneapolis and Denver. It was built on the site of the former "Medical Arts Building" which was imploded on April 2, 1999. Inside the glass lobby is a large section of the ornamental facade from the former "Medical Arts Building". See also Economy of Omaha, Nebraska References Credit cards in the United States Banks based in Omaha, Nebraska Privately held companies based in Nebraska Privately held companies of the United States Economy of the Midwestern United States Economy of the Southwestern United States Kountze family Banks established in 1857 Merchant services 1857 establishments in Nebraska Territory
5247934	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20de%20G%C3%A1lvez%2C%201st%20Marquess%20of%20Sonora	José de Gálvez, 1st Marquess of Sonora	José de Gálvez y Gallardo, 1st Marquess of Sonora (2 January 1720, Macharaviaya, Spain – 17 June 1787, Aranjuez, Spain) was a Spanish lawyer and Visitador general (inspector general) in New Spain (1764–1772); later appointed to the Council of the Indies (1775–1787). He was one of the prime figures behind the Bourbon Reforms. He belonged to an important political family that included his brother Matías de Gálvez and nephew Bernardo de Gálvez. Early career Following the death of his noble but impoverished father, Gálvez became a shepherd, then studied at an elite Catholic seminary in Málaga. After he realized he was not cut out for a priestly vocation, the local bishop sent him to study law at Salamanca. He received his law degree at the University of Alcalá. Practicing law in Madrid, he handled many legal cases involving the Indies. He gained the attention of powerful people in Madrid, including the marqués de Equilache and the marqués de Grimaldi, ministers of Charles III. Gálvez married María Magdalena de Grimaldo, who died a year later. He then married Lucía Romet y Pichelín, an elite woman of French origin, well connected at the royal court. Lucía's connections enabled Gálvez to work as legal adviser at the French embassy in Madrid. Climbing the social and political ladder, he secured a job as personal secretary to Jerónimo Grimaldi, minister to the newly ascended king Carlos III. In 1762, Gálvez secured a position as attorney to prince Carlos, the future king Carlos IV. In 1765, he was appointed visitador (inspector) of New Spain, where he both gathered information and implemented royal policy to increase crown revenues. Visitador (inspector general) in New Spain In 1765 at the age of 45, Gálvez arrived in New Spain, which included all of Spanish North America. As visitador del virreinato de Nueva España (inspector general for the viceroyalty of New Spain) he exercised sweeping powers; the most in Spanish North America. The visitador served as the king's special deputy, with special powers overlapping and sometimes exceeding those of the viceroy. Gálvez was given the task of reforming the finances of New Spain to increase its revenues for the crown — part of the energetic attempts to reorganize king Carlos III's government after the costly Seven Years' War, which had in 1762 seen the British capture both Havana, Spain's main Caribbean port, and Manila, Spain's governmental and commercial center in the Philippines and also resulted in Spain ceding Florida to Britain. As visitador, Gálvez instituted quick and decisive changes in tax collection, accounting, and jailed corrupt officials. He created a state monopoly of tobacco and imposed new taxes on pulque and flour. He also took measures to combat contraband and reformed the system of customs collection in Veracruz and Acapulco. (He ended the farming of customs.) He also established general accounting offices in the municipal governments. Government revenues rose from 6 million pesos in 1763 to 8 million in 1767 and 12 million in 1773. In 1765 Gálvez assisted in reorganizing the army, a project of viceroy Joaquín de Montserrat, marqués de Cruillas under the direction of general Juan de Villalva. When Cuillas opposed Gálvez's actions, he was soon replaced by a new viceroy, Carlos Francisco de Croix. Gálvez privileged peninsular-born Spanish merchants over American born, which had the effect of funneling capital into mining. He boosted the mining industry further by reducing the price of mercury, a crown monopoly, which allowed a greater volume of silver ore to be refined. In 1767, Spain's king Carlos III decreed expulsion for the Jesuits throughout his empire. In Mexico, this decree led to riots and other disturbances. Gálvez suppressed these by summary trials and sentences of life imprisonment, mainly in San Luis Potosí, Guanajuato and parts of Michoacán. Management of Baja California missions With the expulsion of the Jesuits from the Baja California peninsula, Gálvez engaged the Franciscan Order to take over the spiritual affairs of the missions there. Even after the arrival of Junípero Serra and his fellow Franciscan friars, the Spanish military — having evicted the Jesuits from the missions they had established — continued running the missions' practical business. In 1768, Gálvez toured the Baja chain of missions. Angered over the sloppy administration he found there, he reprimanded the soldier commissioners stationed at the missions. In August, he signed a decree turning all of Baja's missions — except mission Loreto — over fully to the Franciscan friars. He banned card-playing and gambling at mission settlements. Overruling the Franciscans' appeal for clemency for miscreant soldiers, Gálvez punished most of them by assigning them to the upcoming expedition to Alta California — and discharged the rest from military service. Continuing to manage Baja California affairs into 1769, Gálvez sought to balance scarce natural and human resources in the fragile chain of missions: Some missions lacked enough land and water to sustain all their Indian converts; other missions, endowed with ample land and water, lacked enough workers to cultivate their fields. Gálvez ordered Indians moved from one mission to another — despite the Indians' reluctance to leave their home villages — to correct such imbalances. He also had some young Indian orphans sent to Loreto for training in handling coastal boats and ships. Gálvez worked with the Franciscan president of the Baja missions, Junípero Serra, in his projects to improve the lives of the natives, whom he called "the poor Israelites." Yet he insisted that Baja Indians pay the royal tax, standing by his order despite Serra's efforts to persuade him that collecting such a tax would prove impractical. Plan to expand into upper California Ambitious to reinvigorate the imperial fortunes of New Spain, Gálvez proposed consolidating and developing the far northwest under a huge governmental unit to embrace the regions of Sinaloa, Sonora, Chihuahua, and the Californias — including claimed but unsettled upper (Alta) California. Playing on long-standing fears in Spain's ruling circles that rival powers would muscle in on territories Spain claimed along the Pacific coast, Gálvez spread rumors of schemes by the British and Dutch rulers to add California to their own empires. Then, when a report arrived from the Spanish ambassador in Russia that Catherine the Great planned to establish settlements down the California coast towards Monterey, Gálvez trumpeted the Russian threat. King Carlos gave the go-ahead, and Gálvez prepared a series of expeditions of soldiers, sailors, artisans, Christian Indians and missionaries to push north into unexplored upper California. In 1768, Gálvez sailed from San Blas to Loreto to finish planning the coming year's expeditions. To free the Franciscan missionaries from their posts in Baja California, Gálvez called upon friars of the Dominican Order to take charge of the Baja missions. Gálvez assigned Junípero Serra to head the missionary team in the Alta California expedition — without bothering to ask padre Serra if he agreed to his new mission. As it turned out, Serra, eager to pioneer in evangelizing Indians in Alta California, readily joined in. Gálvez established a naval base at San Blas and, in 1768–9, organized sea and land expeditions up the California coast to the projected Spanish outpost at the harbor named Monterrey (originally spelled with a double "r") by Sebastián Vizcaíno in 1603. Gaspar de Portolá, governor of Las Californias, commanded the second overland expedition. Closely attending to the logistical details of the expeditions, Gálvez issued thorough instructions to the key officers and technicians. He ordered Miguel Costansó, the young engineer and cartographer, to make observations of the ports of San Diego and Monterey, compare his findings with the older sailing charts, draw new maps, and examine the countryside around both ports. Gálvez issued further instructions for building a proper fortification at Monterey; reconnoitering the ports of Monterey and San Francisco; and preparing detailed accounts destined for top officials in Mexico and Spain. Expeditions from Baja to Alta California On January 9, 1769, Gálvez, padre Serra and town dwellers gathered on the shore of La Paz to bless and send off the San Carlos, the expedition's flagship captained by Vicente Vila, a native of Andalusia. The hastily built galleon San Carlos, along with the two ships to follow — the San Antonio and San José — had arrived from San Blas leaking, requiring repairs at La Paz bay. Gálvez personally superintended the repairs and loading of the San Carlos, carrying some of the mission furniture aboard with his own hands. In his speech on the shore, Gálvez proclaimed that the ship's crew, including Franciscan friar Fernando Parrón, had the mission of planting the holy cross among the Indians at Monterey. In the name of king Carlos and viceroy Carlos Francisco de Croix, Gálvez urged the explorers to keep peace among themselves and respect their chaplain, padre Parrón. When the San Carlos set sail, Gálvez followed in a launch to see the ship round Cabo San Lucas. On February 15, Gálvez dispatched the San Antonio, the second ship of the sea expedition, from Cabo San Lucas. Captain Juan Pérez, a native of Palma de Majorca, commanded the San Antonio. Franciscan friars Juan Vizcaíno and Francisco Gómez served as chaplains. The third ship, the San José, disappeared at sea on the way to San Diego. While Gaspar de Portolá prepared his overland expedition to San Diego, Gálvez issued him strict instructions: ...To prevent difficulties and disaster in the outcome, the most prudent supervision must be exercised. Therefore, I charge you with zeal and vigilance to maintain the most exact discipline over the soldiers of the expedition as well as over the muleteers, especially from the frontier on, so that the Indians will be well treated. The soldiers are to be punished as in the case of an irremissible crime if they offer any affront or violence to the women because, besides being offenses against God, such excesses committed by them could also bring disaster to the entire expedition. Gálvez then cautioned Portolá to travel slowly, to reduce the chances of Indian resistance. He wanted the expedition members to demonstrate to the Indians the advantages they would gain by living under the sovereign protection of the Spanish king. The commander of the first overland expedition, Fernando Rivera y Moncada, was waiting at Velicatá, 350 miles south of San Diego. Gálvez had ordered captain Rivera to requisition horses and mules from local Baja California missions without endangering their survival, giving the missionaries receipts for the exact number of animals taken. Those missions would later get restocked with animals shipped from Mexico across the Gulf of California. Franciscan friar Juan Crespí, chosen as chaplain and diarist for the Rivera party, left his post at Mission La Purísima to join Rivera at Velicatá. On March 24, 1769, Rivera, Crespí, 25 leather-jacketed soldiers, 42 Baja Christian Indians, and 3 muleteers began their journey, driving a large herd of cattle, horses and mules. They arrived in San Diego on May 14, where the San Carlos and San Antonio awaited them. Meanwhile, the second overland party, headed by Portolá, gathered in Loreto, around 900 miles south of San Diego — with instructions to follow the Rivera party to San Diego. The Portolá expedition included Franciscan missionaries headed by Junípero Serra. The expedition founded the Mission San Diego de Alcalá and the Royal Presidio of San Diego in July 1769 at San Diego. Portolá then continued north to explore the Alta California coast and re-establish the port of Monterey visited in 1602 by Sebastián Vizcaíno. In November 1769, the Portolá expedition discovered San Francisco Bay before returning to San Diego. A second trip in 1770 led to the establishment of the Presidio of Monterey and Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo (Mission Carmel). Although Gálvez — in arguing for his plan to expand into San Diego and Monterey — had projected that Alta California would eventually prove a great source of revenue for the Spanish crown, the region wound up running an annual deficit during most of its years under Spanish rule. Gálvez's personal imprint on California history Historians James Rawls and Walton Bean call Gálvez the most effective visitador (inspector general) in the history of New Spain. They attribute Spain's expansion into Alta California to his intense personal ambitions. "…Although he was a brilliant, forceful, and generally successful administrator," write Rawls and Bean, "he was also unusually vain, selfish, ruthless, deceitful and unstable. It was, indeed, because of Gálvez's possession of this very combination of qualities that the occupation of San Diego and Monterey, long considered and periodically given up as hopeless, actually materialized." End of the Visita Gálvez returned to Spain in 1771. In 1769 he collapsed mentally and physically, attributed to overwork and the conflict with the indigenous in Sonora; although he recovered, "the end of the visita was clouded." He returned to take up his position on the Council of the Indies to which he had been appointed in 1767. Bourbon Reforms in Spanish America José de Gálvez returned to Spain in 1772, where he was a member of the General Council on Commerce, Coinage and Mining, a governor in the Council of the Indies, and a councilor of state. Instead he was authorized to set up a Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas, which was to be independent of the viceroy of New Spain. The new political unit included the Provincias Internas of Nueva Vizcaya, Nuevo Santander, Sonora y Sinaloa, Las Californias, Coahuila y Tejas (Coahuila and Texas), and Nuevo México. Chihuahua was the capital, and Teodoro de Croix, nephew of the former viceroy, was named the first Commandant General. Gálvez's zeal to more effectively organize the overseas administration led him to also establish the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata (1776) from territories of the Viceroyalty of Peru, and the Captaincy General of Venezuela (1777) from parts of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. He also created the Captaincy General of Venezuela in order to promote the population and economy of the area; For this purpose, in 1776 he named his fellow Malaga native Luis de Unzaga for his diplomatic skills, Unzaga, known as "le Conciliateur" the next time he will leave his nephew, Bernardo de Gálvez as interim governor From Spanish Louisiana, replacing Unzaga, that same year he became brothers-in-law, when Bernardo married the little sister of Unzaga's wife; In this way, Minister José de Gálvez appointed Luis de Unzaga as the first Captain General of Venezuela in 1777 by bringing together various territories and creating a defense plan there that would also help achieve the birth of the United States. Both these new governments were intended to expand areas of settlement and stimulate the economy. He also established the Real Compañía de Filipinas and in 1778 founded the Archivo General de Indias, bringing together documents about the Indies from Simancas, Seville and Cádiz. Also in 1778 he established limited free trade among the colonies. As Minister of the Indies he was able to secure the appointment of his brother Matías as governor-captain general of Guatemala. Matías went on to serve as viceroy of New Spain. In 1780, he sent a royal dispatch to Teodoro de Croix, Commandant General of the Internal Provinces of New Spain, asking all subjects to donate money to help the American Revolution. Millions of pesos were given. In 1784 he established a uniform excise tax on the importation of African slaves into the Indies. In 1786 he undertook another major reorganizing of the Spanish American administration with the introduction of the intendencia (intendancy) administered by an Intendente (Intendant) throughout most of the Americas. When in 1781 the Túpac Amaru rebellion broke out in Peru and the Comunero Revolt in New Granada (Colombia), Gálvez unleashed ruthless repression. Legacy Gálvez was a heavy-handed administrator, implementing major reforms in Spanish America to strengthen royal power, promote efficiency, diminish the role of American-born elites, and increase revenues. One assessment of Gálvez is that "his legacy of a more rational administration was purchased with the political alienation of many Americans and not a few Spaniards, whom he pushed from their traditional places and powers." References Further reading "Gálvez, José de," Enciclopedia de México, v. 6. Mexico City, 1996. . Castejon, Philippe. Réformer l'empire espagnol au XVIIIe siècle : le système de gouvernement de José de Gálvez (1765-1787). Navarro García, Luis. Don José de Gálvez y la comandancia general de las provincias internas del norte de Nueva España. Priestley, Herbert Ingram. José de Gálvez, Visitor-General of New Spain, 1765-1771. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1916. External links The Spanish and Latin American Contribution to the American Revolutionary War 1720 births 1787 deaths People from the Province of Málaga Colonial Mexico 18th-century Spanish lawyers University of Salamanca alumni
5248022	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel%20warfare	Tunnel warfare	Tunnel warfare involves war being conducted in tunnels and other underground cavities. It often includes the construction of underground facilities in order to attack or defend, and the use of existing natural caves and artificial underground facilities for military purposes. Tunnels can be used to undermine fortifications and slip into enemy territory for a surprise attack, while it can strengthen a defense by creating the possibility of ambush, counterattack and the ability to transfer troops from one portion of the battleground to another unseen and protected. Also, tunnels can serve as shelter from enemy attack. Since antiquity, sappers have used mining against walled cites, fortresses, castles or other strongly held and fortified military positions. Defenders have dug counter-mines to attack miners or destroy a mine threatening their fortifications. Since tunnels are commonplace in urban areas, tunnel warfare is often a feature, though usually a minor one, of urban warfare. A good example of this was seen in the Syrian Civil War in Aleppo, where in March 2015 rebels planted a large amount of explosives under the Syrian Air Force Intelligence Directorate headquarters. Tunnels are narrow and restrict fields of fire; thus, troops in a tunnel usually have only a few areas exposed to fire or sight at any one time. They can be part of an extensive labyrinth and have culs-de-sac and reduced lighting, typically creating a closed-in night combat environment. Pre-Gunpowder Antiquity Ancient Greece The Greek historian Polybius, in his Histories, gives a graphic account of mining and counter mining at the Roman siege of Ambracia: The Aetolians then countered the Roman mine with smoke from burning feathers with charcoal. Another extraordinary use of siege-mining in ancient Greece was during Philip V of Macedon's siege of the little town of Prinassos, according to Polybius, "the ground around the town were extremely rocky and hard, making any siege-mining virtually impossible. However, Philip ordered his soldiers during the cover of night collect earth from elsewhere and throw it all down at the fake tunnel's entrance, making it look like the Macedonians were almost finished completing the tunnels. Eventually, when Philip V announced that large parts of the town-walls were undermined, the citizens surrendered without delay." Polybius also describes the Seleucids and Parthians employing tunnels and counter-tunnels during the siege of Sirynx. Roman The oldest known sources about employing tunnels and trenches for guerrilla-like warfare are Roman. After the Revolt of the Batavi, the insurgent tribes soon started to change defensive practices, from only local strongholds to using the advantage of wider terrain. Hidden trenches to assemble for surprise attacks were dug, connected via tunnels for secure fallback. In action, often barriers were used to prevent the enemy from pursuing. Roman legions entering the country soon learned to fear this warfare, as the ambushing of marching columns caused high casualties. Therefore, they approached possibly fortified areas very carefully, giving time to evaluate, assemble troops and organize them. When the Romans were themselves on the defensive the large underground aqueduct system was used in the defense of Rome, as well as to evacuate fleeing leaders. The use of tunnels as a means of guerrilla-like warfare against the Roman Empire was also a common practice of the Jewish rebels in Judea during the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 AD). With time the Romans understood that efforts should be made to expose these tunnels. Once an entrance was discovered fire was lit, either smoking out the rebels or suffocating them to death. Well-preserved evidence of mining and counter-mining operations has been unearthed at the fortress of Dura-Europos, which fell to the Sassanians in 256/7 AD during Roman–Persian wars. China Mining was a siege method used in ancient China from at least the Warring States (481–221 BC) period forward. When enemies attempted to dig tunnels under walls for mining or entry into the city, the defenders used large bellows to pump smoke into the tunnels in order to suffocate the intruders. Post-classical In warfare during the Middle Ages, a "mine" was a tunnel dug to bring down castles and other fortifications. Attackers used this technique when the fortification was not built on solid rock, developing it as a response to stone-built castles that could not be burned like earlier-style wooden forts. A tunnel would be excavated under the outer defenses either to provide access into the fortification or to collapse the walls. These tunnels would normally be supported by temporary wooden props as the digging progressed. Once the excavation was complete, the attackers would collapse the wall or tower being undermined by filling the excavation with combustible material that, when lit, would burn away the props leaving the structure above unsupported and thus liable to collapse. A tactic related to mining is sapping the wall, where engineers would dig at the base of a wall with crowbars and picks. Peter of les Vaux-de-Cernay recounts how at the battle of Carcassonne, during the Albigensian Crusade, "after the top of the wall had been somewhat weakened by bombardment from petraries, our engineers succeeded with great difficulty in bringing a four-wheeled wagon, covered in oxhides, close to the wall, from which they set to work to sap the wall". As in the siege of Carcassonne, defenders worked to prevent sapping by dumping anything they had down on attackers who tried to dig under the wall. Successful sapping usually ended the battle, since the defenders would no longer be able to defend their position and would surrender, or the attackers could enter the fortification and engage the defenders in close combat. Several methods resisted or countered undermining. Often the siting of a castle could make mining difficult. The walls of a castle could be constructed either on solid rock or on sandy or water-logged land, making it difficult to dig mines. A very deep ditch or moat could be constructed in front of the walls, as was done at Pembroke Castle, or even artificial lakes, as was done at Kenilworth Castle. This makes it more difficult to dig a mine, and even if a breach is made, the ditch or moat makes exploiting the breach difficult. Defenders could also dig counter mines. From these they could then dig into the attackers' tunnels and sortie into them to either kill the miners or to set fire to the pit-props to collapse the attackers' tunnel. Alternatively they could under-mine the attackers' tunnels and create a camouflet to collapse the attackers' tunnels. Finally if the walls were breached, they could either place obstacles in the breach, for example a cheval de frise to hinder a forlorn hope, or construct a coupure. The great concentric ringed fortresses, like Beaumaris Castle on Anglesey, were designed so that the inner walls were ready-built coupures: if an attacker succeeded in breaching the outer walls, he would enter a killing field between the lower outer walls and the higher inner walls. Coming of gunpowder A major change took place in the art of tunnel warfare in the 15th century in Italy with the development of gunpowder, since its use reduced the effort required to undermine a wall while also increasing lethality. Ivan the Terrible took Kazan with the use of gunpowder explosions to undermine its walls. Many fortresses built counter mine galleries, "hearing tunnels" which were used to listen for enemy mines being built. At a distance of about fifty yards they could be used to detect tunneling. The Kremlin had such tunnels. Since the 16th century during assault on enemy positions saps, began to be used. The Austrian general of Italian origin Raimondo Montecuccoli (1609–1680) in his classic work on military affairs described methods of destruction and countering of enemy saps. In his paper on "the assaulting of fortresses" Vauban (1633–1707) the creator of the French School of Fortification gave a theory of mine attack and how to calculate various saps and the amount of gunpowder needed for explosions. 19th century Crimean War As early as 1840 Eduard Totleben and Schilder-Schuldner had been engaged on questions of organisation and conduct of underground attacks. They began to use electric current to disrupt charges. Special boring instruments of complex design were developed. In the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855) underground fighting became immense. At first the allies began digging saps without any precautions. After a series of explosions caused by counter mine action the allies increased the depth of the tunnels but began to meet rocky ground and the underground war had to return to higher levels. During the siege Russian sappers dug of saps and counter mines. During the same period the allies dug . The Russians expended 12 tons of gunpowder in the underground war while the allies used 64 tons. These figures show that the Russians tried to create a more extensive network of tunnels and carried out better targeted attacks with only minimal use of gunpowder. The allies used outdated fuses so that many charges failed to go off. Conditions in the tunnels were severe: wax candles often went out, sappers fainted due to stale air, ground water flooded tunnels and counter mines. The Russians repulsed the siege and started to dig tunnels under the allies fortifications. The Russian success in the underground war was recognised by the allies. The Times noted that the laurels for this kind of warfare must go to the Russians. American Civil War In 1864, during the Siege of Petersburg by the Union Army of the Potomac, a mine made of of gunpowder was set off approximately under Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside's IX Corps sector. The explosion blew a gap in the Confederate defenses of Petersburg, Virginia, creating a crater long, wide, and at least deep. The combat was accordingly known as the Battle of the Crater. From this propitious beginning, everything deteriorated rapidly for the Union attackers. Unit after unit charged into and around the crater, where soldiers milled in confusion. The Confederates quickly recovered and launched several counterattacks led by Brig. Gen. William Mahone. The breach was sealed off, and Union forces were repulsed with severe casualties. The horror of this engagement was portrayed in the Charles Frazier novel, and subsequent Anthony Minghella movie, Cold Mountain. During the Siege of Vicksburg, in 1863, Union troops led by General Ulysses S. Grant tunnelled under the Confederate trenches and detonated a mine beneath the 3rd Louisiana Redan on June 25, 1863. The subsequent assault, led by General John A. Logan, gained a foothold in the Confederate trenches where the crater was formed, but the attackers were eventually forced to withdraw. Modern warfare The increased firepower that came with the use of smokeless powder, cordite and dynamite by the end of the 19th century made it very expensive to build above-ground fortifications that could withstand any attack. As a result, fortifications were covered with earth and eventually were built entirely underground to maximize protection. For the purpose of firing artillery and machine guns, emplacements had loopholes. World War I Mining saw a particular resurgence as a military tactic during the First World War, when army engineers attempted to break the stalemate of trench warfare by tunneling under no man's land and laying large quantities of explosives beneath the enemy's trenches. As in siege warfare, tunnel warfare was possible due to the static nature of the fighting. On the Western and Italian Front during the First World War, the military employed specialist miners to dig tunnels. On the Italian Front, the high peaks of the Dolomites range were an area of fierce mountain warfare and mining operations. In order to protect their soldiers from enemy fire and the hostile alpine environment, both Austro-Hungarian and Italian military engineers constructed fighting tunnels which offered a degree of cover and allowed better logistics support. In addition to building underground shelters and covered supply routes for their soldiers, both sides also attempted to break the stalemate of trench warfare by tunneling under no man's land and placing explosive charges beneath the enemy's positions. Their efforts in high mountain peaks such as Col di Lana, Lagazuoi and Marmolada were portrayed in fiction in Luis Trenker's Mountains on Fire film of 1931. On the Western Front, the main objective of tunnel warfare was to place large quantities of explosives beneath enemy defensive positions. When it was detonated, the explosion would destroy that section of the trench. The infantry would then advance towards the enemy front-line hoping to take advantage of the confusion that followed the explosion of an underground mine. It could take as long as a year to dig a tunnel and place a mine. As well as digging their own tunnels, the military engineers had to listen out for enemy tunnellers. On occasions miners accidentally dug into the opposing side's tunnel and an underground fight took place. When an enemy's tunnel was found it was usually destroyed by placing an explosive charge inside. During the height of the underground war on the Western Front in June 1916, British tunnellers fired 101 mines or camouflets, while German tunnellers fired 126 mines or camouflets. This amounts to a total of 227 mine explosions in one month – one detonation every three hours. Large battles, like the Battle of the Somme in 1916 (see mines on the Somme) and the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917, were also supported by mine explosions. Well known examples are the mines on the Italian Front laid by Austro-Hungarian and Italian miners, where the largest individual mine contained a charge of of blasting gelatin, and the activities of the Tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers on the Western Front. At the beginning of the Somme offensive, the British simultaneously detonated 19 mines of varying sizes beneath the German positions, including two mines that contained of explosives. In January 1917, General Plumer gave orders for over 20 mines to be placed under German lines at Messines. Over the next five months more than of tunnel were dug and 450–600 tons of explosive were placed in position. Simultaneous explosion of the mines took place at 3:10 a.m. on 7 June 1917. The blast killed an estimated 10,000 soldiers and was so loud it was heard in London. The near simultaneous explosions created large craters and ranks among the largest non-nuclear explosions of all time. Two mines were not ignited in 1917 because they had been abandoned before the battle, and four were outside the area of the offensive. On 17 July 1955, a lightning strike set off one of these four latter mines. There were no human casualties, but one cow was killed. Another of the unused mines is believed to have been found in a location beneath a farmhouse, but no attempt has been made to remove it. The last mine fired by the British in World War I was near Givenchy on 10 August 1917, after which the tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers concentrated on constructing deep dugouts for troop accommodation. The largest single mines at Messines were at St Eloi, which was charged with of ammonal, at Maedelstede Farm, which was charged with , and beneath German lines at Spanbroekmolen, which was charged with of ammonal. The Spanbroekmolen mine created a crater that afterwards measured from rim to rim. Now known as the Pool of Peace, it is large enough to house a deep lake. Chaco War On May 10, 1933, Paraguayan troops used a tunnel to attack in the rear of the Bolivian troops. They were victorious. World War II Sino-Japanese War The term tunnel war or tunnel warfare (地道战) was first used for the guerrilla tactic employed by the Chinese in the Second Sino-Japanese War. The tunnel systems were fast and easy to construct and enabled a small force to successfully fight superior enemies. One particular tunnel network called the "Ranzhuang tunnel" evolved in the course of resisting Japanese counterinsurgency operations in Hebei. Particularly, the Chinese Communist forces or local peasant resistance used tunnel war tactics against the Japanese (and later the Kuomintang during Chinese Civil War). The tunnels were dug beneath the earth to cover the battlefield with numerous hidden gun holes to make a surprise attack. Entrances usually were hidden beneath a straw mat inside a house, or down a well. This allowed for flexible manoeuvers or exits. The main disadvantage of tunnel war was that usually the Japanese could fill the holes or pour water in to suffocate the soldiers inside the tunnels. This proved to be a major problem but was later solved by installing filters that would consume the water and poisonous gases. It is said that there were even women and children who voluntarily fought in the tunnels. The movie Tunnel War, which is based on the stories about fighting Japanese in tunnels, made tunnel warfare well known in China. More films were soon produced and adapted in the same setting. After the war, the Ranzhuang tunnel site became a key heritage preservation unit promoting patriotism and national defense education. It attracted tens of thousands of visitors each year. Most of the villagers were working in tourism service industry, an industry worth US$700,000 each year. Pacific War The first to copy tunnel warfare were the Japanese themselves. In the battles of the Western Pacific, they would maximize their capabilities by establishing a strong point defense, using cave warfare. The first encounter of the US Marines with this new tactic was the island of Peleliu. The invading marines suffered twice as many casualties as on Tarawa, where the old Japanese tactic of defending the beach had been employed. The pinnacle of this form of defense, however, can be found on Iwo Jima, where the Japanese engineered the whole Mount Suribachi with many tunnels leading to defensive emplacements, or exits for quick counterattacks. Tunnel warfare by the Japanese forced the US Marines to adopt the "blowtorch and corkscrew" tactics to systematically flush out the Japanese defenders, one cave at a time. In Australia, the Royal Australian Navy excavated a series of tunnels in Sydney to shelter over 2,500 men working at the naval base from air raids, and as well as to transport guns and ammunition within the tunnels. Korean War On the Korean Peninsula, the underground war reached a massive scale. From experience in the Second World War, the US relied upon aviation. North Korean forces suffered heavy losses from air strikes which obliged them to construct underground shelters. Initially underground fortifications were built independently by individual units and their placement was chaotic. Subsequently, underground fortifications were united into a single large system. The length of the front was while the length of tunnels was ; for every kilometre of front, there were two kilometres of tunnels. A total of of rocks were extracted. North Korea developed a theory of underground warfare. Manpower, warehouses and small calibre guns were completely housed underground making them less vulnerable to air strikes and artillery. On the surface, the many false targets (bunkers, trenches and decoy entrances to the tunnel system) made it difficult to detect true targets, forcing US forces to waste ammunition. Directly under the surface, spacious barracks were built, allowing whole units to be quickly brought to the surface for a short time and as quickly returned to shelter underground. North Korea even created underground shelters for artillery. During bombing, artillery was rolled into bunkers located inside mountains. When a lull came, the guns were rolled back out onto a firing area, fired some shells, and rolled back into the bunker again. Unlike other examples of underground warfare, North Korean troops did not just remain in the tunnels. North Korean forces were sheltering in the tunnels from the bombing and shelling and awaiting US bayonet attacks. When US forces reached the ground in the area of the tunnels, chosen North Korean units would emerge to engage in hand-to-hand combat, taking advantage of their numerical superiority. To this day, the North Korean strategy is to construct as many underground facilities as possible for military use in the event of a US attack. The depth of underground facilities reaches , making them difficult to destroy even with the use of tactical nuclear weapons. In the Korean War the tactic of tunnel warfare was employed by the Chinese forces themselves. "The Chinese resort to tunnel warfare, and the devastating losses to American soldiers, led to the sealing of tunnel entrances by United Nations Command. According to later prisoner of war interrogations, Chinese officers had killed a number of their own soldiers in the tunnels, because the latter had wished to dig their way out and surrender to the United Nations Command." Vietnam War To maintain a full-scale guerrilla war in South Vietnam, camouflaged bases were used capable of supplying the guerillas for a long period of time. Throughout South Vietnam, there were secret underground bases that operated successfully. There are reports that every villager was obliged to dig of tunnel a day. The largest underground base was the tunnels of Cu Chi with an overall length of . To combat the guerillas in the tunnels the US used soldiers dubbed tunnel rats. Part of the Ho Chi Minh Trail was based in caves made of karst. When Vietnam became a French colony again after the Second World War, the Communistic Viet Minh started to dig tunnels close to Saigon. After the French army left (they were defeated at Dien Bien Phu) the tunnels were maintained to prepare for a possible war with South Vietnam would start. Ho Chi Minh, leader of North Vietnam, ordered the expansion of the tunnels after the Americans entered the war between the North and the South; the tunnels would be used by the Viet Cong. Systems of tunnels were not occupied temporarily for military purpose, but began to contain whole villages of people living permanently underground. The tunnel system contained a complete world below ground, featuring kitchens, hospitals, workshops, sleeping areas, communications, ammunition storage, and even forms of entertainment. The tunnels eventually became a target for American forces because the enemy not only hid in them, but further could strike anywhere in the vast range of the tunnel complex (hundreds of miles) without a single warning before disappearing again. These tactics were also applied against the Chinese during the Sino-Vietnamese War. Afghan War An underground war was actively pursued in the Afghan War. Water pipes extend under the entire Afghan territory. In wartime, Afghans have used these tunnels to both hide and to appear suddenly behind the enemy force. To clear these tunnels, Soviet troops used explosives and gasoline. The most famous underground base of the Mujahideen and then the Taliban was Tora Bora; this tunnel system went to a depth of 400 meters and had a length of . To combat guerillas in Tora Bora, the United States used special forces. Bosnian War Between May 1992 and November 1995, during the Siege of Sarajevo in the Bosnian Army built the Sarajevo Tunnel in order to link the city of Sarajevo, which was entirely cut off by Serbian forces, with the Bosnian-held territory on the other side of the Sarajevo Airport, an area controlled by the United Nations. The tunnel linked the Sarajevo neighbourhoods of Dobrinja and Butmir, allowing food, war supplies, and humanitarian aid to come into the city, and people to get out. The tunnel was one of the major ways of bypassing the international arms embargo and providing the city defenders with weaponry. 21st century Due to the prevalence of bunker-busting munitions and combined arms maneuver warfare there has been a simple lack of need for such operations since the mid 20th century, making tunneling extremely rare outside of insurgencies (which often cannot use either of the former). Arab–Israeli Conflict Sometimes the ongoing conflict between the Israeli Army and Islamist militants in Hamas-governed Gaza Strip is called a tunnel conflict. In 2017 the Barrier against tunnels along the Israel-Gaza Strip border began to be built. On October 30 an attack tunnel was located within Israeli borders and was detonated. Lebanese-Israeli War In July 2006, a group of Hezbollah fighters crossed from southern Lebanon into northern Israel killing three Israeli soldiers and abducting two, which started the Lebanese-Israeli war. Faced with Israeli's air attacks, Hezbollah needed to create a defensive system that would enable these rocket attacks to continue uninterrupted throughout any conflict with Israel. To do so they created an intricate system of tunnels and underground bunkers, anti-tank units, and explosive-ridden areas. Hezbollah built a sophisticated network of tunnels with North Korean assistance, with close resemblance to North Korea's own network of tunnels in the demilitarized zone separating the two Koreas. The underground network included twenty-five kilometer tunnels, bunkers, fiber optics communication systems, and storerooms to hold missiles and ammunition. Its capabilities were extended by Iranian supply of advanced weaponry and in-depth training of Hezbollah fighters. Between December 2018 and January 2019, the Israeli military destroyed six tunnels built by Hezbollah along Israel's border during Operation Northern Shield. Syrian Civil War During the Syrian civil war, rebel groups like the Islamic Front, Al-Nusra and ISIS dug tunnels and used explosives to attack fixed military positions of the Syrian Armed Forces and allied militias. A notable example is the attack on the Air Force Intelligence Building in Aleppo where on 4 March 2015, rebel forces detonated a large quantity of explosives in a tunnel dug close to or under the building. The building suffered a partial collapse as a result of the explosion which was immediately followed by an armed rebel assault. Famous tunnel war victories At Jiaozhuanghu (焦庄户) in Ranzhuang, Hebei province, the Japanese Army was defeated in tunnel warfare in 1942, during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It was later made into the movie Didao Zhan by the PRC. Củ Chi tunnels, a complex of over of tunnel systems that allowed NLF guerrillas during the Vietnam War to keep a large presence relatively close to Saigon. Tunnels after war Many of the famous war tunnels were later turned into tourist sites due to their historic significance in wars. For example, the Sarajevo Tunnel is now converted into a war museum, with of the original tunnel open for tourists visit. The Hebei Ranzhuang tunnel is also a famous war tourism site in China. See also Attrition warfare Breastwork (fortification) Early thermal weapons Explosive mine Land mine Maneuver warfare Sapper Sapping Siege warfare Subterranean warfare Trench warfare Citations General references Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Ulmer, D. S. (2008). Shaping Operational Design: A Counter to the Growing Trend of Underground Facilities and Tunnel Warfare. Air Command and Staff College. Further reading External links Vietnam war tunnels at warchapter.com Vietnamese source on tunnel warfare Modern US Army source on tunnel warfare YouTube video of Hill 60 on the Messines Ridge, site of a huge underground explosion Articles containing video clips Land warfare Military engineering Military tactics Urban guerrilla warfare tactics Warfare of the Middle Ages
5248219	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War%20of%20the%20Sicilian%20Vespers	War of the Sicilian Vespers	The War of the Sicilian Vespers, also shortened to the War of the Vespers, was a conflict waged by several medieval European kingdoms over control of Sicily from 1282 to 1302. The war, which started with the revolt of the Sicilian Vespers, was fought over competing dynastic claims to the throne of Sicily and grew to involve the Kingdom of Aragon, Angevin Kingdom of Naples, Kingdom of France, and the papacy. Initially fought between Sicilian rebels and Charles of Anjou in Sicily and Southern Italy, the war expanded when Aragon invaded Sicily to support the rebels and claim the throne. After Aragonese successes, the war grew into the concurrent Aragonese Crusade as the Kingdom of France intervened against Aragon in Iberia. The crusade ended in defeat, but efforts to end the war failed despite several peace treaties. Aragon gave up the crown of Sicily in exchange for papal concessions in 1297, entering into an alliance with Angevin Naples and the papacy against Sicily, but the new alliance's campaign to invade Sicily saw no success. The war ended in 1302 in the Peace of Caltabellotta, by which Sicily became an independent kingdom ruled by the House of Barcelona. The war resulted in the division of the old Kingdom of Sicily; the island of Sicily came to be ruled as the Kingdom of Sicily, while the mainland territories of the old kingdom became the Kingdom of Naples. The war led to an era of Aragonese expansion in the Western Mediterranean, as the kingdom gained suzerainty over the Kingdom of Majorca and Sardinia. Outlasting four kings and four popes, the twenty-year war showcased the decline of papal power in southern Europe and the rise of increasingly powerful kings in the late 13th century. Background Papal concerns & competing claims over Sicily The island of Sicily had ruled as a medieval kingdom since the early 12th century, when Roger II of Sicily conquered the island and established the Kingdom of Sicily. Strategically located in the Mediterranean, the kingdom grew to include much of southern Italy, and was considered one of the wealthiest kingdoms in Europe. Grain produced in the kingdom's lands in Sicily and southern Italy contributed to feeding the northern Italian city states and the Holy Land, while the island of Sicily itself served as a staging ground for various crusades. Sicily was key to the defense of Rome and the papal states, and as such the papacy considered it vital that a friendly king occupied the throne of Sicily. Diplomatic relations between the papacy and Sicily were heavily intertwined; the pope had funded the Norman invasion of Sicily and sanctioned the establishment of the kingdom, and the king of Sicily officially held the throne as a vassal in the name of the pope. In the 13th century, Sicily became the heartland of the Hohenstaufen empire of Frederick II of Sicily. Frederick and the pope bitterly disagreed on issues of papal authority, and his rule resulted in a flare-up of the centuries long conflict between the pro-pope Guelphs and pro-imperial Ghibellines. When Frederick died the kingdom of Sicily was claimed by Manfred I of Sicily, his illegitimate son, who quarreled with the pope over his legitimacy as king. Seeing the opportunity created by Manfred's contested claim to the throne of Sicily, in the 1250s the papacy began to look for a potential claimant to overthrow him. Conquest of Sicily by Charles of Anjou At papal invitation, in 1265 the kingdom of Sicily was invaded and conquered by Charles I of Anjou, a powerful member of the French royal House of Capet. Manfred of Sicily was drawn into a battle and killed, and Charles' victory allowed him to establish the Angevin Kingdom of Sicily and Naples, giving him control of Sicily and most of southern Italy. Using the ongoing conflict between the Guelphs and Ghibellines as a political wedge, Charles expanded his influence throughout Italy, cobbling together a formidable feudal state and forcing treaties on many Italian cities. With Sicily and Naples under his control, Charles and his brother, King Philip III of France, were able to greatly increase French influence in the western Mediterranean. The papacy heavily benefited from the Angevin conquest, as the usurping of Manfred's throne by Charles of Anjou ensured a pro-papacy king ruled over Sicily, and Manfred's death deprived the anti-papacy Ghibellines of one of their greatest supporters in Italy. While Charles was consolidating his rule over southern Italy, he faced a foreign competitor; in 1268, Duke Conradin of Swabia claimed the crown of Sicily and invaded Italy with a multinational army. Conradin's invasion sparked most of Sicily to revolt against the Charles, before the former was defeated and captured by the Angevins at the Battle of Tagliacozzo. In the aftermath of his victory, Charles - ignoring objections from the pope - had the sixteen-year-old Conradin beheaded, extinguishing the Hohenstaufen line and earning Charles the outrage of much of Western Europe. With his immediate foes in Italy defeated, Charles cracked down on the rebellion in Sicily, executing many of the rebel leaders and sacking the city of Augusta. Charles began a new administration in Sicily that would better serve his interests; land confiscations were carried out to deprive Sicilian noblemen of their power, Frenchmen were given preferential status in government, Angevin garrisons were established on the island, and the capital of Sicily was moved from the traditional capital Palermo to Naples, where Charles held court. Over the next decade, Charles' rule over Sicily took on an increasingly oppressive character, with heavy taxes being levied on the populace. The Sicilian tax system - developed during Islamic, Byzantine, and Norman rule - offered many exceptions to taxes, but was replaced with a new, stricter taxation system which only offered tax exemptions for those of French origin. The invasion, revolt, and subsequent crackdown displaced much of the Sicilian noble class, with many of the exiles fleeing to the Kingdom of Aragon in Iberia. Seizing on Sicily's wealth and strategic location, Charles used the island as base to project Angevin power. From 1272–1276, the Angevin kingdom fought against the Republic of Genoa after Charles detained Genoese merchants in his territory, while also sending troops to drive pro-Ghibellines out of Siena, Pisa, and Tuscany. The quartering of crusader troops on Sicily during the unsuccessful Eight Crusade, coupled with the forced conscription of Sicilian men into Charles' army, also strained tensions. In addition to his campaigns in Italy, Charles had a longstanding ambition to act on the 1267 Treaty of Viterbo, which nominally gave him and his heirs the right to conquer large parts of the Byzantine Empire, and in 1271 he seized control of Corfu and Albania. For much of the later 1270s, Charles worked to prepare a large-scale invasion of Byzantium—these preparations were concentrated in Eastern Sicily and in Southern Italy, and while they stimulated the local economies there, the additional taxes raised to fund this campaign caused outrage in western Sicily. The papacy, originally a staunch ally, was critical of Charles' growing power in Italy and his strict rule over Sicily. However, it also saw the Angevin kingdom as a powerful tool to be used against the Byzantines and as a means to defend the Holy Land, and so several popes financially supported Charles' military buildup in the 1270s. Aragonese interest in Sicily Under James I of Aragon (reigned 1213–1276), the Iberian kingdom of Aragon had engaged in decades of military and commercial expansion. Aragon's seizure of the Beleric islands in 1232 and conquest of Valencia in 1238 opened the way for Aragonese influence to expand throughout the western Mediterranean. Seeing Sicily as the key to expanding Aragonese power eastward, James signed a treaty of alliance with King Manfred of Sicily in 1262, sealing the treaty by marrying his son and heir Peter to Manfred's daughter, Constance of Sicily. James was outraged by Charles of Anjou's conquest of Sicily in 1268 and felt threatened when France and the Angevins invaded Tunis in 1270, seeing both invasions as a French attempt to curb Aragonese influence. James died in 1276 and his son ascended to the throne as Peter III of Aragon. Peter was adamant that Constance was the rightful queen of Sicily; he entreated Philip III of France to force his brother Charles to turn Sicily over to Constance, but this effort failed. Faced with a powerful France to the north and an aggressive Angevin kingdom to the east, Peter made efforts to strengthen his kingdom throughout the 1270s and 1280s, building up the Aragonese navy, reforming the army, and embarking on a diplomatic campaign to isolate the Angevins from potential allies. A notable number of political exiles—driven out of Sicily, Tunis, and the Ghibelline cities of Northern Italy—joined the Aragonese, with many seeking revenge against the Angevins and the recovery of their former lands. Among the Sicilians who fled to Aragon was diplomat and physician John of Procida. A loyal supporter of first Manfred and then Conradin, John had fled to Aragon after Charles' conquest of Sicily, and by 1279 had impressed Peter enough to be granted lands in Aragon. John became vital to Aragonese foreign policy. Sicilian Vespers By early 1282, tensions in Sicily had become badly strained. Muslim victories against Christian fiefdoms in the Levant were destabilizing the Holy Land, and it became widely speculated that Charles and the Angevins would soon sail to invade Byzantium; both of these occurrences sparked fears of a renewed campaign of forced conscription and taxation in Sicily. On Easter Monday, just prior to the start of the evening Vespers at the Church of the Holy Spirit in Palermo, a deadly riot broke out between Angevin soldiers and the Sicilian population. Accounts differ as to what sparked the riot; some sources note the harassment of a Sicilian woman by a Angevin soldier, others cited an attack by a Frenchman on a burgher or priest. The rioting spread throughout Palermo, which rose in revolt against the French. Starting in western Sicily, the revolt spread to the rest of the island, leading to the massacre of four thousand Frenchmen over the course of the next six weeks. Rebels took control over most of the island, with only the key port city of Messina remaining under Angevin control. The home port of the Angevin crusader fleet, Messina was ringed with Angevin garrisons, was geographically close to Naples, and had benefited economically from Charles' aggressive shipbuilding program. However, failed attempts by the Angevin vicar, Herbert of Orléans, to reinforce Angevin troops outside of Messina eroded the city's support for the Angevins; on 28 April, Orléans and the Angevin garrison of Messina withdrew to the castle of Mategriffon, leaving the city to the rebels. Captain of the People took command of the city on behalf of the Sicilian rebels and rioters burned the Angevin crusader fleet stationed in the harbor, greatly hampering Charles' ambitions in the Mediterranean. International reaction The sudden outbreak of the rebellion of Sicily destabilized Angevin Naples, and so the enemies of Charles quickly worked to take advantage of the crisis. In Aragon, John of Procida worked to garner support for the rebels and rally the enemies of the Angevins. Contemporary chronicles and folk legends claim John travelled to Sicily, Constantinople, and Rome to stir up support for the revolt in Sicily, while more modern sources note these claims were likely exaggerated. Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, a staunch enemy of Charles of Anjou, supported the revolt as it destroyed Charles' ability to invade Byzantium. In Rome, the papacy was split; some members of the church (specifically those cardinals and papal officials from Italy) felt that Charles and the Angevins were growing too powerful, and so considered peace with the Sicilian rebels. However, Pope Martin IV was of French origin and a staunch ally of Charles of Anjou, and so the resources of the papacy were leveraged against the Sicilian rebels. While his enemies maneuvered, Charles struck back at the rebels, raising an army in Calabria and laying siege to Messina. The various factions that made up the Sicilian rebels were initially divided politically; some cities supported independence, others supported Peter of Aragon, while others requested papal protection. The papacy, however, rejected diplomatic overtures and threatened excommunication for rebels that did not surrender to Angevin authority, thus inadvertently driving many Sicilians into the pro-Aragon factions. The leading cities of the island formed a parliament, which would go on to serve as the de-facto government of Sicily. Aragonese intervention in Sicily Opening moves Soon after the Vespers revolt, the rebel-aligned Sicilians turned to Peter of Aragon for support against the Angevins and French. Peter's claim to the Sicilian throne through his wife, along with heavy pressure from wealthy Aragonese merchant communities, made an Aragonese invasion of Sicily a potentially profitable enterprise for Peter. In addition, depriving Charles of the Sicilian throne would weaken the Capetian dynasty and France, which Aragon struggled against in northern Iberia. According to one source, Peter likely intended to invade Sicily once Charles sailed to invade Byzantium, regardless if a revolt had erupted in Sicily or not. After ten weeks of preparation and, using the prospect of a crusade as cover, Peter's fleet of 140 ships sailed for Collo in North Africa. The Aragonese fleet landed in Collo and soon received envoys from the Sicilian rebels. Accepting the offer of the Sicilian throne, Peter and his fleet then sailed for Trapani, landing unopposed before marching to Palermo to be crowned. In early October, Aragonese troops forced Charles to lift his siege of Messina and the remaining Angevin forces abandoned the island. Aragonese troops led by prince James of Aragon landed on the Italian mainland, marching toward Reggio without resistance, but no large uprising against Charles took place in wider Calabria. Charles' forces still controlled significant territories on mainland Italy, and decidedly pro-French Pope Martin IV excommunicated the Sicilian rebels, the Byzantine emperor and the Ghibellines of northern Italy in November. Most significantly of all, the pope excommunicated Peter of Aragon and his ruling House of Barcelona, depriving them of the Aragonese crown and giving the crown of Aragon to Charles of Valois, son of King Philip III of France and great nephew of Charles of Anjou. Aragonese successes & widening conflict Peter pressed his advantage and by February 1283 he had taken most of the Calabrian coastline. On the defensive, Charles sent letters to Peter demanding they resolve the conflict by personal combat. Peter accepted and Charles returned to France to arrange the duel. Both kings chose six knights to settle matters of places and dates. A duel between monarchs was scheduled for 1 June 1283 at English-controlled Bordeaux – one hundred knights would accompany each side, and Edward I of England would adjudge the contest. However, the English king, heeding a papal order forbidding the duel, refused to take part. Peter left Sicily and returned via his own kingdom to Bordeaux, which he entered in disguise to evade a suspected French ambush. No combat between the two took part, and Peter returned to Barcelona to stabilize his kingdom, while Charles returned to Naples to rally support in his southern Italian lands. While Peter and Charles had been pursuing justice by duel in France, the Catalan admiral Roger of Lauria continued the war in Italy on behalf of Peter. Lauria ravaged the Calabrian coast and kept up a strong naval presence in the area, defeating several Angevin fleets. In the summer of 1283, Roger sailed to Malta and defeated the Angevin fleet at the Battle of Malta. Roger then drew Charles, Prince of Salerno, son and heir apparent of Charles I, out of Naples' port in the summer of 1284. In the ensuing battle, Roger utterly routed Charles' navy in the Battle of the Gulf of Naples. Roger took the prince and 42 ships captive to Messina. Though it maintained control over Naples and much of Southern Italy, the Angevin Kingdom lacked the funds and ships to launch a major counter offensive against Aragon, and with his son's capture, Charles had lost his heir. Charles died in early 1285, while Aragonese attention was diverted towards a brewing war with France in Iberia. With Charles dead and Peter distracted, Sicily became a secondary theatre in the conflict until the 1290s. Aragonese Crusade Border conflict & politics In light of Aragonese successes against the Angevins in Sicily, France looked to support its dynastic ally and take advantage of the conflict. The court of Philip III was split on war with Aragon, for while the pope had granted the Aragonese crown to a French prince, war would be costly. Philip had vowed that an attack on Charles in Sicily would be treated as an attack on France, but the French nobility showed a reluctance to become involved and Philip was unable to respond to the Aragonese invasion in 1283. By early 1284, however, Philip had chosen to declare war; while he had little interest in Sicily itself, he saw value in seizing Roussillon and Montpellier, and in helping save his uncle Charles from defeat. Philip also hoped to expand his influence in northern Spain by securing the Val d'Aran and the Kingdom of Navarre, which was under his protection as per the Treaty of Orléans and nominally ruled by his son, Prince Philip the Fair. To spur an invasion Pope Martin IV declared a crusade against Aragon, citing King Peter's excommunication and granting an indulgence to any man who died fighting against Peter. Both France and Aragon prepared for war. Through the winter of 1283–1284, both sides continued their war preparations. Though he had been successful in Sicily, Peter of Aragon's war in the east had divided his kingdom's resources, and he faced an increasingly hostile political situation in Aragon as many nobles opposed his wars of expansion. After negotiations with a noble faction, Peter was forced to cede some of his rights as king and release noble prisoners in exchange for the manpower needed to defend Barcelona, his family's seat of power. In France, Philip deployed the royal army to Toulouse and Navarra, while raising large sums of money from French merchants to pay for the war. In late 1283 King James II of Majorca, Peter's younger brother, announced his intent to support the French crusade and recognized their suzerainty over Montpellier, while also giving the French army free passage through the Balearic Islands and Roussillon. James and Peter had a longstanding rivalry (Peter had opposed James' inheritance of Majorca after the death of their father), with both brothers desiring each-others kingdoms. While Majorcan support for France eased the French invasion of Aragon, James' actions inadvertently upset Philip's ambitions; the French king had hoped to annex Roussillon from Majorca, but now found himself awkwardly allied to James and therefore politically unable to seize the territory. Regardless of the Majorcan intervention, Philip resolved to move ahead with his invasion; on February 22, 1284, Philip's son Charles of Valois was crowned King of Aragon, a direct challenge to Peter. French invasion In the summer of 1285, the French crusader army under Philip and Charles of Valois entered Roussillon. Contemporary chronicles listed a huge force of between 80,000–100,000 men, while more modern sources estimate the size of the army as being around 1,500 mounted cavalry and 6,500 infantry. Regardless of size, sources have described the army as one of the largest assembled by France in the 13th century, possibly the largest French expedition into Iberia since the time of Charlemagne. Though the French had James of Majorca's support, the local populace rose against them and did not allow a quick French passage. When the French army reached the city of Elne, the city refused to open its gates. Elne was valiantly defended by the so-called bâtard de Roussillon ("bastard of Roussillon"), the illegitimate son of Nuño Sánchez, late count of Roussillon. Eventually the city was overcome and brutally sacked, with the French then continuing their advance south. Local nobles conducted a scorched earth campaign against the French, prompting Philip to order his army to isolate any Aragonese garrison they encountered and continue south quickly, fearful of running out of supplies. Peter and the Aragonese army fell back from the frontier, not willing to risk attacking the larger French army - Peter was also awaiting the return of the men and ships he had fighting in Sicily. By late June 1285 Philip and the French army had reached Girona, laying siege to the city in the heat of the Catalan summer. Philip's army needed constant resupply, forcing the French to move supplies through contested countryside to their rear or to ship supplies by sea to the town of Roses, 20 miles from Girona. The Aragonese probed the French lines around Girona, and tried to cut the road to Rosas, but failed; Peter was still unwilling to risk an open battle with the French. While the respective royal armies maneuvered on land, clusters of armed merchant ships and Catalan pirates preyed on French shipping, conducting a successful guerilla war at sea. Frustrated by small squadrons of Catalans galleys raiding their supply lines, the French prepared to blockade Barcelona. In early September, the main Aragonese fleet under Roger of Lauria arrived from Sicily. On 3 September, his fleet attacked and decisively defeated a French fleet at the Battle of Les Formigues, giving Aragon control of the Catalan coast and cutting the French army's ability to resupply by sea. Lauria followed his victory with a raid on Roses, capturing many French ships in the harbor and seizing the main supply depot for the French royal army. Girona fell to the French on 7 September, but the victorious army was fast running out of supplies. The French held a ceremony to officially crown Charles of Valois 'King of Aragon' there, but without an actual crown, and the French army was by this time suffering from an outbreak of dysentery. By mid-September, Philip had decided to end the campaign and began to withdraw back towards the French border. As the French army withdrew, it suffered badly from attrition and guerilla attacks, while Philip himself was afflicted with dysentery. The heir to the French throne, Prince Philip the Fair of Navarre, opened negotiations with Peter for free passage for the royal family through the Pyrenees, and Peter agreed, not wanting to risk a protracted war with France. The French army was not granted this stay and was attacked and routed at the Battle of the Col de Panissars. Philip himself succumbed to dysentery, dying at Perpignan in October. James of Majorca, unable to resist the Aragonese advance without French support, fled his lands and Mallorca was occupied by an Aragonese army late in the summer. Leadership changes In Aragon, Peter died on 2 November 1285—thus, all three monarchs at the start of the conflict were dead by the end of 1285. Pope Martin IV was also dead, having been forced to flee Rome during a civil uprising, and then taken ill and died in March 1285. The new monarchs who had inherited the war had different priorities, but the end of the year marked a lull in the conflict. Prince Philip the Fair of Navarre, now Philip IV of France, did not support the war with Aragon, and was more interest in dealing with domestic issues. Prince Charles of Naples, heir to Charles of Anjou, was a prisoner of the Aragonese, with his government managed by the late Charles' councilors. The regent of Naples, Robert II of Artois, proved to be a capable administrator and used Aragon's war with France in Iberia as an opportunity to rebuild the Angevins' battered armies and fleets. Peter of Aragon's kingdoms were split following his death, with the crown of Aragon passing to Alfonso III of Aragon and the crown of Sicily passing to James II of Sicily. The two monarchs hoped to consolidate the House of Barcelona's gains, and with annexing their uncle James' lands in Mallorca. Alfonso was also engaged in a border war with Castile, threatening the western flank of a still-unstable Aragon. Angevin re-armament and diplomatic efforts Intermittent warfare continued for several years, mostly in 1286 when Roger of Lauria raided Provence, and notably at the Battle of the Counts off the coast of Naples in June 1287, but diplomatic complexities hindered peace. After the defeats of 1287, the Angevin kingdom—though still possessing a formidable army—began to seek a diplomatic accord with Aragon, while still preparing to wage war in Sicily. Fears of Castilian, Genoese, Venetian, or Holy Roman intervention also drove the peace process forward; a tentative agreement was reached in 1288, and Charles of Naples was ransomed from Aragonese captivity, but Pope Nicholas IV annulled the peace treaty and demanded Philip and the newly-freed Charles invade Sicily. In Aragon, king Alfonso was beleaguered by internal troubles and there were fears that the powerful Aragonese nobility (previously opposed to war with France) would demand that he seize control of Navarre, still ruled by Philip, and thus war with France would break out again. Sicily remained the key point of contention between the French/Papal parties and the House of Barcelona, but neither side was willing to abandon their claim. A change came in 1290, when Philip bribed one of Charles of Anjou's heirs to give up his claim on Sicily, thereby freeing France's papal obligation to invade. Charles of Valois, whom the papacy had granted the throne of Aragon, was pressured to give up his throne in return for papal promises to grant him lands in Sicily and perhaps a throne in the future; he would continue to seek a crown as a semi-independent prince. In 1291, seeking to further cool tensions, Alfonso and pope Nicholas signed the Treaty of Tarascon, in which Alfonso tentatively agreed to not hold Sicily against papal wishes and to remove Aragonese troops from the island. King James of Sicily was not a signatory but supported resolving the conflict. However, Alfonso died less than a month after signing the treaty, rendering it void. Alfonso's death passed the crown of Aragon to James, who now ruled both Aragon and Sicily. Though he had been king of Sicily first, James was more interested in preserving the authority of the monarchy in Aragon, and so was willing to give up Sicily for a lasting peace with the papacy and France. However, the powerful Catalan merchant class, which had secured large trade concessions in Sicily, demanded the Aragon maintain some control over the island, and some Aragonese nobles had acquired fiefs Sicily and were remiss to give up the island to the Angevins. Complicating matters further, the Sicilians themselves (led by Queen Constance and the Sicilian parliament) were adamant that Sicily would not bow to papal or Angevin rule. With the issue still unresolved, James returned to Aragon to secure a peace with Castile, ordering an end to offensive action in 1293. James met with Charles II of Naples in November 1293, with James agreeing to renounce his claim to the Sicilian throne in exchange for compensation and the expectation that his excommunication would be rendered void. However, no official peace treaty could be signed without papal approval, and no pope was in power at the time due to election disputes in Rome. Aragon changes sides, Sicilian resistance Election of Boniface VIII and Papal overtures to Aragon The 1295 election of Pope Boniface VIII opened a path to peace, as Boniface was keen to resolve the Sicilian issue. Eager to strengthen the temporal and political power of the church, Boniface was adamant that Sicily be returned to Angevin rule and that Sicily once more become a vassal state to the Holy See, the pre-war political privilege the papacy held over Sicily. To accomplish this Boniface made diplomatic overtures to the Aragonese leadership, hoping to win their support for an Angevin restoration in Sicily and to divide them from their Sicilian allies. The elderly John of Procida, infante Frederick of Barcelona (younger brother of James of Aragon and viceroy of Sicily), and Roger of Lauria met with Boniface in Velletri, where the pope offered them terms for an Aragonese withdraw from Sicily. In addition to offering a draft of a peace treaty, Boniface offered the Aragonese leaders personal concessions; to Roger of Lauria, the pope offered to grant a papal fiefdom over the island of Djerba, while to Frederick he offered a marriage to Catherine de Courtenay, who nominally controlled territories in the Greek islands and had a claim to the throne of the Latin Empire. According to some sources, the pope also offered Frederick an army and a papal sanction to invade the Byzantine Empire in exchange for the Aragonese prince's abandonment of Sicily. After negotiations resumed, James agreed to the 1295 Treaty of Anagni, by which he forfeited the crown of Sicily to the papacy and agreed to marry a member of Charles II's family, Blanche of Anjou, thus securing peace between Aragon and the Angevin kingdom. Aragon also took on Mallorca as a vassal, ending its military occupation but gaining effective control of the Kingdom of Majorca. Aragon also received substantial monetary compensation (12,000 livre tournois), Charles of Valois was forced to give up his claim to the throne of Aragon, and the order of excommunication was lifted from James. Boniface took the treaty to mean the end of the Sicilian rebellion and re-affirmed Charles II's right to rule Sicily, who began to plan a new invasion of the island to re-install Angevin rule. Crowning of Frederick III Despite the changing diplomatic situation, the Sicilians objected to any return of Angevin rule over Sicily and so considered the treaty to be invalid. Led by Queen Constance of Sicily and the Sicilian parliament, the island prepared to continue the war. Pope Boniface's offer of a lucrative marriage partner for Frederick fell through, and soon after the Aragonese prince re-affirmed his desire to rule Sicily. In late 1285, Frederick announced that Aragon had abandoned the island and in December he was declared "Lord of the Island", pending a plebiscite to install him as king. After a gathering of its delegates in Palermo, in March 1296 the Sicilian parliament crowned Frederick as Frederick III, King of Sicily. Frederick, although still a prince of Aragon, resolved to defend the island. With Frederick's ascension as king, relations between Aragon and Sicily became more strained. Aragon was pressured by treaty to assist Angevin Naples and the papacy in reconquering Sicily, but James did not invade immediately, instead recalling all Aragonese and Catalans from the island. The rift between allies split the loyalties of many nobles; years of war and conquest had resulted in many wealthy nobles and merchants, notably admiral Roger of Lauria, possessing lands in both Aragon and Sicily. Aragonese and Sicilian crews often served on the same warships, and many Aragonese soldiers were garrisoned in Sicily. When James recalled his fellow Catalans from Sicily, thousands chose to stay loyal to Sicily and Frederick. As the year 1296 progressed, James became distracted in Iberia as Castile devolved into civil war, and so Frederick and his newly-independent Sicilian forces went on the offensive in Calabria, harassing Angevin forces. Pope Boniface demanded that James support the Angevin's war against Sicily, but James was in no rush to do so; instead, he attempted to schedule a series of peace summits with Frederick in an attempt to convince his brother to peacefully give up Sicily. Frederick countered his brother's overtures by consulting the Sicilian parliament on what the island kingdom's course of action would be. As it became increasingly apparent that Aragon, Angevin Naples, and the papacy would only accept the submission of Sicily, Frederick and the Sicilians furthered their military preparations to maintain Sicilian independence. Aragonese–Angevin−Papal coalition against Sicily In the summer of 1296 Frederick continued his offensive against Angevin forces in Calabria, capturing Catanzaro and Squillace, while Crotone rose up against the Angevin garrison and submitted to the Sicilians. However, disputes between Frederick and Roger of Lauria began to show during the campaign as the two disagreed on Sicilian strategy. In October a small Sicilian squadron intercepted and routed an Angevin fleet trying to raid Ischia, enraging Charles II and causing him and Boniface to redouble their efforts to have James and Aragon re-enter the war on their side. After a final peace overture to his brother failed in February 1297, in March James travelled to Rome to confer with Boniface. In Rome, James negotiated a new treaty in which he agreed to make war on his brother and Sicily in exchange for further compensation, namely money and a papal sanction to annex Sardinia and Corsica. Roger of Lauria, now out of favor with Frederick, left Sicily to attend the wedding of Yolande of Aragon to Robert of Naples, a political marriage designed to bind Aragon to Angevin Naples. Roger subsequently re-entered James' service and the king named him 'High Admiral for Life' of the Aragonese fleet. With their new alliances secured, Aragon and Angevin Naples prepared to go on the offensive against Sicily in 1297. With Aragon requiring time to re-deploy its navy from Iberia, Angevin Naples struck first, seeking to drive Frederick from Calabria. Led by Angevin general Pietro Ruffo and Roger of Lauria, the Angevin army marched on and besieged Cantanzaro, which the Sicilians had taken the previous year. Frederick dispatched a Sicilian army to break the siege, and in the ensuing battle the Angevin army was defeated and forced to retreat. Having secured his gains in Calabria, Frederick encouraged revolt in Naples, negotiated with the anti-papist Ghibellines of Tuscany, Lombardy, and Genoa, while assisting the House of Colonna against the pope. The Sicilian army had years of experience, and so was still a capable fighting force without Aragonese assistance. Frederick also worked to build up the Sicilian navy, while in Naples the Angevins did the same. 1298-1301 invasion of Sicily By 1298, James had re-organized the Aragonese navy and was prepared to have Aragon re-join the war in force. A combined allied fleet of 50 Aragonese and 30 Angevin galleys was assembled in Naples, while the Sicilians were able to raise 64 galleys led by former Genoese admiral Corrado Doria. To secure a beachhead on Sicily, James (who commanded the Aragonese-Angevin army) needed a secure port for the allied fleet to use during the winter months. In the summer of 1298 the allied fleet sailed to and captured Patti in northern Sicily, but an attempt to push inland was abandoned in the face of local resistance. Later in the summer, the allied force embarked on a major campaign to capture Syracuse, succeeding in capturing several nearby towns and laying siege to the city. However, Frederick and his commanders kept up a successful campaign of guerilla warfare, using cavalry raids to strike isolated allied garrisons and supply lines. Winter set in and cost both sides valuable manpower through attrition, while Patti rose in revolt and expelled the allied garrison. Roger of Lauria led a ground force to retake Patti, but a small fleet sent to help relive the fortress was surprised and defeated by a Sicilian squadron, costing the allied fleet 16 ships and granting the Sicilians near-parity with the Aragonese-Angevin fleet. In March 1299, James was forced to lift his siege of Syracuse. Though the allies retained control over several costal towns, the siege had sapped Aragonese-Angevin manpower and supplies. James sent out peace feelers to Frederick, but was rebuffed by his brother, who also had a relative of Roger of Lauria's executed. James sailed for Naples and then Barcelona, returning to the theatre in May with a fresh army. By July a second allied invasion fleet was ready to depart Naples. Sailing to northern Sicily, the fleet rounded the Cape of Orlando and landed at the town of San Marco d'Alunzio. The allied fleet, again headed by Roger of Lauria, took up defensive positions on the beach. Frederick and the Sicilian fleet arrived soon after to disrupt the invasion, and despite being outnumbered, attacked the allied position. In the ensuing Battle of Cape Orlando on 4 July, the Sicilian fleet suffered a major defeat, granting the allies command of the sea. James - having been informed of growing unrest in Catalonia - returned to Aragon soon after the victory, leaving Lauria and the Angevins to continue the war in Sicily. Some sources have alleged that James, tired of expending Aragonese resources fighting a fellow member of the House of Barcelona and his former subjects, intentionally shifted his attention back to Iberia and away from Sicily, and James would never return to the theatre. Having secured a beachhead on Sicily, the Angevins began landing troops on the island. Led by Charles' son Robert and Roger of Lauria, the Angevins spread out to seize control of towns and fortresses. The Angevin army moved to besiege Randazzo, but faced stiff resistance and so proceeded south along the western edge of Mount Etna, marching south towards the key port city of Catania. As they advanced across the countryside, the Angevins captured several towns while also decimating the fiefs of those nobles known to support Frederick. Catania was soon besieged, and after several weeks an internal coup resulted in the city being occupied by the Angevin army. A major victory for the allies, the fall of Catania resulted in several nearby towns also surrendering to Robert and Roger of Lauria. The loss of the city also forced Frederick to relocate his court, as the Angevin position in Catania threatened Syracuse and Messina. Retreating to the central highlands of Sicily, Frederick chose the city of Enna as his base of operations. Frederick's new position in the central Sicilian highlands moved him away from the larger costal cities, but also strengthened his internal lines of communication, as from Enna's commanding plateau he was able to send out forces to counter the Angevins wherever they chose to attack. Having captured Catania and isolated Messina and Syracuse in the east, the Angevins now prepared an invasion of western Sicily, hoping to catch Frederick's remaining forces in a pincer. In November 1299 a second Angevin army led by Charles' second son, Philip of Taranto, landed on Sicily and besieged Trapani. Faced with a choice of waiting in heavily-fortified Enna to be trapped between the eastern and western Angevin armies or going on the offensive, Frederick consolidated his forces and marched to attack Philip in the west. Philip, unable to capture Trapani, marched to besiege Marsala; the two armies encountered each other near the city, and in the ensuing Battle of Falconaria the Angevin army was routed and Philip captured. The battle was a major victory for Frederick and boosted the morale of the Sicilians. With the western Angevin army destroyed, Roger of Lauria and Robert in the east were forced to stop their advance until spring, with Roger sailing to Naples to collect reinforcements. In February 1300, an advance force of 300 Angevin knights, lured by the promise of a weak fortress at Gagliano, were destroyed in a Sicilian ambush at the Battle of Gagliano, further blunting Robert's ability to advance in Sicily. While the ground campaign stalled, on 14 June 1300 Roger of Lauria and the allied fleet defeated the Sicilians at the Battle of Ponza, crippling the Sicilian navy and relegating it to small-scale attacks. The allied fleet sailed to the south coast of Sicily, raiding towns and castles but failing to land additional allied troops. In early 1301 Robert, frustrated by the stalemate on land, took command of half of the allied fleet while Roger maintained the other half. In July a deadly storm struck both fleets, resulting in the loss of nearly 30 galleys. The loss of ships and skilled crews to weather and disease sapped allied naval power, and an abortive attempt to besiege Syracuse also resulted in the loss of several ships. With any westward movement blocked by Frederick's armies, the Angevins chose instead to strike north towards Messina, laying siege to the strategically important city in August. The allied fleet blockaded the city, while Angevin soldiers burned the countryside that fed the populace. Realizing the need to relieve Messina, the Sicilians conducted two overland campaigns to open a supply line to the city, the second commanded by Frederick himself, while a small flotilla under the command of Roger de Flor harassed Roger of Lauria's blockading fleet. The Sicilian resupply missions kept up morale in the city, and while famine devastated the population and Sicilian garrison, Messina refused to surrender. Seeing that Messina could not be starved into submission and facing a blistering series of small Sicilian attacks, Roger and Robert agreed to withdraw all Angevin soldiers on the island to Catania. A peace compact was brokered between Frederick and his sister Yolanda, which the Angevins agreed to abide by. Invasion of Charles of Valois In 1302, Prince Charles of Valois marched into Italy at the behest of Pope Boniface. Acting independently as a French prince, he received significant financial backing from the papacy and the French court, using his army to crush supporters of the anti-papal Ghibellines in Tuscany and Florence. Once in Naples, Valois signed an accord with the pope and Angevins offering him support for a future venture to restore the Latin Empire if he were to successfully conquer Sicily. In the summer of 1302, the peace combat between Sicily and Angevin Naples expired, allowing the Angevins to begin providing men and ships to Valois' invasion force. Faced with Charles of Valois' large and professional French army, Frederick chose to fortify coastal towns and scour the countryside of food, planning to wear down the invaders in a war of attrition. The allied fleet, now laden with Valois' army, landed at Termini on the northern coast, encountering no resistance. While Roger of Lauria raided the coastline near Palermo, the Valois army marched inland in an attempt to seize the Sicilian heartland. The army besieged Caccamo, but found it too well defended, and so moved on to Corleone, which also resisted Valois. Seeking to resupply his army by sea, Valois then marched to Sciacca on the southwest coast of Sicily, arriving in July. As the allied army moved, Frederick and the Sicilians shadowed them through the countryside, choosing not to engage them directly. Disease, famine, and the hot Sicilian summer devastated Valois' army, which was unable to break through the defenses at Sciacca; by August 1302, Valois chose to send envoys to Frederick to discuss peace. In mid-August, Valois agreed to evacuate the island, and the Angevins agreed to evacuate their remaining garrisons in eastern Sicily in return for Frederick withdrawing his forces from the Italian mainland. With Charles of Valois defeated, Charles II unable to mount a successful invasion, and James being unconcerned with invading, all sides began to seek peace. Conclusion and Peace Peace of Caltabellotta On 19 August, the Peace of Caltabellotta was signed. The treaty confirmed Frederick as King of Sicily and Charles as King of the Mezzogiorno, known thereafter as the Kingdom of Naples. In May 1303 the pope ratified the treaty and Frederick paid him tribute to smooth the peace process. Marriage was also arranged between Frederick and Charles' daughter Eleanor. A clause in the treaty mandated that Frederick's throne would pass to the House of Anjou upon his death, and Frederick agreed to provide military assistance to Charles of Valois if he moved to invade Byzantium. Now recognized as king over Sicily, Frederick adopted the title of King of Trinacria, but to keep the Ghibelline legacy of the Staufer alive he subsequently preferred to call himself "King" without any territorial reference in his chancellery acts from 1304 to 1311, then used "King of Sicily" from 1315 to 1318, and struck coins throughout his reign as rex Sicilie. Aftereffects The War of the Sicilian Vespers, and the several treaties drawn up to end it, would continue to effect regional politics for decades. Aragon had gained and then given up the crown of Sicily, but its gaining of mercantile interests in Sicily and control over Mallorca and Sardinia (annexed by Aragon in 1323) made it a major power in the Mediterranean. The crownlands of Sicily itself had been split between Sicily and Naples, with different dynasties ruling each half. Frederick III's crown was not restored to the House of Anjou on his death, and so the House of Barcelona maintained rule of the island until the 15th century. The kingdoms of Sicily and Naples would remain separate until 1734, when the crowns of both kingdoms were held by Charles III of Spain, and would remain politically separate until the formation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1815. The Catalan Company, a mercenary company formed by veterans of the war, would play a major role in the history of the Eastern Mediterranean. Using the chaos of the war as cover, the Republic of Genoa declared war on its rival Pisa, crushing the Pisan fleet at the Battle of Meloria in 1284, sending Pisa into decline and temporarily establishing Genoa as the pre-eminent naval power in the Western Mediterranean. The war, fought between Christian powers over claims to European thrones, is seen by some sources as a sign of the end of the Crusading era, and an indicative sign of the degradation of papal powers over excommunication and indulgence. Popular culture Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy references several historical figures from the war, negatively portraying what Dante saw as the avarice of the involved monarchs. The 1838 French play Les vêpres siciliennes written by Eugène Scribe and Charles Duveyrier. In 1855 Giuseppe Verdi set it to music as the opera I vespri siciliani. In 1949 an Italian film Sicilian Uprising was released, directed by Giorgio Pastina. A popular theory holds that the Mafia began with the Sicilian Vespers and is an abbreviation for "Morte ai Francesi, Italia Anela!" ("Italy desires the death of the French"). However, this is highly unlikely since the first reference to the term Mafia dates from 1862. Notes Sources Primary The Rebellamentu di Sichilia, a Sicilian tract of 1290, is available online in three editions: Lu rebellamentu di Sichilia. Codice della Biblioteca regionale di Palermo. Edited by Filippo Evola (1882). Le vespro siciliano. Cronaca siciliana anonima intitolata Lu rebellamentu di Sichilia, codice esistente nell' Archivio municipale di Catania. Edited by Pasquale Castorina (1882). Sicily's Rebellion against King Charles. Translation of the text of the "Rebellamentu" by Louis Mendola (New York 2015) . The Vinuta di lu re Iapicu in Catania, another Sicilian history, by Atanasiu di Iaci, is available online: Romanzo siculo del 1287. Edited by Bernardino Biondelli (1856). The contemporary Catalan chroniclers: Bernat Desclot, Crònica, ed. Ferran Soldevila, Jordi Bruguera and Maria Teresa Ferrer i Mallol, Barcelona 2008 Ramon Muntaner, Crònica, ed. Ferran Soldevila, Jordi Bruguera and Maria Teresa Ferrer i Mallol, Barcelona 2011 (English tr. Anna Kinsky Goodenough, Chronicle of Muntaner, London 1920) Note also: Bruni, Leonardo. History of the Florentine People. 1416. (Harvard, 2001) Secondary (vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3) (English tr. of 2nd (?) edn. Francis Egerton, History of the War of Sicilian Vespers, 3 vols., London 1850: vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3) (vol. 1, vol. 2) 1280s conflicts 1290s conflicts 1300s conflicts 13th century in the Kingdom of Sicily Military history of Catalonia Warfare of the Middle Ages Wars involving the Kingdom of Naples Wars involving France 13th-century military history of France 14th-century military history of France 1280s in Europe 1290s in Europe 1300s in Europe Military history of Sicily Wars involving the Byzantine Empire Charles I of Anjou
5248778	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahib%20Bibi%20Aur%20Ghulam	Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam	Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam () is a 1962 Indian Hindi-language drama film that was directed by Abrar Alvi and produced by Guru Dutt, who also co-stars in it alongside Meena Kumari, Rehman, and Waheeda Rehman. The film, which is based on Bimal Mitra's Bengali-language novel Saheb Bibi Golam (1953) which was the second adaptation of the novel after the 1956 Bengali film with the same title Saheb Bibi Golam starring Sumitra Devi, Uttam Kumar and Chhabi Biswas. Having seen the novel and its staged version, Dutt wanted to adapt Saheb Bibi Golam into a film,was set in the 19th century during the British Raj and focuses on Bhoothnath (Dutt), who meets Chhoti Bahu (Kumari), the lonely wife of a zamindar (Rehman). The film follows Chhoti Bahu's effort to keep her husband—who likes drinking and watching dancing girls perform—at their home by drinking with him. She becomes addicted to alcohol, leading both of them into bankruptcy. The book's rights were bought after his production venture Chaudhvin Ka Chand (1960) became commercially successful and covered his company's loss following the failure of Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959), his previous directorial project. Mitra and Alvi took a year to write the screenplay, facing difficulties in translating the novel from Bengali to Hindi. Principal photography took place in Andheri and Dhanyakuria with cinematographer V. K. Murthy; the film was edited by Y. G. Chawhan. Hemant Kumar composed the soundtrack and Shakeel Badayuni wrote the lyrics. Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam was released on 29 July 1962. Although it commercially failed with a gross of ,it garnered positive responses from critics; most appreciation was given to the cast's performances, particularly that of Kumari, and Murthy's cinematography. Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam won four Filmfare Awards, including Best Film, Best Director for Alvi, and Best Actress for Kumari. It also received the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi and the Bengal Film Journalists' Association Award for Sixth Best Indian Film, and Alvi was awarded the Best Director trophy at the latter function. The film was chosen as the Indian submission for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film but it was not nominated. Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam became a milestone of Bollywood and also one of the Finest movie of the Bengali Cinema Kumar's performance in this film was so spectacular and it was also considered among the most important films in Dutt's career. Kumari's performance is regarded as one of the finest performances in the history of Indian cinema, making her best known for tragic roles. In 2012, its screenplay was published as a book titled Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam: The Original Screenplay, which also contains interviews with the film's cast and crew. On the centenary of Indian cinema in 2013, IBN Live included Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam in their listing of "100 Greatest Indian Films of All Time". Plot In Calcutta, a group of labourers is demolishing the ruins of an old haveli. When the workers break for lunch, the overseer walks around the site. As he sits, a flashback to the late 19th century begins. The lower-class yet educated Atulya "Bhoothnath" Chakraborty arrives in the colonial Calcutta looking for work. Along with his brother-in-law, he lives in the haveli of the Choudhury zamindar family. Bhoothnath meets Subinay, a dedicated member of the religious sect Brahmo Samaj, and is employed at the factory Mohini Sindoor. Subinay's daughter Jaba hears their conversation and is amused by the behaviour of Bhoothnath, whom she considers an unsophisticated rural dweller. Bhoothnath becomes fascinated with the goings-on in the haveli and every night he observes the Choudhury brothers' decadent lifestyle. One night, Bansi, another servant of the haveli, takes Bhoothnath to meet the younger zamindar wife Chhoti Bahu, who implores him to bring her sindoor. Chhoti has a poor relationship with her unfaithful husband, who spends most of his time watching a dancing girl performing, and believes it will keep him home. Bhoothnath is struck by her sadness and inadvertently becomes her secret confidante. When Chhoti Bahu's repeated attempts to appease her husband fail, she becomes his drinking companion to keep him by her side. Jaba's marriage with Supavitra, who is also a Brahmo Samaj member, is finalised but she declines it after his father dies. At the same time, Bhoothnath leaves the factory, which Subinay—who later dies—has closed due to his ill health. Bhootnath becomes a trainee architect and goes away to work on a training project. When Bhootnath returns, he sees the haveli has been partially ruined. Chhoti Bahu is now a desperate alcoholic and her husband is paralysed. Meanwhile, Bhoothnath learns he and Jaba were betrothed as children. One night, Chhoti Bahu asks Bhoothnath to accompany her to a nearby shrine to pray for her husband; the elder zamindar Majhle Babu overhears their conversation and suspects Chhoti Bahu is having an affair with Bhoothnath, and orders his henchmen to chase them. Bhoothnath and Chhoti Bahu travel in a carriage, but Majhle Babu's henchmen stop it. Bhoothnath is knocked unconscious and Chhoti Bahu is abducted. When he wakes up in the hospital, Bansi tells Bhoothnath Chhoti Bahu has disappeared and her husband is dead. The flashback ends. Bhoothnath's workers inform him a skeleton has been found in the ruins of the haveli. From the jewellery on the corpse, Bhoothnath realises it is the remains of Chhoti Bahu. In the last scene, a nostalgic Bhoothnath rides away in a carriage with Jaba, who is now his wife. Cast The cast is listed below: Meena Kumari as Chhoti Bahu Guru Dutt as Atulya "Bhoothnath" Chakraborty Rehman as Chhote Babu Waheeda Rehman as Jabba D. K. Sapru as Majhle Babu Harindranath Chattopadhyay as Ghari Babu Pratima Devi as Badi Bahu S. N. Banerjee as a tanga driver Nazir Hussain as Subinay Babu Dhumal as Bansi Minoo Mumtaz as dancer in the song "Saakiya Aaj Mujhe" Chanda as Chinta, Chhoti Bahu's maid. Production Development Guru Dutt wanted to adapt Bimal Mitra's novel Saheb Bibi Golam (1953) into a film after reading it and watching its staged version at Rang Mahal Theatre, Calcutta, with his wife Geeta, Mitra, and Abrar Alvi. This marked the novel's second cinematic adaptation after the 1956 version. The novel was written in and never translated from Bengali. Dutt asked Alvi to write a screenplay; according to Alvi, he was surprised Dutt gave him the offer because Dutt had previously discharged him from his company Guru Dutt Movies Pvt. Ltd. after Dutt's Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959), in which Alvi served as the screenwriter, became a flop and he could not pay his workers. Since then, Dutt decided to not direct any films he worked on. After his next release Chaudhvin Ka Chand (1960) commercially succeeded, he was able to save the studio from bankruptcy and later acquired the rights of Saheb Bibi Golam. Dutt and Alvi started translating the novel to Hindi but Alvi was not fluent in Bengali. They tried translating it word-for-word but realised the process would be really slow and stopped after a few days. Dutt invited Mitra, who lived in Calcutta, to visit him at a bungalow Dutt rented in Khandala. Alvi said Dutt was thorough on any aspects of his projects and that the bungalow was used to ensure both Mitra and Alvi concentrated on writing the screenplay. After arriving in Khandala, Mitra and Alvi invited a "Mr. Mukherjee", who was fluent in Bengali and Hindi, to be a "bridge between us". The translator, however, gave up after fifteen days, asking them to do the rest by themselves. Alvi said the screenplay was written "slowly but surely"; he and Mitra made many changes to the story so the film would be fit with Hindi audience's interest. For instance, they removed several characters who appear in the novel version, including Swami Vivekananda, and made Bhoothnath more naïve and less educated. Dutt's biographer Nasreen Munni Kabir estimated the translating took two months and said Dutt, who was impressed by the screenplay, suggested Alvi to direct the film. Yasser Usman reported it was the first time the screenplay of a film Dutt produced was finished before filming began. In preparation, Alvi was sent to Calcutta to learn about the Bengali milieu and the zamindars background. Casting Dutt and Alvi completed the casting; their first choice to play Bhoothnath was Shashi Kapoor, who was invited for a meeting with Dutt but he arrived two-and-a-half hours late, which irritated Dutt, who then declined to cast him. Biswajit Chatterjee, who portrayed Bhoothnath in the play, became Dutt's next choice; he and Chatterjee had dinner at the Grand Hotel to discuss it. The film was to be Chatterjee's Bollywood debut but his friends and fans informed him his popularity among Bengali people was increasing, so he reluctantly rejected the offer, a decision he later regretted. The role was eventually played by Dutt, who had to shave his moustache to make him look younger. Chhaya Arya, the wife of the photographer Jitendra Arya, was suggested to portray Chhoti Bahu. Living in London, the film's production team asked her to move to Bombay (now Mumbai). In October 1960, she arrived there for a photograph session. When seeing the results, Dutt felt she was not too wanton- or motherly-looking for the role. He searched for a more suitable female actor and chose Meena Kumari for the role. In 1953, Kumari lost the opportunity to be cast for a role in Devdas (1955), which was eventually given to Suchitra Sen, Kumari's husband Kamal Amrohi refused his offers, feeling Chhoti Bahu had a negative reputation; he asked for but Dutt could pay only. Kumari persuaded Dutt she was the only actor who was capable of playing the role and, by 1962, she finally got the role. Alvi said Kumari was entranced by the film's themes and saw the role had the potential to boost her career. The film marked the sixth collaboration between Waheeda Rehman and Dutt. In Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam, Waheeda Rehman stars as the "couldn't-care-less carefree" Jabba. After reading the novel, she wanted to play Chhoti Bahu but Dutt felt she was too young for that role, saying she looked more like a girl than a woman. Still insisting, she asked Dutt and the film's cinematographer V. K. Murthy for a photograph session in which she would dress up as Chhoti Bahu, wearing a Bengali sari and a tilaka. After looking at the photographs, Murthy agreed with Dutt and likened her to a child. When Alvi was appointed to direct the film, he called in Waheeda Rehman was and offered her the part of Jabba. Dutt disapproved of this casting because she was an established actress and he did not want her cast as the second female lead after Kumari. According to Dutt, the film's title represents its three leads; Sahib for Rehman, Bibi for Kumari, and Ghulam for Dutt, but these excluded Waheeda Rehman. She, however, told Dutt she was fine by it. Filming Principal photography for Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam took place in Andheri and a forty-to-fifty-room haveli in Dhanyakuria. It started on 1 January 1961 with a muhurat ceremony that was attended by the film's production team. The cinematographer was Murthy and the sets were designed by Biren Nag. Bhanu Athaiya, who knew little about Bengali people and their looks, designed the costumes; Dutt sent her to Calcutta to prepare for filming. According to Usman, Athaiya was also involved in the film's directing, especially that of the song sequences, though only Alvi's name appears in the credits. Filming, except for the scenes that feature Chhoti Bahu, was almost completed by the beginning of 1962; filming was completed with a 45-consecutive-day schedule in Andheri. There are no scenes of Chhoti Bahu and Jabba together; Waheeda Rehman wanted to act with Kumari so she asked Dutt to rework the story. She suggested a scene in which Jabba persistently asks Bhootnath about Chhoti Bahu and he later takes her to the haveli. Dutt, however, dismissed the idea, saying the characters never meet in the novel and that the audience would not be interested by it. After filming, P. Thackersey and Y. G. Chawhan handled the sound and editing, respectively. Soundtrack The soundtrack—released by Saregama—was composed by Kumar, Shakeel Badayuni wrote the lyrics, and Geeta and Asha Bhosle sang vocals. Dutt directed the songs but Alvi replaced him while he was absent from the sets during the filming of "Bhanwara Bada Nadan". Dutt watched the result ten times but felt disappointed and re-filmed it by adding comedic elements. After the film's release, Dutt cut the song "Sahil Ki Taraf" from the climax, in which Chhoti Bahu rests her head on Bhoothnath's lap because the audience criticised it. Kumar reused the song for "Ya Dil Ki Suno Duniyawalo" for the 1966 film Anupama. Release and reception Release Posters for Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam were printed by Dutt and Alvi. When the film was released on 29 July 1962, the initial audience response was negative. A day after its premiere, Dutt went to Bombay's Minerva Cinema and observed audiences were disappointed by the scene in which Chhoti Bahu asks for a last sip of alcohol and the song "Sahil Ki Taraf" that made the relationship between Chhoti Bahu and Bhoothnath ambiguous. He visited the director K. Asif's house and was suggested to make Chhoti Bahu recover from her addiction and her marital relationship improve. Dutt asked Alvi and Mitra to write a new climax and invited Kumari for another day's filming. The next day, while they were discussing the unexpected changes, Dutt decided to maintain it, and instead removed the Chhoti Bahu scene and "Sahil Ki Taraf", saying he did not mind if the film became a box-office disappointment. He added it was not possible to create another scene because the changes would the audience would be confused about the film's plot. Exact figures for the film's box-office earnings are not available. Firoze Rangoonwala, in the 1973 book Guru Dutt, 1925–1965: A Monograph, reported it performed poorly but better than Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959), while in 2005 Stardust called Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam an "average grosser". Box Office India estimated its total gross to be , supporting Rangoonwala's claim. Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam was the official submission from India to the 13th Berlin International Film Festival, for which a shorter version was made. On 26 June 1963, Dutt, Kumari, Waheeda Rehman with sister Sayeeda, and Alvi arrived in East Berlin and the screening occurred the next evening. All twenty-five people attending the screening gave a poor response to the film's melodramatic plot, unrelatable themes, and slow screenplay. Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam received a Golden Bear nomination but lost to the French comedy To Bed or Not to Bed and the Japanese action film Bushido, Samurai Saga (both 1963). Critical response Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam received positive feedback from both contemporaneous and modern critics, who praised the cast's performances—particularly that of Kumari—the cinematography, the costumes and the art direction. Reviewers panned the way Chhoti Bahu is unconventionally depicted as an alcoholic woman. In a review dated 24 June 1962, a writer for The Times of India said the film is excellent because of its well-written screenplay that makes an effective balance between the characters and emotional sequences, and "provides a neat dramatic pattern". Calling the film "a classic in celluloid", he said it does "a specially successful job" though it is based on Mitra's novel, which the reviewer called untidy and with a wordy writing style. Kabir, who collected Dutt's handwritten letters for a book titled Yours Guru Dutt (2006), reported it is one of few reviews Dutt read during his lifetime. Vinod Mehta, who biographed Kumari's life in 1972, said Kumari overshadows her co-stars and added; "Gone were the traces of frivolity, gone was the look of undernourishment, gone was the look of the 'girl-next-door'. She was now a woman of sharp, mature, mysterious persona ... whose one smile concealed a thousand enigmas." In her 1985 book Profiles: Five Film-makers from India, Shampa Banerjee complimented Kumari for being the greatest performer in the film. She also found Bhoothnath to be completely different Dutt's previous roles, noting its "rustic simplicity and comic innocence, coupled with a deeply compassionate nature, lent Bhootnath's character an immediate realism, a natural complexity, which justified the keen internal version of the older Bhootnath who recounts the tale". On 19 February 1989, The Illustrated Weekly of India Khalid Mohamed called Waheeda Rehman's role equal to that of Kumari's and wrote of her importance in the film, even though hers is a supporting role whereas Kumari's is a lead. Dinesh Raheja, writing for Rediff.com in 2003, called the film "a fascinating mood movie made by people gifted with acute sensitivity". He said Dutt was at his best when playing Bhootnath without his moustache. Raheja, however, was critical of Rehman and said her scenes could be partly removed because her character, which he deemed perky, is less important to the film's main plot. Writing for The Hindu in 2008, A. P. S. Malhotra said Kumari's portrayal of a "career-defining role" is an "awe-inspiring performance". He praised Athaiya's costumes and Murthy's cinematography, stating both are outstanding throughout the film. Anna M. M. Vetticad, in an article published by Firstpost in 2020, said Kumari played her role brilliantly and commended the film's production, including the art direction. In 2021, Sampada Sharma of The Indian Express wrote of Kumari; "Her perpetually melancholic eyes and her pristine beauty make her a tragic figure who is slowly drowning in a sea of despair". Accolades The film won a National Film Award in the category Best Feature Film in Hindi, and at the 10th Filmfare Awards, it won Best Film, Best Director (Alvi), and Best Actress (Kumari). The Film Federation of India chose Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam to represent India in the Best Foreign Language Film award at the 35th Academy Awards over the Tamil-language romantic drama Nenjil Or Aalayam (1962). Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam, however, failed to be nominated and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences wrote to Dutt telling him according to American culture, it was inappropriate for a woman to be an alcoholic. Legacy Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam attained cult status and became a milestone in Hindi cinema. Along with Pyaasa (1957) and Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959), critics have regarded Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam among Dutt's best work. According to Banerjee, Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam is Dutt's last major contribution to the industry. It is also the only film Alvi directed. Film experts have regarded Kumari's performance in Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam as one of the best of her career; according to Tejaswini Ganti, the film made her particularly known for tragic roles, and Raheja commented; "Meena took the audience on an unforgettable odyssey into the inner recesses of the mind of an emotionally and physically cloistered woman". Kumari played similar roles in several more films, including the dramas Dil Ek Mandir (1963), Chitralekha (1964), Gazal (1964), Kaajal (1965), Phool Aur Patthar (1966) and Pakeezah (1972). Dutt collaborated with Kumari again in Sanjh Aur Savera (1964), which was his last film to be released during his lifetime. Several lists have included Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam. In 2005, Rachel Dwyer selected the film for her book 100 Bollywood Films, and The Times of India Rachna Kanwar included it in her listing of "25 Must See Bollywood Movies", commenting: "Chhoti Bahu is the most spectacular character in tragedienne Meena Kumari's career; a role that was uncannily similar to her own life Meena Kumari, like the miraculous sindoor she yearns for in the film mesmerizes you with her acting skills ... The film remains with you forever simply because of the splendid performance of Meena Kumari." As part of celebrations of the centenary of Indian cinema in 2013, Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam was featured by IBN Live on their lists of "100 Greatest Indian Films of All Time". In the same year, Filmfare listed among the "100 Best Films" released between 1958 and 1969. The next year, the American Indologist Philip Lutgendorf of the University of Iowa chose the film for his list of "Ten Indian Popular Films that are Not-to-be-missed". Dwyer, in an article for Hindustan Times, listed the film in "70 Iconic Movies of Independent India" in 2017. On India's 75th Independence Day in 2021, Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam appeared in The Indian Express list of "75 Films that Celebrate the Journey of India". In a 1994 interview with Sight & Sound, the scholar Ashish Rajadhyaksha considered the film a much more accurate depiction of India's corrupt 19th-century feudalism than Satyajit Ray's drama Jalsaghar (1958). In 2010, a retrospective of Dutt's films, including Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam, was screened in Israel and was positively received by the audience. Jai Arjun Singh wrote the following year it is "one of Hindi cinema's most vivid treatments of a transitional period in India's social history". A dialogue from Rehman to Kumari "Gehne tudwao, gehne banvao. Aur koriyaan khelo. So aaram se." (Break old jewellery sets, make new ones. Play with shells. And sleep.), and Kumari's dialogue "Hindu ghar ki bahu hokar, kya sharab pee hai kissine?" (Has any Hindu household's daughter-in-law ever drunk liquor?) attained popularity. In 2012, film historians Dinesh Raheja and Jitendra Kothari published the film's screenplay as a book titled Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam: The Original Screenplay, which also contains the authors' interviews with the surviving cast and crew. Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links 1962 films Films with screenplays by Abrar Alvi 1960s Hindi-language films Films set in Kolkata Films about women in India Films based on Indian novels Indian drama films Films about alcoholism Films set in the British Raj Indian feudalism Films set in country houses Best Hindi Feature Film National Film Award winners 1962 drama films Hindi-language drama films Films shot in Mumbai Films shot in Kolkata Films based on works by Bimal Mitra
5248801	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tefan%20Voitec	Ștefan Voitec	Ștefan Voitec (also rendered Ștefan Voitech, Stepan Voitek; June 19, 1900 – December 4, 1984) was a Romanian Marxist journalist and politician who held important positions in the state apparatus of Communist Romania. Debuting as a member of the Socialist Party of Romania in his late teens, he formed the Socialist Workers Party of Romania, then the United Socialist Party, while also engaging in human rights activism and advocating prison reform. The mid-1930s brought him into contact with the Romanian Communist Party, with whom he formed tactical alliances; however, he rejected its political line, and was for a while known as a Trotskyist. In 1939, he joined the consolidated Social Democratic Party, which reunited various socialist groups outlawed by the National Renaissance Front. During World War II, despite ostensibly withdrawing form political life to do research, Voitec served as the party's Secretary and joined the anti-fascist underground. Some reports suggest that he was also a committed anti-communist, critical of the Soviet Union to the point on endorsing war in the East. As a war correspondent, Voitec made contributions to Nazi propaganda, an issue which made him vulnerable to blackmail in later decades. From June 1944, Voitec played a part in plotting the Anti-fascist Coup, negotiating a unified platform with communist Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu. Following this regime change, he emerged as a leader of the legalized Social Democrats. In November, he became Minister of Education, serving under increasingly communized governments to December 1947. Himself won over by Marxism-Leninism, Voitec directed a purge of the teaching staff, and engineered his party's alliance with, then absorption by, the Communist Party. Voitec was a member of the unified group's Politburo, and represented Dolj County, then Electroputere factory, in the Great National Assembly; he also served as member of the first republican presidium in 1948, and was briefly the Deputy Prime Minister to Petru Groza. Criticized for his leniency and inconsistencies in applying party dogma, he was sidelined and placed under Securitate surveillance in the early 1950s. After serving as head of Centrocoop, which grouped Romania's consumers' cooperatives, Voitec returned to the forefront in 1955–1956, when he was reappointed minister, then Deputy Premier. In 1961, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej also included him on the State Council, as Assembly Chairman. As such, Voitec sanctioned the rise of Nicolae Ceaușescu, participating in his investiture as the first President of Romania (1974). Though his offices were by then largely ceremonial, he used his position to demand privileges for other former Social Democrats, and also obtained reconsideration for Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea, the Romanian Marxist classic. Shortly before dying of cancer in 1984, Voitec reportedly expressed regret for his communist conversion, which led to his second marginalization by Ceaușescu. He is remembered for his contributions to cultural development, responsible in large part for the establishment of Craiova University, the National Theater Craiova, and Magazin Istoric journal. Biography Youth Born in Corabia on June 19, 1900, Voitec declared himself an ethnic Romanian, but was also Italian on his mother's side. Collateral relatives reportedly include the Zanolinis of Friuli, one of whom is doctor Liviu Zanolini. Political memoirist Petre Pandrea, who left hostile notes on Voitec being born in a city of "idiots", also claims that his paternal lineage was Czech, and that Ștefan had eight sisters. The father, Pandrea claims, was a minor clerk, ruined by alcoholism and gambling, who had eventually left his family. As reported years later by politician Ștefan Andrei, Voitec adhered to a moderate strain of socialism, which presupposed toleration of Christian religiosity and even a personal belief in God. Fluent in Romanian, Italian, and French, young Voitec graduated from Craiova's prestigious high school, Carol I. Aged 18, he became active in the Socialist Party of Romania, writing for its organ Socialismul, as well as for one of the newspapers known as Scânteia. As reported by Pandrea, Voitec was in 1920 a leader of the Socialist Youth Section, on par with Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu. The party as a whole split the following year, with the far-left section emerging as the Romanian Communist Party (PCR, or PCdR), which was soon outlawed; Voitec stayed with the moderate sections, while Pătrășcanu established the Union of Communist Youth. As reported in 1974 by his friend and party colleague Ion Pas, they both stood for the Socialists' "centrist current", though they still had "comradely rapports" with PCR activists. In August 1923, Voitec signed up for the League of Human Rights, founded by intellectuals of various hues, and led by Vasile Stroescu. In April of the following year, he signed a letter of protest against Pătrășcanu's arrest for communist subversion. In the meantime, Voitec took a degree from the University of Bucharest School of Polytechnics and Mathematical Faculty (though Pandrea claims he never actually graduated). During his student years, he rallied with the Union of Independent Students, where he was colleagues with Șerban Cioculescu, Octav Livezeanu, Timotei Marin, and Dionisie Pippidi. Finding employment as a substitute teacher at Sfântul Iosif High School in Bucharest, he was forced out of the profession by the state authorities, in 1925. He worked as an editor of Socialismul in 1925–1927, while also reaching out to the "bourgeois democratic press", provided it was "independent and honest". He was for a while a junior editor of Adevărul daily, alongside Iosif Aurescu, who described Voitec as a "tiny little man, of indeterminate age". Journalist George Macovescu also notes that, "for a while", Voitec was the "staunch and careful" curator of Adevăruls reference library and reading room. He married an Italian woman, Victoria Voitec, who is said to have suffered from a chronic illness which required changes of climate; they had a daughter, born in October 1934. By February 1926, Voitec and Lothar Rădăceanu had joined the Federation of Socialist Parties, which they represented at negotiations to form a political alliance with the PCR front organization, or Peasant Workers' Bloc (BMȚ). In July 1926, he was co-opted by the League Against Terror, alongside Pătrășcanu, Traian Bratu, Constantin Costa-Foru, Mihail Cruceanu, Elena Filipovici, Gala Galaction, Eugen Heroveanu, Barbu Lăzăreanu, Constantin Mille, Panait Mușoiu, Constantin Ion Parhon, Eugen Relgis, Mihail Sadoveanu, Gheorghe Tașcă, and Paul Zarifopol. Voitec was also briefly affiliated with the Social Democratic Party (PSDR), created in 1927 (the year of "great efforts to unify the non-communist left") around Constantin Titel Petrescu. In July 1928, he and Leon Ghelerter formed their own Socialist Workers Party of Romania (PSMR), which attempted to unify radical socialists opposed to the PSDR's reformist stance. As a short-term goal, this group favored a cartel with the BMȚ during the December 1928 election. However, it also denounced the PCR as "sectarian", and recruited from its disenchanted members. Over the following period, Voitec and his colleagues gravitated toward Trotskyism, which deepened their ideological break with the outlawed PCR. According to Pandrea, Voitec was also an accountant for a credit cooperative "founded with Jewish American money", which also sponsored Caritas Hospital, serving Romanian Jews. Pandrea alleges that Voitec and Ghelerter used money they "pinched out" of this enterprise to finance the PSMR, a "two-, three-, four-, five-member party". PSU years Their PSMR was later joined by breakaways from the PCR, beginning with Gheorghe Cristescu; Constantin Popovici also joined, turning the group into a United Socialist Party (PSU). Unlike the PCR, this new alliance was viewed as harmless by Romanian authorities. Both Voitec and Ghelerter spoke at the workers' meeting in Grivița on May Day 1930, during which "a number of communists who wished to provoke scandal were removed from the location." In 1929, Voitec had been co-opted by the Amnesty Committee, an intellectuals' pressure group which demanded lenience for prisoners serving time on political charges. Serving on its Initiative Committee, he was colleagues with Costa-Foru, Cruceanu, Galaction, Parhon, Pătrășcanu, Nicolae Alexandri, and Petre Constantinescu-Iași. Reportedly, in 1933 Voitec arranged for the newly released Mihail Gheorghiu Bujor to be interned and cared for by Ghelerter. During the 1930s, the PSU assumed an intermediary position between PCR Stalinists and independent Trotskyists. Trotskyist David Korner acknowledged that Ghelerter helped him circulate pamphlets and recruit affiliates, including inside the PSU itself, but criticized him for his trust in "bourgeois legality". By October 1934, Voitec and Popovici had sealed an alliance between the PSU and Constantinescu-Iași's National Anti-fascist Committee (CNA) and the Labor League, establishing a panel for coordinating actions against the far-right's Iron Guard and National-Christian Defense League. A month later, a delegation comprising both, alongside Constantinescu-Iași, Mihai Roller and Scarlat Callimachi, issued a public protest against perceived injustices against PSU and CNA activists. It referenced allegations that Nicolae Ceaușescu, at the time a junior CNA affiliate, had been brutalized by Police. Voitec served as PSU Secretary, answering directly to Ghelerter, who was party Chairman; he also participated in the Interparliamentary Socialist Conference of 1931, and negotiated a non-aggression pact with the PCR in 1936. Between these dates, in the legislative election of July 1932, he was a PSU candidate for the Assembly of Deputies, in Baia County (first on that list, ahead of Franț Picolschi). He was editor of the party newspaper, Proletarul, until the latter was banned by the government of Gheorghe Tătărescu in 1935. In June 1934, addressing the PSU congress in Piatra Neamț, Voitec had defined the party's goal as being "the restoration of working-class unity". This effectively meant that the party wished to absorb the PSDR and the PCR into a "united front of proletarian action", primarily dedicated to isolating fascism. Korner also noted that, precisely because it stressed the ideal of "total unity", the PSU could not be interested in joining the Fourth International. After 1936, relations between the PSU and the PCR were again tense, leading to a scrutiny of Voitec and Ghelerter's stances by Stalinist observers. In July 1937, a notice published by the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia claimed that the PSU had become an adversary of proletarian solidarity, to emerge as a "Trotskyist agency planted in the bosom of Romania's working class." The following month, the Communist Party of Estonia alleged that Romanian "Trotskyist–Fascists", including Ghelerter, Voitec, Cristescu, and Richard Wurmbrand, worked hand in hand with Iron Guard fascists, as well as with Romania's secret police, the Siguranța. An anonymous report, published by the Comintern in October, detailed this claim by alleging that Ghelerter had an understanding with the Siguranța, which allowed him to publish texts critical of Soviet communism. The same source also noted that the PSDR was also infiltrated by, and unusually tolerant of, Trotskyist militants. Popovici had by then been expelled from the PSU, after favoring a closer alliance with the mainline communists. This split left Voitec as the sole party Secretary in 1936; a year later, the PSU was folded back into the PSDR. Upon this, Voitec became the PSDR librarian. Wartime and August coup Despite being soon after banned by the National Renaissance Front, the PSDR remained active in the underground, and Voitec was its Secretary from 1939. The PCR leadership had returned to labeling him a disgraced Trotskyist. Such epithets appear in a February 1939 document, in which the communists argued that a "proletarian front" could only be formed with the PSDR masses, not their leaders. Voitec formally retired from public life during Ion Antonescu's dictatorship (see Romania during World War II). A noted left by Ion Vinea, suggests that by 1941 Voitec was an editor at Vinea's own newspaper, Evenimentul Zilei. This was a conscious move to undermine Antonescu's censorship by taking in known leftists—Voitec's colleagues included Nicolae Carandino and Miron Radu Paraschivescu. His former colleague in the press, Relgis, reports that in October 1942 Voitec was a custodian for the former Adevărul library, which had been taken over by the Ministry of Propaganda. He allegedly used this position to conserve books by Jewish authors whom Antonescu had banned. At least one report suggests that Voitec also became a journalist for Curentul, the far-right newspaper. Moreover, he supported Antonescu's war in the East as a correspondent for Nazi newspapers such as Der Soldat and Sentinel. His texts were distinctly anti-Soviet, and also affirmed that Bessarabia was rightfully a Romanian province. Voitec worked as a researcher on encyclopedic projects, which were politically tinged. Anti-communist Pamfil Șeicaru recalls validating his employment as editor at Evenimentul Zilei by 1943; he was to work on a "political dictionary", whose purpose was to familiarize Romanians with key concepts in the field. He and Carandino reportedly used this cover to network with anti-fascist cells, placing Voitec's protegé Mircea Ștefanovici in the editorial offices of Tinerețea magazine. In his more public activities, Voitec and Mușoiu attended a ceremony honoring the memory of novelist Panait Istrati, which had Alexandru Talex for a speaker.` Voitec still remained on the PSDR's leadership committee in the anti-fascist underground. By mid-1943, he had been attracted into the movement which sought to depose Antonescu, taking shape as the Patriotic Anti-Hitlerite Front. As PSD delegates, Voitec and Victor Brătfăleanu received from the PCR news that the Comintern had been abolished, which, as Voitec noted, "settled all disputes". He then mediated between the PSDR and the Union of Patriots; the Anti-Hitlerite Front was created in Ghelerter's home, once Voitec resumed contacts with old friends from the CNA and PCR. The Siguranța tolerated his visits with Pătrășcanu, who was under nominal house arrest in Poiana Țapului. Voitec and Pătrășcanu worked on a shared platform of the Singular Workers' Front, grouping the two left-wing parties; drafted on April 10, it was first publicized on May Day. During May–June 1944, there was a rapprochement of all pro-Allied forces working against Antonescu; a Bloc of Democratic Parties or National Democratic Bloc was formed by the PSDR, the PCR, the National Peasants' Party and the National Liberal Party. With Iosif Jumanca, Voitec served on the initiative committee, which was also joined by Communists Constantinescu-Iași and Vasile Bîgu, by National Peasantists Ioan Hudiță and Nicolae Penescu, as well as by three National Liberals—Bebe Brătianu, Victor Papacostea, and Constantin C. Zamfirescu. Voitec and Jumanca then served as Bloc Secretaries, on behalf of their party. A note by Hudiță suggests that, at the time, Voitec resented Petru Groza and his Ploughmen's Front, who were prevented from joining the coalition. Hudiță claims that Voitec circulated rumors according to which Groza was spying for the Soviets. The 1944 Romanian coup d'état of August 23, closely followed by a Soviet occupation, brought regime change in Romania. Voitec and Pas were not directly involved in the coup, but awaited its unfolding at a residential building in Rosetti Square. Once informed of Antonescu's arrest, they made their way to the Adevărul offices, where they reissued the socialist newspaper Libertatea. Shortly after, Voitec was promoted to the PSDR Central Committee. On September 3, Voitec, alongside Constantinescu-Iași, Mihai Ralea, Stanciu Stoian and others, produced an appeal calling for a purge of "criminal elements [from] Nazi and Nazi-camouflaged organizations", including the Iron Guard. For a while, he was in Switzerland, and sent his impressions to be published by Fapta, Mircea Damian's Bucharest newspaper. Voitec was Minister of Education—appointed, with Titel Petrescu's support, in Constantin Sănătescu's post-war government. In office from November 5, 1944, some 25 days later he promulgated the "Voitec Law", which reversed educational segregation and allowed Jewish students to matriculate in Romanian schools. This was closely followed by a decree, also signed by Pătrășcanu, Gheorghe Vlădescu-Răcoasa, and Ghiță Pop, which stated that self-reports were the only basis for describing citizens' ethnicity, and made it illegal for the state to research or impose one's ethnic affiliation. Another one of his first ordinances added gymnasium to state-subsidized compulsory education. In March 1945, Voitec joined Parhon, Simion Stoilow, and George Enescu as an honorary patron of the People's University, which was linked to the Romanian Society for Friendship with the Soviet Union. The same month, he intervened to stop Sever Bocu and other National Peasantists from creating the regional University of Timișoara, only allowing a School of Medicine and Faculty of Agronomy to be formed. In May, Voitec took personal charge of the de-fascization process in education, forming a unified Purging Committee, and legislating that all teaching staff had to submit reports on their activities in 1938–1944. From September, he issued specific orders for "book cleansing" of school libraries, including the elimination of foreign publications, and, in 1946–1947, introduced instead material put out by "democratic publishing houses". By then, his wife had also taken up political assignments. As Minister of Justice, Pătrășcanu assigned her to lead the National Orthodox Society of Romanian Women (SONFR), jointly with Titel Petrescu's wife Sofia—effectively, a liquidation committee, as SONFR was no longer active until being finally outlawed in 1948. Rise to prominence Voitec would continue to serve in Groza's cabinets until the official disestablishment of the Kingdom of Romania. Shortly after Groza's takeover, he condemned Romania's "reactionary" past, calling on socialist teachers to erect "a new country, a new ethos, a new form of schooling." A "disciplined minister" in respect to the PCR line, his tenure was marked by an officially-endorsed Stalinist campaign in education, as well as by measures taken to remove and replace non-communist teachers and professors. One focus of his tenure was the takeover of Jewish day schools, on which issue he was opposed by the country's Chief Rabbi, Alexandru Șafran. On July 6, 1945, Groza and Voitec attended the Inter-Ministerial Conference, regulating contentious issues between Romania and Hungary. It was here that Groza ruled in favor of establishing Bolyai University as a segregated institutions for Hungarians in Romania. Answering demands made by Lajos Csőgör, Voitec issued an order which allowed foreign citizens to teach at this institution. In September, Voitec joined the Romanian delegation to Moscow, discussing the application of the Romanian armistice. He and his colleagues were personally received by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. According to sociologist Dinko Tomašić, this was already a public display of his "obeisance to the lords of the Kremlin." Upon their return to Romania, Groza noted that Voitec had masterminded new forms of Romanian–Soviet cultural cooperation, whose main focus was on liquidating "the insanity and the obscurantism that have dragged peoples into a war." As members of the communist-led National Democratic Front, Voitec and Lothar Rădăceanu objected when the National Liberal Party–Tătărescu, led and named after the man who had clamped down on PSU activity in 1935, also applied to join the formation. In their counterargument, they depicted Tătărescu as "worse than a scoundrel"; in doing so, they displayed ignorance of the fact that the alliance had already been vetted by Soviet advisers. Together with Rădăceanu, Voitec led the wing of the PSDR that called for a greater alignment with PCR policies. Historian George L. Ostafi noted in 1971 that both men, alongside Pas and Barbu Solomon, illustrated the "Marxist-Leninist" current of social democracy, opposing Șerban Voinea's gradualist socialism. A separate right-wing socialist group also survived, with Ioan Flueraș at its helm. It managed to attract into its ranks Ștefanovici, who, by mid-1945, was an organizer of the anti-communist underground. Voitec and Rădăceanu's positioning was noted by Titel Petrescu, who had also emerged as an opponent of the Groza cabinet; he insisted that both men hand in their resignation from government or quit the party, but the PSDR Executive Committee defeated his resolution. Several observers remained skeptical of Voitec's pro-communism. Soviet spy S. Pivovarov reported in June 1947 that the PSDR viewed itself as powerful player, who could still govern alone. Pivovarov also quotes Voitec as playing the PCR's factions against each other: he disliked Ana Pauker and Vasile Luca, and concluded that "me and Pătrășcanu, we can take charge of this country". A British report of the same period describes the Moscow visit as a turning point in Voitec's politics, though it also mentions rumors according to which he was privately skeptical about communism. This text suggests that Voitec placed ambition over ideals, in that he wished to ascend politically, even hoping to fill in as Romanian Ambassador to Italy while preserving his ministerial office. In a November 1945 interview with Mark Foster Ethridge, Voitec argued that the 900,000-strong PSDR was in the process of dismantling the National Peasants' Party and absorbing its left-wing factions. He also estimated that the PCR only had 200,000 members, but that these were more ideologically committed. However, he also acknowledged that the distribution of government post between coalition parties was not entirely equitable. Voitec also deplored the "royal strike", expressing hopes that King Michael I could resume his collaboration with Groza. In December, he and Rădăceanu began pressing a common PCR–PSDR list for the 1946 legislative election. According to researcher Victor Frunză, they coordinated their push with agents of the Siguranța, who served communist and Soviet interests. They also obtained support from a Transylvanian faction formed around trade unionist István Lakatos, though the latter had earned the reputation of an anti-communist. In 1946–1947, Voitec was also a member of the Tătărescu-led Romanian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, and, as such, one of the signatories of the Peace Treaty with Romania. A rumor recorded by diarist Traian Chelariu had him negotiating with Constantin Vișoianu, a leader of the anti-communist exiles in France. Other accounts have it that Tătărescu and Voitec, being entirely absorbed by economic issues, as well as "subservient to the Russians", ignored another exiled politician, Grigore Gafencu. The latter was trying to obtain their signatures for a note of protest against the Soviet takeover in Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. During Voitec's leave of absence, PSDR activist Poldi Filderman organized meetings between Rădăceanu, Solomon, and other party leaders. An informant for the Siguranța claimed that such talks converged on the need to eventually merge the PSDR and the PCR into a "Singular Workers' Party". Their alleged motivation was "panic" at the realization that they would otherwise be physically destroyed, since the conference would leave Romania inside the Eastern bloc. According to this report: "their only hope is for an international intervention that may yet ease their situation." With Voitec absent, and against his instructions, the party's anti-communist caucus obtained an unusual victory, in that it selected Lakatos for an eligible position on the PSDR list. Voitec accepted this personal humiliation without intervening. In that context, Voitec also participated in the PSDR's recruitment drive, often with questionable methods. Communist cadres noted that Minister Voitec had coaxed schoolteachers into joining his party, and agreed that "such opportunism must be curbed". A well-known case was that of Ioachim Crăciun, who became Dean of the Cluj Faculty of History after befriending the minister and applying for membership. New arrivals included a former Iron Guard poet, David Portase, whom Voitec allegedly regarded as his personal friend. Voitec was nevertheless also supportive of people with anti-fascist credentials, including geologist Benone Constantin, a survivor of the Iași pogrom—who, on his intervention, became the youngest member of the PSDR Central Committee. Communist merger Rădăceanu and Voitec reintroduced their proposal as a motion during the PSDR's Conference of February–March 1946, where it won the majority endorsement. His conversion notwithstanding, Voitec was chided by Pauker for not being fully committed to the "democratization" of educational institutions, and even called "reactionary". The People's Tribunal noted in mid-1945 that Voitec had failed to verify Vasile Țepordei, a PSDR Bessarabian whom he had appointed to a teacher's position; also then, Voitec and Titel Petrescu performed a discreet favor for the nationalist doctrinaire Nichifor Crainic, who had been sentenced for his activities under Antonescu and was hiding out in the country. In June 1945, as rector of Iași University, Alexander Myller argued that the Minister was too forgiving, and not fully committed to the educational purges. His leniency is also highlighted by historian Șerban Rădulescu-Zoner: Voitec criticized teaching staff at the Central School for Girls for failing to prevent students from attending a monarchist rally in November 1945; however, he refrained from persecuting Elena Malaxa, the headmistress (and sister of industrialist Nicolae Malaxa). In parallel, Voitec had to deal with rioting students of various political hues. There was Hungarian irredentist agitation in places such as Târgu Mureș; after students held an anti-Romanian rally in February 1946, he dismissed the leadership of the Hungarian Industrial High School. The following month, Sergiu Iacovlov, a National Peasantist enrolled at the Iași Faculty of Medicine, was killed in mysterious circumstances, prompting his party to allege a communist conspiracy "to exterminate the opposition". Voitec and Rector Andrei Oțetea intervened to prevent the students and workers from going into battle with each other over the issue, informing them that the university would be shut down over any additional violence. During the establishment of Bolyai University in Cluj (June 1946), Voitec found himself challenged by a Romanian students' strike. His PSDR colleagues intervened in an attempt to curb it, before Voitec himself ordered a wave of expulsions—including that of Valeriu Anania, depicted as an Iron Guard sympathizer. In other contexts, Voitec distributed favors to the PCR elite, including his acquaintance Ceaușescu, who was emerging as regional party leader. On Voitec's orders, Ceaușescu's wife Elena was granted a secondary degree in chemistry, though she had never completed her primary education. Pandrea reports that Pătrășcanu "shoved down [Voitec's] throat" a favorite of his, Belu Zilber, who subsequently became a faculty member at the University of Bucharest. During mid-1947, the PCR organized Zilber's marginalization and prosecution, in preparation for Pătrășcanu's own downfall. Voitec initiated (or, according to Zilber himself, was forced to initiate) the purge, by going back on his earlier decision. Voitec's moves engendered a split with Titel Petrescu's Independent Socialist Party in March 1946; the main PSDR moved closer to the PCR. Both Portase and Benone Constantin quit in protest at the promised merger. In September, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej went on a political visit to France, taking with him a PSDR delegation comprising Voitec, Rădăceanu, Filderman, Voinea, and Pavel Pavel. They approached the French Section of the Workers' International, advising it to pursue unity of action with the French Communist Party. The two Romanian parties were still formally separate during the electoral campaign. The PSDR, which now operated out of Rădăceanu's townhouse, continued to lose cadres, including trade unionist Eftimie Gherman and his partisans. However, it compensated by enlisting new middle-class members, many of whom were Banat Swabians seeking to protect themselves from de-Nazification. Electioneering took Voitec as far north as Oradea, where he attended the largest of all National Democratic rallies. He was therefore present for speeches in which Pătrășcanu and Augustin Bolcaș courted Romanian nationalism for electoral purposes. Voitec appeared on the National Democratic list, winning himself a seat in the Assembly, for Dolj County. In the aftermath, Voitec pushed for a complete Communist–Social Democratic merger, but was now opposed by Rădăceanu, who, as reported by the authorities, "did not want to be towed about by the Communist Party". As noted by Combat, Rădăceanu and his followers, who formed a majority, "virulently opposed" Voitec's project to form a single party, preferring instead "an intimate collaboration in Parliament and in government." Voitec, as leader of the "leftist minority", was nevertheless able to overturn the consensus at the 13th PSDR Congress, held on October 9, 1947. In the wake of that reunion, Voitec and Rădăceanu were both General Secretaries of the party. Fusion talks dragged on to November, also due to opposition from PCR leaders Pătrășcanu and Teohari Georgescu; though he depicted Voitec as an opportunist, Gheorghiu-Dej sanctioned the union, noting that the communists' main priorities called for "liquidating the social democratic brand." By December, Gheorghiu-Dej and Voitec had come to preside over "mixed preparatory commissions" which agreed that the resulting party would be based on Stalin's teachings. At their reunions, they condemned "Anglo-American imperialist circles and their right-wing socialist agents", specifically Ernest Bevin and Léon Blum. Voitec, Pauker, Mișa Levin, Alexandru Moghioroș, Constantin Pârvulescu, Iosif Rangheț and others also organized the first unified PCR–PSDR Congress, in January 1948. The resulting group, known as the Workers' Party (PMR), came to include Voitec on its nomenklatura, probably as recognition for his role in defeating Titel Petrescu. This began immediately after the fusion: on February 24, 1948, he joined the PMR Central Committee, and was simultaneously promoted to its Politburo. Voitec's merger still created situations in which noted anti-communists had found themselves as card-carrying members of a communist party. One such case was that of Ecaterina Bălăcioiu, widow of the culture critic Eugen Lovinescu. Collective presidency Voitec's work was still deemed unreliable by the PMR, which organized its own "Political Education Commission", effectively doubling and controlling his Ministry. Under its auspices, Voitec prepared for an overhaul of Romanian education, which was now set to copy the Soviet model; in 1947, he himself led a delegation to study Soviet education practices. Some thirty years later, he acknowledged having received only three directives from Soviet advisors: he was to preserve French as a preferred second language of study, but progressively introduce Russian as the third, substitute Marxism for divinity, and introduce a heavy reliance on mathematics. Applied and "cooperative sciences" were the focus in his creation of Craiova University. Formally established in 1947, it was only partly functional from March 1948, and only existed as a school of agronomy until 1966. In October 1947, Voitec addressed a congress of the teachers' unions, underscoring the education was to be reformed to "remove destructive ideology from Romanian culture and, above all, from the minds of youths"; in the coming age, dialectical and historical materialism were to be recognized as the bases of all schooling. His measures at the time included opening up Hungarian schools for the Csángós of Cleja, Gârleni and Răcăciuni—as noted by Hungarian journalist Elvira Oláh-Gál, he was mimicking Soviet nationalist policy "in the Stalinist tradition." From November, communist Gheorghe Vasilichi became Minister Voitec's Secretary, and, effectively, his supervisor. Under Vasilichi's watch, the PMR issued circular letters referring to the "messy chaos at the Ministry", and compiled evidence that Voitec had done little to replace old-regime legislation. Together with Parhon, Mihail Sadoveanu, Gheorghe Stere, and Ion Niculi, Voitec was a member of the People's Republic Presidium—created by Law No. 363 after Michael I's forced abdication on December 30, 1947. Initially, this was designed as a regency, as prescribed under the 1923 Constitution of Romania, but Groza prohibited all mention of the old institutions even before the country could be formally proclaimed a republic. Voitec was one of the first appointees to the Presidium, before Groza ceded his seat to Sadoveanu. Four of the Presidium members were sworn in on the evening of December 30; Stere was only found and inducted on December 31. On January 1, 1948, the Presidium members attended a public rally outside the Royal Palace. Diarist Pericle Martinescu reports that the affair was unusually low-key, with unenthusiastic chants by PMR cadres braving the heavy snowfall, but nonetheless "interesting". According to historian Apostol Stan, this new constitutional arrangement signaled the introduction of "communist totalitarianism under a republican guise." During his brief tenure within the Presidium, Voitec traveled to the newly proclaimed Hungarian Republic, invited there for the Revolutionary Centennial. As noted by Victor Eftimiu, his speech to the Hungarian Assembly marked the first time a Romanian could report there about "the good relations being formed between the Romanian people and co-inhabiting nationalities, of which the Hungarian group is the most important." From April 14, Voitec served as Deputy Prime Minister in Groza's second cabinet, coordinating all cultural offices. This made him "the highest-ranking among members of [the formerly Social Democratic] group" in government. He had nevertheless lost his Ministry on December 29 or 30, 1947, after falling out of favor with Stalinists. Reportedly, Voitec himself blamed Pauker, who, according to his account, had claimed that Voitec had misquoted the advice of his Soviet contacts, to make it seem more liberal. Voitec presented himself in the elections of March 1948 for a new communist legislature, the Great National Assembly (MAN), taking a seat at Dolj. That year, he received the Star of the People's Republic and Ordinul Muncii, both 1st Class. During his final months at the Ministry, Voitec signed orders stripping hundreds of academics of their professorships, including those held by his former political allies, Hudiță and Papacostea. Papacostea left notes suggesting that Voitec had actually promised to intervene on his behalf alongside Gheorghiu-Dej, but that he never followed through, and would not answer his phone. During the backlash, Voitec's deputy, Petre Mironescu-Mera, was identified as a "reactionary instrument". Sacked and stripped of his PMR membership with Voitec's approval, he spent 1949–1956 in communist prisons. In early 1948, Voitec asked Mircea Florian, director of the school review board (Casa Școalelor), to leave Titel Petrescu and join his party, or to hand in his resignation; Florian chose the latter, exposing himself to more persecution. Marginalization and return Later in 1948, Voitec allegedly began noticing that he was being cold-shouldered by Gheorghiu-Dej, who was by then top leader of the PMR. A Securitate operative noted that Voitec's own phone line had by then been bugged in 1949, and that it remained so "for years on end". Voitec was still a Deputy Premier to April 16, 1949, when he was sent to a lesser office, as organizer of a Committee for Consumer Cooperatives. Both he and Traian Săvulescu, who was similarly relieved of his duties, declared that they intended to "devote themselves to [other] important functions they are holding." As reported by the Brazilian newspaper A Manha, his ouster and replacement with Vasile Luca were signs that the "communist coup" in Romania had been carried out to its fullest. Over the following months, however, Gheorghiu-Dej became consumed by his rivalry with Pauker and Luca, who ended up losing her positions in the PMR. During January 1950, Voitec was able to maneuver against Pauker by siding with Gheorghiu-Dej and Emil Bodnăraș. According to the anti-communist journal B.E.I.P.I., he was one of "four most obscure Politburo members" who swung the vote against Pauker. During September 1949, a PMR internal report raised suspicion about Voitec and Constantinescu-Iași, singled out for their friendship with Bruno Manzone, head of Bucharest's Italian Institute and alleged spy. In May 1950, former PSDR man Levin defected abroad, causing indignation among the Politburo. During the summit which evaluated the consequences of these events, Voitec identified Levin as a "scoundrel" who had "acted out of opportunism, even in the social-democratic party." In his memoirs of communist imprisonment, Zilber argues that Gheorghiu-Dej wished to fabricate a show trial of Voitec, Rădăceanu and Pas, preparing George Ivașcu as a witness for the prosecution. Also according to Zilber, investigators were ordered by Alexandru Drăghici to include Voitec into a vast, but fictitious, anti-party conspiratorial network. However, Gheorghiu-Dej eventually found that, in order to ensure cooperation, "it made more sense to appoint [the Social Democrats] as high dignitaries." A lesser clampdown occurred against other former members of the PSDR, including Filderman and the Ghelerter family, who were identified as Trotskyists or right-wing deviationists. According to Pandrea, Filderman's imprisonment was owed to his activities as a Freemason. By 1950, the Committee for Consumer Cooperatives had become a permanent body, called Centrocoop, with Voitec as its president. His work there included setting up a network of model apiaries, a beekeeping equipment plant in Oradea, and an itinerant school for beekeepers, which originated at Tulcea and then moved to Golești. In parallel, he was chair of Romania's Cycling Commission, presiding upon the Tour of Romania edition in June 1951. He still held on to his position in the PMR Central Committee, but lost his Politburo seat during a reshuffle on May 27, 1952. The November election brought him a MAN deputy seat for his native Corabia—which he then retook in 1957. Stalin's death in March 1953 relaxed pressures on Voitec and his circle. Martinescu notes that a "sweetening of the regime" appeared probable on August 23, 1953, when "Voitec's beard and Rădăceanu's purple-drunk face" could be seen at the PMR's official tribune. Returning to prominence, Voitec occupied important positions during the final years of Gheorghiu-Dej's rule, and preserved them once Ceaușescu took control. His comeback was signaled on October 5, 1955, when Gheorghiu-Dej made him Minister of Internal Trade. In this capacity, he appointed his friend Grigore Păsărin as a branch Director—reportedly, the first industrial worker to take up such a high position at Internal Trade. Voitec himself served to November 24, 1956, the day when he was elevated to Deputy Premier. From December 28, 1952 to July 24, 1965, Voitec was also a junior member of the PMR Politburo. Neither he nor any other among the PSDR arrivals to the Politburo were allowed an actual say in politics; moreover, from December 1955, Voitec remained one of the few interwar non-communists to still be allowed a seat on that panel. In late 1956, he and Constantin Pârvulescu formed the PMR delegation to the 8th Congress of the Italian Communist Party. Part of a state delegation to the Soviet Union in November 1957, Voitec survived the tarmac accident at Vnukovo International Airport. In September of the following year, he served with Mihai Beniuc, Athanase Joja and Lucia Sturdza-Bulandra on the citizens' committee which organized a festival marking Bucharest's Quincentennial. In September 1960, he was in New York City with Gheorghiu-Dej and Leonte Răutu, attending the Fifteenth Regular Session of the United Nations General Assembly. They returned on the Queen Mary to Cherbourg, visiting Paris on October 18. During their stay there, they held receptions which were attended by, among others, Louis Aragon, Emmanuel d'Astier de La Vigerie, Pierre Cot, Waldeck Rochet, and Jean-Claude Servan-Schreiber. Under "real socialism" Voitec maintained his government position in the cabinets of Chivu Stoica and Ion Gheorghe Maurer to March 20, 1961, serving as both Deputy Premier and Minister of Trading Goods (March 28, 1957 – April 17, 1959). He was again sent to the MAN in the election of 1961, this time as a representative of the Electroputere workers, in Craiova. He continued to represent that constituency for three more electoral cycles, being reconfirmed for the seat one final time in March 1980. On March 25, 1961, while losing his position as Deputy Premier, Voitec became one of three acting Chairmen of the State Council. Moving up to compensate for Pârvulescu's downfall, in 1961 Voitec was assigned Chairmanship of the MAN. In this capacity, he presided over the special parliamentary meetings of April 1962, which were held at the National Economy Pavilion and celebrated the completion of collectivization in Romania. He served as MAN leader continuously to March 1974, though he had lost his post in the State Council in 1965. In 1964, he was also serving on the National Council of the People's Democratic Front (the reshuffled National Democratic Front). Tomašić notes that, in 1961, Voitec was still only an "outer-ring" leader of the PMR, speculating that he was mistrusted, and deemed unworthy, "because of his Social-Democratic past, his university education, his intellectual cast of mind, and also because of his Italian wife". Signals about his heterodox convictions were still sent by General Dumitru Petrescu, who had been sidelined for "fractionism". In 1964, he sent an exculpatory letter to Gheorghiu-Dej, reminding him that Voitec had once been a Trotskyist. March 1965 marked Gheorghiu-Dej's death, with Voitec included on the honor guard at the funeral. Apostol Stan identifies Voitec, alongside Bodnăraș and Maurer, as one of Ceaușescu's key accomplices in the power struggle which took place over the following weeks. Upon Ceaușescu's ascendancy, on July 24, Voitec was advanced to full member of the Executive Committee of the Romanian Communist Party—as the Politburo and the PMR had been renamed. Like some of his colleagues there (including Răutu, Paul Niculescu-Mizil, Gogu Rădulescu, and Leontin Sălăjan), he had the distinction of not having served on the last Politburo. He maintained this office to the day of his death. Voitec presided upon the MAN session of August 21, 1965, which passed a new constitution, enshrining Romania's claim to have achieved real socialism. In his closing speech, he referred to this as a "historic session", and argued that the new organic law had increased the political and social profiles of MAN deputies. On August 29 of the following year, he was assigned to the honor guard overseeing Sălăjan's funeral. Also in 1966, Voitec received the Order of Tudor Vladimirescu, 1st Class, followed in 1971 by the Order of Socialist Victory, and in 1974 by his recognition as a Hero of Socialist Labor. During November 1967, he led a MAN delegation to Iran, invited there by the Imperial Senate. In May 1968, he welcomed at the MAN the French President Charles de Gaulle, and gave the introductory speech. During March 1972, he was in Slovakia, at Zvolen, where he and other MAN delegates honored the memory of Romanian soldiers fallen in the battles of 1945. This was followed in October 1972 by another visit to the Soviet Union, where he met high-ranking members of the Supreme Soviet, including Vasily Konotop and Alexey Shitikov. Other structural shifts came during those years. On March 28, 1974, following election by the Assembly, Voitec invested Ceaușescu as the first President of Romania. This included a ceremony during which the outgoing Assembly President handed a scepter to the executive leader. As noted by Larousse's Journal de l'année, Voitec may have been pressured into relinquishing his leadership of the MAN, so as to "further consolidate [Ceaușescu's] position." The renunciation closely followed Maurer's retirement, which was officially attributed to health complications from an earlier car crash. In 1969, Voitec himself had survived a collision between his car and a Ford Taunus, which, as he put it, "nearly killed me". Upon discovering that the offending driver was a food retailer who could afford luxuries, Voitec openly criticized market socialism as still applied in that industry. Old age and death During the reshuffle, Voitec returned to the Council of State as a Vice President, and continued to serve in that capacity until his death. This position was by then largely ceremonial, as was his election to the Superior Council for Education in February 1980. Voitec was also assigned to Ceaușescu's new mass organization, the Front of Socialist Unity and Democracy. He represented this body on an official visit to the German Democratic Republic, celebrating that regime's silver jubilee (October 1974). In April 1976, he reported to the Assembly on the institution of a Legislative Chamber of the People's Councils, which, Ceaușescu argued, was meant to democratize decision-making in the field of economy, particularly by vetting the Five-Year Plan. During the 34th anniversary of the coup against Antonescu in August 1978, Voitec chaired a meeting of communist delegates from various countries (including Luigi Longo and Giancarlo Pajetta). He spoke to them about establishing a new type of communist unity, around "independence, full equality, and respect for each party's right to autonomously enshrine its own general political line, strategy, and revolutionary tactic"; he also highlighted the importance of cooperation with social democratic and progressive groups. In 1975, anti-communist intellectual Noël Bernard suggested that Voitec still had no real power "in today's Romania." Four years later, Bernard observed that the MAN had "approved everything that the party has submitted to a vote". During that interval, Voitec had turned to scholarly pursuits. He and Ion Popescu-Puțuri, alongside manuscript editor Augustin Deac, curated the complete works of Marxist doctrinaire Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea, appearing at Editura Politică between 1976 and 1983. From 1977, Voitec, Niculescu-Mizil, Răutu and Rădulescu were assigned to a preparatory committee for the 15th International Congress of Historical Sciences, which was held in Bucharest in 1980—and which Ceaușescu ultimately used for broadcasting Dacianist theories. Voitec also appeared at the Dolj Communist Party conference on November 8, 1979, reading out Ceaușescu's "congratulations for [Dolj's] successes in fulfilling the objectives of the five-year plan". On June 18, 1980, Voitec was elected a full member of the Romanian Academy, and was reconfirmed as a member of the Star of the Socialist Republic. However, these months allegedly witnessed his second sidelining and brief disappearance from public life. Reports emerged that Voitec had used the occasion of his 80th birthday to criticize the regime and express his regrets about political choices. In January 1981, diarist and literary critic Mircea Zaciu heard rumors that Ceaușescu was preparing to have the "old ex-profiteer" kept under house arrest. Voitec and the President appeared together to cast their vote in the local elections of November 1982—part of a group which also included Elena Ceaușescu, Niculescu-Mizil, Emil Bobu, Miu Dobrescu, Suzana Gâdea, Alexandrina Găinușe, Nicolae Giosan, and Ilie Verdeț. By 1983, Radio Free Europe was commenting on the growth of Nicolae Ceaușescu's personality cult, noting that charismatic party leaders were disappearing from group photos as time progressed. Voitec had returned to the foreground, but as an "old obedient piece of social-democratic furniture". Voitec was twice operated on for colorectal cancer (malignant colorectal stenosis), but the disease relapsed and formed metastases in his lungs and blood vessels. Kept under watch by Health Minister Eugen Proca, he died at a hospital in Bucharest at 12.45 PM, on December 4, 1984. His body was incinerated; the urn was stored at the Monument of the Heroes for the Freedom of the People and of the Motherland, for Socialism in Carol Park. After the anti-communist revolt of 1989, it was sent back to the nearby crematorium, where it remained unclaimed by relatives. Reportedly, his Dobrogeanu-Gherea edition remains "virtually irretrievable in public libraries", possibly because of an anti-communist literary purge, which took place "in the early months of 1990". According to newspaper reports, Voitec had been registered as a voter in post-communist Romanian elections as late as November 1996; based on his address, he had been assigned to the Jean Monnet Section, in Primăverii. Legacy As an icon of opportunism Historian Sorin Radu identifies Voitec, Rădăceanu, and "up to a point Titel Petrescu" as opportunists who "compromised the ideals of social democracy and of democracy as a political system". As noted by Radu, the label of "collaborator", applied by the Voitec faction to right-wing socialists such as Ioan Flueraș, can be applied to Voitec himself, in relation to the PCR. Writing Voitec's obituary in 1984, exile political scientist Vladimir Tismăneanu argued: "In his own way, very often a contradictory way, tinged by justified fears and unavowable doubts, Ștefan Voitec's political praxis most categorically stood apart from that of his 'thoroughbred' communist comrades. Without overexposing himself, without venturing into unwinnable political squabbles, Voitec took care not to become anything more than the spectator to a political game which he felt was fundamentally alien to his psyche." Tismăneanu cautions that such traits could not bracket out Voitec's "capital role in undermining the legitimate leadership of Romanian social democracy": "Alongside Lothar Rădăceanu, he contributed to maintaining confusion in the mass base of the social democratic party, cautioned collaborationist stances, and gave his approval to the operation which ended with the 'big gulp' of social democracy in the so-called unification congress of February 1948." In the post-communist decade, Sergiu Cunescu led a revived Social Democratic Party. He was replaced as chairman by Alexandru Athanasiu, who in 2000 aligned the party with the stronger Party of Social Democracy, widely seen as a successor of the PCR; commenting on these developments, which he opposed, Cunescu depicted Athanasiu as a "new Ștefan Voitec". According to Stan, Voitec, like Maurer and Alexandru Bârlădeanu, was a man of "certain intellectual openness", and as such stood above other figures in Gheorghiu-Dej's "clan", itself largely formed around "mediocrities". Before their ideological split, Titel Petrescu had commended "my friend Ștefan Voitec" for his work in collecting "socialist literature and old documents". Tismăneanu notes that Voitec was once regarded as the would-be theoretician of Romanian moderate socialism, "one who was so very well acquainted with the works of Karl Kautsky and Eduard Bernstein", and therefore fully educated about the critique of communism from the left. The same issue had been raised in 1963 by his exiled former employer, Pamfil Șeicaru: "Voitec was well trained in Marxist sociology and knew the history of Soviet Russia. What then could he expect from those who invaded our Country? [...] Romanian democrats, whatever their political affiliation, had the heads of poultry." However, in 1949, anarchist Alberto Casanueva argued that ministers such as Voitec, Gheorghiu-Dej, and Mihail Lascăr had lost prominence because of their failure to uphold the Soviet line, whereas Pauker and Pârvulescu were rewarded for their staunch Stalinism. There are also indications that Voitec was made malleable by his political dossier. Memoirist Adrian Dimitriu notes that Titel Petrescu once tried to defend Voitec's contribution to Nazi propaganda as authorized by the PSDR, because it could spare him from being called under arms; however, both this episode and his earlier Trotskyism exposed Voitec to permanent communist blackmail. Claiming to report a statement by communist militant Valentina Mihăileanu, Pandrea suggests that Voitec's "fundamental trait" was his cowardice. The incriminating articles were therefore written by Voitec "for fear, fear of the Soviet–Hitlerist war". Following their break with Stalin, Titoist authorities in neighboring Yugoslavia (where his name was casually misprinted as "Noitek") also used this detail against Romanian Stalinists. An April 1950 article in Vjesnik underscored that Voitec, a Central Committee man, had been a "fascist journalist on the Eastern Front". Historian Ovidiu Bozgan suggests that Voitec should be noted for his "philosophy of survival and weariness". This remark was prompted to Bozgan a 1961 dialogue between Voitec and the French ambassador, Pierre Bouffanais. When the latter commented on the paradox that Pauker, once depicted as a rightist, was condemned by the same regime as a "Stalinist", Voitec allegedly replied: "Let those folks carry on with their small business." According to Tomašić, by that moment Voitec's services to the PMR were purely ideological: "[he represents] the myth of 'Socialist unity' to the outside world. Within such a framework, Voitec might be used as a link with the Social Democrats in the countries outside the Soviet orbit, particularly since the Kremlin counts on the support of Socialists and other left-wing circles in its various 'peace' and 'coexistence' moves." Private networking and cultural image In December 1944, Ion Vinea reported his disappointment that Voitec would not defend him, and would not vouch for him as an anti-fascist. With time, however, Voitec became recognized as a protector of his PSDR and PSU colleagues. He intervened in favor of sociologist Henri H. Stahl, brother of the disgraced Șerban Voinea, who had publicized his unorthodox belief that Romanian history was rooted in "Asiatic despotism" and had introduced his pupils to Bernstein's work. In 1951, Voitec asked that Poldi Filderman be granted a fair trial, though making it clear that he himself would not dispute the charges. After 1958, he personally obtained rehabilitation for Radu Grigorovici, the orphaned son of Social Democratic leader George Grigorovici. In 1969, he arranged for Papacostea's daughter, historian Cornelia Papacostea-Danielopolu, to be granted a Romanian passport, which allowed her to visit France. By 1970, Voitec was openly demanding that the PSDR and PSU membership be recognized by the PCR as a pedigree similar to that of first-generation communists. In old age, Voitec also maintained a correspondence with his old political friend, Gheorghe Cristescu, who had since been imprisoned and rehabilitated by the communist regime. As noted by historian Corneliu C. Ilie, the letters display Cristescu's "uncanny mental frailty". In March 1968, Voitec reportedly intervened to prevent Cristescu from publicly marking the golden jubilee of the Romanian–Bessarabian union. As he argued, this celebration, organized by Pan Halippa, would have drawn negative coverage in the Soviet Union. Voitec attended the funeral of Cristescu's wife Aneta Victoria, which witnessed another one of Halippa's attempts at a protest. Also in 1968, Voitec reputedly hinted to the exiled writer Otto Eduard Marcovici that he could return home and resume work in the communist press. As an Education Minister, Voitec had an ambiguous legacy. According to writer Felix Aderca, his reform of the gymnasiums was a positive measure, which could civilize Romanian youths. For this reason, Voitec's name "shall never be forgotten." By contrast, the anti-communist educationist Onisifor Ghibu defined his tenure as engendering "the corruption of youth, the betrayal of religion, without even an effort to justify these". Later in life, one of Voitec's main cultural achievements was his successful attempt to obtain posthumous recognition for Dobrogeanu-Gherea, who had been the heterodox doyen of Romanian Marxism. As a cultural aficionado and MAN deputy, he also played a major part in approving and constructing the new National Theater Craiova (1966–1973). Voitec cultivated Craiova historian Titu Georgescu, with whom he would discuss affairs in "our native city." According to Georgescu, in 1967 Voitec helped convince hardliner Leonte Răutu to allow the publication of a popular history review, Magazin Istoric. Its very first issue featured a history of the Singular Workers' Front, which was partly based on Voitec's oral testimony. Voitec was additionally remembered for his Van Dyke beard, which reportedly made him a "pleasant figure", but also exposed him to further ridicule. Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu once referred to Voitec as "that beard", while Pandrea records that he was universally known as the "bearded lady". From 1948, Voitec was the only Romanian communist leader to go unshaven, his style appearing especially "strange" by 1957. In 1959, the authorities clamped down on beatnik lifestyles, including by having Militiamen forcefully shave non-compliant youth. According to historian Matei Cazacu, those beatniks who complained that Voitec was bearded, as an attempt to litigate the issue, "were reserved the harshest punishments". Notes References 1900 births 1984 deaths Deputy Prime Ministers of Romania State Council of Romania Romanian Ministers of Education Presidents of the Great National Assembly Titular members of the Romanian Academy Recipients of the Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Romania) Heads of Centrocoop Romanian Trotskyists Leaders of political parties in Romania Romanian Social Democratic Party (1927–1948) politicians Romanian Communist Party politicians Romanian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference of 1946 Romanian human rights activists Romanian activist journalists Romanian Marxist journalists Romanian newspaper editors Romanian war correspondents War correspondents of World War II Romanian censors Romanian librarians Romanian encyclopedists Romanian book publishers (people) Romanian travel writers Romanian schoolteachers Romanian educational theorists University and college founders People from Corabia Romanian people of Italian descent Carol I National College alumni University of Bucharest alumni Politehnica University of Bucharest alumni Romanian people of World War II Deaths from cancer in Romania Deaths from colorectal cancer
5249121	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Museum%20of%20Serbia	National Museum of Serbia	The National Museum of Serbia () is the largest and oldest museum in Belgrade, Serbia. It is located in the central zone of Belgrade on a square plot between the Republic Square, formerly Theatre Square, and three streets: Čika Ljubina, Vasina and Laze Pačua. Its main facade is on the Republic Square and the official address ia 1a Republic Square. The museum was established on 10 May 1844. It moved into the present building in 1950, with the grand opening of the venue on 23 May 1952. Since its founding, the museum's collection has grown to over 400,000 objects, including many foreign masterpieces. The National Museum of Serbia building was declared a Monument of Culture of Great Importance in 1979. History Before the erection of the building of the National Museum on this place was a famous tavern called "Dardanelles", meeting point of the cultural and artistic elite of the time. Demolition of the old tavern signified the beginning of the transformation of The Republic Square. The building which housed the most important museum of the Republic of Serbia today originally was built from 1902 to 1903, for the purpose of the Uprava Fondova, the oldest financial institution in Belgrade. The building was constructed according to the design of architects Andra Stevanović and Nikola Nestorović after a competition on which they received the first prize. It was one of the first buildings in which was used some form of reinforced concrete for the foundation. Actually, during the digging foundation trenches, the various pits, wells and basements were encountered because of the proximity of the former Stambol Gate. The newly built two-storeyed building was a real palace of its time. Its volume conception designed in the form of a long solid block with domes over the central and lateral Rizal sites and academic façade shape was based on the principles of neo-Renaissance style with neo-baroque elements on the domes. The greatest attention was given to the monumental staircase and the hall with bank windows which as the basic premises of a bank was given secondary importance. Almost three decades later, the increased development of the State Mortgage Bank of Yugoslavia (), the successor entity to , generated a need for a reconstruction of the building. The extension was made without competition by architect Vojin Petrović, who designed the added wing and atrium facing the street Laze Paču. The new part of the building contained the same elements of interior as the old part, and in the final image, the building got two monumental staircases and two halls with bank windows while only the upper floors form the continuous line of offices. During World War II Mortgage Bank building was bombed and the central part with the dome was destroyed. After the war, the building got a completely new purpose when one of the most important national cultural institutions moved in. Since its establishment during the Constitutionalist, until the end of the Second World War, the National Museum changed location several times. At a beginning, it was placed in Captain Miša's building (1863) and soon after it was moved into two adjacent buildings which were destroyed during World War I. At the same time, the museum art collections were seized and looted by the invaders. During the interwar period, the museum didn't get its own building. The museum was located in a rented private house at 58 Kneza Miloša street. In 1935 the New Royal Palacе became the residence of the museum and named the Royal Museum. Subsequently, it was renamed into the Museum of Prince Paul which consisted of Historical Museum and the Museum of Contemporary Art (founded in 1929), which merged in 1935. The museum managed to avoid destruction during the initial Nazi bombing of Belgrade in April 1941. Professor and major noted this in his 1941 report. He was head of the Referat for the Protection of the Cultural Values in Serbia, a local offshoot of the German Kunstschutz. Von Reiswitz inspected the museum, noting that 100,000 exhibits are preserved, except for some items which went missing in the initial stage of the war: some one hundred coins, eight archaeological artefacts, and two paintings "without greater value". In 1948 the New Palace was restored and became the administrative seat of the Republic. For that purpose, the museum was transferred into a building of the former Stock Exchange on Student Square, and partly to the Palace of Princess Ljubica. The first architectural competition for the proper National Museum building planned to be on Tašmajdan was announced the following year. The author of the design was an architect Miladin Prljevic but the Cominiform disapproved of this idea. Then the museum was transferred into the building of Mortgage Bank. After World War II, the first renovation of the bank building was done by architect Dobroslav Pavlovic in 1950 but the overall reconstruction of the building was made 1965–1966 by architects Alexander Deroko, Petar Anagnosti and Zoran Petrović. The central dome was restored and the central tract with offices and workspaces was lifted. After an adaptation, the original hall with bank windows was converted into a library. The originally main and monumental three-way staircase entrance from the Republic Square received an internal character while the other entrance from Vasina street became the main entrance to the museum, which is connected directly to the other hall with bank windows was. In a functional arrangement, the building underwent upgrading doubling space and communications, while in terms of design, maintained the characteristic elements of 1902 and in terms of art as an integral unity. Interior renovation from the sixties of the 20th century was done in such a manner that it is not visible from the outside and it doesn't disturb the communications inside the museum. 2003–2018 reconstruction In 2003, the permanent exhibition was dismantled and the building was closed for the impending reconstruction, but the process dragged on for years, including the gaps when nothing was done at all, and by January 2018 the museum was still not open. On 25 January 2012, after ten years of the National Museum in Belgrade being closed to the public, Vladimir Bogdanović of the leading Serbian newspaper/website Press wrote an article called A decade of cultural genocide against the Serbs, commenting on the need and importance of a working national museum. He also criticized the preservation of the art in the museum. The façade was finished in 2015 and had to be reconstructed to its original look as the building is under the state protection. In mid-2016 the works on the interiors began. The entrance into the museum from the Vasina Street will remain the main entry point, while the exit doors that lead to the Square of the Republic, with its architectural staircase, will be adapted to be the exit point. The new permanent exhibit will represent the cultural development in this part of Europe from prehistory to the 20th century, with an emphasis on the Serbian cultural heritage. The 18th and 19th centuries art will be exhibited on the first floor, so as the 20th-century Yugoslav art. In the atrium of the building, there are vaults, left from the period when the venue served as a bank, which will be adapted into the exhibition depots. The look of the vault will be preserved and will serve for the presentation of the museum numismatic collection, from the beginning of the coin minting to the 20th century. In addition, a collection of the medallion art will be exhibited here, too. The construction works should be finished by March 2018, when the preparation and setting of the collections should start. On 18 June 2018, 10 days before the scheduled opening, reporters from the daily Politika visited the museum. They reported that the venue doesn't look like something to be open in several days, and the employees confirmed that it would take at least six more months to complete everything, but that the museum will be open as scheduled. The reporters were not allowed to photograph everything. Even though the reconstruction projects, by architects Milan Rakočević and Vladimir Lojanica, envisioned several major changes (including the reconstruction of the glass roof and a dome destroyed during the heavy 1944 Allied Easter bombing of Belgrade), nothing was actually changed so after 15 years the building wasn't thoroughly reconstructed as announced, but only refurbished. This way the capacity of the exhibition space wasn't enlarged, so the permanent exhibition will have 3,000 pieces, out of 400,000. The large mural by Mladen Josić, painted in the 1930s and located on the wall of the mezzanine, was preserved. Josić painted another mural, close to the former dome, but was destroyed in the 1944 bombing. One of the remnants of the 1966 reconstruction, when the museum was managed by Lazar Trifunović, is a window decorated with the wrought iron. The window was originally facing outside until 1933 when the annex was added to the building. Re-opening and name change The National Museum in Belgrade was officially re-opened on 28 June 2018. The grand re-opening ceremony included projections on the building's facade, as well as a promotional video featuring famous Ukrainian ballet dancer Sergei Polunin. National Museum in Belgrade was renamed to National Museum of Serbia, on 8 April 2021. Today The National Museum of Serbia is a representative public building, monumental in size and volume, as well as its external shape and style. That is especially visible in the entrance area with twin columns and magnificent dome. All the facades characterized by polychrome ornaments neo-Renaissance origin. Monumentality is also reflected in the interior with rich decoration done by famous artists of the time: Andrea Domenico (also known as a painter of decorative wall painting that is in the interior of the building of the Old Palace), Franz Valdman and Bora Kovacevic. Because of its architectural and cultural, urban and historical value building of the National Museum in Belgrade is established for the cultural heritage monument of great importance for the Republic of Serbia. Collections The museum has 34 archeological, numismatic, artistic and historical collections today. Archeological collections The main collection consists of sculptures from Vinca (6th–5th millennium BC) such as Lady of Vinča and Lepenski Vir (7th millennium BC). There are also numerous sculptures, weapons, helmets and other items from ancient Rome, 1005 items from ancient Greece and various items of Celtic origin. The most valuable pieces from that period are Dupljaja Chariot (16th–13th century BC), golden masks from Trebeništa (6th century BC), household sets from Jabučje (1st century AD), the Belgrade Cameo (4th century) and a Silver belt with swastika (5th century BC). There is also a collection from ancient Egypt. The most famous piece is a rare gold sarcophagus and mummy of the Egyptian priest Nesmin. Numismatics The Numismatic Collection has more than 300,000 items (coins, medals, rings, seals). The collection is divided into ten smaller assemblies from 6th–5th century BC, and includes a collection of coins issued by Philip II of Macedon (359–336 BC) and Alexander the Great (336–323 BC). The collection also contains unique items: a golden medallion of Emperor Valentinian I, minted 364 AD, silver Dinars from the reign of King Stefan Radoslav of Serbia, and others. Medieval collection The museum also holds a large collection of medieval artifacts, mostly from Europe and Asia. The most important is the illustrated 362 page manuscript of the Miroslav Gospels written in 1186 in Kingdom of Serbia (medieval). The manuscript was entered into UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in recognition of its historical value. The collection also includes the sarcophagus of Saint King Stefan Decanski from the 14th century, rings belonging to the Serbian Queen Theodora (before 1322) and King Stephen Radoslav of Serbia (1219–20), King Milutin's mantle from the 1300s, the Eulogy to Prince Lazar – Euphemia's famous embroidery from 1402, about 120 icons from 1200 to 1500, including the Ohrid collection. Art collection The Collection of Drawings and Prints of International Artists has 2,446 items and the Yugoslav Art Collection has more than 6,000 items, including 1,700 paintings of Serbian authors from 18th to 19th century and 3,000 paintings from the 20th century. This does not include the Serbian Medieval Art Collection. The museum includes Serbian medieval, French, Dutch, Flemish, Italian, Russian, German, Japanese, Chinese (from 1644 to 1978), English, Spanish, Hungarian, Romanian, Bulgarian, Yugoslav and miscellaneous art collections. In total the collection numbers some 16,000 paintings, graphics, drawings, icons and prints, plus over 900 sculptures. The French masters collection is the National Museum's most significant holding. It comprises extremely rare pieces from Matisse, Picasso, Renoir, Rouault, Degas, Cézanne and others. Most of these paintings were collected and donated by Prince Paul of Yugoslavia. Erih Šlomović, a young Belgrader born at the turn of the 20th century, became in his youth the protégé of the world's biggest art merchant, Ambroise Vollard. The connection led him to develop his own collection, comprising a total of 600 pieces by 1941. The Šlomović Collection is the largest and richest collection of French art in the Balkans, as well as one of the most beautiful in the world. Italian art collection The Italian Art Collection, consisting of more than 230 works of art, is famous for containing creative works from individual masters and artistic workshops from the 14th to the 20th century. They include works by Domenico Veneziano, Giovanni di Paolo, Raphael, Titian, Tintoretto, Domenico Robusti, Vittore Carpaccio, Lorenzo di Credi, Guido Reni, Spinello Aretino, Francesco Bassano the Younger, Leandro Bassano, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Canaletto, Francesco Guardi, Giulio Carpioni, Andrea Celesti, Biagio Faggioni etc. The graphic and etching collection includes work by Botticelli, Annibale Carracci, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Paolo Veronese, Amedeo Modigliani, Luigi Ontani, Guglielmo Achille Cavellini, Giuseppe Pinot-Gallizio, and others. Highlights in the museum include: Paolo Veneziano, Madonna and Child (Tempera on panel, c. 1324), Paolo di Giovanni Fei, Madonna with Christ on the Throne (triptych 48 x 45 cm c.1390) Lorenzo Veneziano, Nativité (Tempera – 76.3 x 54.8 cm) Giovanni Di Paolo, Lord and Three Angels (tempera 54 x 27 cm) Raphael attribution, Madonna with Christ and small St.John, 114x116 cm Andrea Solari, Christ Ecce Hommo Lorenzo di Credi, Adoration (d: 96 cm – tempera, c. 1500) Vittore Carpaccio, Holy Pilgrim (110x37cm-part of polyptych) and St. Sebastian (108 x 36 cm – 1495 – part of polyptych) Titian, Nicolas Vicarius Portrait (canvas 200x100cm), Portrait of Catherine of Austria (Oil on canvas – 110 x 83 cm) Tintoretto, Madonna and Child with Donor (oil on canvas, d: 158 cm, 1524) Leonello Spada, Judith and Halophen (canvas 220x150 cm) Domenico Robusti, Portrait of Venetian (canvas 200x127cm) Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Saint Family, Collecting Mana attributed (oil on canvas) Canaletto, A view of the Grand Canal (oil on canvas 60 x 95 cm) Francesco Guardi, Plaza San Marco, Venice (oil on canvas 75 x 99 cm −1765) Dutch and Flemish collection The Dutch and Flemish collection consists of more than 500 works (210 paintings of art and 220 graphics and engravings, and over 80 drawings). The National Museum in Belgrade was the first museum in the world to include a Piet Mondrian painting in its permanent display. Represented artists include Juan de Flandes, Hieronymus Bosch, Cornelis de Vos, Anthony van Dyck, Antonis Mor, Jan Brueghel the Elder, Marten de Vos, Joos van Cleve, Jan Antonisz. van Ravesteyn, Rubens, Jan van Goyen, Justus Sustermans, Simon de Vos, Jan Victors, Willem van Aelst, Frans van Mieris, Sr., Paulus Potter, Caspar Netscher, Jan Frans van Bloemen, Adam Frans van der Meulen, Godfried Schalcken, Adriaen van Utrecht, Johan Jongkind, Kees van Dongen, Anton Mauve, Allart van Everdingen, Vincent van Gogh and Piet Mondrian. Highlights in the museum include: Juan de Flandes, Saint John the Baptist Sermon, (oil on wood, c. 1497, 80×52 cm) Hieronymus Bosch, The Temptation of Saint Anthony, (tempera on panel, 52x×39 cm) Joos van Cleve, Portrait of a man with the rosary, (oil on panel, 58×41 cm) Antonis Mor, Portrait of Spanish Nobleman (oil on canvas, 130x105cm) Marten de Vos, Paradise (oil on panel, 160 x 205 cm), Peter Paul Rubens, Diana gifts catch to Pan (oil on canvas, 145×211.5 cm, c.1615) Jan Brueghel the Elder, Flowers (oil on canvas 66×50 cm, 1616) Cornelis de Vos, Portrait of Young Girl Frans van Mieris, Sr., The Music Lesson (oil on panel, 35×29 cm) Jan van Goyen, Landscape (oil on panel, 47×67 cm) Adriaen van der Werff, Flute Lessons Vincent van Gogh, Peasant Woman Standing Indoors (oil on panel, 42×28 cm) Kees van Dongen, Portrait of Lady Mini Monne Piet Mondrian, Composition II (oil on canvas, 45×45 cm) French art collection The French Art Collection consists of more than 250 paintings and more than 400 graphics and drawings, from the 16th to early 20th century, including the Slomovic Collection (58 paintings and over 200 graphics). Among the French painters represented in the collection are Nicolas Tournier, Robert Tournières, Hubert Robert, Gauguin, Renoir, Lautrec, Matisse, Monet, Cézanne, Degas, Corot, Paul Signac, Maurice Utrillo, Rodin, Georges Rouault, Pierre Bonnard, Pissarro, Redon, Gustave Moreau, Honoré Daumier, Eugène Carrière, Maurice de Vlaminck, André Derain, Suzanne Valadon, Forain, Robert Delaunay, Rosa Bonheur, Marie Laurencin, Félix Ziem. The graphic and etching collection includes work by Charles Le Brun, Sébastien Bourdon, Jacques Callot, Charles-François Daubigny, Degas, Delacroix, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, Le Corbusier (3 graphic), Renoir, Jean Cocteau, Eugène Carrière, etc. . Some of the museum French Highlights are: Nicolas Tournier, Concert (canvas 120x169cm) (Earlier, attributed to Caravaggio) Robert Tournières, Regent and Ms De Parabere (canvas 96x130 cm) Jean-Marc Nattier, Portrait of Lady with Flower (canvas 73x59 cm) Hubert Robert, Stairway of Farnese Palace Park (canvas 217x149cm) Cézanne, Bathers (watercolor), Renoir, Nude (canvas 129.5 cm × 172.7 cm (51 in × 68 in)) Monet, Rouen Cathedral (canvas) Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Female portrait (canvas), Gauguin, Tahitian girl (oil on canvas – 143 x 98 cm), Degas, Bust man in soft hat Pissarro, Place du Theatre Francais-Sun effect (canvas), Matisse, Beside the Window (canvas) Corot, In the Park (canvas) and Landscape from Italy (canvas), André Derain, Sailboats at Carriéres, (canvas) Paul Signac, Woman drink a tea (canvas), Pierre Bonnard, Reading Lady (canvas), Édouard Vuillard, Interior (tempera), Robert Delaunay, Runners (canvas) Russian art collection The Russian art collection has 90 paintings, and numerous prints, etchings and was mostly donated by Prince Paul of Yugoslavia. The collection also has over 100 icons from the 15th to the 19th centuries. The collection includes work by painters and sculptors such as Ivan Aivazovsky, Marc Chagall, Kandinsky, Roerich, Repin, Filipp Malyavin, Alexei Harlamov, Mikhail Larionov, Boris Grigoriev, Vladimir Borovikovsky, Pavel Kuznetsov, Konstantin Korovin, Kazimir Malevich, Alexandre Benois, El Lissitzky, Mstislav Dobuzhinsky, Alexander Nikolayevich Samokhvalov, Pyotr Nilus etc. Some of Russian Art Highlights are: Orest Kiprensky, Portrait of Emperors Son (canvas) Ivan Aivazovsky, On the Black Sea Coast (canvas 90×130 cm) Nicholas Roerich Holy Guests (canvas 82×153), Church Bells Tolling, Wassily Kandinsky, Binc on Rugen, Orange 1923. Ilya Repin, Nikolai Kuznetcov Portrait, Woman dressed traditionally, Konstantin Makovsky, Portrait of Prince Nikolai Michailovich (canvas 107×73 cm), Vladimir Borovikovsky, Portrait of Karageorge (1816) Marc Chagall, Old man and cow, Alexander Archipenko, Two women El Lissitzky, Winning over Sun (aquarel) English art collections Includes painters usually from the late 19th century, mostly impressionist and post-impressionist. The vast majority of the collection was donated by Prince Paul of Yugoslavia before World War II. In collection is 64 paintings and watercolors and 51 graphics and etchings. They include painters such as Alfred Sisley, Charles Conder, Philip Wilson Steer, Walter Sickert, Hermione Hammond, James Bolivar Manson, Wyndham Lewis, Roger Fry, Duncan Grant, Vanessa Bell and Rowland Fisher, and graphic works from William Hogarth. Some of English Art works are: Charles Jervas, Portrait of Anthony van Dyck John Constable, Landscape (watercolor) George Morland, Stable with Boars Clarkson Frederick Stanfield, Sea with Fishermans Sailboats (1862) Frank Holl, Return from Walking (1877) Alfred Sisley, Barges on the Loing Charles Conder, On the beach Walter Sickert, Street in Dieppe George Frederic Watts, Lady Garvagh James Bolivar Manson, Still Life with Flowers, View from Houton Sussex Augustus John, Infaint portrait Beatrice Duncan Grant, Sunny Countryside, Haystacks William Rothenstein, Laurence of Arabia Portrait 1921 (canvas) Roger Fry, Nude on the Spring 1921 Vanessa Bell, Roofs Japanese art collection The Japanese Art Collection has 220 works including 36 graphics and paintings (all the graphics belonging to the Ukiyo-e genre, which developed in Japan from the 17th to 19th century – one of the most frequent motifs was the city of Edo). The collection also contains work from Kunisada, Toyokuni, Keisai Eisen, Hiroshige, Utamaro, and Tsuguharu Foujita. Kunisada: Actor Portraits series, Wind gusts, Act from series Geishas , Toyokuni : Actor Portraits series, Kabuki Theater, Lady with friend Hiroshige: One Hundred Views of Edo (series of graphics), Nihon and Edo bridge, Garden with plum trees, Fashion store in Olema street Ginko Adaci: Ladies Sadahida Giokuran, Geisha Hanaogi Utamaro, Boy and mouse Austrian and German art collections Austrian and German art collection in National Museum in Belgrade has 112 paintings and numerous graphics and etchings. Painters were usually from 19th and 20th century, while graphics are from the 15th century. Most famous painters in collection are Max Liebermann, Lovis Corinth, Fritz von Uhde, Karl Hofer, while prints works include Albrecht Dürer (49 prints), Gustav Klimt, Lovis Corinth, Max Slevogt etc. Most paintings were donated by House of Obrenović and Prince Paul of Yugoslavia. Some of the works are: Philipp Peter Roos, Shepherd with the Herd (c. 1690) Peter Strudel, Pan with Puttas (canvas 190 x 99 cm c. 1690) Georg Philipp Rugendas, Battle from Three Hundred Years' War (canvas 89x123cm c. 1700) Jacob Philipp Hackert, Ruins (watercolor 1781) Franz Krüger, Portrait of Elenore Mayer Gerhard (canvas 1840) and Portrait of Wolf Mayer Moritz Michael Daffinger, Prince Milos Obrenovic Portrait Max Liebermann, House with Garden, Flea Market in Munich Franz Eybl, Portrait of Emillia von Kommeter Leopold Kupelwieser, Portrait of Man with white collar Friedrich von Amerling, Portrait of Young Woman Fritz von Uhde, Woman on the window (1890) Moise Kisling, Woman in black dress c.1928, Female Act Max Ernst, Conversation with Himera Friedrich August von Kaulbach, Head of the Woman (pastel) Hans Thoma, Landscape in Swarcvald Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, Portrait of Ms. Tatichek, Portrair oh Heinrih Tatichek, Portrait of Young Woman Lovis Corinth, Memory of the ball (aquarell), Forest (ink) Karl Hofer, Still Life Others Art Collections Other Art Collection in National Museum in Belgrade include works from Spain, USA, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Australia, China, Canada etc..Collections include paintings from El Greco, Picasso, Mary Cassatt, Burne Hogarth, Felix Philipp Kanitz, László Moholy-Nagy, Eduardo Arroyo, Erró, Sol LeWitt etc. Some of works are: El Greco, Holy Mother of Consolation (1560–1570) {On loan from Serbian Orthodox Church} Pablo Picasso (13 works), Head of the Woman (oil on canvas), Two Women (watercolor), Interior with Three Figures (drawing), Modest Meal (drawing), Woman with Book (etching), Horseman (drawing), Arlekin (pastel) etc. Charles Jervas Van Dyck Portrait Antoni Clavé, Composition I, Composition II and Composition III Charles Demuth, Flowers Julius Rolshoven, Female Act Frederic Porter Vinton, Landscape with the Lake Theodoor Verstraete, The Pond Mary Cassatt, (7 pastels), Girl with Cat, Girl and Dog, Woman Holding a Child, etc. Leon Kroll, Miroslav Spalajković Portrait Mark Tobey, Hornpipe (oil on cardboard) Alfred Stevens (painter), Woman gathering shells 1883. Sol LeWitt, Composition with yellow, blue and red (gouaches) Neville Lewis, Black Woman Jules Pascin, Terrace(1920) Endre Nemes, Visiting Paris (aquarel), Composition (aquarel) and Needlework (canvas) Aurél Bernáth, Mikulas, (pastel) Wacław Borowski, After Hunting (canvas 100x86cm) Roman Artymowski, Pesimistic Landscape (canvas 60x81cm) Stanisław Witkiewicz, Han Saraj Kazimierz Sichulski, Conquering Kraków 1025 AD (tempera 150x317cm) Jaroslav Čermák (painter), Refugies from Herzegovina) Nikola Marinov, Three Females (watercolor), Two Girls in the Field Bencho Obreshkov, Bridge over Maritza, Prince Paul of Yugoslavia, Still Life with Cherries, Vase with Blue Flowers, Landscape Felix Philipp Kanitz, Soko town, Timok Valley, Nis, Janja Tana, Kalna Tana, Timok Gorge and Pirot Mór Than, Karageorge Murder (1863, 110x142) Erró, From Mouse Hole, A Moi (serigraphic), No Name Guillotine Antonio Seguí, Farewell to Arms Zao Wou Ki, Landscape in Great Valley (watercolor) Serbian and Yugoslav art collection The Serbian and Yugoslav Art Collection consisting of more 6000 pieces created between the 17th and 20th century. Some of the artists represented are: Marina Abramović, Paja Jovanović, Stojan Aralica, Petar Lubarda, Milan Konjović, Uroš Predić, Đura Jakšić, Marko Murat, Đorđe Andrejević Kun, Nadežda Petrović, Petar Dobrović, Mića Popović and Sava Šumanović. There are also Slovenian Art works with Matija Jama- (7 canvases), Avgust Černigoj – (6 works), Sketch for theater, Rihard Jakopič – (7 canvases) Birch Trees, Ivan Grohar, Na Pasi and Matej Sternen (4 canvases) Female Reader etc. Teodor Kračun, Christ Resurrection (c. 1780), St. Apostle Thomas, St. Apostle Mark, St. John's Divine and Abraham's Victim Konstantin Danil, Madonna, Male Portrait, Still Life, Stanci Deli Portrait, Archangel Gabriel, Ms Vajgling Portrait, Ms Tetesi Portrait, General Stevan Knicanin Portrait, Portrait of Lady with Cross and MsWife Sofia Portrait Paja Jovanović, Crowning of Stefan Dušan, The Wedding of Stefan Dusan, Portrait of Ms. Hudson, Nikola Pašić Portrait, Woman in pink dress, Selling Manasija Monastir model, Ms. Pupin Portrait, Decorating Bride, Arnaut with cibok, The Fencing Lesson, His wife Munie, Portrait of Woman with Hat, The Uprising at Takovo, Stefan Decanski, Sopoćani Monastir, Portrait of Romanian King Ferdinand, Diana, Nude, Portrait of Simington, Portrait of Josip Broz Tito, Furor Teutonicus, Flowers, Cocks fighting, Portrait of Gedeon Dundjerski, Portrait of Ms. Hudson, House in Kars, Traitor, Motive from Celarevo, Marco, Milos and Vila and Prince Lazar Nadežda Petrović (86 paintings), Kosovo peonies, Self Portrait Uroš Predić (13 paintings), Amoretti, Small Philosopher, Fieldmarshal Živojin Mišić Portrait, Saint Sava bless children, Hardworking hands, Cheerful brothers, Konstantin Danil Portrait, Djordje Krstic Portrait, Ljuba Ivanović Portrait, Girl with doll, Orphan and Refugees from Herzegovina Đura Jakšić, Self Portrait, Woman in blue dress, Karadjordje Assassination, Prince Milan Obrenovic Portrait, Director Ciric Portrait, Prince Michael on catafalque, Emperor Dusan, Watchtower, St. George, Prince Marco, Banovic Strahinja, Fireworks on the Stambol Gate and Christ on the forest Beta Vukanović, Summer Day Uroš Knežević (2 paintings), Boy with feather Petar Dobrović (21 paintings) Karlo's Bridge, Monumental Horses on San Marco Square in Venice, Shipan, Adriatic landscape, Ana Trezibašić Portrait Đorđe Krstić (13 paintings), Woman underneath apple tree, Anatomist, Studenica Monastery, Zica Monastery, Drawn Girl, Djele Kula, On the spring, St. Nickolas, St.George's Oath, Zica Monastery Interior, Babakajand Stalac Capitulation Marko Murat (28 paintings), Spring and Dubrovnik's Spring Sava Šumanović (25 paintings, 1 drawing), Sidjanke, Autumn's way, Nude, Bridge in town, Wagtail, Nude on red carpet Milan Konjović (15 paintings), Stradun, Wheat fields and Toncika Petar Lubarda (23 painting), Sea's Cliffs Marina Abramović (4 works), Performans 77, Oblak and his Projection (canvas 130x120), Kisses from Moscow and Exhibition Bologna 1977. Sculptures The museum houses sculptures from the early Roman period to the 20th century. The Yugoslav Collection consists of 850 works and the foreign collection has over 50. The most significant collections come from sculptors such as Ivan Meštrović – (96 works), Toma Rosandic, Antun Augustinčić, Frano Kršinić, César Baldaccini, Aristide Maillol, George Minne, Kai Nielsen (sculptor), Risto Stijović, Matija Vuković and Julije Knifer. Jules Dalou, Seating Male Figure Ivan Meštrović (45 works), Angel of Death, Banovic Strahinja Torso (marble), Portrait of Mother (marble), Miloš Obilić, Kosovo girl, Srđa Zlopogleđa, Prince Kraljević Marko, Widow, Remebrance, Widow with Child, Two Widows, The Maiden of Kosovo. Aristide Maillol, Meditarenian, Nude, Miniature Nude Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux, Boy with the Shell, Bahantinian Woman, Sitting Male Toma Rosandic, Turkish Heads, Good and Evil, A Young Woman, Tired Fighter, Stone Thrower Antun Augustinčić, Bronze Female Nude, Self-Portrait, etc. George Minne, The Head of the Nun Frano Kršinić, Female Nude in Marble, Siesta Kai Nielsen (sculptor), Leda without Swan Yevgeny Vuchetich, Lenin Ivan Rendić, After the Bath Risto Stijović, Young Girl Simeon Roksandić, Dancing Girl Sreten Stojanović, Portrait of Father Gallery See also Museum of Contemporary Art (Belgrade) Monuments of Culture of Great Importance Tourism in Serbia References External links Serbia Cultural Monuments of Great Importance (Serbia) Office buildings in Serbia Museums in Serbia
5249139	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism%20of%20Franklin%20D.%20Roosevelt	Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt	Before, during and after his presidential terms and continuing today, there has been criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945). His critics have questioned not only his policies and positions, but also accused him of trying to centralize power in his own hands by controlling both the government and the Democratic Party. Many denounced his breaking of a long-standing tradition by running for a third term in 1940. By the middle of his second term, much criticism of Roosevelt centered on fears that he was heading toward a dictatorship by attempting to seize control of the Supreme Court in the court-packing incident of 1937, attempting to eliminate dissent within the Democratic Party in the South during the 1938 mid-term elections and by breaking the tradition established by George Washington of not seeking a third term when he again ran for re-election in 1940. As two historians explain: "In 1940, with the two-term issue as a weapon, anti-New Dealers [...] argued that the time had come to disarm the 'dictator' and to dismantle the machinery". Long after Roosevelt's death, new lines of attack opened to criticize his policies regarding helping the Jews of Europe, incarcerating Japanese Americans on the West Coast in concentration camps, and opposing anti-lynching legislation. Rejection by his allies Numerous allies and appointees turned against Roosevelt, such as Vice President John Nance Garner, Brain truster Raymond Moley, Postmaster General James A. Farley and Ambassador Joseph Kennedy (JFK's father). Outside the administration prominent supporters who turned against Roosevelt included journalists Walter Lippmann and Frank Kent. Newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst was a major Roosevelt supporter in 1932, but turned his nationwide media chain against Roosevelt starting in 1934. Historian Charles A. Beard had supported Roosevelt in 1932, but he became the leader of isolationist intellectuals who opposed his foreign policy after 1937. Roosevelt in the 1920s had been closely associated with Al Smith, the governor of New York. Roosevelt defeated Smith for the 1932 nomination and Smith became the leader of the Liberty League of prominent businessmen opposing the New Deal. After Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt rejected the possibility of major war jobs for any of these men except Lewis Douglas and Dean Acheson. Some appointees privately turned against the New Deal, but they kept quiet and stayed in the jobs, such as ambassador Claude Bowers. Criticism of the New Deal and criticism of Roosevelt's tax policy Roosevelt was criticized by conservatives for his economic policies, especially the shift in tone from individualism to collectivism with the expansion of the welfare state and regulation of the economy. Those criticisms continued decades after his death. One factor in the revisiting of these issues in later decades was the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980. When in 1981 Reagan was quoted in The New York Times saying that fascism was admired by many New Dealers, he came under heavy criticism, for Reagan had greatly admired Roosevelt and was a leading New Dealer in Hollywood. One of the most outspoken critics of the New Deal in the 1930s was the right-wing activist Elizabeth Dilling. Today, Roosevelt is criticized by conservatives and libertarians for his economic interventionism. These critics often accuse his policies of prolonging what they believe would otherwise have been a much shorter recession. They claim that government planning of the economy was both unnecessary and counterproductive and that laissez-faire policies would have ended the suffering much sooner. Thomas DiLorenzo, an adherent of the Austrian School of economics, said that Roosevelt "did not get us out of the Depression" or "save capitalism from itself" as generations of Americans have been taught. More recently, libertarian historian Jim Powell stated in his 2003 book FDR's Folly that the median joblessness rate throughout the New Deal was 17.2 percent and never went below 14 percent. However, Powell does not count government workers on the Works Progress Administration (WPA) as employed, even though they worked at full-time paid jobs. Powell states the Depression was worsened and prolonged "by doubling taxes, making it more expensive for employers to hire people, making it harder for entrepreneurs to raise capital, demonizing employers, destroying food... breaking up the strongest banks, forcing up the cost of living, channeling welfare away from the poorest people and enacting labor laws that hit poor African Americans especially hard". Liberal historians reject Powell's charges and note that it was Hoover who raised taxes, not Roosevelt; and say that the New Deal did more for blacks than any administration before or since. Libertarian writers such as Burton Folsom believe that Social Security tax increases for middle-class workers exceeded government-mandated wage increases for them, thus leaving them with less current disposable income in exchange for eventual pensions. Roosevelt raised tax rates on the wealthy to a top marginal tax rate of 79%. However, wealthy citizens found tax shelters to reduce this rate. Libertarians also believe New Deal tax legislation curtailed private sector investment and job creation. A 2004 econometric study by Harold L. Cole and Lee E. Ohanian concluded that the "New Deal labor and industrial policies did not lift the economy out of the Depression as President Roosevelt and his economic planners had hoped", but that the "New Deal policies are an important contributing factor to the persistence of the Great Depression". They believe that the "abandonment of these policies coincided with the strong economic recovery of the 1940s". They do not credit Roosevelt for the remarkable prosperity of the 1940s. New Deal defenders argue that the failure of industry to create new jobs in the 1930s was caused primarily by the lack of new technologies and new industries as apart from radio there were few growth industries that emerged in the 1930s compared to the 1920s, when automobiles and electricity created the demand for new products that in turn created many new jobs. By contrast, in the 1930s companies did not hire more workers because they could not sell the increased output that would result. Criticism of Roosevelt as either a "socialist" or a "communist" Historian Richard G. Powers, who studied liberal and conservative versions of anti-communism, and studied how they interacted with real Soviet espionage as well as false or inaccurate red-baiting and McCarthyism, noted that FDR was frequently attacked by far-right critics. Some hard-right critics in the 1930s claimed that Roosevelt was either a state socialist or a communist, including Charles Coughlin, Elizabeth Dilling, and Gerald L. K. Smith. The accusations generally centered on the New Deal, but also included other alleged issues, such as claims that Roosevelt was "anti-God" by Coughlin. These conspiracy theories were grouped as the "red web" or "Roosevelt Red Record," based significantly on propaganda books by Dilling. There was significant overlap between these red-baiting accusations against Roosevelt and the isolationist America First Committee. Roosevelt was concerned enough about the accusations that in a September 29, 1936 speech in Syracuse, Roosevelt officially condemned communism: The accusations of communism were widespread enough to misdirect from the real Soviet espionage that was occurring, leading the Roosevelt administration to miss the infiltration of various spy rings. Most of the Soviet spy rings actually sought to undermine the Roosevelt administration. Roosevelt was also accused of "socialism" or "communism" by Republican representative Robert F. Rich, and senators Simeon D. Fess, and Thomas D. Schall. Democratic presidential candidate Al Smith, whom Roosevelt succeeded as governor of New York, decried Roosevelt's New Deal policies as being socialist. In response to Smith's claims that the New Deal was socialist, Socialist Party leader Norman Thomas described Roosevelt as a state capitalist, and he also stated that Roosevelt's New Deal policies were a poor imitation of the platform of the Socialist party, noting that while Roosevelt sought to regulate Wall Street, Thomas and the Socialist Party sought to abolish the system that Wall Street was a part of. When he was asked about his political philosophy at a press conference, Roosevelt stated: "Philosophy? I am a Christian and a Democrat. That is all." Criticism of Roosevelt as a "warmonger" As World War II began, Roosevelt was among those concerned at the growing strength of the Axis Powers and he found ways to help Great Britain, the Chinese Nationalists and later the Soviet Union in their struggle against them. His program of Lend-Lease supplied military equipment to those powers despite the American government's official neutrality. This prompted several isolationist leaders, including air hero Charles Lindbergh, to criticize him as a warmonger who was trying to push America into war with Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan. This criticism was largely silenced in the public arena after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, but some persisted in the belief that Roosevelt knew of the attack beforehand. Criticism of Roosevelt as a "fascist" After 1945, the term "fascist" conjured up images of Nazi death camps, but in the 1930s it had a very different connotation, meaning the centralization of political power as in Benito Mussolini's Italy and of a "third way" between communism and capitalism. While most American businessmen thought Roosevelt was hostile to them, critics on the left said he was too friendly. Comparisons of American domestic programs to fascist economics are not necessarily pejorative as one of the motives behind the Interstate Highway System was that President Eisenhower was impressed by Adolf Hitler's autobahn system. Early in Roosevelt's first term, supporters and critics alike found similarities between the National Recovery Administration (NRA) and Italian corporatism. In 1935 and 1936, after Italy invaded Ethiopia and the Supreme Court struck down the NRA, contemporaries stopped comparing the NRA to Italian corporatism. Interest in the subject returned in 1973, when two prominent historians wrote articles on resemblances between the New Deal and fascist economics. According to James Q. Whitman, by the late 1980s it was "almost routine" for New Deal historians to identify similarities between the New Deal and fascist economic programs. Critics on the left The Communist Party USA (CPUSA) first charged Roosevelt with being fascist less than two months after he took office. On May Day, 1933, the CPUSA ran a series of newspaper advertisements denouncing "the whole Roosevelt program of preparation for fascism and war" and calling Roosevelt a "fascist dictator". The ads' examples of alleged fascist activities included "forced labor for the unemployed" and harsh tactics against striking farm workers in California. Scholar Paul Kengor wrote that the charges were ridiculous. Richard Hofstadter noted that critics from the left believed "that the NRA was a clear imitation of Mussolini's corporate state". Left-liberal publications such as The Nation and The New Republic worried that the Civilian Conservation Corps' (CCC) integration with the military could start a transformation to a fascistic society. While the CCC was operated by the military and had some militaristic aspects, the Roosevelt White House allayed these fears by emphasizing the CCC's civilian character. Unlike its German counterpart, the CCC was never a compulsory service. While not believing that Roosevelt was a fascist, Socialist Party leader Norman Thomas noted that the fascist leaders of Europe were state capitalists much like he claimed Roosevelt of being. Thomas also criticized Roosevelt for not coming to the aid of Upton Sinclair during the 1934 California gubernatorial election where Sinclair was subject to negative campaigns from the Republican Party funded by Hollywood movie moguls. Critics on the right Conservatives have made the most significant criticisms of Roosevelt and have been keeping up with these criticisms for decades. They warned of "regimentation". They made cautionary comparisons of Roosevelt's economic programs to communism and fascism, to which Roosevelt responded in a June 1934 Fireside Chat by saying that the critics were motivated by self-interest and that everything he did was within the United States' political tradition. Roosevelt was a pragmatist who had studied under William James at Harvard College. As a pragmatist, Roosevelt was willing to consider various sources of ideas for social experiments. The most prominent of Roosevelt's critics in regards to fascism was Herbert Hoover, who saw a connection between the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) and the "Swope Plan", named after Gerard Swope. Hoover was an ardent supporter of trade associations, but saw the Swope Plan as fascistic because of its compulsory nature. Historian George H. Nash argues: The Old Right emerged in opposition to the New Deal of President Roosevelt and Hoff says that "moderate Republicans and leftover Republican Progressives like Hoover composed the bulk of the Old Right by 1940, with a sprinkling of former members of the Farmer-Labor party, Non-Partisan League, and even a few midwestern prairie Socialists". Historians compare the New Deal to policies which were implemented in Europe The Swope Plan was the starting point for the drafting of the NIRA and in no way was it modeled on policies which were implemented in Europe. Many prominent businessmen had participated in the writing of it. However, Hoover denounced the Swope plan as monopolistic and refused to support any proposal made by the Chamber of Commerce, though it was widely praised by American businessmen and academics. The Swope Plan was corporatist, but far less extensive than fascist corporatism. Historian John A. Garraty said that the NIRA was "similar to experiments being carried out by the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini in Italy and by the Nazis in Hitler's Germany. It did not, of course, turn America into a fascist state, but it did herald an increasing concentration of economic power in the hands of interest groups, both industrialists' organizations and labor unions". Garraty said that another influence was the concept of the corporate state, where capitalists and workers, supervised by the government, worked out problems to avoid wasteful competition and dangerous social clashes. Historian Ellis Hawley reviewed the legislative history of the NIRA. A key member of the Brains Trust, Raymond Moley, led efforts to review industrial recovery plans. Another significant influence was Hugh S. Johnson, who drew on his experience with the war industries board. Popular historian Amity Shlaes stated: According to comparative law scholar James Whitman, it was not the NIRA statute that fueled suspicions of fascism. It was the leaders of the National Recovery Administration: Hugh Johnson, head of the NRA, openly admired Mussolini. Both Johnson and his assistant, Donald Richberg, made disturbing statements indicating that they were hostile to parliamentary government. Richberg denied being a fascist, but described Roosevelt several times as a "Man of Action". Whitman said that there were "striking" differences between the ideology of Johnson and Richberg and fascist propaganda. Garraty suggested that there were some "striking" similarities between Roosevelt's programs and German anti-depression policies, but concluded that the New Deal did not have much in common with fascism in total because of the vast political differences between the two systems. Roosevelt expanded political participation for the less fortunate. Garraty stated that the main reason for the similarities was that both nations were dealing with problems that were unique in the industrial world. Garraty stated that the New Deal lacked any consistent ideological base. While the Brains Trust got a lot of attention, theorists never had much impact on Roosevelt. He drew on populism, with its hostility to bankers and its willingness to inflate the currency; Theodore Roosevelt's New Nationalism in its dislike of competition and deemphasis on antitrust laws; and the ideas of social workers from the Progressive Era. Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis influenced Roosevelt on financial reforms. The War Labor Board from World War I influenced Roosevelt's labor policy. Other scholars had varying views on the relationship between the New Deal and fascist economics: New Deal historian William Leuchtenburg said in 1968 that "Mussolini's corporate state did not find [an] American following". Leuchtenburg said that if the New Deal had any foreign counterparts, it was in Scandinavia (see the Nordic model). According to Leuchtenburg, Roosevelt was overall a net exporter of ideas. Arthur Schlesinger's conclusions were similar. John P. Diggins found only superficial similarities between the New Deal and Italian fascism. However, Diggins produced some quotations indicating that Roosevelt was interested in fascist economic programs and admired Mussolini. Kiran Klaus Patel stated: "On the whole, there was a special closeness between the German Labor Service and the CCC, just as there was a whole series of similar measures in social, cultural, and economic policies in Nazi Germany and under the New Deal". Patel stated that the two nations' politics were obviously different, with the United States adopting reform while Germany adopted fascism. The main reasons for the economic similarities according to Patel was the growth in state interventionism along with the fact that Germany and the United States faced similar problems, particularly the need to reduce mass unemployment. To that end, both nations employed instruments of economic and social policy that were often strikingly similar. On that level, the crisis led to a limited degree of convergence. Ludwig von Mises wrote that the New Deal was a "replica" of Otto von Bismarck's social policies. Milton Friedman also said that Bismarck's Germany influenced the New Deal. Friedman said that both Wilhelmine Germany's aristocratic and autocratic government and left-wing governments had a paternalistic philosophy. According to Friedman, other sources included Fabian England, Swedish and American universities, particularly Columbia University. James Q. Whitman said that in its day-to-day operations the NRA only had limited resemblance to fascist corporatism. American corporatism was of an indigenous nature that traced back to nineteenth century German theorists of corporatism. It was also built on the United States' World War I experience, which used corporatism to manage the economy. European corporatism was an ideology of political economy, built on conflicts between labor and capital. It appealed to "thuggish anti-parliamentarians who were the fascists". The United States' corporatism was only an economic ideology as Americans viewed Congress as a "place full of incompetents, not rogues". Whitman said that there were two main differences between the NRA's corporatism and European fascism. One was that in the United States class warfare never reached the level of intensity that it did in Europe. The other reason was that unlike Italy and Germany, the United States had a long tradition of representative government. Shlaes wrote that Roosevelt's policies were often inspired by socialist or fascist models abroad. She acknowledges that Hoover and Roosevelt may not have had better alternative as their policies may have spared America some facsimile of Mussolini's fascism or Joseph Stalin's Communism. Shlaes states: "The argument that democracy would have failed in the United States without the New Deal stood for seven decades, and has been made anew, by scholars of considerable quality, quite recently". Friedrich von Hayek In 1944, Friedrich von Hayek wrote The Road to Serfdom. Hayek focused mostly on Britain, but he also mentioned the New Deal and argued that the British and American governments had started to abandon their basic commitment to personal liberty through increasingly statist economic programs. Historian Alan Brinkley said that Hayek's work was influential because it expressed concerns that already existed. The biggest challenge to the New Deal was the fear that the expanding federal bureaucracy limited personal economic freedom and autonomy. According to Brinkley, liberals accused Hayek of attacking a straw man, but their criticism had a strongly defensive tone. Alvin Hansen wrote a scathing review, but said that The Road to Serfdom is "'good medicine but a bad diet.'" Stuart Chase acknowledged that Hayek provided "a useful warning [...] which every planner should paste under the glass top of his desk." Reinhold Niebuhr noted that totalitarianism's rise prompted the democracies to be apprehensive about collectivist solutions, stating that "a wise community will walk warily and test the effect of each new adventure before further adventures." Accusations of racism Internment of Japanese Americans Executive Order 9066, which sent 120,000 Japanese expatriates and American citizens of Japanese ancestry to be confined at internment camps, was heavily motivated by a fear of Japanese Americans, following the December 7, 1941 Pearl Harbor attack. At the time, the Supreme Court upheld its constitutionality in Korematsu v. United States (1944). According to a March 1942 poll conducted by the American Institute of Public Opinion, 93% of Americans supported Roosevelt's decision on relocation of Japanese non-citizens from the Pacific Coast whereas only 1% opposed it. According to the same poll, 59% supported the relocation of Japanese who were born in the country and were United States citizens, whereas 25% opposed it. Treatment of Jesse Owens After the 1936 Berlin Olympics, only the white athletes were invited to see and meet Roosevelt. No such invitation was made to the black athletes, such as Jesse Owens, who had won four gold medals. A widely believed myth about the 1936 games was that Hitler had snubbed Owens, an event that never occurred. Owens said that "Hitler didn't snub me—it was [Roosevelt] who snubbed me. The president didn't even send me a telegram". However, Hitler had left after Owens won his first gold medal, and did not meet with him. Subsequently, Hitler did not meet with any of the gold medalists. Owens lamented his treatment by Roosevelt, saying that he "wasn't invited to the White House to shake hands with the President". Anti-lynching legislation Roosevelt condemned lynching as a form of murder, but in contrast to his wife Eleanor, he did not support Republican proposals to classify it as a federal crime. Roosevelt made the following statement when he spoke to an advocate of federal anti-lynching legislation: "If I come out for the anti-lynching bill now, they [Southern Democratic senators] will block every bill I ask Congress to pass to keep America from collapsing. I just can't take that risk". Nomination of Hugo Black Roosevelt nominated Hugo Black to the Supreme Court, despite the fact that Black was an active member of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. The nomination of Black was controversial because he was an ardent New Dealer with almost no judicial experience. Roosevelt and the members of the Senate did not know of Black's previous KKK membership. Ultimately, despite his past KKK membership, Black would often establish a voting record more favorable to civil rights in numerous cases in the years that followed, including Shelley v. Kraemer (1948), Brown v. Board of Education (1954), Loving v. Virginia (1967), and Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education (1969). Anti-Semitism Some of Roosevelt's closest political associates were Jewish. Nevertheless, historians have accused Roosevelt of expressing anti-Semitic attitudes, both publicly and privately. According to historian Rafael Medoff, "Roosevelt’s unflattering statements about Jews consistently reflected one of several interrelated notions: that it was undesirable to have too many Jews in any single profession, institution, or geographic locale; that by nature, America was, and it should always continue to be, an overwhelmingly white, Protestant country; and on the whole, Jews possessed certain innate and distasteful characteristics.", arguing that Roosevelt establishing a quota for Jewish students in 1923, during his time as an administrator at Harvard, was aimed at restricting access, not ensuring it, to jewish students. Medoff further claimed that in 1939, Roosevelt boasted to Montana Senator Burton K. Wheeler that both men had no Jewish blood in their veins. Medoff also claimed that as a child, Roosevelt's grandson Curtis would often hear his grandfather telling stories in the White House with stereotypical Jewish characters, these Jewish characters being Lower East Side people with heavy accents. Accusations of not having done enough to help the victims of the Holocaust Beginning in the 1940s, Roosevelt was accused by critics of not acting decisively enough to prevent the Holocaust. Critics cite instances such as the 1939 episode in which 936 Jewish refugees on the MS St. Louis were denied asylum and not allowed into the United States because of strict laws passed by Congress. Historian David Wyman claim that the Roosevelt administration knew that the Nazis were systematically killing Jews and other minorities, but it adhered to a policy which prevented it from rescuing them. According to Wyman, Roosevelt's record on holocaust refugees and their rescue is very poor and one of the worst failures of his presidency. Defenders of Roosevelt, such as Robert N. Rosen, noted that Roosevelt made numerous attempts to allow Holocaust refugees to enter the United States and they argue that during periods when his presidency was weak, he simply did not have the political capital which would have enabled him to wage these battles. Rosen argues that the mood in the country favored the strong desire to remain neutral regarding European affairs and distrust of anything that smacked of internationalism. On one point, Wyman and Rosen agree: that there were bitter divisions within numerous minority communities in America regarding whether to actively lobby for the rescue of their European counterparts from Nazi persecution, and that as a consequence, Roosevelt had limited political capital to initiate such an effort. Medoff claim that after the Allied conquest of North Africa in 1942, Roosevelt chose to retain the anti-Jewish Vichy French leadership which was in power there, with Jews and many other victims remaining held in concentration camps, and discriminatory laws against minorities remained in effect. He claimed that, in private, Roosevelt stated that Jews and other minorities did not need the right to vote because no elections were expected to be held soon. According to Medoff, only after an outcry was made by Jewish organizations in the US that Roosevelt acted to help North African Jews, with anti-Jewish laws remaining in effect for 10 months after the US conquest. References Further reading Scholarly studies Monroe Lee Billington. "New Mexico Clergymen's Perceptions of Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal". New Mexico Historical Review (fall 2009). 84#4. pp. 521–544; most of the clergy were favorable and criticisms focused on relief programs and agricultural policies. Campbell Craig. "The Not-So-Strange Career of Charles Beard". Diplomatic History (Spring 2001). 25#2; historian Charles A. Beard accused Roosevelt of unnecessary provocation of Japan and deceiving the American people. John A. Garraty. "The New Deal, National Socialism, and the Great Depression". American Historical Review (1973). 78#4. pp. 907–944. William E. Leuchtenburg. The FDR Years: On Roosevelt and His Legacy (1997). chap. 1. Columbia University Press. Lynn Y. Weiner and Ronald D. Tallman; Nancy Beck Young et al. eds. "The Popular Iconography of FDR". Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shaping of American Political Culture (2001). pp. 9–18; reviews the overwhelmingly favorable popular images of Roosevelt. James Q. Whitman. "Of Corporatism, Fascism, and the First New Deal". The American Journal of Comparative Law (Autumn 1991). 39#4. pp. 747–778. George Wolfskill and John Allen Hudson. All But the People: Franklin D. Roosevelt and His Critics, 1933–39 (1969). Macmillan. Popular attacks John T. Flynn. The Roosevelt Myth (1953). Bruce S. Jansson. The Sixteen-Trillion-Dollar Mistake: How the US bungled its national priorities from the New Deal to the present (2001). Jim Powell. FDR's Folly: How Roosevelt and His New Deal Prolonged the Great Depression (2007). Crown. Jim Powell. How FDR's New Deal Harmed Millions of Poor People (2003). CATO. Burt Solomon. FDR v. the Constitution: the Court-packing Fight and the Triumph of Democracy (2009). Thomas E. Woods, Jr. The Truth About FDR. Felix Wittmer. The Yalta betrayal: data on the decline and fall of Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1953). Caxton Printers. External links Roosevelt and the Jews: A Debate Rekindled. The New York Times. April 30, 2009. Roosevelt, Franklin Delano Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt Roosevelt, Franklin Delano
5249253	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promethean%3A%20The%20Created	Promethean: The Created	Promethean: The Created is a role-playing game published by White Wolf, set in the Chronicles of Darkness setting. The game is inspired by the classic tales of Frankenstein's monster, the Golem and other such simulacra. The characters are individuals created by first dismembering and reassembling a human corpse in most cases or multiple corpses in others to form a human body, then animating the body with Pyros, the Divine Fire. The resulting creation is known as a Promethean. Animated by the Divine Fire, but lacking a soul, Prometheans seek the greatest prize they know: humanity. Prometheans have no direct equivalent in the original World of Darkness (though beings like Frankenstein's monster, as well as the ability to create and play as such, were associated with the Sons of Ether), but elements of the game, on the surface, recall elements of such games as Wraith: The Oblivion and Mummy: The Resurrection. The life of a Promethean A Promethean is created from the corpse of a human by a creator; in certain cases, desired components from more than one corpse are combined into a single end-product. Very rarely, otherwise inanimate matter may be used, making a sort of magical android similar to a Golem but with considerably greater variation in form and composition. Most Prometheans are created by other Prometheans, who must create more of their kind as part of their journey towards achieving a state of true mortality. Much less common are instances where mortal creators wield the Divine Fire in order to create a new form of life; these mortals are known as demiurges, and are the most likely to create new types or Lineages of Prometheans. When a Promethean is brought into the world, they often have full knowledge of any languages their body spoke in life, and the processes necessary to control the body (hand-eye coordination, basic visual navigation, etc.). In all other aspects, they are a blank slate, although individuals may discover "memories" of skills, locations, knowledge, etc. once possessed by the mortal(s) whose bodies they now use. Some Prometheans aid their progeny in learning the basics needed to survive in the world; others leave them to figure things out on their own. There are also cases when the maker is destroyed by one means or another before the progeny wakes. The Promethean is not human, in either the physiological or cognitive sense. It is a corpse that walks, its autonomic functions and soul replaced by the power of the Divine Fire. While the Divine Fire allows him to pass as a human from a distance, it does not make up for the lack of a soul. When a Promethean spends enough time around humans, the humans begin to fall prey to Disquiet, the feeling that there is something not just fundamentally different, but utterly wrong about the Promethean. Disquiet initially manifests itself as distrust or avoidance of the Promethean; at its worst, it can blossom into mindless rage that can only be abated by the death of the Promethean. Different Promethean Lineages generate different manifestations of Disquiet, each with their own enervating effect on the local environment and population. Disquiet affects more than just mortals; a Promethean who spends too long in one place will find the landscape and environment itself becoming tainted by his Disquiet, eventually turning into a Wasteland. Leaving the tainted zone far behind allows the land to eventually heal, but it does require the Promethean to keep on the move. There is only one true means by which to truly escape from Disquiet: attaining mortality. Such an act requires years of dedication, but it is possible for Prometheans. By undertaking the Pilgrimage, the Promethean gains knowledge of his self, other Prometheans, and humanity as a whole. The various steps of the Pilgrimage vary widely from one Promethean to the next, but one step remains constant and inviolable: the creation of another Promethean of their line. The Pilgrimage is difficult and lengthy, but it can be achieved. It is worth noting that the understanding and becoming of humanity can just as easily refer to the baser and worse of human impulses as to the noble and good - although those Prometheans that actually perform reprehensible acts (murder, stealing, etc.) are less likely to successfully complete the Pilgrimage. Lineages Each Promethean takes on the traits of the progenitor, the first of their kind. The various Lineages of Prometheans take their roots from notable "Created" or "reconstructed" throughout folklore and fiction. The five original Lineages are also aligned towards one of the five classical elements, and, in keeping with the alchemical theme of the game, are imbalanced towards one of the respective humors. Two additional Lineages revolving around alternate circumstances of creation were added in the second edition. The Lineages consist of: Frankensteins, otherwise known as "the Wretched." The story of their creation follows Mary Shelley's novel, with a few distinguishing variations: Frankenstein created his monster using a mixture of current scientific knowledge and Paracelsian alchemy, and the monster survived the death of his creator to create others like himself. Frankensteins are created by taking the best parts from multiple corpses, assembling a patchwork man from said parts, then animating it through a mixture of the Divine Fire and electricity. Frankensteins are aligned with the element of fire and are imbalanced towards choler, and are thus driven towards vengeance and ambition. Frankensteins are also known for their massive strength. A Frankenstein named "Verney," who may be the original progenitor of his Lineage created by Victor Frankenstein, appears in the game's framing fiction, providing the point of view throughout the corebook. Galateids, otherwise known as "Muses." Like their progenitor, they are known for their beauty and want of companionship; unlike their progenitor, they are not fashioned from stone, but rather from the unmarred corpse of a beautiful youth. Less commonly, they are built from two or more corpses possessed of components (eyes, hands, legs, etc.) considered beautiful by the Promethean Maker. They are walking contradictions, attracting people through their beauty while driving them away with Disquiet. Galateids are aligned with the element of air and are imbalanced towards blood, often making them courageous and amorous. A Galateid named "The Hangman's Beautiful Daughter" appears in the game's framing fiction, providing the point of view throughout Strange Alchemies. Osirans, otherwise known as "Nepri." The Osirans draw from their legacy as "children of a god" and often carry themselves with regal bearing, expecting others to follow them and bow to their wills. Another element they share with their progenitor is an incomplete body; as in the legend of the resurrection of Osiris, the creation of a Nepri involves the division of the body into 13 parts, the "least" of which (decided upon by the creator and not limited to the piece that Isis "could not find" in the original legend, i.e. his penis) is thrown away, and reassembly of the remaining 12. Osirans are aligned with the element of water and are imbalanced towards phlegm, giving them a tendency to seem cold and uncaring to others. An Osiran named "Dr. Brine" appears in the game's framing fiction, especially throughout Pandora's Book. Tammuz, otherwise known as "Golems" in the first edition and "the Named" in the second edition, received the largest changes between the editions of the games. In the first edition, Golems draw their history from conflicting tales, one Hebrew in origin, the other resting in the Babylonian myth of Tammuz. Nevertheless, the stories share one common element: rejection of the bonds of slavery. The Tammuz loathe slavery in all its forms, and wish to achieve mortality in order to break away from the fierce restrictions that Disquiet confers upon them. Golems are not created directly from clay, as in Jewish folklore; rather, a body is imbued with the Divine Fire and buried in the earth. Once the Tammuz awakens, it is his duty to claw his way out and face his new life. Tammuz are aligned with the element of earth and are imbalanced towards melancholy, making them both introspective and prone to fierce rage. They are also known for their seemingly limitless stamina. The second edition version of the Tammuz removed the slavery aspect of the Lineage and focuses solely on the Babylonian myth; they are now dedicated workaholics who are obsessed with language. In order for them to achieve New Dawn, they often have to learn to stop working constantly and focus on themselves. A Tammuz named "John Ash" appears in the game's framing fiction, especially throughout Saturnine Night. Ulgan, otherwise known as "Riven." The Ulgan's origins lie in shamanism, drawing from an initiation rite in which the hopeful shaman's spiritual body is torn apart by hungry spirits and reconstructed piece by piece. Sometimes, the rite goes horribly awry, and the young initiate's physical body is torn to pieces as well. The remains, when stitched together and reanimated, produce a Riven, who can perceive and interact with the realm of ghosts and spirits. The occurrence of the rite in the life of the corpse is not necessary, as long as it is replicated in death by the Ulgan's creator. Some Ulgans draw their origins from the legend of Orpheus, who they claim was brought back to life after being torn apart by the Maenads. Ulgans are aligned with the element of spirit and are imbalanced towards ectoplasm, driving them towards intuitive and instinctual thought and action. An Ulgan named "Zo Malak" appears in the game's framing fiction, providing the point of view throughout Magnum Opus. The Unfleshed, also known as "Manufactured", originally appeared in the Saturnine Night sourcebook and were added as a standard Lineage in the second edition. They are mechanical inventions animated by the Divine Fire and given life. The Divine Fire gives them human form and shape, but underneath the illusion, they are still mechanical. In the first edition, each Unfleshed has a different elemental imbalance; thus, each one produces different forms of Disquiet and suffers different forms of Torment. The Unfleshed can claim any Transmutation, including those favored by Pandorans, as their Bestowment, and can carry devices from their lives as a machine within their body. They can be considered an expansion of the "Constructs," otherwise ordinary Prometheans created from or incorporating inorganic matter (such as a Galateid actually carved from stone). The second edition gives them their own humor, oil, and the slavery role originally held by the Tammuz. They now have a common form of Disquiet, must follow Refinements as other Prometheans do, and may no longer freely pick from any Transmutations. The Extempore, also called "Matchless", are the new Lineage added by the second edition. Extempore are aberrant, one-of-a-kind Prometheans who were formed by circumstance, usually involving nature, disasters, or, on rare occasions, Firestorms. Occasionally, some established Lineage creation rituals go just wrong enough to make the Extempore different from the intended Lineage. They usually do not have a progenitor, and may not even be made of anything human. Extempore can have any of the established humors, or may have something different all together like lava or seawater. They may also have any of the Bestowments of the other Lineages, or something unique to them. They usually face their paths with more uncertainty than the other Lineages, as they are truly unique and have no established examples to follow. Two other Lineages appear in other materials: Zeky, singular Zeka, first appeared in Saturnine Night and exist as urban legends amongst Prometheans. They are Prometheans animated by nuclear energy. They can spend very little time near humans, as their Disquiet transforms fertile land into a radioactive Wasteland, as well as making humans extremely paranoid about being attacked from outside. The Zeky are constantly in pain from the nuclear energy that burns through their body; as a result, many forsake the Great Work and embrace the path of Centimanus. The Zeky have three different possible Bestowments, including the ability to animate corpses through nuclear energy, the ability to metamorphose into a "Hiroshima shadow" in order to prevent the spread of Disquiet, and the ability to draw Pyros from nuclear energy. In addition to these Bestowments, a Zeka can use the Irradiation Transmutations, focused on the manipulation of nuclear energy, without fear of losing their humanity. Hollows, also called "Skeletons" or "Beggars", appear in the Chronicles of Darkness: Dark Eras sourcebook; they are Prometheans created by the unique circumstances of deprivation. Eternally hungry for something, they always seek to sate their desires, be they physical or emotional. The Hollows formed and were at their peak during the American Dust Bowl; subsequently, they became extinct as the circumstances that allowed their creation disappeared with the rains that returned fertility to the Midwest. Refinements During the course of a Promethean's journey towards mortality, they must dedicate themselves towards a Refinement. A Refinement is equal parts philosophy and alchemical regimen, framing the Promethean's outlook on humanity and their own existence as well as granting them knowledge of Transmutations, the ability to alchemically alter the properties of their bodies and Pyros to great effect. It is expected that a Promethean will change Refinements at least once in their journey. There exist eleven Refinements, but only ten are viewed as "acceptable" by most Prometheans. The original five Refinements drew their names from five of the seven planetary metals; rarer paths based on the properties of other alchemical metals were added later in the book Magnum Opus and in the game's second edition. The second edition further split the Refinements into two types: simple and complex; new Prometheans must always start on a simple Refinement, and no Promethean may have more complex Refinements learned in their lifetime than simple. Each Refinement also has three roles associated with it, which serve as different viewpoints on how the ideas of the Refinement can be used. The simple Refinements are: Aurum, the Refinement of Gold, or Mortality. The Refinement of Aurum requires the study of humanity: their cultures, their beliefs, their emotions, and their actions. Truly "understanding" humanity may take many routes, some as benign as attending church services, others as horrific as committing cold-blooded murder in order to understand why humans do the same. Those who practice Aurum gain an affinity towards the Transmutations of Deception (using Pyros to escape the notice of others) and Mesmerism (using Pyros to subtly gain control of the emotions and thoughts of others). Practitioners are often called Mimics or Adamists. Cuprum, the Refinement of Copper, or Self. Practitioners of Cuprum wish to gain total control of their bodies, their minds, and hopefully their Torment, in order to ease the control their humors have over their bodies and the toll their Disquiet takes on the land. Many followers of the Refinement take to isolation in nature, avoiding the "threat" that humans affected by Disquiet pose towards them. Those who practice Cuprum gain an affinity towards the Transmutations of Metamorphosis (using Pyros to shapeshift) and Sensorium (using Pyros to enhance the senses beyond physical limits). Practitioners are often called Pariahs or Eremites. Ferrum, the Refinement of Iron, or Corpus. Those who practice Ferrum follow the path of the practiced warrior, believing that they can earn the trust of humans through martial prowess and the necessity for defenders in times of crisis. Practitioners of the Refinement often learn as much from martial arts and military training as their Disquiet allows them to do. Those who practice Ferrum gain an affinity towards the Transmutations of Corporeum (using Pyros to power and harden the body) and Vitality (using Pyros to perform unnatural feats of strength). Practitioners are often called Titans. Plumbum, the Refinement of Lead, or Source; it originally appeared as a rare Refinement in Magnum Opus before being grouped with the simple ones in the second edition. Practitioners of Lead believe that, before they attain Mortality, they must understand what it means to be a Promethean. They wish to understand what they are, how they do what they do, the history of the Great Work, and the various threats Prometheans face in daily existence. Those who practice Plumbum gain an affinity towards the Transmutations of Disquietism (controlling the flow of Disquiet to redirect its effects towards humans and away from the Promethean, or easing its influence all together) and Saturninus (control over one's own Azothic Radiance, their humors, and their Bestowments). Practitioners are often referred to as Originists. Stannum, the Refinement of Tin, or Torment. Disciples of Stannum have most likely witnessed first hand the horrible effects that Disquiet has on humans; often, they have been the target of that very rage. They believe that the best course of action is to get even, cultivating the flow of Disquiet and gaining revenge on those who have wronged them. Many Prometheans likely practice Stannum at some point in their journeys, but many outside of the Refinement view it as a "youthful rebellion" at best, and an obsession at worst. Those who practice Stannum gain an affinity towards the Transmutations of Disquietism and Electrification (using Pyros to generate electricity). Practitioners are often called Furies. The Complex Refinements are: Aes, the Refinement of Bronze, or Aid. Practitioners of Aes have sworn to protect their throng mates and other Prometheans in need. The practitioner usually serves both to protect their throng mates from physical harm and to keep them devoted to the Great Work. The Refinement can't be practiced alone, however, as it requires the Promethean to protect those close to themselves. Those who practice Aes gain an affinity towards the Transmutations of Benefice (providing aid to another Promethean) and Corporeum. Practitioners are often referred to as Sentries. Argentum, the Refinement of Silver, or Mystery. Practitioners of Argentum have discovered that they are not the only monsters in the Chronicles of Darkness. There also exist vampires, werewolves, mages, and things unknown. The practitioner of Argentum seeks to understand humanity by understanding its opposites. It observes the various other supernatural creatures of the Chronicles of Darkness, as well as mortals who are mentally ill, in an attempt to discern the secrets of the works. Those who practice Argentum gain an affinity towards the Transmutations of Sensorium and Spiritus (using Pyros to blend in with and rebuff other supernaturals). Practitioners are often referred to as Mystics. Cobalus, the Refinement of Cobalt, or Impurity. Practitioners of Cobalus have realized that certain parts of Promethean existence, such as Disquiet and Torment, are impurities that keep them separate from humanity. As a result, they seek to understand imperfection in all its forms - in their selves, in objects, and in humanity. Unlike Centimani, they do not spurn humanity; rather, they seek to truly understand what humanity is by examining the flaws of human existence. Those who practice Cobalus gain an affinity towards the Transmutations of Contamination (drawing out and purging the imperfections of humans and Prometheans) and Deception. Practitioners are often referred to as Cathars. Mercurius, the Refinement of Quicksilver, or Pyros; it was originally one of the common Refinements in the first edition, but in the second edition it was moved to the complex category. Followers of Mercurius believe that for Prometheans to understand what makes a mortal a being with a soul, they must first understand that which serves as a replacement in themselves: the Divine Fire. To gain such an understanding, they often demonstrate a moral, intellectual and spiritual flexibility unmatched by other Prometheans, pursuing whatever avenues they believe might lead towards enlightenment. Those who practice Mercurius gain an affinity towards the Transmutations of Alchemicus (using Pyros to alchemically analyze and metamorphose objects) and Vulcanus (controlling the very flow of Pyros through their bodies and bodies of others, using it to fantastical effect). Practitioners are often called Ophidians. Phosphorum, the Refinement of Phosphorus, or Ephemerality; this is the only completely new Refinement to appear in the second edition. Those who follow Phosphorum try to understand mortality by living life on the edge, always taking chances and putting themselves at risk so they can try to understand the very nature of death. They will push the boundaries or die trying, and do it all with a passion or joy not normally seen in Prometheans. The path of Phosphorum gives access to the Transmutations Luciferus and Vulcanus. For the way they burn bright or flame out, practitioners are often called Light-Bringers. A final Refinement is Centimani, the Refinement of Flux. Taking their name from the Hundred-Handed of Greek mythology, the followers of Centimani study Flux, the force of destruction that acts as the opposite of Pyros. Many Centimani are viewed as monsters by other Prometheans due to the fact that they have effectively abandoned the pursuit of mortality and have firmly embraced the belief that they are monsters. If this was not enough, the study of Flux often brings Centimani into close association with Pandorans. These creatures study monsters among humanity - serial killers, rapists, and criminals - as well as manipulating their own monstrous forms. In the original edition, Prometheans were allowed to follow Centimani as a step along their Great Work, but the second edition changed it so that Centimani are no longer on a Pilgrimage at all, their progress towards their Magnum Opus completely arrested until they go back to a proper Refinement path. Pandorans In the pursuit of mortality, one step must be undertaken by all Prometheans: the creation of another Promethean of their line. There are times, however, when the creator is not fully prepared to bring a new life into the world, doing so out of haste, impatience or selfishness rather than necessity. When this occurs, the process of creating new life becomes tainted; Flux takes the place of Pyros, and a Pandoran is created. Most Pandorans exist as mindless entities driven solely by instinct; there are the occasional few, however, who attain full sentience and possess human levels of intelligence. These Pandorans are known as Sublimati. All Pandorans center their existences around one goal: the acquisition of Pyros to feed upon. Pandorans react strongly to the flow of Pyros, awakening from states of dormancy induced by mortal Disquiet (in which the Pandoran appears as a statue or similar object) and chase after the source of flame. If a Pandoran is successful in its hunt, it will likely kill and cannibalize the Promethean. Some Pandorans keep their quarries alive but helpless, feeding off the Promethean's constantly regenerating Pyros. Originally, each Pandoran existed as a Mockery of a Lineage, sharing similar elemental alignments and humorous imbalances as their creators. In the second edition, Pandorans are no longer typed by Mockery. The Mockeries were: Ishtari (the Mockery of the Golems, given to imprisoning their foes and keeping them alive as long as possible while feeding on their Pyros) Renders (the Mockery of the Riven, tending to tear apart the Promethean quickly and drain the Pyros from what remains) Sebek (the Mockery of the Nepri, given to inhabiting watery environments and drowning their prey quickly) The Silent (the Mockery of the Muses, tending to mutilate and disfigure their prey) The Torch-Born (the Mockery of the Wretched, given to charring the flesh of their prey before consuming it) Gremlins (the Mockery of the Unfleshed) Carcinoma (the Mockery of the Zeka) Dust Devils (the Mockery of the Hollows, who trap their prey and eat only enough to sate themselves before wandering off) Ironically, the bane of Prometheans' existence, Disquiet, is the most effective weapon against Pandorans, as a Pandoran subjected to the attention of a mortal (and the Disquiet thereby generated) for more than a short span of time will be forced into a physically inert state of dormancy, as well as physically transmuted into some form of stone. Many Pandorans remain this way for centuries, as only close proximity to a source of Pyros (such as a Promethean, Firestorm, or qashmallim) will rouse them. Qashmallim The Qashmallim are powerful manifestations of the Divine Fire, seemingly angelic beings who exist to carry out a single mission on behalf of something they call simply "The Principle." They are bringers of visions and messengers of doom, givers of hope and swords of retribution. Each qashmal vanishes after carrying out its task or if it failed in the attempt, and they never try again. Just as the Divine Fire itself is mysterious and ineffable, the qashmallim are unfathomable and their motives impenetrable. One qashmal might be dispatched to warn a person of impending danger, even as another is urging a separate person to bring about that danger. Even as they may work at cross-purposes, they also seem to be divided into two general Choirs: The Elpidos serve Elpis, promoting change, creativity, and fertility even as they punish and warn. They can be both benefactors and scourges to humans and Created alike. The Lilithim serve Flux, encouraging waste, corruption, and mutation. They are capable of awakening and commanding Pandorans, and pursue the cause of metamorphosis for its own sake. Books The core rulebook. Information on the creatures of Flux and Pyros, the Pandorans, as well as the Qashmallim and new enemies for the Created. Detailed discussion of the existing Lineages and Refinements. New Transmutations and Bestowments. Discussions of important issues in Promethean campaigns. The living history of the Created, new Refinements, discussion of the Pilgrimage. New lineages, rules for creating new lineages and support for long term Promethean campaigns. Storytelling Action System adventure (PDF Only) Ready-Made Player Characters: The Refuse July 2009. External links Official White Wolf page Chronicles of Darkness Role-playing games introduced in 2006
5249344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20birds%20of%20Vieques	List of birds of Vieques	This is a list of birds recorded in the island of Vieques. Vieques is an island municipality of Puerto Rico located off the east coast of the main island of Puerto Rico, south of Culebra island and west of the Virgin Islands. It has a total area of 348.15 km2, of which only 135 km2 is land area. On May 1, 2001, the western end of Vieques National Wildlife Refuge was established and on May 1, 2003, the same day as the exit of the U.S. Navy from the island, the eastern end of the refuge was established. There are a total of 196 species recorded from the island of Vieques as of July 2022, according to Bird Checklists of the World. Some species, such as the Puerto Rican parrot, have been extirpated from the island but are, nonetheless, included in this list. This list presents the following information for each species: common and scientific name of each species. This list is presented in the taxonomic sequence of the Check-list of North and Middle American Birds, 7th edition through the 63rd Supplement, published by the American Ornithological Society (AOS). Common and scientific names are also those of the Check-list, except that the common names of families are from the Clements taxonomy because the AOS list does not include them. The following tags have been used to highlight several categories of occurrence: (A) Accidental (I) Introduced (Ex) Extirpated Ducks, geese, and waterfowl Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, bills which are flattened to a greater or lesser extent, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to special oils. Guineafowl Order: GalliformesFamily: Numididae Guineafowls are a group of African seed-eating, ground-nesting birds resembling partridges, but with featherless heads and spangled gray plumage. New World quail Order: GalliformesFamily: Odontophoridae The New World quails are small, plump terrestrial birds only distantly related to the quails of the Old World, but named for their similar appearance and habits. Flamingos Order: PhoenicopteriformesFamily: Phoenicopteridae Flamingos (genus Phoenicopterus monotypic in family Phoenicopteridae) are gregarious wading birds, usually tall, found in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. Flamingos filter-feed on shellfish and algae. Their oddly shaped beaks are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they consume and, uniquely, are used upside-down. Grebes Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae Grebes are small to medium-large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land. Pigeons and doves Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere. Cuckoos Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails and strong legs. The Old World cuckoos are brood parasites. Nightjars and allies Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is cryptically colored to resemble bark or leaves. Swifts Order: ApodiformesFamily: Apodidae Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang. Hummingbirds Order: ApodiformesFamily: Trochilidae Hummingbirds are small birds capable of hovering in mid-air due to the rapid flapping of their wings. They are the only birds that can fly backwards. Rails, gallinules, and coots Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots and gallinules. The most typical family members occupy dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers. Stilts and avocets Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds, which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills. Oystercatchers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae The oystercatchers are large, obvious and noisy plover-like birds, with strong bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs. Lapwings and plovers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water. Sandpipers and allies Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Different lengths of legs and bills enable multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food. Skuas and jaegers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae The family Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large birds, typically with grey or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long-distance migrants. Gulls, terns, and skimmers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds and includes gulls, kittiwakes, terns and skimmers. They are typically gray or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with gray or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 25–30 years. Tropicbirds Order: PhaethontiformesFamily: Phaethontidae Tropicbirds are slender white birds of tropical oceans, with exceptionally long central tail feathers. Their long wings have black markings, as does the head. Shearwaters and petrels Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae The Procellariids are the main group of medium-sized "true petrels", characterized by united nostrils with medium septum and a long outer functional primary. Storks Order: CiconiiformesFamily: Ciconiidae Storks are large, heavy, long-legged, long-necked wading birds with long stout bills and wide wingspans. They lack the powder down that other wading birds such as herons, spoonbills, and ibises use to clean off fish slime. Storks lack a pharynx and are mute. Frigatebirds Order: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae Frigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black or black-and-white, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have colored inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and cannot take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week. Boobies and gannets Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies with only boobies occurring in Vieques. Both groups are medium-large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish. Cormorants and shags Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae Phalacrocoracidae is a family of medium to large coastal, fish-eating seabirds that includes cormorants and shags. Plumage coloration is varied with the majority having mainly dark plumage, some species being black-and-white, and a few being quite colorful. Pelicans Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae Pelicans are very large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their beak Like other birds in the order Pelecaniformes, they have four webbed toes. Bitterns, herons and egrets Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, herons and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more secretive. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises and spoonbills. Ibises and spoonbills Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae Threskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and, rather surprisingly, given their size and weight, very capable soarers. New World vultures Order: CathartiformesFamily: Cathartidae The New World vultures are not closely related to Old World vultures, but superficially resemble them because of convergent evolution. Like the Old World vultures, they are scavengers. However, unlike Old World vultures, which find carcasses by sight, New World vultures have a good sense of smell with which they locate carcasses. Osprey Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae The family Pandionidae contains only one species, the osprey. The osprey (Pandion haliaetus) is a medium large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution. Hawks, eagles, and kites Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey, which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers and Old World vultures. These birds have very large powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons and keen eyesight. Owls Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae The typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk. Kingfishers Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long, pointed bills, short legs and stubby tails. Woodpeckers Order: PiciformesFamily: Picidae Woodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like beaks, short legs, stiff tails and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks. Falcons and caracaras Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons. New World and African parrots Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittacidae Parrots are small to large birds with a characteristic curved beak. Their upper mandibles have slight mobility in the joint with the skull and they have a generally erect stance. All parrots are zygodactyl, having the four toes on each foot placed two at the front and two to the back. Tyrant flycatchers Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tyrannidae Tyrant flycatchers are Passerine birds which occur throughout North and South America. They superficially resemble the Old World flycatchers, but are more robust and have stronger bills. They do not have the sophisticated vocal capabilities of the songbirds. Most, but not all, are rather plain. As the name implies, most are insectivorous. Vireos, shrike-babblers, and erpornis Order: PasseriformesFamily: Vireonidae The vireos are a group of small to medium-sized passerine birds. They are typically greenish in color and resemble wood warblers apart from their heavier bills. Swallows Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base. Starlings Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. They are medium-sized passerines with strong feet. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country, and they eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen. Mockingbirds and thrashers Order: PasseriformesFamily: Mimidae The mimids are a family of passerine birds that includes thrashers, mockingbirds, tremblers and the New World catbirds. These birds are notable for their vocalization, especially their remarkable ability to mimic a wide variety of birds and other sounds heard outdoors. The species tend towards dull grays and browns in their appearance. Thrushes and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae The Thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly but not exclusively in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs. Weavers and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Ploceidae Weavers are a group of small passerine birds related to the finches. These are seed-eating birds with rounded conical bills, most of which breed in sub-Saharan Africa, with fewer species in tropical Asia. Weavers get their name from the large woven nests many species make. They are gregarious birds which often breed colonially. Waxbills and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Estrildidae The estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have wide variation in plumage colors and patterns. Whydahs Order: PasseriformesFamily: Viduidae The Viduidae is a family of small passerine birds native to Africa that includes indigobirds and whydahs. All species are brood parasites, which lay their eggs in the nests of estrildid finches. Species usually have black or indigo predominating in their plumage. Old World sparrows Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae Sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small plump brownish or grayish birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects. Finches, euphonias, and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae Finches are seed-eating passerine birds, that are small to moderately large and have a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well. New World sparrows Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passerellidae New World sparrows are seed-eating birds with distinctively shaped bills. Most of the species in this family are known as sparrows, but these birds are not closely related to the Old World sparrows which are in the family Passeridae. Many species have distinctive head patterns. Spindalises Order: PasseriformesFamily: Spindalidae The members of this small family are native to the Greater Antilles. They were formerly classified as tanagers but were placed in their own family in 2017. Troupials and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Icteridae The icterids are a group of small to medium-sized, often colorful passerine birds restricted to the New World and include the grackles, New World blackbirds and New World orioles. Most species have black as a predominant plumage color, often enlivened by yellow, orange or red. New World warblers Order: PasseriformesFamily: Parulidae The New World warblers are a group of small often colorful passerine birds restricted to the New World. Most are arboreal, but some are more terrestrial. Most members of this family are insectivores. Cardinals and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cardinalidae The cardinals are a family of robust, seed-eating birds with strong bills. They are typically associated with open woodland. The sexes usually have distinct plumages. Tanagers and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Thraupidae The bananaquit is a small passerine bird. It has a slender, curved bill, adapted to taking nectar from flowers. It is the only member of the genus Coereba (Vieillot, 1809) and is normally placed within the family Thraupidae. See also List of birds Lists of birds by region List of endemic fauna of Puerto Rico List of birds of Puerto Rico References Splitting headaches? Recent taxonomic changes affecting the British and Western Palaearctic lists – Martin Collinson, British Birds vol 99 (June 2006), 306–323 Vieques Birds birds of Vieques Vieques
5249586	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super%20Mario	Super Mario	(also known as and ) is a platform game series created by Nintendo starring their mascot, Mario. It is the central series of the greater Mario franchise. At least one Super Mario game has been released for every major Nintendo video game console. There are more than 20 games in the series. The Super Mario games are set primarily in the fictional Mushroom Kingdom, typically with Mario as the player character. He is usually joined by his brother, Luigi, and often by other members of the Mario cast. As platform games, they involve the player character running and jumping across platforms and atop enemies in themed levels. The games have simple plots, typically with Mario and Luigi rescuing the kidnapped Princess Peach from the primary antagonist, Bowser. The first game in the series, Super Mario Bros., released for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in 1985, established the series' core gameplay concepts and elements. These include a multitude of power-ups and items that give the character special powers such as fireball-throwing and size-changing. The Super Mario series is part of the greater Mario franchise, which includes other video game genres and media such as film, television, printed media, and merchandise. More than 380 million copies of Super Mario games have been sold worldwide, making it the fifth-bestselling video game series, behind the larger Mario franchise, the puzzle series Tetris, the series Pokémon video games, and first-person shooter series Call of Duty. Gameplay The objective of the game is to progress through levels by defeating enemies, collecting items and solving puzzles without dying. Power-up use is integral to the series. The series has installments featuring both two and three-dimensional gameplay. In the 2D games, the player character (usually Mario) jumps on platforms and enemies while avoiding their attacks and moving to the right of the scrolling screen. 2D Super Mario game levels have single-exit objectives, which must be reached within a time limit and lead to the next sequential level. Super Mario Bros. 3 introduced the overworld, a map of nonlinear levels that branches according to the player's choice. Super Mario World introduced levels with multiple exits. 3D installments in the series have had two subgenres: open world exploration based games and more linear 3D games with a predetermined path. Levels in the open world games, 64, Sunshine and Odyssey, allow the player to freely explore multiple enclosed environments in 360-degree movement. As the game progresses, more environments become accessible. The linear 3D games, Galaxy, Galaxy 2, 3D Land and 3D World, feature more fixed camera angles and a predetermined path to a single goal. Playable characters The series often features the option to play as characters other than Mario, usually Luigi. Earlier games have offered an alternating multiplayer mode in which the second player controls Luigi on their turn. Luigi is often only playable by player one in a second, more challenging iteration of the base game, such as in The Lost Levels, Galaxy 2, New Super Luigi U and the special worlds in 3D Land; these feature lower gravity and reduced friction for Luigi. Later games allow four player simultaneous play. Playable characters other than Mario and Luigi have included Toads, Peach, Yoshi, Wario, Rosalina, Miis, Toadette, Nabbit, Daisy, and Bowser Jr. Characters are sometimes differentiated by special abilities. Super Mario Maker (though not Super Mario Maker 2) includes costumes that depict many more characters. Power-ups and transformations Mushroom power-ups appear in almost every Super Mario game. The most iconic of these is the Super Mushroom. The Super Mushroom increases the character's size, turning them into a "Super" variant, and allows them to break certain blocks. When hit by an enemy, the character reverts to their smaller size instead of losing a life. When the character is in their "Super" form, most blocks that would contain a Super Mushroom instead offer a more powerful power-up such as the Fire Flower. The Super Mushroom is similar in appearance to the Amanita muscaria, with an ivory stalk below a most commonly red and white (originally red and orange) spotted cap. Created by chance, Shigeru Miyamoto stated in an interview that beta tests of Super Mario Bros. proved Mario too tall, so the development team implemented mushrooms to grow and shrink Mario. Different variants of mushroom power-ups appear in the series. For example, Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels introduces the Poison Mushroom, which causes damage when collected; and New Super Mario Bros. introduces the Mini Mushroom, which shrinks the character to miniature size; and the Mega Mushroom, grows the character into a towering, invulnerable giant who destroys enemies and the environment by running through them. Super Mario Bros. 3 introduces suits to the Super Mario series, many of which are based on animals or Mario enemies. The Raccoon Suit (provisioned by a Super Leaf) and the Tanooki Suit each provide the character with a tail that enables flight. In addition, the Tanooki Suit lets the character spontaneously change into an invincible statue for about five seconds. Super Mario Bros. 3 includes a Hammer Bros. suit, which allows Mario and Luigi to throw hammers as projectiles to defeat enemies at a distance. Other suits in later games in the series include the Frog Suit, Penguin Suit, Cat Suit, Boomerang Suit, and Bee Suit. Projectiles The flower power-ups let the player character shoot projectiles. The Fire Flower, introduced in Super Mario Bros., transforms the character into a Fire variant who can throw bouncing fireballs at enemies. Galaxy is the first 3D Super Mario game to have the Fire Flower. In Land and Maker 2, the Superball is a bouncing ball obtained from a Super Flower, which the character can use to defeat enemies and collect coins. The Ice Flower transforms the character into an Ice variant who can shoot balls of ice as projectiles similar to those of the Fire Flower; they freeze enemies in blocks of ice that can used as platforms or thrown as projectiles, as seen in New Super Mario Bros. Wii and New Super Mario Bros. U. In Galaxy, the Ice Flower turns Mario or Luigi into ice and lets him walk on lava or water for a limited time by freezing the surface. Lastly, New Super Mario Bros. 2s Gold Flower lets Mario or Luigi turn bricks into coins and earn bonus coins for defeating enemies. Koopa Shells serve as a major projectile in the series, featuring since the original game. The character can throw them to defeat enemies, collect coins, and activate the functions of blocks. Power-ups are available for Yoshi to breathe fire in World, Yoshi's Island, and 64 DS, breathe freezing air and spit seeds in Yoshi's Island, spit out enemies in the World games, and spit juice in Sunshine. Other power-ups let the character throw bombs, boomerangs, and baseballs and shoot cannonballs. In Odyssey, Mario can possess characters, some of which can launch various projectiles. Flying shoot 'em up gameplay also appears in the series. Mario pilots the armed Sky Pop biplane and Marine Pop submarine in Land. The Koopa Clown Car, aircraft of Bowser and the Koopalings, can sometimes shoot fireballs in Maker. Ridable animals and vehicles Apart from automated objects in levels that may transport the player character, certain ridable animals and vehicles have appeared that the player controls. Mario's dinosaur friend Yoshi has appeared as a mount to the player character in several Super Mario games since Super Mario World. In Yoshi's Island and 64 DS, instead of the player character merely riding on Yoshi's back, Yoshi is the player character. Yoshis generally have abilities including eating enemies, flying, and breathing fire. Miyamoto had originally wished for Mario to be able to ride a dinosaur in Super Mario Bros., but this wasn't possible due to the technical restraints of the system. Poochi is a dog featuring in Yoshi's Island who Yoshi can ride. Plesiosaurs Dorrie and Plessie can be ridden by the player characters in 64 and 3D World respectively, with Plessie serving a larger role in Bowser's Fury. Various vehicles that the player character can control have also appeared. These include a magic carpet in 2, flying clouds in several 2D games, submarines in Land and Yoshi's Island, an airplane in Land, a helicopter, train, and mole tank in Yoshi's Island, cars in Yoshi's Island and Maker 2, and the Koopa Clown Car aircraft in the Maker games. Blocks Most items in the Super Mario series appear from item blocks when hit, which originated in Super Mario Bros. and have persisted throughout the series, where the character hits a block to receive either coins or power-ups. Variations include those that are invisible until hit, advice dispensers, produce another block, move, frozen, contingent on a switch, bouncy, etc. The propeller block lets the character spin up into the air and slowly descend, and the Gold Block generates coins through running. A single block is the unit of measurement in the design of Super Mario levels. Extra lives Player characters can gain extra lives in most of the games. The 1-Up mushroom was introduced in Super Mario Bros., with the term 1-up subsequently being used generically in other video game series to refer to extra lives. In the monochromatic Super Mario Land and Super Mario Land 2, instead of a differently colored mushroom, the 1-Up is shown as a heart. Super Mario World introduced the 3-Up Moon. 1-Ups can also be earned through collecting a certain number of coins or playing minigames. Invincibility Invincibility is an effect first appearing in the three Super Mario Bros. games, where it is granted by a "Starman", an anthropomorphized, flashing star. The star has also been named the "Super Star" in the two Super Mario World games as well as the New Super Mario Bros. games and the "Rainbow Star" in the two Super Mario Galaxy games. Picking up the star makes the character temporarily invincible, able to resist any harm. Use of the item is accompanied by a distinctive music track that appears consistently across most of the games. The player character flickers a variety of colors – and in some games, moves with increased speed and enhanced jumping ability – while under the Star's influence. While invincible, the character defeats any enemy upon contact with it. In Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island, the star gives the normally immobile baby Mario the ability to run as well as become invincible. In Super Mario 64 and 64 DS, invincibility is provided when the character becomes metal or intangible. The Mega Mushroom provides temporary invincibility with the addition of giant size and environment destruction (see Power-ups and transformations). Collectibles Super Mario level design traditionally incorporates many distributed coins as puzzles and rewards. Most Super Mario games award the player an extra life once a certain amount of gold coins are collected, commonly 50 or 100. Several coin variants exist, such as silver coins, dragon coins, star coins, and more. In 64, Sunshine, Galaxy, and Galaxy 2, coins replenish health (and air, when the character is underwater). In 64 and Sunshine, collecting 100 coins in a level results in a Power Star or Shine Sprite respectively. There are also stages in that game reward a Power Star for collecting eight red coins in a level, worth two normal coins each. In 64, a blue coin is worth five normal coins. In Sunshine, blue coins act as a side quest when brought to the Delfino Bank and for every ten blue coins deposited, Mario will earn a Shine Sprite. In the Galaxy series, after finishing each game once, stages unlock where Mario or Luigi can collect 100 purple coins to earn a Power Star. In Galaxy 2, they can also be used to feed some hungry "Luma" characters that can turn into either an item or another planet. The games often feature other tokens found in levels to progress in the overworld, most frequently with the visual motif of a star. They are typically situated in locations that are not readily found or reached, or awarded for completing stunts, or objectives given by NPCs. They include the Power Stars in Super Mario 64 and the Super Mario Galaxy games, Shine Sprites in Super Mario Sunshine and Bowser's Fury, Star Coins in the New Super Mario Bros. series and Super Mario 3D Land, Green Stars in the Galaxy games and Super Mario 3D World, and Power Moons in Super Mario Odyssey. In Super Mario Land 2, there are six Golden Coin tokens that must be collected to finish the game. Warp Pipes and Warp Cannons The Warp Pipe is a common method of transportation used in many of the Mario series games. Warp Pipes are most often green but also appear in other colors (early games included silver pipes, newer games have introduced red, green, blue and yellow pipes), and have many uses in the series. Warp Pipes can also contain enemies, usually Piranha Plants, and sometimes launch the player into the air (most commonly seen in the New Super Mario Bros. series). In early Mario games such as Super Mario Bros., special, well-hidden areas known as Warp Zones contain pipes that allow players to skip several worlds (handfuls of levels) at once. In the New Super Mario Bros. series, pipe-shaped Warp Cannons work similarly to the Warp Zones of the earlier games and are unlocked by finding secret exits in levels. Cannons appear in most of the 3D games in the series starting with Super Mario 64. The character uses the cannon by jumping into the barrel, aiming themself and being fired at a distant target. This allows the character to progress through a level or reach otherwise inaccessible areas. Minigames Many games in the series feature minigames supplemental to the platforming gameplay, usually offering the chance to win extra lives or power-ups. Super Mario Bros. 2 and 3D World feature slot machines. Super Mario Bros. 3 and the New Super Mario Bros. games contain Toad Houses that host skill- and luck-based activities such as shell games. The Land games feature end-of-level minigames for acquiring extra lives. The Battle Mode in the All-Stars version of Super Mario Bros. 3 and the Advance series of remakes all feature versions of Mario Bros. as a minigame. Yoshi's Island enables a minigame when certain conditions are met when completing a level. 64 DS contains over 30 minigames that can be accessed independently of the original mode of play. 3D World contains Luigi Bros., a version of Mario Bros. with two Luigis, and the Switch version of 3D World includes Bowser's Fury, a 3D platformer of smaller size in one enclosed environment. Music Much of the original Super Mario Bros. music and sound effects have become iconic to the series and incorporated into modern games. The original Super Mario Bros. theme, composed by Koji Kondo, has become one of the most well known video game themes around the world. Super Mario Galaxy, released in 2007, became the first game in the Super Mario series to feature orchestrated music, which would return in its sequel and other subsequent games such as Super Mario 3D World. Development 1985–1995: 2D origins Super Mario Bros., the first side-scrolling 2D platform game to feature Mario, was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in 1985. It was derived through collaboration by Nintendo's Shigeru Miyamoto and Takashi Tezuka as a successor to the 1983 arcade game Mario Bros., which starred two characters: Mario, the titular character that first appeared in Donkey Kong as the original player character and its sequel where he was a final boss, and Luigi, who first appeared in Mario Bros. Super Mario Bros. established many core Mario elements, such as Goombas, Koopa Troopas, Bowser, Peach, and its three power-ups: the Super Mushroom, increasing the character's size and providing an extra hit point, Fire Flower, allowing the character to throw fireballs as weapons, and Super Star, granting temporary invincibility. The "Super" in the title came from the integration of the Super Mushroom into the game. The brothers Mario and Luigi must rescue Princess Toadstool/Peach from Bowser/King Koopa in the Mushroom Kingdom. The game consists of eight worlds of four levels each, totaling 32 levels altogether. Though the worlds differ in themes, the fourth level is always a fortress or castle that ends with a fight against Bowser (or one of his minions disguised as him). Super Mario Bros. is one of the best-selling video games of all time. Super Mario Bros: The Lost Levels (known as Super Mario Bros. 2 in Japan) is the first sequel to the original Super Mario Bros. It uses the Super Mario Bros. engine, with additions such as weather, character movements, and more complex levels, altogether yielding a much higher difficulty. The game follows the same style of level progression as Super Mario Bros., with eight initial worlds of four levels each. At that time, this sequel was not released outside Japan since Nintendo of America did not want the Super Mario series to be known to players outside of Japan for frustrating difficulty. It remained inaccessible to a steadily broadening market of American video game players, becoming stylistically outdated by the time the Japanese Super Mario Bros. 2 could be eventually delivered to America. The game later debuted outside Japan in 1993 as Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels in the compilation game Super Mario All-Stars for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES). In Super Mario Bros. 2 (known as Super Mario USA in Japan), Mario and his companions seek to defeat the evil frog Wart in the Subcon dreamland. Based on a discarded prototype, the game was instead originally released as Yume Kōjō: Doki Doki Panic in Japan, and was ultimately converted into a Mario game for the rest of the world as Super Mario Bros. 2, before being released in Japan as Super Mario USA as part of Super Mario All-Stars. One of the game's most defining aspects is the four player characters: not only Mario, but Luigi, Princess Peach and Toad are available for single-player gameplay, each with defined character movements: Luigi jumps higher, the Princess can hover in the air for a short amount of time, and Toad is the fastest. Characters here also can pluck items from the ground to throw at enemies. This is also the first Super Mario game to use a life meter, which allows the characters to be hit up to four times before dying. Super Mario Bros. 3 is divided into eight themed worlds, each with 6–10 levels and several bonus stages displayed as locations on a mapped overworld. These locations are not necessarily in a linear order, and the player is occasionally permitted to skip levels or play the game out of order. Completed levels cannot be replayed. The penultimate boss stage in each world is a side-scrolling level atop an airship ("Doom Ship") with a fight against one of Bowser's seven Koopalings. The game introduced a diverse array of new power-ups, including flight as Raccoon Mario and Raccoon Luigi or the level-long P-Wing allowing flight through a whole level. Bowser is again the final boss. Super Mario Land is the first handheld Super Mario game apart from the Game & Watch conversion of Super Mario Bros., and was released for the Game Boy in 1989. Like the Super Mario Bros. games, it is a sidescrolling platformer. Mario sets out to save Princess Daisy from the spaceman Tatanga. Items include the Super Mushroom, Super Flower, which allows Mario to shoot projectiles, Super Star, and hearts, which give Mario an extra life. The game consists of twelve levels split across four worlds. Reaching the higher of two exits at each level's end activates a minigame where the player can try to get extra lives. Super Mario World was released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System and consists of nine worlds displayed via a world map. It is a direct successor to the Super Mario Bros. games, bearing the subtitle Super Mario Bros. 4 in Japan. Unlike Super Mario Bros. 3, however, where each world map is separate, the world map here covers the whole game. Some of the levels have hidden alternate exits leading to different areas. New abilities include a spin jump and the rideable Yoshi, who can eat enemies and either swallow or spit them out. Power-ups include the new Cape Feather, which lets Mario and Luigi fly with a cape, and the P-balloon, which inflates the player character to allow him to float. Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins was released for the Game Boy in 1992. It introduces Mario's rival, Wario, who took over Mario's castle during the events of Super Mario Land and forces Mario to collect the six golden coins to reenter and reclaim his castle. While its predecessor is similar to the original Super Mario Bros., Super Mario Land 2 has more in common with Super Mario World, featuring a world map and the ability to move back to the left within levels. There are 32 levels, divided into several themed worlds that each have their own boss. Three power-ups return: the Super Mushroom, Fire Flower, and Super Star. The game also introduces the Carrot power-up, which gives Mario large rabbit ears that let him glide when falling for a limited time. Its story was continued in Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3, which retroactively became the first of a spin-off series, Wario Land. Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island was released for the SNES in 1995. To reunite baby Mario with his brother Luigi, who has been kidnapped by Kamek, the player controls Yoshi as the primary character through 48 levels while carrying Baby Mario. Yoshi runs and jumps to reach the end of the level while solving puzzles and collecting items. In a style new to the series, the game has a hand-drawn aesthetic. The game introduces his signature abilities to flutter jump and produce eggs from swallowed enemies. Yoshi's Island received "instant" and "universal acclaim", according to IGN and review aggregator Metacritic, and sold over four million copies. Yoshi's signature characteristics established in Yoshi's Island would carry throughout a series of cameos, spin-offs, and sequels. Sources have debated on whether Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island, where the player primarily controls a Yoshi carrying Baby Mario, should count as a Super Mario game, with some sources considering it strictly a Yoshi game. Miyamoto responded affirmatively when asked if Yoshi's Island is a Super Mario game, with Tezuka later adding: "When that game debuted, I wanted people to understand that Yoshi was part of the Mario world, and that be conveyed whether through title or gameplay. To me, it's part of the Mario series, but today's Yoshi games? They've changed from those origins, so I think it's okay to think of Yoshi living in his own universe. You can think of it separately from Mario's world." 1996–2005: Introduction of 3D and open-ended exploration In the early 1990s, director and producer Shigeru Miyamoto had conceived a 3D Mario design during development of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) game Star Fox (1993). He considered using the Super FX chip to develop a SNES game, Super Mario FX, with gameplay based on "an entire world in miniature, like miniature trains". He eventually reformulated the idea for the Nintendo 64, not for its substantially greater power, but because its controller has more buttons for gameplay. Super Mario 64 was developed over approximately three years, with one year spent on the design concept and approximately two years on production. Production began on September 7, 1994, and concluded on May 20, 1996. Super Mario 64 is the first 3D and open world game in the series, and a launch game for the Nintendo 64 home console. Each level is an enclosed environment where the player is free to explore in all directions without time limits. The player collects Power Stars from the paintings in Peach's castle to unlock later courses and areas. The Nintendo 64's analog stick makes an extensive repertoire of precise movements in all directions possible. The game introduced moves such as punching, triple jumping, and using a Wing Cap to fly. It is the first Super Mario series game to feature Charles Martinet's voice acting for Mario. Mario must once again save Princess Peach from Bowser. The game's power-ups differ from previous games, now being three different hats with temporary powers: the Wing Cap, allowing Mario to fly; the Metal Cap, turning him into metal; and the Vanish Cap, allowing him to walk through obstacles. Super Mario 64 is considered seminal to 3D video games. A remake of the game called Super Mario 64 DS was released for Nintendo DS in 2004 and 2005, adding Yoshi, Luigi, and Wario as playable characters, new abilities, new objectives, multiplayer, and minigames. Super Mario Sunshine is the second 3D Super Mario game. It was released in 2002 for the GameCube. In it, Mario and Peach travel to Isle Delfino for a vacation when a Mario doppelgänger, going by the name of Shadow Mario, appears and vandalizes the entire island. Mario is sentenced to clean the island with a water-squirting accessory called F.L.U.D.D. Super Mario Sunshine shares many similar gameplay elements with its predecessor Super Mario 64, yet introduces moves, like spinning while jumping, and several other actions through the use of F.L.U.D.D. The game contains a number of independent levels, which can be reached from the hub, Delfino Plaza. Mario collects Shine Sprites by completing tasks in the levels, which in return unlock levels in Delfino Plaza by way of abilities and plot-related events. Sunshine introduces the last of Bowser's eight children, Bowser Jr., as an antagonist. Yoshi also appears again for Mario to ride in certain sections. 2006–2016: 2D revival and path-focused 3D games After no original 2D game releases in the series since 1995, New Super Mario Bros. was released on the Nintendo DS in 2006. In it, Mario and Luigi set out to save Princess Peach from Bowser Jr. The gameplay is 2D, but most of the characters and objects are 3D on two-dimensional backgrounds, resulting in a 2.5D effect. The game uses an overworld map similar to those of Super Mario Bros. Deluxe. Some levels have multiple exits. The classic power-ups (Super Mushroom, Fire Flower and Super Star) return alongside the Mega Mushroom, Blue Shell, and Mini Mushroom. Miyamoto explained that when he was developing Super Mario 64 with Yoshiaki Koizumi, they realized that the title would be more directed towards the "core gamer", rather than the casual, "pick-up-and-go" gamer. After Sunshine, their focus shifted to more accessible, casual games, leading them to develop Super Mario Galaxy with more progression-oriented paths. Galaxy was launched in 2007 for the Wii. It is set in outer space, where Mario or Luigi travel between "galaxies" to collect Power Stars, earned by completing quests or defeating enemies. It introduced motion controls to the series. Each galaxy contains a number of planets and other space objects for the player to explore. The game's physics system gives each celestial object its own gravitational force, which lets the character circumnavigate rounded or irregular planetoids by walking sideways or upside down. The character is usually able to jump from one independent object and fall towards another close object. Though the main gameplay and physics are in 3D, there are several points in the game where the character's movements are restricted into a 2D axis. Several new power-ups appear following the new game mechanics. New Super Mario Bros. Wii (2009) features 4-player co-op and new power-ups: the Propeller Mushroom, the Ice Flower, and the Penguin Suit. All characters can ride Yoshi. Super Mario Galaxy 2, released on May 23, 2010, was initially developed as an expansion pack to Galaxy, but was eventually developed into its own game. It retains the basic premise of its predecessor and includes its items and power-ups besides the Ice Flower and Red Star. New power-ups include the Cloud Flower, which allows Mario or Luigi to create platforms in mid-air and the Rock Mushroom, which turns the character into a rolling boulder. The character can also ride Yoshi. The game was released to widespread critical acclaim, getting better reviews than its predecessor. Super Mario 3D Land was released for the Nintendo 3DS in November and December 2011. It was the first attempt to translate the gameplay of the 2D games into a 3D environment, and simplify the control scheme of the 3D games through including more linear levels. It is the first original 3D Super Mario game on a handheld console, since all previous handheld games were either 2D or a port of a previous game. It also brought back several older gameplay features, including the Super Leaf power-up last seen in Super Mario Bros. 3. New Super Mario Bros. 2 was released in July and August 2012 for the Nintendo 3DS. The player, as Mario or Luigi, tries to save Princess Peach from Bowser and the Koopalings, with the game's secondary goal to collect one million coins. Several gameplay elements were introduced to help achieve this goal, such as the Gold Flower, a rarer variant of the Fire Flower that turns items into coins. New Super Mario Bros. U, the Wii U follow-up to New Super Mario Bros. Wii, was released in November 2012. It introduces both a Flying Squirrel suit that lets the characters glide through the air, and asymmetric gameplay that allows the player holding the GamePad to influence the environment. In June 2013, New Super Luigi U was released as a downloadable content (DLC) package for the game, featuring shorter, but more difficult levels, starring Luigi as the main protagonist instead of his brother. Subsequently, it was released as a standalone retail game on August 25 in North America. The Nintendo Switch port New Super Mario Bros. U Deluxe includes both the main game and New Super Luigi U, and new playable characters Nabbit and Toadette. Super Mario 3D World, the sequel to 3D Land, was released for the Wii U on November 22, 2013, in North America, and used the same gameplay mechanics as its predecessor. Co-operative multiplayer is available for up to four players. The game introduced the ability to turn the characters into cats able to attack and scale walls to reach new areas, and to create clones of the characters. Like Super Mario Bros. 2, it features Princess Peach and Toad as playable characters in addition to Mario and Luigi. Rosalina from Super Mario Galaxy is also unlocked later in the game. Miyamoto said that "even though that's a 3D game, it's a little more accessible to everybody." Super Mario Maker is a creation tool released for the Wii U in September 2015 which allows players to create their own levels based on the gameplay and style of Super Mario Bros., Super Mario Bros. 3, Super Mario World, and New Super Mario Bros. U, as well as to share their creations online. Based on existing games, several gameplay mechanics were introduced for the game, with existing ones also available to be used together in new ways. A Nintendo 3DS version of the game called Super Mario Maker for Nintendo 3DS, was released in December 2016. It features a few new pre-installed levels, but no online level sharing. Super Mario Maker 2 is a new version of Super Mario Maker with many new items, themes, and enemies, a world-builder, as well as online multiplayer. The game was released on June 28, 2019, for the Nintendo Switch. Super Mario Run is a side-scrolling and auto-scrolling video game released in December 2016 on the iOS platform, then in March 2017 on Android. It is the first official Super Mario game developed for mobile devices. As such, it features simplified controls that allow it to be played with only one hand. In this game, the character runs automatically, with the player controlling the jumping action to avoid hazards. This is achieved by touching the tactile screens these devices are built with. The longer the player touches the jump button, the higher the character jumps. This game also includes a "Toad Rally" mode, similar to the "VS Boo" mode of Super Mario Bros Deluxe, in which players have to complete a level faster than a computer-controlled Toad. Success in this mode earns the player access to in-game money to spend on customizing the Mushroom Kingdom map, using mechanics similar to FarmVille. This is the first Super Mario game that Princess Daisy is playable in and the first to feature a music track with vocals. 2017–2021: Return to open-ended exploration After having fallen out of favor by the mid-2000s, open-world "collectathon" 3D platformers such as Super Mario 64, Banjo-Kazooie and Donkey Kong 64 had become less common. For example, the 3D adventure game Banjo-Kazooie: Nuts & Bolts (2008) explicitly mocked the perceived tedium of collecting large quantities of tokens. By the mid-2010s, however, 3D platformers were aiming to replicate such experiences, including Yooka-Laylee and A Hat in Time. Super Mario Odyssey is a return to the open-world "sandbox" 3D style of gameplay, with "more open-ended exploration like in Super Mario 64 and Super Mario Sunshine." It was released in October 2017 for Nintendo Switch. Bowser's Fury is part of the 2021 re-release of Super Mario 3D World on the Nintendo Switch. It implements 3D open-world "free-roaming" gameplay in a similar fashion to Odyssey, from which it includes many elements. 2023: Super Mario Bros. Wonder Super Mario Bros. Wonder is a 2D sidescrolling Super Mario game announced on June 21, 2023 and released on October 20 of the same year. Playable characters include Mario, Luigi, Toad, Princess Peach, Princess Daisy, Yoshi, Nabbit and Toadette. New power-ups include a fruit that transforms the player into an elephant and a flower that allows the player to create bubbles that capture enemies. When touching a Wonder Flower, the player character experiences strange effects that involve the character and the world being altered. Remakes and remasters Reception The Super Mario series has seen tremendous critical acclaim from both critics and audiences. The series was ranked as the best game franchise by IGN in 2006. In 1996 Next Generation ranked the series as number 5 on their "Top 100 Games of All Time", additionally ranking Super Mario 64 at number 1 although stating the rule that series of games be confined to a single entry. In 1999, Next Generation listed the Mario series as number 3 on their "Top 50 Games of All Time", commenting that, "The depth of the game design was never matched in 2D and has yet to be equaled by a 3D action performer. The gameplay is simply genius – Shigeru Miyamoto wrote the book on platformers." Electronic Gaming Monthly attributed the series' excellence to the developers' tireless creativity and innovation, pointing out that "Sega's Sonic the Hedgehog series changed very little in its four installments on the Genesis. The Mario series has changed significantly with each new game." The original Super Mario Bros. was awarded the top spot on Electronic Gaming Monthlys greatest 200 games of their time list and IGN's top 100 games of all-time list twice (in 2005 and 2007). Super Mario Bros. popularized side-scrolling video games and provided the basic concept and mechanics that persisted throughout the rest of the series. Super Mario Bros. sold 40.24 million copies, making it the bestselling video game of the whole series. Various other video games of the series were ranked as the best within the series. Games included are Super Mario Bros. 3, Super Mario World and Super Mario 64 to name a few. Before Super Mario Odyssey, Super Mario Galaxy has been for 10 years the best-ranked game on GameRankings. Sales Super Mario is one of the best-selling video game franchises, having sold more than units worldwide . The first seven Super Mario games (including the first three Super Mario Bros. titles, the first two Super Mario Land titles, and Super Mario World) had sold units by March 1993. Games in the Super Mario series have had consistently strong sales, ranking among the best-selling video games of all time. Super Mario Bros. sold more than units worldwide sold across multiple platforms by 1996. The original NES version sold 40.23 million units and is the best-selling NES game, with its two sequels, Super Mario Bros. 3 (18 million copies) and Super Mario Bros. 2 (10 million copies), ranking in second and third place respectively. Super Mario World is the best-selling game for the SNES console, selling 20 million copies. Super Mario World is also the seventh bestselling game of all time. Super Mario 64 sold the most copies for the Nintendo 64 (11 million), whereas Super Mario Sunshine is the second bestselling game (5.5 million) on the GameCube (second to Super Smash Bros. Melee). Super Mario Galaxy has sold 12.80 million units , which was the bestselling 3D game in the series until 2019, and is the ninth bestselling game for the Wii. Its sequel Super Mario Galaxy 2 has 7.41 million units sold, placing in twelfth. Super Mario 3D World was the second bestselling game on the Wii U and along with its more popular Switch port has sold over 14 million copies combined making it the 2nd bestselling 3D Mario game. Super Mario Odyssey has 23.50 million units sold as of December 2021, making it the bestselling 3D game in the series to date, and among the best-selling games for the Nintendo Switch. New Super Mario Bros. Wii has sold 30.32 million copies worldwide, the fourth bestselling game on the Wii, as well as one of the bestselling video games of all time. The Super Mario series also sold well on handheld consoles. Super Mario Land has sold 18.14 million copies, and is the fourth bestselling game for the Game Boy. Its sequel, Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins, sold 11.18 million copies, placing sixth. New Super Mario Bros. for the Nintendo DS sold 30.80 million units, making it the bestselling game for the console, and the bestselling portable entry. For all console and handheld games that have not been bundled with a console, Super Mario Bros. 3 is the fourth bestselling game, whereas New Super Mario Bros. is fifth, Super Mario Land is eleventh, and Super Mario 64 is eighteenth. In the United Kingdom, Super Mario Bros. is the most famous video game brand, recognized by 91% of the UK adult population . Legacy See also Luigi's Mansion series: A spin-off of the series. Captain Toad: Treasure Tracker: A spin-off of the series. Donkey Kong Country series: Similar platform series. Super Princess Peach: A similar Nintendo platform game that role reverses the characters that are commonly used in the concept of the series. Wario Land series: A similar platform sub-series Notes References External links Nintendo franchises Video games about size change Video game franchises introduced in 1985 Video game franchises Video games produced by Shigeru Miyamoto
5249628	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirchheim%20unter%20Teck	Kirchheim unter Teck	Kirchheim unter Teck (Swabian: Kircha) is a town in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, in the district of Esslingen. It is located on the small river Lauter, a tributary of the Neckar. It is 10 km (6 miles) near the Teck castle, approximately southeast of Stuttgart. It is the fourth city in the Esslingen district, forming a district centre for the surrounding communities. Since 1 April 1956, Kirchheim unter Teck has the status of Große Kreisstadt. The city forms a Verwaltungsgemeinschaft (administrative community) with the neighbouring municipalities Dettingen and Notzingen. Kirchheim unter Teck was also, for several centuries, seat of the Oberamt (Oa.) Kirchheim. Geography Kirchheim unter Teck is located in the foothills of the central Swabian Alb, north of the Albtrauf escarpment and its foothills: the Teckberg, Breitenstein and Limburg. It is situated in the Lauter valley, at the confluence of the Lindach and several tributary streams with the Lauter. The Lauter itself arrives at the south side of the city, coming from Dettingen unter Teck, then flowing through the city center (to the right of the old town), then turning north west, flowing through the district of Ötlingen and then leaving the city towards Wendlingen am Neckar, where it flows into the Neckar. Neighbouring communities The following towns and villages border the town of Kirchheim Teck, clockwise starting in the East: Schlierbach (Göppingen) and Ohmden, Holzmaden, Weilheim an der Teck, Bissingen an der Teck, Dettingen unter Teck, Nürtingen, Oberboihingen, Wendlingen am Neckar, Wernau and Notzingen (all of them in the district of Esslingen) Structure of the city The city of Kirchheim unter Teck consists of the core city Kirchheim, which annexed in 1935 the districts of Lindorf and Ötlingen. In the local government reform of 1974, Kirchheim annexed the districts of Jesingen and Nabern. All four districts are towns in the sense of the Municipal Code of Baden-Württemberg. That is, they each have a municipal council, elected by the population and chaired by a mayor. Within the central city of Kirchheim, separately named residential areas can be distinguished, whose names have emerged in the course of history. In most cases they are not exactly delineated. The Schafhof district, however, which was built in the 1970s, is not adjacent to the rest of the city. Markets & Attractions The city holds a variety of regular scheduled markets and fairs for its residents and tourists alike. A weekly farmers market offers a wide variety of seasonal fruits, vegetables and fresh flowers amongst other regional specialties. Every first Monday of the month a ‘Krämermarkt’ with roughly 100 additional booths offering clothing, household goods and more is added. Additional seasonal fairs are held in March, November and a Christmasmarket in December. Planning Kirchheim is a regional center within Stuttgart Region, the main center of which is Stuttgart. The Kirchheim region consists of the cities and towns in the southeast of the Esslingen district (essentially the foothills of the Alb with Lenningen valley and Neidlingen valley). In particular, the region encompasses the towns of Bissingen an der Teck, Dettingen unter Teck, Erkenbrechtsweiler, Holzmaden, Köngen, Lenningen, Neidlingen Notzingen, Ohmden, Owen, Weilheim an der Teck and Wendlingen am Neckar. History Traces of settlements from the Neolithic, the Celtic and Romans era have been found. Alamannic graves prove the existence of three settlements in the area of the city during the migration period. Although the first written mention of Kirchheim dates only to the year 960, the town certainly existed during the Alemannic era of the 6th and 7th century. Perhaps the current settlement was founded during the Christianization when several older villages were merged and a church was built and dedicated to St. Martin. In 960, Kirchheim came in the possession of Emperor Otto I in an exchange for the diocese Chur. The Market and the royal mint date back to the mid-11th Century. The place was owned by the Dukes of Zähringen and was inherited in 1186 by a lateral line, the Duke of Teck. The Dukes of Teck are known since 1252, but the title of duke more a family name than a proper title. Sometime between 1220 and 1230, they elevated Kirchheim to a market town under Freiburg law. Duke Louis I of Teck founded the Kirchheim nunnery in 1240. In 1270, Duke Conrad II of Teck initiated the construction of a city wall. In a process which lasted from 1303 until 1386, Kirchheim became a part of Austria and later of Württemberg, due to economic difficulties of the Dukes of Teck. The city was the seat of a Württemberg Amt. During the 14th century, when the Dukes of Teck played a leading role in the city government, the rise of the middle classes brought an economic boom, especially in the textile industry and the textile trade. After Duke Ulrich returned from exile in 1539, Kirchheim was expanded to a fortress of Württemberg and at the same time, the ducal palace was constructed. The current appearance of the city is from the reconstruction after a devastating fire in 1690. In 1864, it became the terminal of the first private railway in Württemberg, the line Unterboihingen-Kirchheim. In the 19th century, it became the seat of an Oberamt. In 1938, the Oberamt Kirchheim was included in the Landkreis Nürtingen. After World War II, the population of the city grew significantly due to the influx of refugees and displaced persons. In 1948, the population exceeded the limit of 20,000, and under the Baden-Württemberg Municipal Code, the city received on 1 April 1956 the legal status of Große Kreisstadt. Since the district reform of 1973, Kirchheim unter Teck is one of the municipalities of the district of Esslingen. In 1974, two neighboring municipalities were annexed. Thus, the city reached its current dimensions. Rocket launch pads There are three launch pads for the Luftwaffe Bachem Ba 349 Natter rocket interceptors located in the Hasenholz forest near Kirchheim unter Teck. They are all that remain from the once active launch site constructed in 1945. The three launchpads are arranged in the form of an equilateral triangle, whose sides point toward the east and the south. The distance between the launchpads is approximately 50 meters. The circular concrete pads on which the Bachem Ba 349s and their launch towers once stood still exist. In the center of each of the three concrete plates is a square hole approximately 50 centimeters deep, which once served as the foundation for the launch tower. Beside each hole is a pipe, cut off at ground level, which was probably once a cable pit. The Natter launchpads at Kirchheim unter Teck are considered the only remnants of these rocket launch pads on publicly accessible terrain, as the ramp in the Lager Heuberg, where Lothar Sieber took off for his fatal manned test flight, is still in a restricted military area. Religions The population of Kirchheim unter Teck originally belonged to the Bishopric of Constance and was assigned to the Archdeanery circa alpes, chapter Kirchheim. As the city belonged to Württemberg at the time of the Reformation, Protestantism was introduced here as early as 1535 by Duke Ulrich. Consequently, Kirchheim unter Teck was a predominantly Protestant town for centuries. The Martin Church was the seat of the Dean of the Kirchheim Church District. The congregation grew, especially after the Second World War, due to a strong influx and consequently, the congregation was split. One congregation uses the Christ Church (built in 1909), others use the Church of the Cross (1956), the Thomas Church (1967) and the Resurrection Church (1972). These five congregations in the central city, together with the parish of Ötlingen (separate parish since 1834) and the St. Matthew parish in Lindorf (church built in 1971, formerly part of Kirchheim, later part of Ötlingen), form the Evangelical Church of the City Kirchheim unter Teck. The districts of Jesingen and Nabern were also introduced early to the Reformation, due to their being part of Württemberg as well. Consequently, these district have their own Protestant congregation and church. All Protestant churches in the city are administered by the office of the Dean of Kirchheim unter Teck as part of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg. Since the late-19th century, there have been Catholics in Kirchheim unter Teck. They built the St. Ulrich church in 1910. Ötlingen and Lindorf and some neighboring communities belong to this parish. In 1967, a second church was built, the Mary Queen of Heaven church. The Catholics in Jessingen and Nabern and some neighboring communities belong to this parish. These two parishes now form the Pastoral Care Unit 5 in the Deanery Esslingen-Nürtingen of the Diocese of Rottenburg-Stuttgart. The city also has several Free Churches and congregations, including the United Methodist Church and the Evangelical Free Church (also known as Baptists). The New Apostolic Church is also represented in Kirchheim unter Teck. Annexations In the town of Kirchheim unter Teck following municipalities were integrated: 1 April 1935: Ötlingen and Lindorf 1 January 1974: Nabern 1 September 1974: Jesingen Districts Jesingen Jesingen is located about two miles () southeast of Kirchheim in the direction Weilheim an der Teck. Jesingen was the first mentioned (as Osinski) in 769 in the Codex of Lorsch in a donation to the Lorsch monastery. The district of Jesingen is 574 ha in size, the village has about 3300 inhabitants. Lindorf Lindorf is located about two kilometres () west of Kirchheim. Lindorf is first mentioned in 1090 in the Treaty of Bempflinger Treaty. The district has an area of 262 ha; about 1,500 people live in Lindorf. Ötlingen Ötlingen is situated approximately west of Kirchheim. The two districts are separated by an industrial area; the built up area is now continuous. The Ötlingen district has an area of 375 hectares. Ötlingen is first mentioned in 788 (as Adiningen) in the Codex of Lorsch. Ötlingen was owned by the Dukes of the Zähringen and later by the Dukes of Teck and at end of the 13th century by Württemberg. Today, the district of Ötlingen has approximately 6,400 inhabitants. Ötlingen is the only district of Kirchheim unter Teck with a station on the Stuttgart S-Bahn, apart from Kirchheim itself. Line S1 runs Herrenberg - Böblingen - Stuttgart - Esslingen am Neckar - Plochingen - Wendlingen am Neckar - Kirchheim Teck-Ötlingen - Kirchheim unter Teck . This line provides fast transport to Stuttgart and beyond every 30 minutes. Population development The population figures are estimates, census results (¹) or official updates of the respective statistical offices (only primary residences are counted). ¹ census results Source: Statistical Office of Baden-Württemberg Politics Council Since the last Local Elections in Baden-Württemberg on 25 May 2014, the City Council has 34 members. The turnout was 45,22%. The election result was as follows: The chairman of the municipal council is the mayor. Mayor In early times, the head of the city Kirchheim unter Teck was called an Amtmann ("bailiff/magistrate"); and later the title was Obervogt ("chief advocate"). Ranked below him were Untervögte (Regents), mayors, a court and a council. The Court was the administrative authority of the city. Since the 14th century, the council considered themselves as representatives of the citizenry. The council still ranked below the court. The council was elected of mayors, usually two of them. In the 19th century, the mayor held the job title of „Stadtschultheiß“. Since 1930, the term Bürgermeister' (mayor) is used, and when the city was promoted to Große Kreisstadt, the job title is Oberbürgermeister (Lord Mayor). He is chairman of the council and is elected directly by the voters for an 8-year term. His deputy is the first Alderman, with the title of "mayor". City leaders since 1819 1819–1832: Christian Ludwig Göckler 1832–1841: Philipp Gottlieb Osiander 1841–1849: Heinrich August Kübel 1849–1878: Johan Georg Heim 1878–1908: Michael Ernst Kröner 1908–1943: Andreas Marx 1943–1945: Reinhold Seeber 1945: Martin Schempp 1945–1975: Franz Kröning 1975–1988: Werner Hauser 1988–2004: Peter Jacob 2004–2020: Angelika Matt-Heidecker Since 2020: Pascal Bader Economy and transport Transport Kirchheim (Teck) station is serviced by the Teck Railway, a railway that connects Wendlingen am Neckar to Lenningen. Inside the city, the bus lines of the public transport group service multiple stops. All of the lines connect to stops serviced by the Verkehrs- und Tarifverbund Stuttgart (VVS), the Stuttgart public transport group. As of 12 December 2009, the Stuttgart S-Bahn line S1 connects Herrenberg to Kirchheim via Stuttgart Hauptbahnhof, providing links to the city and beyond. Bundesautobahn 8 passes through the south side of the town and has two interchanges for east- and west-Kirchheim. Bundesstrasse 297 (Lorch - Tübingen) passes through the town, which is also a terminus of Bundesstrasse 465 that leads south through the Lenningen valley on its way to Leutkirch im Allgäu. Local businesses In Kirchheim unter Teck industrialization began early. By 1911 the manufactured goods included cotton goods, damask, pianofortes, machinery, furniture, chemicals, cement and gliders. The town also had wool-spinning establishments and breweries and a corn exchange. It was the most important wool market in South Germany, and also had a trade in fruit, timber and pigs. Some early companies do not exist any longer, such as the textile company Kolb & Schüle AG, the Schrauben- und Flanschenfabrik Emil Helfferich Nachfolger, the engineering works Kirchheim, the iron foundry Grüninger and Prem, or the MBB armaments factory. Among the better known Kirchheim based companies that still exist, are the seat manufacturer Recaro, the RC model maker Graupner, the cane manufacturer Leki and Schempp-Hirth. In the Nabern industrial park we find the company Ballard Power Systems, a company that developed fuel cells and is owned by Daimler AG. Media The Teckbote is a daily newspaper published in Kirchheim unter Teck. It is a regional edition of the Südwest Presse. Authorities, courts and organisations Kirchheim unter Teck has a field office of the Tax Office Nürtingen, a branch of the District Office Esslingen, a Notary and a District Court that belongs to the Oberlandesgericht district of Stuttgart. The city is also home to the church district of Kirchheim unter Teck of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg. Of health facilities, the city has a district hospital of the district of Esslingen. In addition, there are several sports and leisure facilities including, outdoor pool, 11 sports and event halls, a skate park, a riding stable, and 10 stadiums and sports grounds. Education In Kirchheim unter Teck there are a Pedagogical Seminar (teacher training) and a large number of primary and secondary schools. The district of Esslingen is the education authority for the vocational schools: Jakob-Friedrich-Schöllkopf School - Business School and Max-Eyth School - Commercial School) and for the Carl-Weber-school kindergarten for the mentally handicapped. The Community College Kirchheim unter Teck eV (founded in 1947), provides a wide range of courses. DEULA provides agricultural technical training. There is a traffic-educational college (VPA), which provides training for driving instructors. For smaller children there are 49 kindergarten classes with 1328 seats, 5 groups in day-care centers with 85-88 seats, 5 groups in church nursery with 75-81 seats and 5 groups in free kindergartens with 119 seats. School exchanges One of the main high schools in Kirchheim unter Teck, the Ludwig-Uhland-Gymnasium, has been running an exchange with students from Upholland High School, Orrell, United Kingdom, since 1995. This exchange is for all students in each school who are musically talented and who are in the school band in both schools. Students from each school take place in the exchange in different years Ludwig Big Band in 1996, 98, 00, 02 etc., and UHHS Band in 1995, 97, 99, 01 etc. This year (2009) sees 35 students from the UHHS band visit the school and the town of Kirchheim, this year will also commemorate the twenty-fifth year of exchanges. Twin towns – sister cities Kirchheim unter Teck is twinned with: Rambouillet, France (1967) Kalocsa, Hungary (1997) Bački Petrovac, Serbia (2017) Notable people Rupertus Meldenius (1582–1651), theologian and educator Barbara Sophie of Brandenburg (1584–1636), duchess Magdalena Sibylla of Hesse-Darmstadt (1652–1712), composer of church music Joanna Elisabeth of Baden-Durlach (1680–1757), Duchess of Württemberg Christiane Charlotte of Württemberg-Winnental (1694–1729), princess Franziska von Hohenheim (1748–1811), noblewoman Duke Louis of Württemberg (1756–1817), Prussian field marshal Adam Karl August von Eschenmayer (1768–1852), philosopher and physician Princess Henriette of Nassau-Weilburg (1780–1857) Baron von Ludwig (1784–1847), pharmacist Johann Friedrich Osiander (1787–1855), obstretician Frederick Vogel (1823–1892), tanner Gottlieb Heileman (1824–1878), founder of the Heileman Brewing Company Max Eyth (1836–1906), engineer and writer Rudolf von Bünau (1890–1962), general Martin Schempp (1905–1984), glider pilot Eugen Gerstenmaier (1906–1986), resistance fighter and CDU politician Kurt Rommel (1926–2011), German Protestant pastor, author and hymnodist Óscar Barrena (born 1966), field hockey player Bjørn Melhus (born 1966), artist Manuel Fumic (born 1982), cross-country mountain biker Jasmina Keber (born 1988), crossminton player See also Notes References Hans Schwenkel: Heimatbuch des Kreises Nürtingen. vol 2. Würzburg 1953, pp. 388–528. Der Landkreis Esslingen - compiled by the State Archiv Baden-Württemberg i.V. with Landkreis Esslingen, Jan Thorbecke Verlag, Ostfildern 2009, , vol. 2, p. 45. Literature Frasch, Werner: Kirchheim unter Teck – aus Geschichte und Gegenwart einer Stadt und ihrer Bewohner Verlag der Teckbote, Kirchheim unter Teck 1985, . Kirchheim unter Teck - Marktort/Amtsstadt/Mittelalterzentrum. Hrsg. von Rainer Kilian i. A. der Stadt Kirchheim (Teck), GO Druck Media Verlag, Kirchheim unter Teck 2006, . Der Landkreis Esslingen. Hrsg. vom Landesarchiv Baden-Württemberg i. V. mit dem Landkreis Esslingen, Jan Thorbecke Verlag, Ostfildern 2009, , Band 2, Seite 45. Kirchheim unter Teck um 1000 n. Chr. - Geschichte und Archäologie. - Hrsg. Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart - Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Esslingen, Archäologische Informationen aus Baden-Württemberg Heft 62, Stuttgart: Verlagsbüro Wais und Partner, 2011, . Deigendesch, Roland: Mit Tina und Mehmet Kirchheim unter Teck entdecken – Stadtgeschichte(n) für Kinder. Hrsg. von der AG Museumspädagogik in Verbindung mit dem Stadtarchiv Kirchheim unter Teck. GO Druck Media, Kirchheim unter Teck 2011, . Attribution External links View of Kirchheim unter Teck from the Forstlagerbuch by Andreas Kieser, 1685 (Central State Archive Stuttgart) Esslingen (district) Württemberg
5249681	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20University%20of%20Massachusetts%20Amherst%20alumni	List of University of Massachusetts Amherst alumni	The University of Massachusetts Amherst alumni number is around 243,628 worldwide, as 2014. Academy Award winners William Monahan, for adapted screenplay, The Departed Buffy Sainte-Marie, for best song, "Up Where We Belong" from An Officer and a Gentleman Emmy Award winners Ed Christie 1979, BFA, art director/designer for The Jim Henson Company and Sesame Street. Billy Taylor MA, PhD, musician, music educator. Grammy Award winners Natalie Cole 1972, singer Yusef Lateef 1975, composer Billy Taylor MA, PhD, composer Brian Vibberts, audio engineer Nobel Prize winners Russell Hulse 1972G, 1975 Ph.D. Pulitzer Prize winners Herbert Bix 1960, historian Paul Harding 1992, author and musician Natasha Trethewey 1995, U.S. poet laureate Royalty and nobility Yaduveer Wadiyar, 27th and present titular King of Mysore and head of the former ruling Wadiyar dynasty Academia Janet Abu-Lughod, sociologist, known for contributions to world-systems theory Christy Anderson G, professor of Art and Architecture at University of Toronto Maximilian Auffhammer B.S. 1996, George Pardee Jr. Professor of International Sustainable Development, University of California, Berkeley Doris E. Abramson, professor and author. Dorothy Barresi, professor at California State University at Northridge Francis A. Bartlett 1905, eminent dendrologist Edwin Bergin 1995 Ph.D., professor of astronomy at the University of Michigan and recipient of the Dannie Heineman Prize for Astrophysics Janet Catherine Berlo 1974, art historian Ann Bermingham, art historian Michael Blakey, National Endowment for the Humanities Professor at the College of William & Mary Carlton Brown 1972, 1979G, president of Clark Atlanta University Lin Chao, professor at University of California, San Diego Vicente Cabrera Funes, professor and writer at University of Minnesota Morris Gennaro Chierchia, professor and Department Chair of Linguistics at Harvard University Philip R. Day G, former Chancellor of City College of San Francisco and Cape Cod Community College Michael Dirr, professor of horticulture at University of Georgia Evan Dobelle 1970G, 1987 Ed.D., president of Westfield State College Larry W. Esposito 1977G, planetary astronomer, professor at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado Vera King Farris G, former president of Richard Stockton College of New Jersey Bertram Forer 1936, psychologist, namesake of the Forer effect Michael J. Franklin, professor and chair of Computer Science, at University of Chicago Dennis Hanno, President of Wheaton College Mary Lou Heiss, historian and tea connoisseur David Helfand 1977 Ph.D., Professor of Astronomy at Columbia University Sally Hirsh-Dickinson, New Hampshire Public Radio Producer and Host, Professor of English at Rivier University. Donald F. Hunt, University Professor of Chemistry and Pathology at University of Virginia Leonard Katz, professor of Psychology at University of Connecticut Joy Ladin, professor at Yeshiva University Paul J. LeBlanc, president of Southern New Hampshire University; former president of Marlboro College Guy Livingston, food scientist and founder of Phi Tau Sigma Dominic W. Massaro, professor of Psychology and Computer Engineering at the UC Santa Cruz Kembrew McLeod, Professor of Communication Studies at University of Iowa Li Minqi, Associate Professor of Economics at University of Utah Dana Mohler-Faria, president of Bridgewater State College Joseph B. Moore, president of Lesley University Ann C. Noble, professor at UC Davis Steven Nock, Commonwealth Professor of Sociology at the University of Virginia William Oakland, former Professor of Economics at Tulane University Christopher Ober, Ph.D. 1982, Francis Norwood Bard Professor of Materials Engineering at Cornell University Alexey A Petrov, 1997, Professor of Physics at Wayne State University, recipient of the National Science Foundation CAREER Award Carl Phillips, Professor of English and of African and Afro-American Studies at Washington University in St. Louis David Rosner, professor at Columbia University Minouche Shafik, 1983, President of Columbia University and former Director of the London School of Economics Lawrence Solan 1978 Ph.D., professor of law at Brooklyn Law School Winthrop E. Stone 1882, former President of Purdue University Roger Stritmatter 2001 PhD, professor of humanities; a leading modern-day advocate of the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship Edwin Lorimer Thomas 1963 B.S., Ernest Dell Butcher Professor of Engineering at Rice University David A. Tirrell 1978 Ph.D., provost at California Institute of Technology Matthew Tirrell 1977 Ph.D., founding dean of Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering at the University of Chicago Albert E. Waugh 1924 B.S., professor of economics and provost at the University of Connecticut Laura Wright - founder of academic field of Vegan studies Müjde Yüksel, assistant professor at Suffolk University Edward N. Zalta, Principal Editor of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Zhi-Li Zhang, Distinguished University Professor of Computer Science at University of Minnesota Zhou Qifeng 1983 Ph.D., former President of Peking University Jonathan Wilker, Professor of Chemistry at Purdue University Donald P. Zingale 1969G, president of the State University of New York at Cobleskill Science and technology William P. Brooks 1875, agronomist, foreign advisor to the Japanese government in the Meiji period, president of the Massachusetts Agricultural College Catherine Coleman 1991, Ph.D., astronaut Helen Cooke 1965 BS, American medical researcher and academic Fernanda Ferreira 1985 MS Psychology;1986, MA Linguistics; 1988 PhD Psychology, Cognitive Psychologist, Professor at University of California, Davis Rebecca Hasson, Associate Professor at University of Michigan Devang Vipin Khakhar, chemical engineer, academic, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate Doina Precup senior fellow at the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research Dan Riccio, 1986, Senior Vice President of Hardware Engineering at Apple Cynthia E. Rosenzweig, Senior Research Scientist at NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies Dorion Sagan 1981, author Steven Sinofsky 1989, president of Windows Division at Microsoft Sarah Stewart, first woman to be awarded an MD Degree from Georgetown University School of Medicine Jim Waldo 1980, lead software architect on Jini, CTO of Harvard University Rachel Whitmer, 1995, epidemiologist and Alzheimer's researcher Sandra Leal, 2013, pharmacist and president of the American Pharmacists Association Business Betsy Atkins, 3-time CEO and serial entrepreneur and founder of Baja Corporation Tony Barbee (1993), collegiate basketball coach at Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball Bruce Berkowitz 1980, Managing director and Morningstar Domestic-Stock Fund Manager of the Decade (2010) of Fairholme Funds J. B. Bernstein, CEO of Access Group and chief marketing officer (CMO) of Seven Figures Management Wayne Chang, director of product strategy at Twitter Ben Cherington (1997), former executive vice president and general manager of the Boston Red Sox Douglas Cliggott 1978, former managing director and chief investment strategist of JPMorgan Chase & Co. Chris Daggett, president and CEO of the Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation Marc Forgione, owner of restaurant Marc Forgione in New York City Arturo Guevara, baseball writer Neal Huntington (1992), general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates Anshu Jain (1985), president of Cantor Fitzgerald and former global co-CEO of Deutsche Bank Dave Jauss, professional baseball coach John Legere, former CEO and president of T-Mobile US Dave Littlefield (1984), senior vice president and general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates Agenor Mafra-Neto, CEO of ISCA Technologies Lawrence Mestel (born 1962), music executive and CEO of Primary Wave. James Pallotta (1979), president of A.S. Roma and chairman and managing director of Raptor Group Vivek Paul, former CEO of Wipro Technologies Gil Penchina, CEO of Wikia, Inc. Rudolf Rodríguez, former Minister of Finance and Public Credit of Colombia John F. Smith, Jr. (1960), former CEO and chairman of General Motors Corporation Earl W. Stafford, founder of the Stafford Foundation Mike Tannenbaum (1991), former general manager of the New York Jets Jeff Taylor 2001, founder of Monster.com Jack Welch 1957, retired CEO of General Electric Jill Whalen, CEO of High Rankings; co-founder of Search Engine Marketing New England Nick Zhang, CEO of Wuzhen Institute Pat Walsh, Co-founder and Chief Impact Officer of Classy Law and politics Governors Madeleine Kunin 1956, first female Governor of Vermont and former United States Ambassador to Switzerland (1985–1991) Congressmen Peter G. Torkildsen 1980, former member of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts (1993–1997) U.S. government officials Kenneth S. Apfel 1970, former Commissioner of Social Security (1997–2001) Richard A. Baker, Historian of the United States Senate Charles B. Curtis 1962, former Chairman of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (1977–1981); acting United States Secretary of Energy (1997) Chris Daggett 1977 Ed.D, Regional United States Environmental Protection Agency Administrator, 2009 New Jersey gubernatorial candidate Kenneth Feinberg 1967, Obama Administration "Compensation Czar" and former Special Master of the U.S. Government's September 11th Victim Compensation Fund James Kallstrom 1966, former assistant director of the FBI Jack Ward Thomas 1972 Ph.D, former Chief of the United States Forest Service (1993–1996) Diplomats Jeffrey Davidow 1965, former United States Ambassador to Zambia, Venezuela, and Mexico; named a Career Ambassador in 2002 Thomas C. Krajeski, former United States Ambassador to Yemen Madeleine Kunin 1956, former United States Ambassador to Switzerland and first female Governor of Vermont Stephen A. Seche, United States Ambassador to Yemen since 2007 Jurists Marsha Kazarosian, 1978, attorney who handled high-profile cases David A. Lowy, Judge of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court Fred I. Parker 1962, served as a federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit Eduardo C. Robreno 1967 MA, federal judge on the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania Erik P. Kimball 1987 BA, federal judge on the United States Bankruptcy Court Southern District of Florida State legislators and executives Denise Andrews, member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (2011–present) David M. Bartley 1956, former Speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1969–1973) and 1984 candidate for the United States Senate Joan Bray, former member of Missouri State Senate (2003–2010) and Missouri House of Representatives (1993–2002) Stephen Brewer 1971, member of the Massachusetts State Senate (1995–present) Linda Dean Campbell member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (2007–present) Reuven Carlyle 1987, member of the Washington House of Representatives (2009–present) Steven D'Amico, former member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (2007–2011) Eileen Donoghue 1976, member of the Massachusetts State Senate (2011–present) Lewis G. Evangelidis 1984, member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (2003–present) Christopher M. Fierro 2002, 2004 MS, former member of the Rhode Island House of Representatives (2009–2011) John J. Finnegan, former Massachusetts State Auditor (1981–1987) Nancy Flavin 1986, former member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1993–2003) Paul K. Frost 1993, member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1997 to present), Asst. House Minority Whip Thomas N. George, former member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1997–2005) Guy Glodis, former member of the Massachusetts State Senate (1999–2005) and Massachusetts House of Representatives (1997–1999) Frederick D. Griggs 1913, former member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1925–1928) Christopher Hodgkins, former member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1983–2003) Kate Hogan, member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (2009–present) Philip W. Johnston, former Massachusetts Secretary of Human Services Sally Kerans 1982, former member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1991–1997) Stephen Kulik, member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1993–present) Patrick Landers, former member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1987–1999) Gary LeBeau, member of the Connecticut State Senate (1997–present) Paul Mark, member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (2011–present) Michael W. Morrissey, District Attorney of Norfolk County, Massachusetts (2011–present) Betty Jo Nelsen, former member of the Wisconsin State Assembly (1979–1990) Arthur D. Norcross 1871, former member of the Massachusetts State Senate (1908–1909) and Massachusetts House of Representatives (1904–1906) Andrea F. Nuciforo, Jr. 1986, former member of the Massachusetts State Senate (1997–2007) Carmen Hooker Odom, former secretary of the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services David Poisson, former member of the Virginia House of Delegates (2006–2010) Ruth Provost, former member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1997–2003) Stanley C. Rosenberg 1977, openly gay member of the Massachusetts State Senate (1986–present) Marie St. Fleur, former member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1999–2011) Barry Trahan, former member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1987–1989) Joseph Wagner, former member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1991–present) Rachel Weston 2003, member of the Vermont House of Representatives (2007–present) International figures Hau Lung-pin, 1982 Ph.D, Mayor of Taipei, Republic of China (Taiwan) Kang Kyung-wha MA, Ph.D., Foreign Minister of South Korea, former United Nations Deputy High Commissioner for Human Rights Hina Rabbani Khar 2001, Pakistani Minister of Foreign Affairs (2011–2013), the first female to hold this post Makaziwe Mandela, daughter of Nelson Mandela Nemat Shafik, director of the London School of Economics; former Deputy Governor of the Bank of England; Recipient of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire Mose Penaani Tjitendero 1977 Ed.D., former Speaker of the National Assembly of Namibia Uttama Savanayana (อุตตม สาวนายน), 1990 Ph.D., Minister of Finance, Kingdom of Thailand Srettha Thavisin, prime minister of thailand, Kingdom of Thailand County and municipal officials Bonnie Dumanis (attended), District Attorney of San Diego County (2003–present) Maura Hennigan 1972, former Boston City Councilor and first female Clerk-Magistrate of Suffolk County Billy Kenoi 1993, Mayor of Hawaii County Salvatore LaMattina 1981, District 1 Boston City Councilor Joseph Sullivan, mayor of Braintree, Massachusetts Activists Brian Darling 1987, conservative activist and senior fellow at The Heritage Foundation Jackson Katz, social activist Hugh Loebner, social activist for the decriminalization of prostitution Ray Rogers, labor rights activist and labor union strategist Tony Rudy, lobbyist and associate of Jack Abramoff Allen St. Pierre 1989, Executive Director of NORML Betty Shabazz 1975 PhD, widow of Malcolm X Sue Thrasher 1996 Ed.D, civil rights activist Military Frederick Heyliger 1950, officer with Easy Company, 2nd Battalion, 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, in the 101st Airborne Division of the United States Army during World War II; featured in the HBO miniseries Band of Brothers Andrew P. Iosue 1951 - General (R) of the United States Air Force; Commander of Air Training Command (COMATC), 1983–1986 Jody Daniels, 34th Chief of Army Reserve Robert Miller, 24th Surgeon General of the United States Air Force and the United States Space Force L. Fletcher Prouty, Chief of Special Operations for the Joint Chiefs of Staff Brian Beaudreault, Commander of II Marine Expeditionary Force Thomas F. Healy, U.S. Army general and former commandant of the Army War College William N. Sullivan Richard M. Scofield, Lieutenant General and Commander of Air Education and Training Command John B. Hall Jr., Lieutenant General and Commander of United States Forces Japan and Fifth Air Force Franklin M. Davis Jr., Major General in the United States Army Michael S. Martin, Major General in United States Marine Corps Lee E. 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2010 Olympic silver medalist; 2012 NHL All-Star; 2012 Conn Smythe winner; 2014 Stanley Cup Champion, Los Angeles Kings Conor Sheary, professional ice hockey player, 2016 Stanley Cup Champion, Pittsburgh Penguins Frank Vatrano, professional ice hockey player, Florida Panthers Casey Wellman, professional ice hockey player, Washington Capitals Cale Makar, professional ice hockey player, 2022 Conn Smythe winner, Colorado Avalanche Lacrosse Sal LoCascio, retired professional lacrosse goaltender Doc Schneider, professional lacrosse player, Toronto Nationals Other sports Gideon Ariel (born 1939), Israeli Olympic competitor in the shot put and discus throw Danielle Henderson 1999, Olympic gold medal winner, softball Roxanne Modafferi, professional mixed martial artist Chris Sanford, The Ultimate Fighter Season 1 contestant, retired professional MMA fighter Briana Scurry 1995, two-time Olympic gold medal winner and women's World Cup champion, soccer Serena Williams, tennis player, four-time Olympic Gold Medalist and 23-time Grand Slam winner Others Julie Robenhymer, former Miss New Jersey See also University of Massachusetts Amherst References Alumni University of Massachusetts Amherst alumni
5249683	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texarkana%20Moonlight%20Murders	Texarkana Moonlight Murders	The Texarkana Moonlight Murders, a term coined by the contemporary press, was a series of four unsolved serial murders and related violent crimes committed in and around the Texarkana region of Arkansas and Texas in the late winter and spring of 1946. They were attributed to an alleged unidentified serial killer known as the Phantom of Texarkana or simply the Phantom Killer or Phantom Slayer. This hypothetical perpetrator is credited with attacking eight people, of whom five died, in a ten-week period. The attacks occurred at night on weekends between February 22 and May 3, targeting male-female pairs. The first three attacks were at lovers' lanes or quiet stretches of road on the Texas side; the fourth attack occurred at an isolated farmhouse in Arkansas. The murders were reported nationally and internationally by several publications, and caused a state of panic in Texarkana throughout the summer. Residents armed themselves and, at dusk, locked themselves indoors while police patrolled streets and neighborhoods. Stores sold out of guns, ammunition, locks, and many other protective devices. Some youths attempted to bait and ambush the killer. Investigations were conducted at the city, county, state and federal level. In the course of investigations, there have been shifting opinions by officials over whether the first and fourth attacks were committed by the same perpetrator. The prime suspect in the case was Youell Swinney, a career petty criminal who was linked to the murders primarily by statements from his wife plus additional circumstantial evidence. After Swinney's wife refused to testify against him, prosecutors decided against pursuing murder charges. Swinney was convicted on other charges and sentenced to a long term as a habitual car thief and forger. Two of the lead investigators believed him to be guilty of the murders. The book The Phantom Killer: Unlocking the Mystery of the Texarkana Serial Murders (2014) concludes that Swinney is the culprit. The events inspired many works, including the 1976 film The Town That Dreaded Sundown. This film is the basis for much of the subsequent myth and folklore around the murders. Crimes The Texarkana Moonlight Murders involve four violent attacks which occurred over ten weeks from February to May 1946 in and around Texarkana, twin cities at the border of Miller County, Arkansas, and Bowie County, Texas, United States. All four attacks targeted male-female pairs in isolated locations, on weekend nights. The attacks took place at intervals of three to four weeks. Investigators speculated that the attacks were the work of an unidentified serial killer. February 22: First attack At around 11:45 p.m. on Friday, February 22, 1946, Jimmy Hollis, age 25, and his girlfriend, Mary Jeanne Larey, age 19, parked on a secluded road known as a lovers' lane after having seen a movie together. The area was approximately from the last row of city homes, where present-day Central Mall is located. Around ten minutes later, a man wearing a white cloth maskwhich resembled a pillowcase with eye holes cut outappeared at Hollis's driver-side door, and shone a flashlight in the window. Hollis told him he had the wrong person, to which the man responded: "I don't want to kill you, fellow, so do what I say." Both Hollis and Larey were ordered out the driver-side door, and the man ordered Hollis to "take off [his] goddamn britches." After he complied, the man struck him in the head twice with a pistol. Larey later told investigators that the noise was so loud she had initially thought Hollis had been shot, but it was his skull fracturing. Thinking the assailant wanted to rob them, Larey showed him Hollis's wallet to prove he had no money, after which she was struck with a blunt object. The assailant ordered her to stand, and when she did, told her to run. Initially, she tried to flee toward a ditch, but the assailant ordered her to run up the road. Larey spotted an old car parked off the road but found it empty, and was again confronted by the attacker, who asked her why she was running. When she said that he had told her to do so, he called her a liar before knocking her down and sexually assaulting her with the barrel of his gun. After the assault, Larey fled on foot, running a half-mile (800 m) to a nearby house; she woke the residents of the house and phoned the police. Meanwhile, Hollis had regained consciousness and alerted a passing motorist who also called the police. Within thirty minutes, Bowie County Sheriff W. H. "Bill" Presley and three other officers arrived at the scene of the attack, but the assailant had already left. Larey was hospitalized overnight for a minor head wound. Hollis was hospitalized for several days to recover from multiple skull fractures. Hollis and Larey gave conflicting reports of their attacker: Larey claimed that she could see under the mask that he was a light-skinned African American. Hollis alternately claimed it was a tanned white man, and around 30 years old, but conceded he could not distinguish his features as he had been blinded by a flashlight. Both agreed that the assailant was around tall. Law enforcement repeatedly challenged Larey's account, and believed that she and Hollis knew the identity of their attacker and were covering for him. March 24: First double-murder Richard L. Griffin, age 29, and his girlfriend of six weeks, Polly Ann Moore, age 17, were found dead in Griffin's car on the morning of Sunday, March 24, 1946, by a passing motorist. The motorist saw the parked car on a lovers' lane 100 yards (91 m) south of US Highway 67 West in Texas. The motorist at first thought that both were asleep. Griffin was found between the front seats on his knees with his head resting on his crossed hands and his pockets turned inside out; Moore was found sprawled face-down in the back seat. There is evidence that suggests she was placed there after being killed on a blanket outside the car. Griffin had been shot twice while in the car; both had been shot once in the back of the head, and both were fully clothed. A blood-soaked patch of earth near the car suggested to police that they had been killed outside the car and placed back inside. Congealed blood was found covering the running board, and it had flowed through the bottom of the car door. A .32 cartridge casing was also found, possibly ejected from a pistol wrapped in a blanket. No extant reports indicate that either Griffin or Moore was examined by a pathologist. Contemporaneous local rumor said that Moore had been sexually assaulted, but modern reports refute this claim. April 14: Second double-murder At around 1:30 a.m. on Sunday, April 14, Paul Martin, age 17, picked up Betty Jo Booker, age 15, from a musical performance at the VFW Club at West Fourth and Oak Street. Martin's body was found at around 6:30 a.m. later that morning, lying on its left side by the northern edge of North Park Road. Blood was found on the other side of the road by a fence. He had been shot four times: through the nose, through the ribs from behind, in the right hand, and through the back of the neck. Booker's body was found by a search party at about 11:30 a.m., almost from Martin's body. Her body was behind a tree and lying on its back, fully clothed. It was posed with the right hand in the pocket of the buttoned overcoat. Booker had been shot twice, once through the chest and once in the face. The weapon used was the same as in the first double-murder, a .32 automatic Colt pistol. Martin's car was found about from Booker's body and away from his body. It was parked outside Spring Lake Park with the keys still in it. The authorities were not sure who was shot first. Sheriff Presley and Texas Ranger Captain Manuel Gonzaullas said that examinations of the bodies indicated that they both had put up a terrific struggle. Martin's friend, Tom Albritton, said that he did not believe an argument had happened between the victims and that Martin had not had any enemies. May 3: Fifth murder On Friday, May 3, sometime before 9 p.m., Virgil Starks, age 37, and his wife Katie, age 36, were in their home on a farm off Highway 67 East, almost northeast of Texarkana. He was sitting in an armchair reading the newspaper when he was shot twice in the back of the head from a closed double window. Hearing the sound of broken glass, Katie came from another room and saw Virgil stand up then slump back into his chair. When she realized he was dead, she ran to the wall-crank telephone to call the police. She rang twice before being shot twice in the face from the same window. She fell but soon regained her footing and tried to get a pistol from another room, but was blinded by her own blood. She heard the killer at the back of the house and fled out the front door. She ran barefoot across the street to her sister and brother-in-law's house. Because no one was home, she ran to neighbor A. V. Prater's house, gasped that "Virgil's dead,” then collapsed. Prater shot a rifle in the air to summon another neighbor, Elmer Taylor, who Prater sent to collect his car. Taylor complied and, along with the Prater family, took Katie Starks to Michael Meagher Hospital (now Miller County Health Unit). Starks was questioned in the operating room by Miller County Sheriff W. E. Davis, who became head of the investigation. Four days later, Davis talked with Starks again, and she discounted a circulating rumor that Virgil had heard a car outside their home several nights in a row and feared being killed. Investigations Investigations of the attacks involved numerous law enforcement officers at the city, county, state and federal levels. Notable investigators include: William Hardy "Bill" Presley (1895–1972), the Bowie County Sheriff who was the first lawman on the scene of the first three attacks. Jackson Neely "Jack" Runnels (1897–1966), the Texarkana, Texas, chief of police who was among the first called to the scenes of the two double-murders. W. E. Davis, the Miller County Sheriff who headed the investigation of the Starks murder. Max Andrew Tackett (1912–1972), an Arkansas State Police Detective who was first on the scene of the Starks attack and the arresting officer of the lead suspect. Tillman Byron Johnson (1911–2008), a Miller Country Chief Sheriff's Deputy who was one of the leading investigators on the case. He became the "go to" man for the coordinating the case and kept personal case files which survived the official files which went missing. He was the last surviving lawman from the case and was often contacted by interested parties, including television producers. Manuel Trazazas "Lone Wolf" Gonzaullas (1891–1977), a Texas Ranger Captain who became the public face of the investigation by holding numerous press conferences. He was criticized as a "showman" who presented the work of other officers as his own and spent a great deal of time with female reporters. Five years after the murders, he left the Rangers to become a technical consultant to the entertainment industry. Law enforcement repeatedly challenged Larey's account of the first attack, and believed that she and Hollis knew the identity of their attacker and were covering for him. No suspects were apprehended. Larey returned to Texarkana after the Griffin-Moore murders in hopes of helping to link the cases and identify the killer, but the Texas Rangers questioned her story and insisted that she knew who her attacker was. Officers did not publicly connect the Hollis-Larey attack to the subsequent murders until May 11, the day after a Texarkana Gazette interview with Larey was published, when Presley and Runnels called on the public to immediately report anyone who had an unexplained absence on the nights of the four attacks. In response to the Griffin-Moore murders, police launched a citywide investigation along with the Texas and Arkansas city police, the Texas Department of Public Safety (the overseeing agency of the Texas Rangers), Miller and Cass County sheriffs' departments, and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Over 200 persons were questioned in the case, and about the same number of false leads were checked. Three people found with bloody clothing were taken into custody; all three were cleared of suspicion. In the Martin-Booker case, friends, acquaintances, and several suspects were questioned in the Bowie Country building by officers who worked in 24-hour relays. Suspects were brought in from as far away as . Gonzaullas tried baiting the Phantom by recruiting teenagers to sit as decoys in parked cars while officers waited nearby. Officers also volunteered as decoys, with real partners or mannequins. Following the Booker-Martin murders, some officers hid in trees at Spring Lake Park. In the aftermath of the May 3 Starks murder, officers from the entire area were called upon to help in the investigation. Blockades were effected on Highway 67 East. Those who had been driving in the area near the time of the slaying, along with several men found in the vicinity, were detained for questioning. By May 5, forty-seven officers were working to solve the murder. On May 9, a mobile radio station arrived with twenty Arkansas state police officers and a fleet of ten prowl cars equipped with two-way radios, to help coordinate the growing investigation. On May 11, a teletype machine was installed in the Bowie County Sheriff's office to connect with other law-enforcement offices in Texas. The unofficial theory for a motive amongst the majority of officers was that of "sex mania", as large amounts of money in the home were not taken, nor was Katie Starks's purse. By March 30, police had posted a $500 reward in an effort to gain any new information on the case, but this produced over 100 false leads with no fruitful clues or suspects. Within days of the Booker-Martin murders, the reward fund had exceeded $1,700. It rose to $7,025 on the night of the Starks murder and passed $10,000 in the following ten days. There was some hesitation in linking the Starks murder to the other crimes, because the weapon used was a .22, and Davis believed it was an automatic rifle. By November 1948, authorities no longer considered the Starks murder connected to the two double-murders. Public reaction The Griffin-Moore murders raised public concerns but were generally taken as an isolated incident, as officials did not publicly connect the earlier Hollis-Larey attack to the murders while the Phantom Killer was active. The Martin-Booker murders thus greatly alarmed the public to the likelihood of a serial predator. The deaths of these two church-going teenagers shocked the community. Booker had been a popular high-school junior, a sorority member, an officer of her high school band, a winner of scholastic, literary and musical prizes, and a former Little Miss Texarkana. Her high school ended classes early so that hundreds of young people could attend the funerals. Curfews were set for businesses in an attempt to keep people off the streets at night. It was additionally at this point that the hypothesized serial killer was dubbed "The Phantom Killer" by local media. Hysteria grew in the days following the murder of Virgil Starks in his home. There was constant media coverage of the increased police activity and the Texarkana Gazette stated on May 5 that the killer might strike again at any moment, at any place, and at anyone. For a week police were inundated with reports of prowlers. One officer stated that nearly all of the alarm was the result of excitement, wild imagination, and near-hysteria. Previously, it had been normal for houses to be left unlocked. The murders alarmed residents into taking precautions with security: from locking doors to arming themselves with guns; some people nailed sheets over their windows, some nailed windows down and some used screen-door braces as window guards. The day after Starks's death, stores sold out of locks, guns, ammunition, window shades and Venetian blinds. Additional items of which sales increased included window sash locks, screen door hooks, night latches, and other protective devices. Guard dogs were sought in local want-ads. Because citizens were considerably nervous and armed with guns, Texarkana became a dangerous place. When calling on an address, law enforcement officers would turn on their sirens, stand in their headlights, and announce themselves to keep from being shot by a nervous homeowner. Gonzaullas fuelled the hysteria when he announced on May 7 that citizens should "oil up their guns and see if they are loaded" and to "not hesitate" if they feel it necessary to use them. The fear was significant enough to spread to other cities, including Hope, Lufkin, Magnolia, and as far as Oklahoma City, where there were sales spikes for guns and axes. After three weeks without an associated murder, Texarkana's fear began to lessen. The concern lasted throughout the summer and subsided after three months had passed. Rumors The rampant spreading of rumors fed the panic and made the police investigations more difficult. On April 18, Gonzaullas held a press conference to dispel rumors that the murderer had been caught. He stated that the rumors circulating among the public and in the newspapers were "a hindrance to the investigation and harmful to innocent persons." He stressed this again in a radio interview on May 7: "[rumors] only take the officers from the main route of the investigation. It is so important that we capture this man that we cannot afford to overlook any lead, no matter how fantastic it may seem." Rumors continued to be spread through mid-May. Many people believed that the slayer had been caught. Some believed he was being secretly held at the Bowie County Jail or flown to another jail. The Gazette and News offices were drowned with phone calls, both local and long distance, inquiring about the apprehension of the killer. Presley declared that innocent people were being accused of being the Phantom and asked residents to show more consideration for their fellow citizens. Vigilantism Although most of the town was in fear of the Phantom, some youths continued parking on deserted roads, hoping to apprehend the perpetrator. Johnson and an Arkansas State Trooper were patrolling a vacant road at night when they came up to a parked car. When Johnson approached the car and noticed a couple, he introduced himself and asked if they weren't scared. The girl replied, "It's a good thing you told me who you are," and she revealed that she had been pointing a .25 ACP pistol at him. On the night of May 10, Texarkana City Police officers were alerted to a car that had been following a bus. They chased it for before shooting the tires and arresting C. J. Lauderdale Jr., a high-school athlete. When questioned at the station, he explained that he was unaware they were policemen because they were driving an unmarked car. He said he was following the bus because he was suspicious of a passenger that had entered from a private car. On May 12, Gonzaullas gave a warning to "teenage sleuths" in the Gazette, saying, "it's a good way to get killed." The killer "The Phantom Killer" The unidentified killer did not acquire a nickname until after the deaths of Booker and Martin. In the April 16 edition of the Texarkana Daily News, a heading read "Phantom Killer Eludes Officers as Investigation of Slayings Pressed". This front-page story was continued on page two with the headline, "Phantom Slayer Eludes Police". The Texarkana Gazette contained a small title on April 17 which read, "Phantom Slayer Still at Large as Probe Continues". J. Q. Mahaffey, executive editor of the Texarkana Gazette in 1946, said that managing editor Calvin Sutton had an acute sense for the dramatic, which impelled him to ask if they could refer to the unknown murderer as "The Phantom". Mahaffey replied, "Why not? If the SOB continues to elude capture, he certainly can be called a phantom!" Description Jimmy Hollis and Mary Jeanne Larey were the only victims able to give a description of their attacker. They described him as being tall, wearing a white mask over his face with holes cut out for his eyes and mouth. Although Hollis believed he was a young, dark-tanned, white man under 30 years old, Larey believed he was a light-skinned African American. With no description from the other incidents, it cannot be certain if the same perpetrator or perpetrators were responsible, though it is generally assumed that the crimes were the work of a single individual. Method of operation The modus operandi established for the killer was that he attacked young couples in empty or private areas just outside city limits using a .32 caliber gun. Although the caliber used in the Starks murder was a .22, a .32 was still believed by the majority of lawmen to have been used by the Phantom. He always attacked late at night on weekends, with cooling off periods of about three weeks between attacks. Profile Gonzaullas stated that he and his officers were dealing with a "shrewd criminal who had left no stone unturned to conceal his identity and activities," and that the murderer's efforts were both clever and baffling. He also stated that the man they were hunting was a "cunning individual who would go to all lengths to avoid apprehension." At the Starks murder scene, Presley said, "This killer is the luckiest person I have ever known. No one sees him, hears him in time, or can identify him in any way." Officers have said that the killer is apparently a maniac who is an expert with a gun. Victim and survivor Hollis said, "I know he's crazy. The crazy things he said made me feel that his mind was warped." Dr. Anthony Lapalla, a psychologist at the Federal Correctional Institution in Texarkana, believed at the time that the killer was planning to continue to make unexpected attacks such as that of Virgil Starks on the outskirts of town. He also believed that the same person committed all five murders, and that the killer was somewhere between his mid-30s and 50, apparently motivated by a strong sex drive and sadism. Lapella stated that a person who would commit such crimes was intelligent, clever, and shrewd, and often was not apprehended. According to Lapalla's theories, the killer was not afraid of the police activity, but was aware of the increased difficulty of attacking people on vacant roads and so he had shifted his target to a farmhouse. He said that the killer could be leading a normal life, was unlikely a veteran, and was not necessarily a resident of the area despite his knowledge of it. He stated that the attacks show evidence of deep planning, that the killer works alone and tells no one of his crimes, and could either shift his crimes to a distant community or overcome the desire to assault and kill people. Lapalla did not believe the killer was a black man because "in general, negro criminals are not that clever." Suspects Throughout the investigations of the Phantom Killer case, almost 400 suspects were arrested. There were numerous false confessions investigated by police. Tackett recalled nine people who confessed to being the Phantom, but their statements did not agree with the facts. In the Hollis and Larey case, no suspects were apprehended. In the Griffin and Moore case, over 200 persons were questioned, and about the same number of false tips and leads were checked. Three suspects were taken into custody for bloody clothing, two of whom were released after officers received satisfying explanations. The remaining suspect was held in Vernon, Texas, for further investigation, but was later cleared of suspicion. Youell Swinney Youell Swinney was a 29-year-old car thief and counterfeiter. He was arrested in July by Tackett, who was investigating car thefts after realizing that on the night of the Griffin-Moore murders a car had been stolen in the area and a previously stolen car had been found abandoned. Tackett was able to locate the former car and arrested Swinney's wife Peggy when she came to retrieve it. Peggy confessed in great detail that Swinney was the Phantom Killer and had killed Booker and Martin. Her story changed in some details across several interviews, and police believed she was withholding information due to fear of Swinney or of incriminating herself. Police were able to independently verify some details of Peggy's confession, such as the location of a victim's possessions where she said Youell had discarded them. There was considerable circumstantial evidence against Swinney, but Peggy's confession was the most critical part of the case. However, Peggy recanted her confession, was considered an unreliable witness, and could not be compelled to testify against her husband. Law enforcement officers worked for six months trying to validate Peggy's confession and tie Swinney to the murders. They found that on the night of the Booker-Martin murders, the Swinneys were sleeping in their car under a bridge near San Antonio. Swinney was never charged with murder and was instead tried and imprisoned as a habitual offender for car theft. Presley reported in his 2014 book that investigators in the Swinney case later said that the sentence was effectively a plea bargain, though the case files indicated no formal agreement. Swinney was apparently concerned about being sentenced to death for the murders, so agreed to not contest the habitual offender charge and in fact tried to plead guilty despite the charge requiring a jury trial. H. B. "Doodie" Tennison Henry Booker "Doodie" Tennison was an 18-year-old university freshman who died by suicide on November 4, 1948, leaving behind cryptic instructions which directed investigators to a suicide note in which Tennison confessed to the Booker, Martin, and Starks murders. He had played trombone in the same high-school band as Booker, but they were not friends. Investigators were unable to find any other evidence linking Tennison to the murders. James Freeman, a friend of Tennison, provided an alibi for the night of the Starks murder, stating that they had been playing cards that evening when they heard the news of the attack. Ralph B. Baumann Ralph B. Baumann, a 21-year-old ex-Army Air Force (AAF) machine-gunner, claimed to have awoken from a fugue state of several weeks on the day of the Starks murder, with his rifle missing. He said that he heard about a suspect matching his description and hitchhiked to Los Angeles, feeling like he was running from murder. On May 23, he told Los Angeles police that he thought he might be the Phantom. "I'm my own suspect," he said. Police arrested him but Gonzaullas stated that several parts of the man's story had little basis in fact. Baumann said that he'd been discharged from the AAF for being a psychoneurotic, and he had previously confessed to killing three people in Texarkana in a period of three days (which did not match the timeline of killings). Saxophone peddler Investigators had hoped that Booker's saxophone, which she had played the night of her murder and which was missing, might lead them to a suspect. On April 27, a suspicious man was arrested in Corpus Christi, Texas, for trying to sell a saxophone to a music store. He had asked about selling the instrument to the store but became evasive and fled from the store manager." Although no saxophone was found in his possession, the police found a bag of bloody clothing in his hotel room. After several days of questioning, the man was cleared as a suspect. Booker's saxophone was located on October 24, six months after her murder, in underbrush near the place her body had been found. German prisoner of war On May 8, it was announced that an escaped German prisoner of war—who was already being hunted as "a matter of routine"—was considered a suspect. He was described as a stocky 24-year-old, weighing , with brown hair and blue eyes. He had stolen a car in Mount Ida, Arkansas, and attempted to buy ammunition in several eastern Oklahoma towns. The police kept searching for the POW, but it was said that he had "vanished into thin air." Unknown hitchhiker On May 7, a hitchhiker armed with a pistol carjacked and robbed a man, threatening to kill him and stating that he had killed five people in Texarkana, naming Martin and Booker. The hitchhiker went on to say that he was not finished killing people. Gonzaullas said that police were doubtful that this man was the Phantom Killer, noting that the killer had gone to lengths to conceal his identity while the hitchhiker boasted to a living witness. Atoka County suspect On May 10, in Atoka, Oklahoma, a man assaulted a woman in her home, ranting that he might as well kill her because he had already killed three or four people, and that he was going to rape her. He then fled. A widespread search for the man included 20 officers and 160 residents. Two days later, police arrested a suspect but did not believe this man was the Phantom. According to the man's story, he could not have been in Texarkana at the time of the Starks murder. Sammie Sammie is a pseudonym given to a longtime Texarkana resident with a good reputation whom the police were reluctant to name as a suspect. His vehicle's tire tracks were found across the road from Martin's corpse. He failed a polygraph test so the police decided to have him hypnotized by psychiatrist Travis Elliott. Elliott concluded that Sammie had no criminal tendencies, that he had pulled his vehicle to the side of the road in order to urinate, and that he subsequently visited a married woman with whom he was having an affair—concealing this caused Sammie to fail the polygraph test. After police verified the details, they cleared Sammie as a suspect. Taxi driver A taxi driver became a major suspect in the Booker-Marin murders because his cab was seen in the vicinity of the crime scene that morning, but he was soon cleared. Earl McSpadden On May 7, at approximately 6 a.m., the body of Earl Cliff McSpadden was found on the Kansas City Southern Railway tracks north of Texarkana, near Ogden. The body's left arm and leg had been severed by a freight train a half-hour earlier. The coroner's jury's verdict stated, "death at the hands of persons unknown", and that "he was dead before being placed on the railroad tracks." Because the murder is unsolved, locals have speculated that McSpadden was the Phantom's sixth victim. A prominent rumor exists claiming that McSpadden was the Phantom, and had committed suicide by jumping in front of a train. In media Film: In 1976, Texarkana native Charles B. Pierce made the film The Town That Dreaded Sundown, based on Gonzaullas's investigation into the murders. Since 2003, it has been screened annually at 'Movies in the Park' by Texarkana Parks & Recreation. The film was released on Blu-ray by Scream Factory in 2013. In 2014, a meta-sequel/remake with the same name was released. In the movie Seven Psychopaths (2012), a short flashback segment shows a couple setting a trap for the "Texarkana Moonlight Murderer". Murder in the Moonlight (2018) Television: Chiller's Killer Legends (2014) KDFW's The Tex Files: Phantom Killer (2002) TLC's Ultimate Ten: Unsolved Crime Mysteries (2001) In 2017, the CW series Riverdale aired the episode "The Town That Dreaded Sundown". Video games: In Let It Die, the Texas Farmer set is based on Hollis and Larey's description of the killer. Music: In 2007, the band The Bad Detectives recorded the song "Texarkana Moonlight", which is about the crimes. Theatre: In 2010, a play called The Phantom Killer debuted in Manhattan at the Abingdon Theatre Company's Dorothy Strelsin Theatre. It was written by Jan Buttram, who grew up in the Oak Grove community near DeKalb, Texas. Literature (Non-Fiction): Corroborating Evidence by William T. Rasmussen (October 15, 2005) Death in a Texas Desert: And Other True Crime Stories from The Dallas Observer by Carlton Stowers (January 30, 2003) Haunted Route 66: Ghosts of America's Legendary Highway by Richard Southall (February 8, 2013) Lone Wolf Gonzaullas, Texas Ranger by Brownson Malsch (September 15, 1998) The Phantom Killer: Unlocking the Mystery of the Texarkana Serial Murders by James Presley (November 15, 2014) The Texarkana Moonlight Murders: The Unsolved Case of the 1946 Phantom Killer by Michael Newton (May 14, 2013) Texas Confidential: Sex, Scandal, Murder, and Mayhem in the Lone Star State by Michael J. Varhola (July 19, 2011) Texas Ranger Tales: Stories That Need Telling by Mike Cox (April 1, 1997) Time of the Rangers: Texas Rangers: From 1900 to the Present by Mike Cox (August 18, 2009) Literature (fiction): The Dark Inside by Rod Reynolds Betty Jo's Rose by Robert Stewart (May 31, 2012) It's a Marvelous Night for a Moondance by Flo Fitzpatrick (April 8, 2011) Untied Shoelace by Pam Kumpe (February 6, 2014) "Unshackled Courage" by Pam Kumpe (May 27, 2018) takes place in 1976; investigator Annie Grace solves the cold case of the Phantom Killer while "The Town that Dreaded Sundown" is being filmed in Texarkana. See also List of fugitives from justice who disappeared List of serial killers in the United States Alphabet murders Notes References Works cited External links Dallas Observer: The Phantom Menace Arkansas Life: Phantom Memories Fox16: The Texarkana Phantom Killer WKMS Radio interview with James Presley 1946 in Arkansas 1946 in Texas 1946 murders in the United States American murderers of children Deaths by firearm in Texas Fugitives Murder in Texas People murdered in Texas Serial killers from Arkansas Serial killers from Texas Serial murders in the United States Texarkana, Texas Unidentified American serial killers Unsolved murders in the United States
5250192	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python%20syntax%20and%20semantics	Python syntax and semantics	The syntax of the Python programming language is the set of rules that defines how a Python program will be written and interpreted (by both the runtime system and by human readers). The Python language has many similarities to Perl, C, and Java. However, there are some definite differences between the languages. It supports multiple programming paradigms, including structured, object-oriented programming, and functional programming, and boasts a dynamic type system and automatic memory management. Python's syntax is simple and consistent, adhering to the principle that "There should be one— and preferably only one —obvious way to do it." The language incorporates built-in data types and structures, control flow mechanisms, first-class functions, and modules for better code reusability and organization. Python also uses English keywords where other languages use punctuation, contributing to its uncluttered visual layout. The language provides robust error handling through exceptions, and includes a debugger in the standard library for efficient problem-solving. Python's syntax, designed for readability and ease of use, makes it a popular choice among beginners and professionals alike. Design philosophy Python was designed to be a highly readable language. It has a relatively uncluttered visual layout and uses English keywords frequently where other languages use punctuation. Python aims to be simple and consistent in the design of its syntax, encapsulated in the mantra , from the Zen of Python. This mantra is deliberately opposed to the Perl and Ruby mantra, "there's more than one way to do it". Keywords Python has 35 keywords or reserved words; they cannot be used as identifiers. and as assert async await break class continue def del elif else except False finally for from global if import in is lambda None nonlocal not or pass raise return True try while with yield In addition, Python also has 3 soft keywords. Unlike regular hard keywords, soft keywords are reserved words only in the limited contexts where interpreting them as keywords would make syntactic sense. These words can be used as identifiers elsewhere; You can define a function or variable named match or case. _ case match Notes Indentation Python uses whitespace to delimit control flow blocks (following the off-side rule). Python borrows this feature from its predecessor ABC: instead of punctuation or keywords, it uses indentation to indicate the run of a block. In so-called "free-format" languages—that use the block structure derived from ALGOL—blocks of code are set off with braces ({ }) or keywords. In most coding conventions for these languages, programmers conventionally indent the code within a block, to visually set it apart from the surrounding code. A recursive function named foo, which is passed a single parameter, x, and if the parameter is 0 will call a different function named bar and otherwise will call baz, passing x, and also call itself recursively, passing x-1 as the parameter, could be implemented like this in Python: def foo(x): if x == 0: bar() else: baz(x) foo(x - 1) and could be written like this in C with K&R indent style: void foo(int x) { if (x == 0) { bar(); } else { baz(x); foo(x - 1); } } Incorrectly indented code could be misread by a human reader differently than it would be interpreted by a compiler or interpreter. For example, if the function call foo(x - 1) on the last line in the example above was erroneously indented to be outside the if/else block: def foo(x): if x == 0: bar() else: baz(x) foo(x - 1) it would cause the last line to always be executed, even when x is 0, resulting in an endless recursion. While both space and tab characters are accepted as forms of indentation and any multiple of spaces can be used, spaces are recommended and 4 spaces (as in the above examples) are recommended and are by far the most commonly used. Mixing spaces and tabs on consecutive lines is not allowed starting with Python 3 because that can create bugs which are difficult to see, since many text editors do not visually distinguish spaces and tabs. Data structures Since Python is a dynamically-typed language, Python values, not variables, carry type information. All variables in Python hold references to objects, and these references are passed to functions. Some people (including Guido van Rossum himself) have called this parameter-passing scheme "call by object reference". An object reference means a name, and the passed reference is an "alias", i.e. a copy of the reference to the same object, just as in C/C++. The object's value may be changed in the called function with the "alias", for example: >>> alist = ['a', 'b', 'c'] >>> def my_func(al): ... al.append('x') ... print(al) ... >>> my_func(alist) ['a', 'b', 'c', 'x'] >>> alist ['a', 'b', 'c', 'x'] Function my_func changes the value of alist with the formal argument al, which is an alias of alist. However, any attempt to operate (assign a new object reference to) on the alias itself will have no effect on the original object. >>> alist = ['a', 'b', 'c'] >>> def my_func(al): ... # al.append('x') ... al = al + ['x'] # a new list created and assigned to al means al is no more alias for alist ... print(al) ... >>> my_func(alist) ['a', 'b', 'c', 'x'] >>> print(alist) ['a', 'b', 'c'] In Python, non-innermost-local and not-declared-global accessible names are all aliases. Among dynamically-typed languages, Python is moderately type-checked. Implicit conversion is defined for numeric types (as well as booleans), so one may validly multiply a complex number by an integer (for instance) without explicit casting. However, there is no implicit conversion between, for example, numbers and strings; a string is an invalid argument to a mathematical function expecting a number. Base types Python has a broad range of basic data types. Alongside conventional integer and floating-point arithmetic, it transparently supports arbitrary-precision arithmetic, complex numbers, and decimal numbers. Python supports a wide variety of string operations. Strings in Python are immutable, so a string operation such as a substitution of characters, that in other programming languages might alter the string in place, returns a new string in Python. Performance considerations sometimes push for using special techniques in programs that modify strings intensively, such as joining character arrays into strings only as needed. Collection types One of the very useful aspects of Python is the concept of collection (or container) types. In general a collection is an object that contains other objects in a way that is easily referenced or indexed. Collections come in two basic forms: sequences and mappings. The ordered sequential types are lists (dynamic arrays), tuples, and strings. All sequences are indexed positionally (0 through length - 1) and all but strings can contain any type of object, including multiple types in the same sequence. Both strings and tuples are immutable, making them perfect candidates for dictionary keys (see below). Lists, on the other hand, are mutable; elements can be inserted, deleted, modified, appended, or sorted in-place. Mappings, on the other hand, are (often unordered) types implemented in the form of dictionaries which "map" a set of immutable keys to corresponding elements (much like a mathematical function). For example, one could define a dictionary having a string "toast" mapped to the integer 42 or vice versa. The keys in a dictionary must be of an immutable Python type, such as an integer or a string, because under the hood they are implemented via a hash function. This makes for much faster lookup times, but requires keys not change. Dictionaries are central to the internals of Python as they reside at the core of all objects and classes: the mappings between variable names (strings) and the values which the names reference are stored as dictionaries (see Object system). Since these dictionaries are directly accessible (via an object's __dict__ attribute), metaprogramming is a straightforward and natural process in Python. A set collection type is an unindexed, unordered collection that contains no duplicates, and implements set theoretic operations such as union, intersection, difference, symmetric difference, and subset testing. There are two types of sets: set and frozenset, the only difference being that set is mutable and frozenset is immutable. Elements in a set must be hashable. Thus, for example, a frozenset can be an element of a regular set whereas the opposite is not true. Python also provides extensive collection manipulating abilities such as built in containment checking and a generic iteration protocol. Object system In Python, everything is an object, even classes. Classes, as objects, have a class, which is known as their metaclass. Python also supports multiple inheritance and mixins. The language supports extensive introspection of types and classes. Types can be read and compared—types are instances of type. The attributes of an object can be extracted as a dictionary. Operators can be overloaded in Python by defining special member functions—for instance, defining a method named __add__ on a class permits one to use the + operator on objects of that class. Literals Strings Python has various kinds of string literals. Normal string literals Either single or double quotes can be used to quote strings. Unlike in Unix shell languages, Perl or Perl-influenced languages such as Ruby or Groovy, single quotes and double quotes function identically, i.e. there is no string interpolation of $foo expressions. However, interpolation can be done in various ways: with "f-strings" (since Python 3.6), using the format method or the old % string-format operator. For instance, all of these Python statements:print(f"I just printed {num} pages to the printer {printer}") print("I just printed {} pages to the printer {}".format(num, printer)) print("I just printed {0} pages to the printer {1}".format(num, printer)) print("I just printed {num} pages to the printer {printer}".format(num=num, printer=printer)) print("I just printed %s pages to the printer %s" % (num, printer)) print("I just printed %(num)s pages to the printer %(printer)s" % {"num": num, "printer": printer})are equivalent to the Perl statement:print "I just printed $num pages to the printer $printer\n"They build a string using the variables num and printer. Multi-line string literals There are also multi-line strings, which begin and end with a series of three single or double quotes and function like here documents in Perl and Ruby. A simple example with variable interpolation (using the format method) is: print('''Dear {recipient}, I wish you to leave Sunnydale and never return. Not Quite Love, {sender} '''.format(sender="Buffy the Vampire Slayer", recipient="Spike")) Raw strings Finally, all of the previously mentioned string types come in "raw" varieties (denoted by placing a literal r before the opening quote), which do no backslash-interpolation and hence are very useful for regular expressions; compare "@-quoting" in C#. Raw strings were originally included specifically for regular expressions. Due to limitations of the tokenizer, raw strings may not have a trailing backslash. Creating a raw string holding a Windows path ending with a backslash requires some variety of workaround (commonly, using forward slashes instead of backslashes, since Windows accepts both). Examples include: >>> # A Windows path, even raw strings cannot end in a backslash >>> r"C:\Foo\Bar\Baz\" File "<stdin>", line 1 r"C:\Foo\Bar\Baz\" ^ SyntaxError: EOL while scanning string literal >>> dos_path = r"C:\Foo\Bar\Baz\ " # avoids the error by adding >>> dos_path.rstrip() # and removing trailing space 'C:\\Foo\\Bar\\Baz\\' >>> quoted_dos_path = r'"{}"'.format(dos_path) >>> quoted_dos_path '"C:\\Foo\\Bar\\Baz\\ "' >>> # A regular expression matching a quoted string with possible backslash quoting >>> re.match(r'"(([^"\\]\|\\.))"', quoted_dos_path).group(1).rstrip() 'C:\\Foo\\Bar\\Baz\\' >>> code = 'foo(2, bar)' >>> # Reverse the arguments in a two-arg function call >>> re.sub(r'$([^,]?),([^ ,]?)$', r'(\2, \1)', code) 'foo(2, bar)' >>> # Note that this won't work if either argument has parens or commas in it. Concatenation of adjacent string literals String literals (using possibly different quote conventions) appearing contiguously and only separated by whitespace (including new lines), are allowed and are aggregated into a single longer string. Thus title = "One Good Turn: " \ 'A Natural History of the Screwdriver and the Screw' is equivalent to title = "One Good Turn: A Natural History of the Screwdriver and the Screw" Unicode Since Python 3.0, the default character set is UTF-8 both for source code and the interpreter. In UTF-8, unicode strings are handled like traditional byte strings. This example will work: s = "Γειά" # Hello in Greek print(s) Numbers Numeric literals in Python are of the normal sort, e.g. 0, -1, 3.4, 3.5e-8. Python has arbitrary-length integers and automatically increases their storage size as necessary. Prior to Python 3, there were two kinds of integral numbers: traditional fixed size integers and "long" integers of arbitrary size. The conversion to "long" integers was performed automatically when required, and thus the programmer usually didn't have to be aware of the two integral types. In newer language versions the distinction is completely gone and all integers behave like arbitrary-length integers. Python supports normal floating point numbers, which are created when a dot is used in a literal (e.g. 1.1), when an integer and a floating point number are used in an expression, or as a result of some mathematical operations ("true division" via the / operator, or exponentiation with a negative exponent). Python also supports complex numbers natively. Complex numbers are indicated with the J or j suffix, e.g. 3 + 4j. Lists, tuples, sets, dictionaries Python has syntactic support for the creation of container types. Lists (class list) are mutable sequences of items of arbitrary types, and can be created either with the special syntax a_list = [1, 2, 3, "a dog"] or using normal object creation a_second_list = list() a_second_list.append(4) a_second_list.append(5) Tuples (class tuple) are immutable sequences of items of arbitrary types. There is also a special syntax to create tuples a_tuple = 1, 2, 3, "four" a_tuple = (1, 2, 3, "four")Although tuples are created by separating items with commas, the whole construct is usually wrapped in parentheses to increase readability. An empty tuple is denoted by (), while a tuple with a single value can be created with (1,). Sets (class set) are mutable containers of hashable items of arbitrary types, with no duplicates. The items are not ordered, but sets support iteration over the items. The syntax for set creation uses curly brackets some_set = {0, (), False} Python sets are very much like mathematical sets, and support operations like set intersection and union. Python also features a frozenset class for immutable sets, see Collection types. Dictionaries (class dict) are mutable mappings tying keys and corresponding values. Python has special syntax to create dictionaries ({key: value}) a_dictionary = {"key 1": "value 1", 2: 3, 4: []} The dictionary syntax is similar to the set syntax, the difference is the presence of colons. The empty literal {} results in an empty dictionary rather than an empty set, which is instead created using the non-literal constructor: set(). Operators Arithmetic Python includes the +, -, , / ("true division"), // (floor division), % (modulus), and (exponentiation) operators, with their usual mathematical precedence. In Python 3, x / y performs "true division", meaning that it always returns a float, even if both x and y are integers that divide evenly. >>> 4 / 2 2.0 and // performs integer division or floor division, returning the floor of the quotient as an integer. In Python 2 (and most other programming languages), unless explicitly requested, x / y performed integer division, returning a float only if either input was a float. However, because Python is a dynamically-typed language, it was not always possible to tell which operation was being performed, which often led to subtle bugs, thus prompting the introduction of the // operator and the change in semantics of the / operator in Python 3. Comparison operators The comparison operators, i.e. ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=, is, is not, in and not in are used on all manner of values. Numbers, strings, sequences, and mappings can all be compared. In Python 3, disparate types (such as a str and an int) do not have a consistent relative ordering. While it was possible to compare whether some string was greater-than or less-than some integer in Python 2, this was considered a historical design quirk and was ultimately removed in Python 3. Chained comparison expressions such as a < b < c have roughly the meaning that they have in mathematics, rather than the unusual meaning found in C and similar languages. The terms are evaluated and compared in order. The operation has short-circuit semantics, meaning that evaluation is guaranteed to stop as soon as a verdict is clear: if a < b is false, c is never evaluated as the expression cannot possibly be true anymore. For expressions without side effects, a < b < c is equivalent to a < b and b < c. However, there is a substantial difference when the expressions have side effects. a < f(x) < b will evaluate f(x) exactly once, whereas a < f(x) and f(x) < b will evaluate it twice if the value of a is less than f(x) and once otherwise. Logical operators In all versions of Python, boolean operators treat zero values or empty values such as "", 0, None, 0.0, [], and {} as false, while in general treating non-empty, non-zero values as true. The boolean values True and False were added to the language in Python 2.2.1 as constants (subclassed from 1 and 0) and were changed to be full blown keywords in Python 3. The binary comparison operators such as == and > return either True or False. The boolean operators and and or use minimal evaluation. For example, y == 0 or x/y > 100 will never raise a divide-by-zero exception. These operators return the value of the last operand evaluated, rather than True or False. Thus the expression (4 and 5) evaluates to 5, and (4 or 5) evaluates to 4. Functional programming As mentioned above, another strength of Python is the availability of a functional programming style. As may be expected, this makes working with lists and other collections much more straightforward. Comprehensions One such construction is the list comprehension, which can be expressed with the following format: L = [mapping_expression for element in source_list if filter_expression] Using list comprehension to calculate the first five powers of two: powers_of_two = [2n for n in range(1, 6)] The Quicksort algorithm can be expressed elegantly (albeit inefficiently) using list comprehensions: def qsort(L): if L == []: return [] pivot = L[0] return (qsort([x for x in L[1:] if x < pivot]) + [pivot] + qsort([x for x in L[1:] if x >= pivot])) Python 2.7+ also supports set comprehensions and dictionary comprehensions. First-class functions In Python, functions are first-class objects that can be created and passed around dynamically. Python's limited support for anonymous functions is the lambda construct. An example is the anonymous function which squares its input, called with the argument of 5: f = lambda x: x*2 f(5) Lambdas are limited to containing an expression rather than statements, although control flow can still be implemented less elegantly within lambda by using short-circuiting, and more idiomatically with conditional expressions. Closures Python has had support for lexical closures since version 2.2. Here's an example function that returns a function that approximates the derivative of the given function: def derivative(f, dx): """Return a function that approximates the derivative of f using an interval of dx, which should be appropriately small. """ def function(x): return (f(x + dx) - f(x)) / dx return function Python's syntax, though, sometimes leads programmers of other languages to think that closures are not supported. Variable scope in Python is implicitly determined by the scope in which one assigns a value to the variable, unless scope is explicitly declared with global or nonlocal. Note that the closure's binding of a name to some value is not mutable from within the function. Given: >>> def foo(a, b): ... print(f'a: {a}') ... print(f'b: {b}') ... def bar(c): ... b = c ... print(f'b: {b}') ... bar(a) ... print(f'b: {b}') ... >>> foo(1, 2) a: 1 b: 2 b: 1 b: 2 and you can see that b, as visible from the closure's scope, retains the value it had; the changed binding of b inside the inner function did not propagate out. The way around this is to use a nonlocal b statement in bar. In Python 2 (which lacks nonlocal), the usual workaround is to use a mutable value and change that value, not the binding. E.g., a list with one element. Generators Introduced in Python 2.2 as an optional feature and finalized in version 2.3, generators are Python's mechanism for lazy evaluation of a function that would otherwise return a space-prohibitive or computationally intensive list. This is an example to lazily generate the prime numbers: from itertools import count def generate_primes(stop_at=None): primes = [] for n in count(start=2): if stop_at is not None and n > stop_at: return # raises the StopIteration exception composite = False for p in primes: if not n % p: composite = True break elif p * 2 > n: break if not composite: primes.append(n) yield n When calling this function, the returned value can be iterated over much like a list: for i in generate_primes(100): # iterate over the primes between 0 and 100 print(i) for i in generate_primes(): # iterate over ALL primes indefinitely print(i) The definition of a generator appears identical to that of a function, except the keyword yield is used in place of return. However, a generator is an object with persistent state, which can repeatedly enter and leave the same scope. A generator call can then be used in place of a list, or other structure whose elements will be iterated over. Whenever the for loop in the example requires the next item, the generator is called, and yields the next item. Generators don't have to be infinite like the prime-number example above. When a generator terminates, an internal exception is raised which indicates to any calling context that there are no more values. A for loop or other iteration will then terminate. Generator expressions Introduced in Python 2.4, generator expressions are the lazy evaluation equivalent of list comprehensions. Using the prime number generator provided in the above section, we might define a lazy, but not quite infinite collection. from itertools import islice primes_under_million = (i for i in generate_primes() if i < 1000000) two_thousandth_prime = islice(primes_under_million, 1999, 2000).next() Most of the memory and time needed to generate this many primes will not be used until the needed element is actually accessed. Unfortunately, you cannot perform simple indexing and slicing of generators, but must use the itertools module or "roll your own" loops. In contrast, a list comprehension is functionally equivalent, but is greedy in performing all the work: primes_under_million = [i for i in generate_primes(2000000) if i < 1000000] two_thousandth_prime = primes_under_million[1999] The list comprehension will immediately create a large list (with 78498 items, in the example, but transiently creating a list of primes under two million), even if most elements are never accessed. The generator comprehension is more parsimonious. Dictionary and set comprehensions While lists and generators had comprehensions/expressions, in Python versions older than 2.7 the other Python built-in collection types (dicts and sets) had to be kludged in using lists or generators: >>> dict((n, nn) for n in range(5)) {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16} Python 2.7 and 3.0 unified all collection types by introducing dictionary and set comprehensions, similar to list comprehensions: >>> [nn for n in range(5)] # regular list comprehension [0, 1, 4, 9, 16] >>> >>> {nn for n in range(5)} # set comprehension {0, 1, 4, 9, 16} >>> >>> {n: nn for n in range(5)} # dict comprehension {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16} Objects Python supports most object oriented programming (OOP) techniques. It allows polymorphism, not only within a class hierarchy but also by duck typing. Any object can be used for any type, and it will work so long as it has the proper methods and attributes. And everything in Python is an object, including classes, functions, numbers and modules. Python also has support for metaclasses, an advanced tool for enhancing classes' functionality. Naturally, inheritance, including multiple inheritance, is supported. Python has very limited support for private variables using name mangling which is rarely used in practice as information hiding is seen by some as unpythonic, in that it suggests that the class in question contains unaesthetic or ill-planned internals. The slogan "we're all responsible users here" is used to describe this attitude. doctrines such as the use of accessor methods to read data members are not enforced in Python. Just as Python offers functional-programming constructs but does not attempt to demand referential transparency, it offers an object system but does not demand behavior. Moreover, it is always possible to redefine the class using properties (see Properties) so that when a certain variable is set or retrieved in calling code, it really invokes a function call, so that spam.eggs = toast might really invoke spam.set_eggs(toast). This nullifies the practical advantage of accessor functions, and it remains because the property eggs becomes a legitimate part of the object's interface: it need not reflect an implementation detail. In version 2.2 of Python, "new-style" classes were introduced. With new-style classes, objects and types were unified, allowing the subclassing of types. Even entirely new types can be defined, complete with custom behavior for infix operators. This allows for many radical things to be done syntactically within Python. A new method resolution order for multiple inheritance was also adopted with Python 2.3. It is also possible to run custom code while accessing or setting attributes, though the details of those techniques have evolved between Python versions. With statement The with statement handles resources, and allows users to work with the Context Manager protocol. One function (__enter__()) is called when entering scope and another (__exit__()) when leaving. This prevents forgetting to free the resource and also handles more complicated situations such as freeing the resource when an exception occurs while it is in use. Context Managers are often used with files, database connections, test cases, etc. Properties Properties allow specially defined methods to be invoked on an object instance by using the same syntax as used for attribute access. An example of a class defining some properties is: class MyClass: def __init__(self): self._a = None @property def a(self): return self._a @a.setter # makes the property writable def a(self, value): self._a = value Descriptors A class that defines one or more of the three special methods __get__(self, instance, owner), __set__(self, instance, value), __delete__(self, instance) can be used as a descriptor. Creating an instance of a descriptor as a class member of a second class makes the instance a property of the second class. Class and static methods Python allows the creation of class methods and static methods via the use of the @classmethod and @staticmethod decorators. The first argument to a class method is the class object instead of the self-reference to the instance. A static method has no special first argument. Neither the instance, nor the class object is passed to a static method. Exceptions Python supports (and extensively uses) exception handling as a means of testing for error conditions and other "exceptional" events in a program. Python style calls for the use of exceptions whenever an error condition might arise. Rather than testing for access to a file or resource before actually using it, it is conventional in Python to just go ahead and try to use it, catching the exception if access is rejected. Exceptions can also be used as a more general means of non-local transfer of control, even when an error is not at issue. For instance, the Mailman mailing list software, written in Python, uses exceptions to jump out of deeply nested message-handling logic when a decision has been made to reject a message or hold it for moderator approval. Exceptions are often used as an alternative to the if-block, especially in threaded situations. A commonly invoked motto is EAFP, or "It is Easier to Ask for Forgiveness than Permission," which is attributed to Grace Hopper. The alternative, known as LBYL, or "Look Before You Leap", explicitly tests for pre-conditions. In this first code sample, following the LBYL approach, there is an explicit check for the attribute before access: if hasattr(spam, 'eggs'): ham = spam.eggs else: handle_missing_attr() This second sample follows the EAFP paradigm: try: ham = spam.eggs except AttributeError: handle_missing_attr() These two code samples have the same effect, although there will be performance differences. When spam has the attribute eggs, the EAFP sample will run faster. When spam does not have the attribute eggs (the "exceptional" case), the EAFP sample will run slower. The Python profiler can be used in specific cases to determine performance characteristics. If exceptional cases are rare, then the EAFP version will have superior average performance than the alternative. In addition, it avoids the whole class of time-of-check-to-time-of-use (TOCTTOU) vulnerabilities, other race conditions, and is compatible with duck typing. A drawback of EAFP is that it can be used only with statements; an exception cannot be caught in a generator expression, list comprehension, or lambda function. Comments and docstrings Python has two ways to annotate Python code. One is by using comments to indicate what some part of the code does. Single-line comments begin with the hash character (#) and continue until the end of the line. Comments spanning more than one line are achieved by inserting a multi-line string (with """ or ''' as the delimiter on each end) that is not used in assignment or otherwise evaluated, but sits in between other statements. Commenting a piece of code: import sys def getline(): return sys.stdin.readline() # Get one line and return it Commenting a piece of code with multiple lines: def getline(): return sys.stdin.readline() """this function gets one line and returns it""" Docstrings (documentation strings), that is, strings that are located alone without assignment as the first indented line within a module, class, method or function, automatically set their contents as an attribute named __doc__, which is intended to store a human-readable description of the object's purpose, behavior, and usage. The built-in help function generates its output based on __doc__ attributes. Such strings can be delimited with " or ' for single line strings, or may span multiple lines if delimited with either """ or ''' which is Python's notation for specifying multi-line strings. However, the style guide for the language specifies that triple double quotes (""") are preferred for both single and multi-line docstrings. Single-line docstring: def getline(): """Get one line from stdin and return it.""" return sys.stdin.readline() Multi-line docstring: def getline(): """Get one line from stdin and return it. """ return sys.stdin.readline() Docstrings can be as large as the programmer wants and contain line breaks. In contrast with comments, docstrings are themselves Python objects and are part of the interpreted code that Python runs. That means that a running program can retrieve its own docstrings and manipulate that information, but the normal usage is to give other programmers information about how to invoke the object being documented in the docstring. There are tools available that can extract the docstrings from Python code and generate documentation. Docstring documentation can also be accessed from the interpreter with the help() function, or from the shell with the pydoc command pydoc. The doctest standard module uses interactions copied from Python shell sessions into docstrings to create tests, whereas the docopt module uses them to define command-line options. Function annotations Function annotations (type hints) are defined in PEP 3107. They allow attaching data to the arguments and return of a function. The behaviour of annotations is not defined by the language, and is left to third party frameworks. For example, a library could be written to handle static typing: def haul(item: Haulable, vargs: PackAnimal) -> Distance Decorators A decorator is any callable Python object that is used to modify a function, method or class definition. A decorator is passed the original object being defined and returns a modified object, which is then bound to the name in the definition. Python decorators were inspired in part by Java annotations, and have a similar syntax; the decorator syntax is pure syntactic sugar, using @ as the keyword: @viking_chorus def menu_item(): print("spam") is equivalent to def menu_item(): print("spam") menu_item = viking_chorus(menu_item) Decorators are a form of metaprogramming; they enhance the action of the function or method they decorate. For example, in the sample below, viking_chorus might cause menu_item to be run 8 times (see Spam sketch) for each time it is called: def viking_chorus(myfunc): def inner_func(args, *kwargs): for i in range(8): myfunc(args, **kwargs) return inner_func Canonical uses of function decorators are for creating class methods or static methods, adding function attributes, tracing, setting pre- and postconditions, and synchronization, but can be used for far more, including tail recursion elimination, memoization and even improving the writing of other decorators. Decorators can be chained by placing several on adjacent lines: @invincible @favourite_colour("Blue") def black_knight(): pass is equivalent to def black_knight(): pass black_knight = invincible(favourite_colour("Blue")(black_knight)) or, using intermediate variables def black_knight(): pass blue_decorator = favourite_colour("Blue") decorated_by_blue = blue_decorator(black_knight) black_knight = invincible(decorated_by_blue) In the example above, the favourite_colour decorator factory takes an argument. Decorator factories must return a decorator, which is then called with the object to be decorated as its argument: def favourite_colour(colour): def decorator(func): def wrapper(): print(colour) func() return wrapper return decorator This would then decorate the black_knight function such that the colour, "Blue", would be printed prior to the black_knight function running. Closure ensures that the colour argument is accessible to the innermost wrapper function even when it is returned and goes out of scope, which is what allows decorators to work. Despite the name, Python decorators are not an implementation of the decorator pattern. The decorator pattern is a design pattern used in statically-typed object-oriented programming languages to allow functionality to be added to objects at run time; Python decorators add functionality to functions and methods at definition time, and thus are a higher-level construct than decorator-pattern classes. The decorator pattern itself is trivially implementable in Python, because the language is duck typed, and so is not usually considered as such. Easter eggs Users of curly bracket languages, such as C or Java, sometimes expect or wish Python to follow a block-delimiter convention. Brace-delimited block syntax has been repeatedly requested, and consistently rejected by core developers. The Python interpreter contains an easter egg that summarizes its developers' feelings on this issue. The code from __future__ import braces raises the exception SyntaxError: not a chance. The __future__ module is normally used to provide features from future versions of Python. Another hidden message, the Zen of Python (a summary of Python design philosophy), is displayed when trying to import this. The message Hello world! is printed when the import statement import __hello__ is used. In Python 2.7, instead of Hello world! it prints Hello world.... Importing the antigravity module opens a web browser to xkcd comic 353 that portrays a humorous fictional use for such a module, intended to demonstrate the ease with which Python modules enable additional functionality. In Python 3, this module also contains an implementation of the "geohash" algorithm, a reference to xkcd comic 426. References External links (written by the author of Python) Programming language syntax Python (programming language) Articles with example Python (programming language) code Articles with example C code
5250543	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungnam%20evacuation	Hungnam evacuation	The Hungnam evacuation or Heungnam redeployment (), also known as the Miracle of Christmas, was the evacuation of United Nations (UN) forces and North Korean civilians from the port of Hungnam, Hamhung, North Korea, between 15 and 24 December 1950 during the Korean War. As part of the fighting withdrawal of UN forces against the People's Volunteer Army (PVA) during the Battle of the Chosin Reservoir (27 November to 13 December), they abandoned some 59,000 square kilometers of North Korean territory to enemy forces and retreated to Hungnam from where they were evacuated to South Korea. Background On 8 December 1950 US X Corps commander General Edward Almond received UN Commander General Douglas MacArthur’s order to evacuate X Corps through Hungnam. Following the earlier decision to concentrate X Corps forces at Hungnam, the evacuation of Wonsan had begun on 3 December. In a week’s time, without interference from PVA or Korean People's Army (KPA) forces, the Regimental Combat Team 31 (RCT 31), US 3rd Infantry Division and a US 1st Marine Division shore party group totaling some 3,800 troops loaded themselves, 1,100 vehicles, 10,000 tons of other cargo, and 7,000 refugees aboard transport ships and LSTs provided by Admiral James H. Doyle’s Task Force 90. One LST sailed north on the 9th to Hungnam, where its Marine shore party passengers were to take part in the forthcoming sealift. The remaining ships steamed for Pusan on the 9th and 10th. The Task Force 90 ships dispatched to Songjin on 5 December to pick up the tail-end troops of ROK I Corps meanwhile had reached their destination and by noon on 9 December had taken aboard the ROK 3rd Infantry Division (less the 26th Regiment, which withdrew to Hungnam as rearguard for the ROK 7th Infantry Division; the division headquarters, division artillery, and 18th Regiment of the ROK Capital Division; and some 4300 refugees. This sealift originally had been designed to assist X Corps’ concentration at Hungnam, but the intervening order to evacuate Hungnam changed the destination for most of the South Koreans to Pusan. On 10 and 11 December the convoy from Songjin anchored at Hungnam only long enough to unload the Capital Division's headquarters and artillery for employment in the perimeter and to take aboard an advance party of the ROK I Corps headquarters before proceeding to its new destination. On the 11th, as the ROK from Songjin as well as the Marine and Army troops from the Chosin Reservoir came into Hungnam, the perimeter around the port consisted of a series of battalion and regimental strongpoints astride the likely avenues of PVA/KPA approach some outside the city. The US 3rd Infantry Division still held the large sector assigned to it when General Almond first shaped the perimeter, from positions below Yonpo Airfield southwest of Hungnam to defenses astride the Chosin Reservoir road at Oro-ri () northwest of the port. Battalions of the US 7th Infantry Division stood in breadth and depth along the Pujon Reservoir () road north of Hungnam, and three regiments of ROK I Corps guarded approaches near and at the coast northeast of the port. Although Almond had begun to pull these units into defenses around Hungnam at the beginning of December, PVA/KPA forces as of the 11th had not yet made any significant attempt to establish contact with the perimeter units. But Almond expected his beachhead defenses would be tested by PVA/KPA units approaching Hungnam along the coast from the northeast, from the Wonsan area to the south, and especially from the direction of the Chosin Reservoir. The likelihood that PVA/KPA forces pushing to the coast to reoccupy Wonsan would block the routes south of Hungnam had prompted Almond to discard any thought of an overland withdrawal to southern Korea (nor had MacArthur ordered such a move). Almond also considered the roads inadequate to permit the timely movement of large forces. His warning order, issued 9 December, alerted his forces for a "withdrawal by water and air without delay from Hungnam area to Pusan-Pohang-dong area." The larger exodus was to be by sea, with the Hungnam defenses contracting as Corps' forces were loaded, but airlift was to be employed for as long as Yonpo Airfield remained within the shrinking perimeter. Evacuation Planning In deciding how to evacuate his forces and still successfully defend his perimeter, Almond considered two alternatives. He could place all divisions on the perimeter and then withdraw portions of each simultaneously, or he could pull out one division at a time and spread his remaining forces to cover the vacated sector on a shorter front. Since some units were more battle worn than others, especially the 1st Marine Division, he elected the latter method and intended to ship the Marines first. They were to be followed by the 7th Division, then the 3rd Division. Almond planned to phase out ROK I Corps, X Corps' support units, bulk supplies and heavy equipment simultaneously with the US Army divisions. This was to be done carefully enough to keep a proper balance between combat and support troops and to ensure adequate logistical support. To maintain this balance yet guarantee that the evacuation proceeded as rapidly as possible, he established three points of control. From X Corps headquarters, his G-3 and G-4 together guided the dispatch of units to the beach. To supervise the actual loading of troops and materiel at water's edge, he organized a control group under Col. Edward H. Forney, a Marine officer serving as Almond's deputy chief of staff. Under Colonel Forney's direction, the 2nd Engineer Special Brigade was to operate dock facilities, a reinforced Marine shore party company was to operate the LST and small craft beaches and control the lighterage for ships to be loaded in the harbor anchorages, and some five thousand Korean civilians were to work as stevedores. On the Navy's end of the out-loading procedure, Admiral Doyle, through a control unit aboard his flagship , was to coordinate all shipments, assign anchorages, and issue docking and sailing instructions. Direct liaison was established between Almond's control group ashore and Doyle's control group at sea to match outgoing troops, supplies, and equipment with available ships. Almond also dispatched a control group under Lt. Col. Arthur M. Murray from Corps' headquarters to Pusan to receive troops, supplies, and equipment arriving by sea and air and to move them as rapidly as possible to assembly areas. Including the troops and materiel outloaded at Wonsan and Songjin, Almond needed shipping space for 105,000 troops, 18,422 vehicles, and some 350,000 tons of bulk cargo. Although Admiral Doyle commanded a transport group of over 125 ships, some would have to make more than one trip to meet Almond's needs. The Far East Air Forces’ Combat Cargo Command flying out of Yonpo Airfield was to fulfill airlift requirements. Tactical air support during the evacuation would be a Navy and Marine responsibility, the Fifth Air Force fighters previously located in northeastern Korea having flown out to Pusan on 3 December. The 1st Marine Air Wing, based at Yonpo and aboard escort carriers, was to devote its full effort to supporting the corps operation. In addition, Admiral Doyle was to arrange both naval air and naval gunfire support. Reinforced by ships supplied by Admiral Arthur Dewey Struble, the Seventh Fleet commander, Doyle eventually was able to employ seven carriers in throwing a canopy of aircraft over the Corps area and to deploy one battleship, two cruisers, seven destroyers, and three rocket ships in a maneuver area reaching north and south of Hungnam to answer Almond’s requests for gunfire support. To begin an orderly contraction of defenses as X Corps’ strength ashore diminished, the units on the perimeter were to withdraw deliberately as the 1st Marine Division embarked toward the first of three phase lines that Almond drew around Hungnam. In the southwest this first line rested generally along the Yowi-ch’on River, just below Yonpo Airfield and elsewhere traced an arc about from the heart of Hungnam. The second line differed from the first only in the southwest in the US 3rd Division sector where it followed the upper bank of the Songch’on River close by Hungnam. The 3rd Division's withdrawal to this second line, which would mean the abandonment of Yonpo Airfield, was scheduled to take place as the US 7th Division began its embarkation. The third and final line was a tight arc about outside the limits of Hungnam to be occupied by the 3rd Division as that division itself prepared to outload. During this final phase of the evacuation 3rd Division units were to use rearguard tactics to cover their own embarkation. General Almond published his formal evacuation order on 11 December, the date on which General MacArthur visited Korea and flew into Yonpo Airfield for a conference with him. After briefing MacArthur on Corps' dispositions and the plan of evacuation, Almond predicted that the evacuation would be orderly, that no supplies or equipment would be destroyed or abandoned and that PVA/KPA forces would not interfere seriously. The redeployment of X Corps to southern Korea, he estimated, would be complete by 27 December. The evacuation (12–24 December) The 1st Marine Division, as it came into Hungnam from the Chosin Reservoir on 11 December, assembled between the port and Yonpo Airfield. The division loaded over the following three days and sailed for Pusan at mid-morning on the 15th. General Almond the day before had designated Masan, west of Pusan, as the division's assembly area. Following the voyage to Pusan and a motor march to Masan, the Marines passed to Eighth Army control on 18 December. Some bulk cargo was shipped out during the Marine loading, but the heavier evacuation of material began after the Marines sailed. From 15 December onwards service units gradually moved depots and supply points into the port area proper and the bulk supplies and heavy equipment were either loaded aboard ships double-banked at the docks or lightered to ships in the harbor. To save time, ammunition was loaded at the docks instead of well out into open water according to usual precautionary practice. This constant outward flow of material paralleled unit embarkations through the final day of the evacuation. While the Marines departed by sea, the bulk of the 1st Korean Marine Corps Regiment, which had been attached to the 3rd Division, moved to Yonpo for evacuation by air. 3rd Division commander General Robert H. Soule had planned to compensate for the loss of the South Korean marines by pulling his division to the shorter first phase line on 16 December, but several sharp attacks against his positions between Chigyong and Oro-ri during the morning of the 15th prompted him to make his withdrawal that afternoon. By the 16th the attacks against the 3rd Division on the western and northwestern arcs of the perimeter, enemy patrols engaged ROK I Corps in the northeast, and other ground and air reports indicated that PVA/KPA forces were closing in around the X Corps perimeter but not in great strength. Parts of the PVA 81st Division, 27th Army, appeared to have made the attacks on the 3rd Division and a KPA brigade apparently was moving toward Hungnam over the coastal road from the northeast. A greater immediate problem than the approach of relatively few enemy forces was a mass movement of civilians toward the corps perimeter. Although General Almond had planned to evacuate government officials, their families and as many others as shipping space allowed, he had not anticipated that thousands of civilians would try to reach Hungnam. Besides hampering evacuation operations by overcrowding the port area, the large refugee movement posed a danger of PVA/KPA infiltration. According to Corps' intelligence sources, the North Koreans were circulating a rumor in Hamhung that X Corps would provide transportation for all civilians who wished to leave North Korea. The intention was to create a mass move to cover the infiltration of KPA agents and saboteurs. To prevent overcrowding and infiltration, military police, intelligence agents, and perimeter troops attempted to block civilian entry, particularly over the Hamhung-Hungnam road, which carried the larger number of refugees. They were only partially successful. Those civilians already in Hungnam and those who managed to reach the city were screened, then moved to the southeastern suburb of Sohojin, where Corps' civil affairs personnel distributed food and organized them for evacuation as shipping space became available. On the heels of the Marine division, the US 7th Division began to load on 14 December, embarking first the worn troops of the 31st Infantry Regiment, 1st Battalion, 32nd Infantry Regiment and the 57th Field Artillery Battalion, who had been with the Marines in the Chosin Reservoir area. Most of the 7th Division's service units went aboard ship on the 15th and 16th. The US 17th Infantry Regiment and remainder of the 32nd Infantry Regiment meanwhile relieved ROK I Corps on the perimeter and withdrew to the first phase line. Hence, the Corps' perimeter on the 16th was divided into two nearly equal parts by the Songch’on River, the 7th Division in position above it, the 3rd Division holding the sector below. Patrols and outposts deepened the defense as far out as the lower edge of Hamhung. After being relieved by the 7th Division, ROK I Corps loaded and sailed at noon on 17 December. Although original plans called for the ROK to go to Pusan, General MacArthur, apparently as a result of his 11 December visit to Korea, had directed that the Corps' units then on the Hungnam perimeter be sea lifted to Samch’ok. These units and those being carried to Pusan from Songjin were to pass to Eighth Army control upon disembarkation. This transfer would permit Eighth Army commander General Walton Walker to deploy ROK I Corps immediately, and the landing at Samch’ok would put much of it close at hand for deployment at the eastern end of his proposed Line B. The landing, actually made at a small port just north of Samch’ok, was completed on 20 December. ROK I Corps’ departure on the 17th coincided with the evacuation of most X Corps' headquarters sections and troops. Their final destination was Kyongju, north of Pusan, where they were to establish an advance Corps' command post. On the same day, operations at Yonpo Airfield closed as the left flank units of the 3rd Division prepared to withdraw to the lower bank of the Songch’on River behind the field the next day. The Marine squadrons that had used the field already had withdrawn to Pusan and Itami Air Base, Japan. Last to leave was a Fifth Air Force base unit that had serviced the Marine fighters and General William H. Tunner’s cargo aircraft. By the closing date Tunner's planes had lifted out 3,600 troops, 196 vehicles, 1,300 tons of cargo, and several hundred refugees. The 18 December withdrawal of General Soule's left flank units to the lower bank of the Songch’on River was a preliminary move in the 3rd Division's relief of the two 7th Division regiments still on the perimeter. Soule's forces stepped behind the Songch’on to the second Corps' phase line on the 19th and on the 19th and 20th spread out to relieve the 17th and 32nd Regiments. General Almond closed his command post in Hungnam on the 20th and reopened it aboard USS Mount McKinley in the harbor, leaving General Soule in command of ground troops ashore. PVA/KPA probing attacks, which had slackened noticeably after the 3rd and 7th Divisions withdrew to the first Corps' phase line, picked up again on the 18th and became still more intense on the following day. Three PVA divisions, the 79th, 80th and 81st, all from the 27th Army, were believed to be in the nearby ground west of Hungnam, although only the 79th was currently in contact. North and northeast of Hungnam, a KPA brigade and the reconstituted KPA 3rd Division had been encountered, as had another KPA force, presumably a regiment. None of the PVA/KPA strikes on the perimeter did more than penetrate someoutposts, and counterattacks rapidly eliminated these gains. So far, all action appeared to be only an attempt to reconnoiter the perimeter. Several explanations for the PVA/KPA's failure to make a larger effort were plausible. The bulk of the PVA in the Chosin Reservoir area apparently were taking time to recuperate from losses suffered in the cold weather and recent battles. All PVA/KPA forces undoubtedly were aware that X Corps was evacuating Hungnam and that they would be able to enter the city soon without having to fight their way in. The contraction of the Corps' perimeter probably forced the PVA/KPA to repeat their reconnaissance. Artillery fire, naval gunfire, and ample close air support may well have prevented the PVA/KPA from concentrating sufficient strength for strong attacks. Whatever the reasons, PVA/KPA forces had not yet launched a large-scale assault. Although an additional unit, a regiment of the KPA 1st Division, was identified near the northeastern anchor of the Corps' perimeter on 20 December, PVA/KPA attacks diminished on the 20th and 21st as the last troops of the 7th Division embarked and sailed for Pusan. 7th Division completed their redeployment on the 27th and moved into an assembly around Yongch’on, west of the new X Corps headquarters at Kyongju. New but still small attacks harassed the 3rd Division on 22 December as General Soule's 7th, 65th and 15th Infantry Regiments from west to east stood at the second Corps' phase line to cover the loading of the last Corps' artillery units and the first of the division's service units. On the 23rd, when Soule pulled his regiments to the last Corps' phase line in preparation for the final withdrawal from Hungnam, only a small amount of mortar and artillery fire struck the perimeter troops. Whatever conditions so far had kept the PVA/KPA from opening a large assault continued even after the X Corps’ perimeter strength dwindled to a single division. The indirect fire received on the 23rd proved to be the last opposition offered. By morning of the 24th the perimeter was silent and remained so as the last of the 3rd Division's service units loaded and as General Soule started his rearguard action to take out his regiments and artillery. A battalion from each regiment stayed on the perimeter while the remaining infantry and the artillery outloaded and while the Division's 10th Engineer Combat Battalion and Navy underwater demolition teams prepared port facilities for destruction. At the same time, the last Corps' supplies, the port operating units, and as many of the remaining refugees as possible were put aboard ship. After General Almond made a final inspection ashore, seven platoons established strongpoints near the beaches to protect the embarkation of the remainder of the covering battalions and the bulk of the 10th Engineer Combat Battalion. In the final steps, Admiral Doyle's warships laid down a wide barrage about inland as the last platoons of the covering force loaded and as the 10th Engineer Combat Battalion and Navy demolition teams blew up the port before leaving the beaches aboard LVTs and LCMs shortly after 14:30. By Christmas Eve the ships carrying the last X Corps troops and supplies were well out of Hungnam harbor en route to Pusan and Ulsan, a small port north of Pusan. They left behind no serviceable equipment or usable supplies. About 200 tons of ammunition, a similar amount of frozen dynamite, 500 thousand-pound aerial bombs and about 200 drums of oil and gasoline had not been taken out, but all of this [had] added to the loudness of the final blowup of the port of Hungnam." Aftermath In retrospect, the evacuation of X Corps from Hungnam had proved successful as a logistical exercise. While the move could be considered a withdrawal from a hostile shore, neither PVA nor KPA forces had made any serious attempts to disrupt the operation or even to test the shrinking perimeter that protected the loading. Logistical rather than tactical matters therefore had governed the rate of the evacuation. Indeed, X Corps’ redeployment south had been a matter of how rapidly Admiral Doyle's ships could be loaded. A remarkable number of refugees, over 86,000, had been lifted out of Hungnam. Including those evacuated from Wonsan and Songjin, the total number of civilians taken out of northeastern Korea reached 98,100. About the same number had been left behind for lack of shipping space. The evacuation included 14,000 refugees who were transported on one ship, the SS Meredith Victory—the largest evacuation from land by a single ship. This was made possible by a declaration of national emergency by President Truman issued on 16 December 1950 with Presidential Proclamation No. 2914, 3 C.F.R. 99 (1953). Among the civilians evacuated and brought to the South were the future parents of former South Korean President Moon Jae-in. Five babies were born on the ships and were nicknamed Kimchi 1–5 by US sailors. In popular culture Heungnam That I Saw Last (1984) A film about the Hungnam evacuation entered pre-production in 2005 but did not push through. The 2014 film Ode to My Father depicts the Hungnam Evacuation in its beginning. * Timeless "The Miracle of Christmas: Part II" covers the event. See also Battle of Chosin Reservoir Leonard LaRue SS Meredith Victory References External links Hungnam Overview (Blog) "Ship of Miracles" documentary film by RJ McHatton Novel about Hungnam evacuation The Hungnam Evacuation at Korean War Educator Article about Moon Jae-in and "Kimchi 5" 1950 in Korea Evacuations Battles of the Korean War Battles of the Korean War involving China Battles of the Korean War involving the United States December 1950 events in Asia Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1950 Battles of the Korean War involving South Korea History of South Hamgyong Province
5250634	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004%20unrest%20in%20Kosovo	2004 unrest in Kosovo	On 17–18 March 2004, the violence was erupted in the partitioned town of Mitrovica, Kosovo, leaving hundreds wounded and at least 14 people dead since the end of the 1998–99 conflict. The unrest was precipitated by reports in the Kosovo Albanian media which claimed that three Kosovo Albanian boys had drowned after being chased into the Ibar River by a group of Kosovo Serbs. UN peacekeepers and NATO troops scrambled to contain a raging gun battle between Serbs and Albanians. Serbs call the event the March Pogrom (), while the Albanians call it the March Unrest (). International courts in Pristina have prosecuted people who attacked several Serbian Orthodox churches, handing down prison sentences ranging from 21 months to 16 years. A part of the destroyed churches have since been rebuilt by the Government of Kosovo in cooperation with the Serbian Orthodox Church and the UN mission in Kosovo. Background The Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) was an ethnic-Albanian paramilitary organisation which had as its founding goal unification of Albanian inhabited lands in the Balkans, stressing Albanian culture, ethnicity and nation. Conflict escalated from 1997 onward due to the Yugoslav army retaliating with a crackdown in the region resulting in violence and population displacements. The bloodshed, ethnic cleansing of thousands of Albanians driving them into neighbouring countries and the potential of it to destabilize the region provoked intervention by international organizations and agencies, such as the United Nations, NATO and INGOs. Some people from non-Albanian communities such as the Serbs and Romani fled Kosovo fearing revenge attacks by armed people and returning refugees while others were pressured by the KLA and armed gangs to leave. Post conflict Kosovo was placed under an international United Nations framework with the UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) overseeing administrative affairs and the NATO Kosovo Force (KFOR) dealing with defence. Within post-conflict Kosovo Albanian society, calls for retaliation for previous violence done by Serb forces during the war circulated through public culture. In 2004, prolonged negotiations over Kosovo's future status, sociopolitical problems and nationalist sentiments resulted in the Kosovo unrest. Prelude Shooting of Serbian teen On 15 March 2004 an 18-year-old Serb, Jovica Ivić, was shot and wounded in a drive-by shooting in the village of Čaglavica in the central region of Kosovo. 16 March pro-KLA protests On 16 March, three KLA war veterans associations organized widespread demonstrations in ethnic Albanian cities and towns, protesting the arrests of former KLA leaders on war crime charges, including the February arrests of four commanders. The pro-KLA, anti-UNMIK protests, with 18,000 protesters, lay the basis for the following demonstrations sparked by the sensational reports of drowning of three Albanian children. Drowning of Albanian children On 16 March, three Albanian children drowned in the Ibar River in the village of Çabër, near the Serb community of Zubin Potok. A fourth boy survived. It was speculated that he and his friends had been chased into the river by Serbs in revenge for the shooting of Ivić the previous day, but this claim has not been proven. UN police spokesman Neeraj Singh said the surviving boy had been under intense pressure from ethnic Albanian journalists who had suggested what he should say. His version of events differed from that of two other children who had also been in the river, Singh told a news conference in Pristina. The spokesperson said there were "very significant" inconsistencies in the accounts given by the child during two separate interviews, and a lack of corroboration of his story. "In fact, it is logically at odds in several respects with other evidence," Mr. Singh said. The UN found no evidence that Serbs were responsible for drowning the three Albanian children. Violence On 17 and 18 March 2004, a wave of violent riots swept through Kosovo, triggered by two incidents perceived as ethnically motivated acts. Demonstrations, although seemingly spontaneous at the outset, quickly focused on Serbs throughout Kosovo. Thousands of Albanians gathered at the south end of the bridge across the Ibar at Mitrovica, which divides the Serb and Albanian districts of the town. A large crowd of Serbs gathered at the north end to prevent the Albanians from crossing. Peacekeepers from the NATO-led Kosovo Force (KFOR) blockaded the bridge, using tear gas, rubber bullets and stun grenades to keep the crowds apart. However, gunmen on both sides opened fire with sub-machine guns and grenades, killing at least eight people (two Albanians and six Serbs) and wounding over 300. Eleven peacekeepers were also injured, of which two seriously. The violence quickly spread to other parts of Kosovo, with Kosovo Serb communities and Serbian cultural heritage (churches and monasteries) attacked by crowds of Albanians. Serb returnees were attacked. Some of the locations were ostensibly under the protection of KFOR at the time. During the riots and violence, at least 35 churches were damaged, including 18 monuments of culture, which were demolished, burnt or severely damaged. According to Human Rights Watch, the violence resulted in the deaths of nineteen people; 8 Kosovo Serbs and 11 Kosovo Albanians. More than a thousand were wounded including more than 120 KFOR personnel. More than 4,000 Serbs were driven out of their homes and more than 900 houses belonging to non-Albanians were burned. By one estimate, more than 50,000 people participated in the riots. The Legal System Monitoring Section of the OSCE Mission in Kosovo (“the OSCE”) has closely monitored the investigations and trials from March 2004 until present. With its monitoring of 73 cases (Municipal, District and Minor Offences Courts) pending between December 2005 and March 2008, the OSCE now follows up on a first report of December 2005. Čaglavica In Čaglavica, 12,000 Kosovo Albanian rioters tried to storm the Serb-populated areas. KFOR peacekeepers from Sweden, Norway and Finland led by Swedish Lieutenant Colonel Hans Håkansson created a blockade by using tear gas, rubber bullets, and stun grenades, in order to keep the two groups apart. A truck was driven by a Kosovo Albanian at full speed towards the barricade in an attempt to penetrate the line. After firing warning shots at the truck, the peacekeepers had to use deadly force to avoid friendly casualties, and shot the driver. 16 peacekeepers were injured, and 13 had to be evacuated. Another KFOR unit consisting of mostly Swedish soldiers also participated in defending Čaglavica that day, supported by people from the barracks who normally worked with non-military tasks. Lieutenant Colonel Hans Håkansson, who commanded 700 people during the unrest, reported that the fighting went on for 11 hours, and that many collapsed due to dehydration and injuries while struggling to fend off waves of rioters. In total, 35 people were injured while defending the town. Hans Håkansson was awarded with a medal for his actions by the Royal Swedish Academy of War Sciences in 2005. Pristina Following the attacks in Čaglavica, the mob of Albanians turned their attention on the few remaining Serbs living in Pristina in the YU Program apartments. The apartments came under attack after the mob of Albanians blocked all of the entrances and set fire to the ground floors. Serbs who tried to flee the apartments were shot at by firearms or stabbed by members of the crowd. The mob began to loot apartments and were chanting pro Kosovo Liberation Army chants and calling for the killing of Serbs. It took KFOR (mainly Irish Soldiers) and UNMIK police over 6 hours to evacuate the Serbs who were under constant fire from armed Albanians. Following the evacuation the crowd began to converge on the Church of the Christ Savour burning and damaging the facade and inside. Peja Albanians rioted in the city of Peja, attacking UN offices. One Albanian was killed by UN police. Serb returnees were attacked at Belo Polje. Lipjan Albanians and KFOR were engaged in gunfights in the town of Lipjan. Four Serbs were murdered, while Serbs taking refuge in the local Orthodox church were attacked. Vushtrri All Serb houses in the Serb-inhabited village of Svinjare in Vushtrri, near Kosovo Mitrovica, were burnt down. Prizren On 17 March, ethnic Albanians started attacking the Serb settlement in Prizren, including the Seminary, and reportedly there was no UNMIK, Kosovo Police and KFOR present there at the time. The mob set the Seminary on fire, with people inside, and beat several elder people, with one man dying in the burning. The German KFOR's refusal to mobilize to protect the local Serbs are one of the main security failures of the 2004 unrest. UNMIK in Prizren said that the terror, 56 Serb houses and 5 historical churches that were burnt down, could have been prevented by KFOR . Destroyed churches In an urgent appeal, issued on 18 March by the extraordinary session of the Expanded Convocation of the Holy Synod of Serbian Orthodox Church (), it was reported that a number of Serbian churches and shrines in Kosovo had been damaged or destroyed by rioters. At least 30 sites were completely destroyed, more or less destroyed, or further destroyed (sites that had been previously damaged). Apart from the churches and monasteries, tens of support buildings (such as parish buildings, economical buildings and residences) were destroyed, bringing the number close to 100 buildings of the SPC destroyed. All churches and objects of the SPC in Prizren were destroyed. The list includes several UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Among those destroyed and damaged were: St Elijah's Church in Podujevo destroyed and desecrated, coffins from the nearby Serbian cemetery were dug up, and bones of the dead were scattered away. Skenderaj: Devič Monastery in Drenica, nuns evacuated by Danish soldiers, monastery pillaged and torched, the tomb of St Joannicius of Devič was desecrated. Our Lady of Ljeviš in Prizren from 1307 (UNESCO World Heritage Site) the Church of Holy Salvation in Prizren, destroyed by vandals after German KFOR troops had left the site. Church of St George in Prizren (the city's largest church) Church of St George in Prizren (Runjevac) Church of St. Kyriaki, Church of St Nicolas (Tutić Church) in Prizren the Monastery of The Holy Archangels in Prizren as well as Prizren's Orthodox seminary of Saint Cyrillus and Methodius in Prizren HRW lists 27 Orthodox churches and monasteries burned and looted. Reactions in Kosovo Kosovo Albanian politicians such as President Ibrahim Rugova and Prime Minister Bajram Rexhepi joined UN governor Harri Holkeri, NATO southern commander Gregory Johnson, and other KFOR officials in condemning the violence and appealing for peace in Kosovo. Hashim Thaçi, the former Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) leader, "rejected ethnic division of Kosovo and said independence is a pre-condition for stability in the region." He has also said, "Kosovo, NATO and the West have not fought for Kosovo only for Albanians, nor for a Kosovo ruled by violence. Violence is not the way to solve problems, violence only creates problems." Kosovo Police established a special investigation team to handle cases related to the 2004 unrest and according to Kosovo Judicial Council by the end of 2006 the 326 charges filed by municipal and district prosecutors for criminal offenses in connection with the unrest had resulted in 200 indictments: convictions in 134 cases, and courts acquitted eight and dismissed 28; 30 cases were pending. International prosecutors and judges handled the most sensitive cases. By March 2010, 143 Kosovars of Albanian ethnicity were convicted, of which 67 received prison terms of over a year. Reactions in Serbia The events in Kosovo brought an immediate angry reaction on the streets of Serbia. On the evening of 17 March, crowds gathered in Belgrade, Novi Sad and Niš to demonstrate against the treatment of the Kosovo Serbs. Despite appeals for calm by Metropolitan Amfilohije, the 17th-century Bajrakli Mosque was set on fire. Islam-aga's Mosque in the southern city of Niš was also set on fire, while demonstrators chanted "Kill, kill Albanians!" When police arrived the mosque was already burning and some media reported that the police didn't move the crowd, so they blocked the fire fighters access to the mosque, leaving them unable to extinguish the fire. Both buildings were extensively damaged but were saved from complete destruction by the intervention of police and firefighters. Also properties of Muslim minorities, such as Goranis, Turks or Albanians were vandalized in Novi Sad and other cities throughout Serbia. Human Rights Watch has concluded that the Serbian state failed to prosecute violence in Novi Sad. The Serbian government publicly denounced the violence in Kosovo. Prime Minister Vojislav Koštunica strongly criticized the failure of NATO and the UN to prevent the violence, and called for a state of emergency to be imposed on Kosovo. He gave a speech blaming organized Albanian separatists: "The events in northern Kosovo-Metohija reveal the true nature of Albanian separatism, its violent and terrorist nature ... [The government will] do all it can to stop the terror in Kosovo". The Minister of Minority Rights of Serbia and Montenegro, Rasim Ljajić, himself a Muslim, said "What is now happening in Kosovo confirms two things: that this is a collapse of the international mission, and a total defeat of the international community." Nebojsa Čović, the Serbian government's chief negotiator on matters relating to Kosovo, was sent to Kosovska Mitrovica on March 18 in a bid to calm the situation there. Serbian security forces also guarded the border between Serbia and Kosovo in a bid to prevent demonstrators and paramilitaries from entering the province to foment further unrest. The events were compared by Prime Minister Koštunica to ethnic cleansing. The Serbs, represented by the "Union of Serbs in Kosovo and Metohija", described the ordeal as "genocide" in a letter sent to the Serbian and Russian patriarchs, to Russian President Vladimir Putin and the Serbian government, where, besides that, they quote the burning of seven villages during the World War II-German occupation to the "several hundreds" burnt "under the rule of the troops of Christian Europe and America" and according to which the "occupation of Kosovo surpasses all we had to sustain under fascism." The spared Serb villages are compared to "concentration camps" because of the missing freedom of movement, electricity and heating. According to the letter, after 1999 there were 8,500 homicides or disappearances of non-Albanian people with no single accomplice tried. In 2011, seven years after the incident, Foreign Minister Vuk Jeremić spoke at the Wheaton College in Chicago: In less than 72 hours, 35 churches and monasteries were set on fire, many of which date back to the 14th century or even further away in history, which represents an irretrievable loss for the mankind. Dozens of people were killed. Several thousand were wounded. Thousands of houses and shops were leveled to the ground. More than 4,000 Kosovo Serbs were expelled from their homes. In Serbia the events were also called the March Pogrom. International reaction The international community was taken by surprise by the sudden upsurge in violence. Kosovo had been fairly quiet since the end of 1999, although there had been occasional small-scale ethnic clashes throughout the past five years and an ongoing tension between Serbs and Albanians. This had, however, largely gone unnoticed by the Western media since 1999. KFOR troops closed Kosovo's borders with the remainder of Serbia and Montenegro and the UN suspended flights in and out of the province. NATO announced on 18 March that it would send another 1,000 troops – 750 of them from the United Kingdom – to reinforce the 18,500 troops already there. The UN and European Union both appealed for calm, calling on local leaders to restrain their supporters. UN Secretary General Kofi Annan urged both sides to cooperate with the peacekeeping forces but pointedly reminded the Kosovo Albanians that they had a responsibility "to protect and promote the rights of all people within Kosovo, particularly its minorities". An Austrian OSCE official called the events an orchestrated plan to drive out the remaining Serbs, while one anonymous UNMIK official reportedly referred to the event as Kosovo's Kristallnacht. The commander of NATO's South Flank, Admiral Gregory G. Johnson, said on 19 March that the violence verged on ethnic cleansing of Serbs by Albanians. On 20 March, Kosovo's UN administrator, Harri Holkeri, told journalists that "Maybe the very beginning was spontaneous but after the beginning certain extremist groups had an opportunity to orchestrate the situation and that is why we urgently are working to get those perpetrators into justice." According to Amnesty International, at least 27 people died—11 Albanians and 16 Serbs—and over 1,000 were injured while some 730 houses belonging to minorities, mostly Kosovo Serbs, as well as 36 Orthodox churches, monasteries and other religious and cultural sites were damaged or destroyed. In less than 48 hours, 4,100 minority community members were newly displaced (more than the total of 3,664 that had returned throughout 2003), of whom 82% were Serbs and the remaining 18% included Romani (and Ashkali) as well as an estimated 350 Albanians from the Serb-majority areas of Kosovska Mitrovica and Leposavić. Denmark pledged to send an additional 100 peacekeepers to the region after the violence began. Germany's Defence Minister Peter Struck said on March 19 that a further 600 peacekeepers were being sent to join German forces in Kosovo, with deployment to the region beginning on March 20. France pledged to send about 400 more troops immediately to the region after the violence began. Russia and Serbia-Montenegro called for an emergency meeting of the UN Security Council, which condemned the violence. On 19 March, the Russian Duma passed a resolution (397 to 0) calling for the return of Serbia-Montenegro's troops. Serbian Prime Minister Vojislav Koštunica described the attacks as "planned in advance and co-ordinated... this was an attempted pogrom and ethnic cleansing" against Kosovo's Serbs. The United Kingdom sent an additional 750 peacekeeping soldiers, which arrived in the region's capital Pristina within 24 hours of the first attacks, to reinforce British troops already on the ground. White House spokesman Scott McClellan told reporters the Bush administration called "on all groups to end the violence and refrain from violence." The U.S. State Department also repeated its call to stop the violence, stating: "The escalating violence threatens the process of democratization and reconciliation in Kosovo and must end." See also Persecution of Serbs Destruction of Serbian heritage in Kosovo Gračanica bus bombing Stolen Kosovo, documentary 2008 unrest in Kosovo Destruction of Albanian heritage in Kosovo 2003 Goraždevac murders Kosovo Serb enclaves References Citations Sources External links Pictures of the violence and its aftermath Christopher Deliso, "An Uncertain Future for the Serbian Refugees in Kosovo," Antiwar.com, April 7, 2004 Christopher Deliso, "The Internationals and the Mobs: Kosovo's Moment of Truth," Antiwar.com, April 15, 2004 The reaction in Serbia, where non-Serbian property was vandalized by Serbian mobs. SEE Security Monitor: Seven years since Albanian pogrom against Serbs in Kosovo Caglavica during the Kosovo unrest 2004 (eng. subtitles) 2004 riots 2004 in Kosovo 2004 March 2004 events in Europe Ethnic riots Anti-Serbian sentiment Attacks on churches in Europe Persecution of Serbs Persecution of Christians by Muslims Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians Sectarian violence Albanian nationalism in Kosovo Serbian–Albanian conflict Ethnic cleansing Attacks in Europe in 2004 Racially motivated violence in Europe
5251212	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December%201965	December 1965	The following events occurred in December 1965: December 1, 1965 (Wednesday) The Border Security Force was established in India as a special force to guard the country's borders with Pakistan, the People's Republic of China, Nepal, and Bhutan. The village of 't Haantje, Drenthe, in the Netherlands, narrowly escaped a disaster, when a French company drilling for gas began to lose control of the enormous gas pressure, resulting in a huge gas eruption. The ground around the hole caved in, swallowing all of the drilling equipment. The gas eruption would eventually be stopped by a cement injection from a new drilling hole. A small lake surrounded by a forest would become a permanent reminder of the near-miss. The United Church in Jamaica and the Cayman Islands was founded by a merger of the Protestant denominations "Presbyterian Church in Jamaica" and "Congregational Union of Jamaica". The first airlift of Cuban émigrés into the United States began, with 75 Cuban citizens, mostly women and children, taking off from Varadero on a Pan American Airways DC-7, and arriving in Miami one hour later. Billy Jones became the first African-American to play in the Atlantic Coast Conference, integrating the exclusively white college basketball circuit in the south Atlantic states in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Florida. Jones played briefly in a game for the University of Maryland against Penn State. George E. Mueller, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, and Marshall Space Flight Center MSFC Director Wernher von Braun discussed Marshall's briefing on the S-IVB Workshop concept presented at NASA Headquarters the previous day. Mueller asked that MSFC formulate a program development plan and present it at the next meeting of the Manned Space Flight Management Council. Specifically, Mueller demanded that the plan include experiments to be carried aboard the Workshop; funding arrangements; and where development work should be done (in house, or elsewhere). In addition, he asked that MSFC submit two such plans, one for the unpressurized and another for the pressurized version of the Workshop. In effect, Mueller gave Marshall the "green light" to begin the Orbital Workshop program. At von Braun's request, the Workshop received the status of a separate project, with William Ferguson as Project Manager. December 2, 1965 (Thursday) The U.S. Navy aircraft carrier USS Enterprise became the first nuclear-powered warship to see combat when it launched air strikes at the Viet Cong near Biên Hòa, South Vietnam. Died: Hugh Dryden, 67, NASA Deputy Administrator since 1958, of cancer December 3, 1965 (Friday) An unidentified United States Marine stationed in South Vietnam at Da Nang allegedly vandalized the Khue Bac Pagoda by beheading the shrine's golden image of Gautama Buddha. By December 8, 500 Buddhist protesters marched through the streets of Da Nang after Khue Bac's principal monk, Thich Giac Ngo, threatened to disembowel himself to atone for allowing the Buddha to be destroyed. U.S. Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge promised to investigate the incident fully and to compensate the monastery for the damage, which included an injunction from other Buddhist monks that the Khue Bac was "contaminated and could not be used again". Ten Royal Air Force jet fighters from Britain arrived in Lusaka, following Zambia's appeal for British help against Rhodesia, and British Prime Minister Harold Wilson said that a battalion of 600 Royal Scots Army infantrymen would follow if Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda agreed that they would remain under British command while on Zambian soil. Wilson also said that no British troops would cross into Rhodesia unless Rhodesia either attempted to attack Zambia, or attempted to shut off power from the Kariba Dam, across the Zambezi River, that supplied hydroelectric power to both nations. President Kaunda had asked Britain to invade Rhodesia in order to seize control of the Kariba Dam and to occupy the northern part of Rhodesia that bordered Zambia. At Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 35 of the 36 members of the Organization of African Unity threatened to sever diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom, unless the British government ended the rebellion of Rhodesia by December 15. The exception was The Gambia, which did not have a representative present at the five-hour session. The Beatles released their album Rubber Soul in the United Kingdom, followed by an American release of Rubber Soul that included most of the songs, along with some that had been omitted from the U.S. release of Help!. On the same day, a Beatles song that was not on the album, "Day Tripper", was released as a single. On the other side (the "B" side) of the same 45 rpm record was "We Can Work It Out", which would receive more airplay and would reach number one in the United Kingdom and the United States, making it the most popular "B" side song in history. The Who released their debut album My Generation in the UK, followed by a US release the following year. The album contains the title track, which is considered to be the band's signature song. Princess Cruises, an ocean liner service which would be made famous by the 1980s television series The Love Boat, began services with the departure of a chartered ship, the Canadian Pacific Lines steamer Princess Patricia, from Los Angeles on the first of ten 14-day cruises along Mexico's west coast, with stops at La Paz, Puerto Vallarta, Acapulco and Mazatlán. Seattle businessman Stanley McDonald inaugurated the Princess line after a six-month practice run in 1962, with the steamer Yarmouth, coinciding with the operation of the Seattle World's Fair, which had been in progress. On December 15, 1967, McDonald would double his fleet with the departure of a second ship, which he would rename from Italia to Princess Italia. Born: Katarina Witt, East German figure skater and Olympic gold medalist, in Staaken Died: Erich Apel, 48, East German economist and Chairman of the State Planning Commission, shot himself to death in his office at the House of Ministries in East Berlin Ike Richman, 52, American lawyer and co-owner of the Philadelphia 76ers basketball team, after suffering a heart attack courtside. Richman, who had been instrumental in bringing the Syracuse Nationals to Philadelphia, had accompanied the 76ers to Boston where the 76ers were playing the Celtics, and collapsed while he was sitting on their bench during the first quarter, when the teams were tied, 13–13. The team was informed of his death at halftime, and went on to win, 119 to 103. December 4, 1965 (Saturday) Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah took office as the new Prime Minister of Kuwait, after his brother, the previous premier, ascended the throne as the new Emir of Kuwait. Jaber himself would become the new Emir in 1977 on the death of his brother. Saudi Arabia and Qatar signed a boundary agreement that delimited their land boundaries and their offshore drilling sites as well. Gemini 7, the fourth crewed mission of the Gemini program, was launched into orbit from complex 19 at Cape Kennedy at 1:30 in the afternoon. The primary objectives of the mission, flown by command pilot Astronaut Frank Borman and pilot Astronaut James A. Lovell, Jr., were demonstrating crewed orbital flight for approximately 14 days and evaluating the physiological effects of a long-duration flight on the crew. Among the secondary objectives were providing a rendezvous target for the Gemini 6A spacecraft, orbital station-keeping with the second stage of the Gemini launch vehicle and with spacecraft No. 6, and using lightweight pressure suits. Borman and Lovell would team up again three years later on Apollo 8, as they and William A. Anders would become the first humans to orbit the Moon. Eastern Air Lines Flight 853, a propeller-driven Lockheed Super Constellation with 54 people on board, and TWA Flight 42, a Boeing 707-131B carrying 58 people, collided over Carmel, New York, with the Boeings left wing striking the Super Constellations tail. The TWA flight landed safely at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City, despite having of its left wing sheared off after taking evasive action, while the Eastern plane crashed in a pasture on Hunt Mountain near Danbury, Connecticut, and caught fire, killing four people of the 54 on board. The TWA flight from San Francisco to New York had been assigned at altitude, while the Eastern plane from Boston to Newark, New Jersey, was assigned to when the two collided. The Grateful Dead played their first show under their new name, after originally billing themselves as The Warlocks, as promoter Ken Kesey held the second Acid Test concert. The event took place at 43 South Fifth Street in San Jose, California, after a Rolling Stones show nearby. December 5, 1965 (Sunday) In the Philippine Sea about from the Ryukyu Islands of Japan, a United States Navy Douglas A-4E Skyhawk aircraft carrying a B43 nuclear bomb fell into the ocean from the aircraft carrier USS Ticonderoga, killing its pilot, Lieutenant (j.g.) Douglas M. Webster. The aircraft, the thermonuclear weapon and Webster's remains would never be recovered. The United States Department of Defense would not reveal the proximity of the lost weapon to Japanese territory until 1989. The first spontaneous political demonstration in the Soviet Union, and that nation's first civil rights protest, began in Pushkin Square in Moscow, where protesters gathered in response to the arrest of writers Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel in what would later be called the "Glasnost Meeting" (Miting Glasnosty). The date selected was the Soviet Union's 30th annual Constitution Day holiday, and the location was the square named for one of Russia's most revered writers, Alexander Pushkin. Human rights activist Lyudmila Alexeyeva would recall later that while Vladimir Bukovsky believed there were 200 participants when the demonstration began at 6:00 in the evening, she had been present and believed that it was a smaller number; 20 people were detained by KGB agents, but released after a few hours, although 40 of the known participants were expelled from their scientific institutes. Mathematician Alexander Esenin-Volpin was among the speakers who urged that Sinyavsky and Daniel be given the fair and open trial guaranteed by the 1936 constitution, and the Constitution Day protest was repeated every year until the close of the 1970s. France's President Charles de Gaulle won more votes than the other five candidates in the French presidential election, but his 10,828,523 votes out of more than 24 million cast fell short of a majority, forcing a December 19 runoff between de Gaulle and second-place finisher François Mitterrand, who won 7,694,003 votes. The military service of the Avro Lancaster bomber came to an end when the Fuerza Aérea Argentina's B-040 airplane crashed at the Río Gallegos airport. The Argentine Air Force had been the last military force anywhere to use the Lancaster, and B-040 was the last one that had still been airworthy. Born: John Rzeznik, American rock musician and founder of the Goo Goo Dolls; in Buffalo, New York Died: Joseph Breen, 75, American film censor Joseph Erlanger, 91, American physiologist and Nobel laureate Mihály Farkas, 61, former Hungarian Minister of Defense until his downfall in 1953 December 6, 1965 (Monday) France's first scientific satellite, FR-1, was launched from the United States at Vandenberg Air Force Base. About 45 hours into the Gemini 7 mission, astronaut Jim Lovell became the first man in space to operate without a space suit, after being uncomfortably hot in the cramped capsule where he and Frank Borman were to spend two weeks. It look Lovell more than an hour to remove the bulky garment, but both he and Borman agreed that the cabin temperature was more tolerable even when only one of them was in regular clothes. Eventually, ground control would allow both astronauts to continue without their suits, after initially insisting that one of the crewmembers would need to be suited during the flight. The Soviet lunar probe Luna 8 crash landed on the Moon at a point in the Ocean of Storms west of the Kepler crater at 21:51:30 UTC. December 7, 1965 (Tuesday) The Catholic–Orthodox Joint Declaration of 1965 was read out simultaneously by John Cardinal Willebrands in Rome on behalf of the Roman Catholic Church (as he stood to the right side of Pope Paul VI at St. Peter's Square) and by Patriarch Athenagoras I of Constantinople at the Cathedral of St. George in Istanbul for the Eastern Orthodox Church. Both religious leaders expressed their regrets of the orders of excommunication made on July 16, 1054 by Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida and Patriarch Michael I Cerularius against the members of each other's churches., and jointly declared that they "removed both from memory and from the midst of the church the sentences of excommunication which followed these events" and declared the excommunications "consigned to oblivion". Pope Paul proclaimed the last four documents approved by the Council: Dignitatis humanae (Of the Dignity of the Human Person), a declaration on religious liberty; Ad gentes (To the Nations), a decree on the missionary activity of the Catholic church; Presbyterorum ordinis (Priests of the Order), regarding the ministry and life of Catholic priests; and Gaudium et spes (Joy and Hope), the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World Born: Teruyuki Kagawa, Japanese film actor, in Tokyo December 8, 1965 (Wednesday) Simultaneous announcements were made in Pakistan, India, and the Soviet Union that Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Mohammed Ayub Khan would meet in the Soviet city of Tashkent as guests of Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin to reach a peace agreement to end the Indo-Pakistani war in the Punjab. Saudi Arabia and Iran entered into an agreement to establish an "Islamic Pact" of mutual protection of their monarchies against challenges from neighboring republics. A crowd of 250,000 Russians demonstrated in Moscow to denounce United States involvement in the Vietnam War. Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith warned that Rhodesia would forcibly resist a trade embargo by neighboring countries, and that foreign workers would be expelled from the country to make room for any local residents who lost their jobs because of the sanctions. Pope Paul VI proclaimed the close of the Second Vatican Council and told the 2,400 bishops "Ite in Pace", Latin for "Go in peace." The Council had first opened on October 11, 1962, under Pope John XXIII. Norway and Denmark delimited the boundaries between them on the continental shelf off the coast of their two nations, setting the border based on the median line rather than the Norwegian Trench. The government of the Netherlands announced that Crown Princess Beatrix would marry West German diplomat Claus von Amsberg on March 10, 1966. The Race Relations Act took effect, becoming the first legislation to address racial discrimination in the United Kingdom. Although the new law did not outlaw discrimination, it did make it possible to bring civil lawsuits to enjoin discrimination in public places on the "grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins". Cactus Flower, a comedy play by Abe Burrows, opened on Broadway for the first of 1,234 performances at the Royale Theatre. Born: Carina Lau, Hong Kong actress and singer, as Lau Jialing in Suzhou, People's Republic of China December 9, 1965 (Thursday) Thunderball, the fourth of the James Bond film series of films with Sean Connery, had its world premiere at the Hibiya Cinema in Tokyo. It would debut at the Paramount Theatre in New York on December 21 and in the Rialto and Pavilion theatres in London on December 29. Anastas Mikoyan resigned from the largely ceremonial job as the Soviet Union's head of state, the President of the Presidium, which he had held since July 15, 1964. Mikoyan had been one of the original Soviet Communist Party members at the time of the October Revolution in 1917. The 1,500 delegates to the Supreme Soviet gave Mikoyan a standing ovation when he asked to be relieved for health reasons, then voted immediately to elevate Ukrainian official and CPSU Central Committee Secretary Nikolai V. Podgorny to the job. Podgorny would be the head of the Soviet government until being removed in 1977. The Romanian Railways opened its first electrified rail line in the country after two years of test trials. Hardial Bains, who was working as a microbiologist at Trinity College, Dublin, founded the "Internationalists in Ireland", forerunner of the Communist Party of Ireland. A fireball streaked across the sky over Ontario, Michigan, and Ohio and was witnessed by hundreds of people before crashing outside Kecksburg, Pennsylvania at 5:15 in the afternoon. A volunteer firefighter claimed that he saw "an acorn-shaped object 9 to 12 feet in diameter with a golden band around the bottom" and that "symbols resembling Egyptian hieroglyphics were etched on the band". Other witnesses said that U.S. Army investigators "hauled away a huge object hidden under a tarp on a flatbed truck". On the other hand, all of the astronomers who were interviewed concluded that the object was a large meteor that was part of the Geminids. No meteor was found, however. A Charlie Brown Christmas, the first Peanuts television special, debuted on CBS, and would become an annual tradition. It drew mixed reviews from critics on its first showing. Died: Branch Rickey, 83, American baseball manager who integrated Major League Baseball as general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, with the signing of the first African-American MLB player of the modern era, Jackie Robinson. December 10, 1965 (Friday) The Soviet Union launched Kosmos 99, via a Vostok-2 rocket from Site 31/6 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome, marking the first time that either the Americans or the Russians had placed a satellite into orbit while another nation's crewed mission was in orbit as well. At that time, American astronauts Borman and Lovell were on their sixth day in outer space. At 148 hours into the Gemini 7 mission, astronaut Lovell again donned his pressure suit, while astronaut Borman removed his. The London Borough of Croydon was granted its official heraldic arms. An all-white jury in Selma, Alabama, acquitted three men of all criminal charges in their trial for the March 11 murder of a white minister from Boston, James Reeb. Born: Greg Giraldo, American comedian, in the Bronx, New York (died of overdose, 2010) Stephanie Morgenstern, Swiss-born Canadian actress, producer and screenwriter, in Geneva Died: Lars Christensen, 81, Norwegian shipowner and financier of Antarctic exploration Henry Cowell, 68, American classical music composer December 11, 1965 (Saturday) A U.S. Air Force C-123 transport plane crashed with 81 South Vietnamese paratroopers and four American officers on board. There were no survivors, and the accident was not revealed until December 23, when a search and rescue mission located the wreckage. About 168 hours into the Gemini 7 mission, astronaut Jim Lovell again removed his space suit. Both astronauts would fly the remainder of the mission without suits, except for the rendezvous and reentry phases. French biologist and new Nobel laureate Jacques Monod gave his Nobel lecture on the subject of bacteria in culture media containing two sugars. Thirteen people were burned to death and 22 others injured in a flash fire at a Chicago tavern, the Seeley Club, after a disgruntled patron torched the building while more than 100 people were inside. Earlier in the evening, Robert Lee Lassiter had pulled a knife during an argument with another patron, and left after being beaten up by bartender Edward Gaston. Less than an hour later, Lee walked back into the bar, poured a gallon of gasoline on the floor, and set it ablaze. On April 28, 1967, Lassiter would be sentenced to a term of at least 100 years for each of the murders. Died: Đuro Tiljak, 70, Croatian artist, writer and teacher December 12, 1965 (Sunday) In a covert operation, the United States attacked the Sihanouk Trail in Laos, launching the first B-52 Stratofortress strike against the logistical system. Houari Boumediene became Chairman of the Revolutionary Council of Algeria. The scheduled launch of the Gemini 6A mission was aborted after the countdown had reached zero and the ignition command was given. Only 1.2 seconds after the Titan II GLV rocket engines were ignited, the Master Operations Control Set automatically shut them back down. The launch was canceled at 9:54 a.m., EST. Emergency procedures delayed raising the erector until 11:28, so the crew was not removed until 11:33 a.m. Launch was rescheduled for December 15. The fault was traced back to a cord that was plugged into the rocket and that would normally have remained in place until the rocket had risen a few inches off the ground; when the cord came loose early, the launchpad computer sent back a false signal that the rocket was already on its way up and the failure in the sequence led to the shutdown. Died: Halvdan Koht, 92, Norwegian historian and former Foreign Minister of Norway William Randolph Lovelace II, 57, American aerospace physician and NASA's Director of Space Medicine, was killed in a small plane crash along with his wife and the plane's pilot. The twin-engine Beech Travelair had departed from Aspen, Colorado, en route to the Lovelaces' home in Albuquerque, New Mexico. After a three-day search, the wreckage of the plane was found in Pitkin County, Colorado, having flown into the side of Grizzly Peak, a high mountain, at an altitude of . December 13, 1965 (Monday) Saudi Arabia and Iran initialed an agreement defining their undersea boundaries for purposes of offshore continental shelf drilling, with Saudi oil minister Sheikh Ahmed Zaki Yamani and Iranian Foreign Minister Abbas Aram signing for their respective nations. By presidential decree, the rupiah baru (new rupiah) became the unified national currency of all of Indonesia, replacing the former currency. A one rupiah baru bill was the equivalent of a note of 1,000 Indonesian rupiahs issued in 1959, and to a 10,000 rupiah bill that had been printed earlier in the 1950s. George Meany won re-election to his sixth term as President of the largest labor union in the United States, the AFL-CIO, with no opposition. Born: María Dolores de Cospedal, Defense Minister of Spain; in Madrid Died: Martin De Haan, 74, American evangelist and founder of Our Daily Bread Ministries and the devotional monthly magazine Our Daily Bread Eslanda Goode Robeson, 69, American anthropologist and civil rights activist Carl Rohrbeck, 73, the first of nine patients to die mysteriously at the Riverdell Hospital in Oradell, New Jersey, while under the care of Dr. Mario Jascalevich. Rohrbeck had been admitted to Riverdell the day before to undergo hernia surgery. Dr. Jascalevich would be indicted for murder in 1978, but would be acquitted by a jury. December 14, 1965 (Tuesday) The 3rd Southeast Asian Peninsular Games opened in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The original host country, Laos, had been forced to pull out. An American RB-57F Canberra spy plane with two crew members on board disappeared while flying over the Black Sea, after taking off from Incirlik Air Base in Turkey. At 1215Z (2:15 p.m. at the base), the plane, codenamed "BIG RIB 06", began to deviate from its reconnaissance route and began to lose altitude. No Soviet fighters were in the area, and there were no mayday calls from the crew; it was speculated that the crew had lost consciousness at the altitude and that the jet may have broken apart during the descent. Parts of the plane were found, but no trace of the crew was located, and the Soviet Union protested about the first American spy overflight since the U-2 incident on May 1, 1960; no further U.S. reconnaissance flights would be made from Turkey. A Soviet R-7A Semyorka missile was successfully launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome in a test flight that marked the first R-7 launch from Plesetsk. CEMAC, the Communauté Économique et Monétaire de l'Afrique Centrale (Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa) was formed by the signing of an agreement by Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon, in a meeting at the Cameroonian capital, Yaounde. The United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland signed a landmark trade agreement after finding common ground in the early morning hours of negotiations between Ireland's Prime Minister Seán Lemass and Britain's Prime Minister Harold Wilson. Signing the treaty in London, the two nations agreed to remove nearly all trade barriers between them by 1975. Initially, Britain would abolish duties on almost all imports from Ireland by July 1, 1966, and Ireland would cut its duties on British imports by 10% each year, reducing them to 90% on the same July 1 date. The UK's Minister of Housing and Local Government, Richard Crossman, proposed a large single county borough of Tyneside, with a population of 900,000, and wrote to authorities asking for comments ahead of a public inquiry in March. Seven months after it had acquired its first jet airplanes, Air New Zealand was introduced to the United States, with a DC-8 from Auckland making its first scheduled landing in Los Angeles. Born: Craig Biggio, American major league baseball player and member of the Baseball hall of Fame; in Smithtown, New York Ted Raimi, American television and film actor, in Detroit Died: Mack Lee Hill, 25, American pro football player for the Kansas City Chiefs, died of a pulmonary embolism after undergoing routine knee surgery in a Kansas City hospital. Two days earlier, Hill had torn a ligament in his right knee while playing against the Buffalo Bills, and his temperature soared while he was in the post-op recovery room. The shock of the sudden loss of the popular fullback (an AFL All-Star in 1964 and the team's second leading rusher) led to the Chiefs retiring his jersey number, 36. December 15, 1965 (Wednesday) At least 10,000 and perhaps as many as 17,000 were killed in a single day in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) by a cyclone. Most of the victims were on the island of Maheshkhali in the Bay of Bengal, where the storm hit the coast at 12:15 in the morning, and a high storm surge swept over its villages. Thousands of others were killed in the settlements in the Kaksbajar District (known at the time by its British Indian name of Cox's Bazar). More than 80 percent of the buildings on Maheshkali were destroyed, and its entire fishing fleet, along with those sailors who remained on or close to their boats, was destroyed; the island of Kutubdia lost several thousand people in three hours. Sergei Korolev, the top scientist for the Soviet space program, presented a preliminary design for the Soyuz 7K-L1 spacecraft that could take the first Soviet cosmonaut to the Moon. President Sekou Toure of Guinea announced that his nation had become the first in Africa to sever diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom, in that the UK had not acted against Rhodesia by the December 15 deadline set earlier by the OAU nations. Julius Nyerere of Tanzania would break ties with Britain later in the same day. The Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA) was formed by Antigua, Barbados and Guyana, in an agreement signed at Dickenson Bay, Antigua, which would go into effect on May 1, 1968. Gemini 6A and Gemini 7 performed the first controlled rendezvous in Earth orbit. Gemini 6A, the fifth crewed and first rendezvous mission in the Gemini program, was launched from complex 19 at Cape Kennedy at 8:37 a.m., EST. The primary objective of the mission, crewed by command pilot Astronaut Walter M. Schirra, Jr., and pilot Astronaut Thomas P. Stafford, was to rendezvous with spacecraft No. 7. Gemini 6A gradually adjusted its course to match the orbital path of Gemini 7, which had been sent up 11 days earlier with Frank Borman and Jim Lovell. By 2:27 in the afternoon, the two craft were apart from each other, their closest approach, and remained at the same speed until Gemini 6 moved away at 7:05 in the evening. A later report said that the two spacecraft had come within of each other at one time during their rendezvous. McDonnell Aircraft orbital mechanics engineer Marvin Czarnick would later be given credit as the individual most responsible for the successful calculations that led to the meeting in orbit. Born: Ted Slampyak, American cartoonist who was the last artist for the comic strip Little Orphan Annie before its cancellation in 2010; in Philadelphia Died: Albert Dorne, 59, American illustrator December 16, 1965 (Thursday) Sālote Tupou III, the 65-year-old Queen of Tonga, died after a reign of 47 years over the British protectorate. Her son would be crowned King Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV and would rule for 38 years until his death in 2006; during his reign, Tonga would be granted independence from the United Kingdom in 1970. About thirty members and supporters of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) were executed by soldiers of Kopassus, the Indonesian Special Forces. The massacre took place in the village of Kapal, located in the Bandung Regency on the island of Bali, and anti-Communist politicians from throughout the island were invited to watch. Indonesian general Abdul Haris Nasution was appointed to the Supreme Operations Command, gaining ascendance over the traditionally civilian-held portion of the country's military hierarchy. The experimental satellite Pioneer 6 was launched from Cape Kennedy to a geosynchronous orbit above Africa, then launched from Earth orbit into an orbit around the Sun. Five more African nations (Ghana, Mauritania, Mali, the former French Congo, and Egypt) followed the lead of Guinea and Tanzania and broke diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom for not taking military action against Rhodesia. By a margin of only 292-291, British Prime Minister Wilson's Labour Party government defeated a motion by the Conservative Party to scrap plans to replace the UK's "militia of weekend soldiers" with a better-organized military reserve force. The cause of action that would lead to the landmark 1969 U.S. Supreme Court case of Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District began when 13-year-old Mary Beth Tinker and 15-year-old Chris Eckhardt wore black armbands to school to protest the Vietnam War. Two days earlier, the principals of Harding Junior High School and Roosevelt High School in Des Moines, Iowa, had warned the Tinker family that the children would be suspended if they wore and declined to the protest armbands, and the children remained out of school for the rest of the year. Ultimately, the Court would rule, 7–2, that the wearing of armbands was constitutionally protected under the First Amendment right of free speech, although it would hold that schools could censor speech if it would "materially and substantially interfere with the requirements of appropriate discipline in the operation of the school." The Gemini 6A flight ended with a nominal reentry and landing in the western Atlantic Ocean, just from the planned landing point, at 10:29 a.m. The crew of astronauts Schirra and Stafford remained in the spacecraft, which was recovered an hour later by the prime recovery ship, the aircraft carrier . MSFC Director Wernher von Braun (though not specifically called upon to do so) responded to David M. Jones' November 22 request for ideas on proposed goals for the Apollo Applications Program. Of all the alternative goals for AAP, von Braun said, that of exploring world resources for humanity's benefit was by far the most important. For its crewed space program, he said, NASA could not forever depend upon the thrill of adventure nor upon "sophisticated truths" such as the value of spinoff results or the blessings of more scientific knowledge. To place the idea of spaceflight firmly in the minds of the taxpaying public, therefore, NASA must produce solid results and material benefits that were readily visible and comprehensible. AAP goal number one neatly combined both broad popular appeal and true humanitarian needs. In view of the world's population explosion, with all its attendant resulting effects, von Braun stated, America's failure to avail itself of the vitally needed tools for a global resources management system would be a tragic mistake. Viewed in this perspective, the other alternative goals proposed for AAP thus became elements and stepping-stones within this broader long-range objective. Died: W. Somerset Maugham, 91, British novelist (Of Human Bondage, The Razor's Edge), playwright (Lady Frederick, The Constant Wife) and short story writer. Tito Schipa, 76, Italian opera tenor December 17, 1965 (Friday) The British government began an oil embargo against Rhodesia, which would be followed by a ban on all exports (except for humanitarian aid, books and films) on January 30, 1966. The United States would join the oil embargo 11 days later, on December 28. Hugh Addonizio, the Mayor of Newark, New Jersey, foiled a gang of bank robbers after finding himself near the crime scene while being driven to a tree-planting ceremony. The Mayor happened to be around the corner from the bank when he heard the bulletin on the police radio in his car, and spotted four men scrambling out of the Robert Treat Savings and Loan and into the getaway car. Addonizio then used his limousine telephone to call the police, and ordered his chauffeur, Frank Dangerio, to give chase. After their car lost control and crashed into a lightpole, the robbers fired shots at the Mayor's car, narrowly missing Dangerio and the Mayor, and police nabbed two of the suspects. December 18, 1965 (Saturday) The Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea, signed on June 22, entered into force on December 18, 1965. For the first time since the beginning of the Vietnam War, the capital of South Vietnam came under an enemy mortar attack, as shells exploded in Saigon. One of the first rounds exploded inside the Kieu Tong Muo police precinct station, about from the city center, although there were no casualties. Gemini 7 astronauts Frank Borman and Jim Lovell splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean, after spending two weeks in orbit around the Earth, completing the longest crewed space flight in history up to that time. During their 330 1/2 hours in outer space, they made 206 trips around the world and traveled . At 9:05 a.m., the capsule landed from its target site and, like Gemini 6 two days earlier, was taken to the aircraft carrier USS Wasp. "The Possibility of Evil", a short story by the late Shirley Jackson, was published in the Saturday Evening Post. It would win the 1966 Edgar Allan Poe Award for best mystery short story. Born: John Moshoeu, South African soccer football player and midfielder for the South African National Team from 1993 to 2004; in Pietersburg (now Polokwane) (d. 2015 of stomach cancer) Died: General Kodandera Subayya Thimayya, 59, Chief of Staff of the Indian Army, 1957–1961, and the Commander of the United Nations Peace Keeping Force in Cyprus December 19, 1965 (Sunday) France's President Charles de Gaulle was re-elected in the runoff vote against Socialist Party rival François Mitterrand, who had finished in second place in the December 5 vote. On the second round, de Gaulle got 13,083,699 votes to Mitterrand's 10,619,735. President de Gaulle would resign on April 28, 1969, less than halfway through his seven-year term. The Syria Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party was dissolved, but would return to existence after the February 23 coup. Convicted criminal Ronald Ryan shot and killed prison officer George Hodson during an escape from Pentridge Prison, Victoria, Australia. Ryan would be hanged for the murder on February 3, 1967, becoming the last person to be legally executed in Australia. Nat Worthington became the first African-American to receive an athletic scholarship from a college in the Southeastern Conference, after signing an agreement to play for the University of Kentucky football team. Accompanying Worthington to the signing ceremony were Kentucky Governor Edward T. Breathitt, university president John W. Oswald, and UK football coach Charlie Bradshaw. December 20, 1965 (Monday) The National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) presented its first grant to endow an American artistic institution, as U.S. Vice-President Hubert Humphrey handed a check for $100,000 to the American Ballet Theatre. The World Food Programme, originally established on November 24, 1961, was made a permanent agency of the United Nations. U.S. Narcotics Bureau agents made the "largest single seizure of heroin ever made in the United States" when they raided the Columbus, Georgia, home of a U.S. Army Chief Warrant Officer Herman Conder, who was found to have of heroin that he had smuggled from France after being transferred to Fort Benning from a base in Orléans. The Dating Game, an American TV game show, made its debut, on the ABC network's daytime schedule at 11:30 a.m. Created by Chuck Barris and hosted by Jim Lange, the show's format presented "two girls with a choice of 'mystery' bachelors from whom to pick a date for a night on the town. Although introduced to the home audience, the three 'possibilities' are unseen by the lass in question, and are chosen – or eliminated – by a series of questions." Along with the other new show that debuted that morning, Supermarket Sweep, were described the next day by UPI critic Rick Du Brow as "two new half-hour horrors which have such a greasy tone that one feels uncomfortably slippery merely by watching them", and AP critic Cynthia Lowry called them a Christmas gift "about as welcome as a box of hand-painted souvenir neckties." Nine children and three adults at an after-school music class were killed in a fire in Yonkers, New York. The victims were on the fourth floor of the Jewish Community Center when the blaze broke out in the center's auditorium during the third night of the Hanukkah religious festival and died of smoke inhalation. December 21, 1965 (Tuesday) The United Nations General Assembly voted 106 to 0 to adopt the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and open it to signature. After the ratification by 27 nations of the Convention, it would come into effect on January 4, 1969. The first nuclear reactor in Pakistan, PARR-I (Pakistan Atomic Research Reactor), reached criticality and began operations at the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) at the Nilore section of Islamabad. Yusuf Zuayyin resigned his job as Prime Minister of Syria after a group of military officers had attempted to overthrow the Syrian government. Two months later, he would be asked by the new President to again serve as premier. Regular helicopter service from midtown Manhattan to surrounding airports began as New York Airways carried passengers from the roof of the 59-story Pan Am Building, to John F. Kennedy International Airport. At 6:41 in the evening, the first Boeing V-107 helicopter flight took off from the Pan Am Building with 18 passengers, and arrived at the JFK airport only seven minutes later. Regular service, which cost $7.00 for a one-way flight, began the next day with 25 flights between the destinations. The unprofitable and extremely noisy service would be discontinued in 1968, then briefly revived in 1976 with quieter machines, and discontinued permanently after a fatal 1977 accident. A new, one-hour German-American production of The Nutcracker, with an international cast that included Edward Villella in the title role, made its U.S. TV debut. It would be repeated annually by CBS for three more years, then be virtually forgotten, until being issued on DVD in 2009 by Warner Archive. Born: Andy Dick, American comedian, actor and producer; in Charleston, South Carolina Anke Engelke, Canadian-born German comedian and actress; in Montreal December 22, 1965 (Wednesday) A speed limit was imposed on British roads. Reporter Stuart Bladon of the British automotive magazine Autocar would write later, "For motoring journalists accustomed to testing cars at high speeds and often cruising fast cars at 120mph when the motorway was clear, the news that there was to be a mandatory overall speed limit of 70mph was devastating. It was brought in by the Transport Minister, Hugh Fraser, a dour Scotsman with little experience or knowledge of cars and modern driving conditions. It would... run for four months as an 'experiment', but we all knew that once in force, it would never be lifted." The Republic of Singapore Independence Act (RSIA) was passed by the new nation's Parliament, declaring Singapore to be a republic rather than a constitutional monarchy, and incorporating the former Singapore state constitution and relevant portions of the Malaysian Federal Constitution to serve as a "makeshift constitution"; on March 15, 1980, the Attorney General's office would issue an official reprint that would include amendments, and "For the first time since 1965, all the provisions of Singapore's Constitution could be found in one single composite document." Yusof Ishak, who had been the constitutional monarch for Singapore since 1959 as the Yang di-Pertuan Negara, became the first President of Singapore with the creation of the republic. The British House of Commons defeated a Conservative Party motion to lift the Labour government's embargo on exports to Rhodesia, 272–290. When 50 Conservative members then broke with leadership to make their own motion on a bill to end the oil embargo alone, the other 222 Tories present abstained, and that measure failed, 50–276. Three weeks after replacing the President and Prime Minister of Dahomey with provisional president Tahirou Congacou, General Christophe Soglo fired Congacou along with his new ministers, citing "their incapacity to lead the nation to better tomorrows", after President Concagou had been unable to form a new government. The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia released a 19,000 word document, admitting its responsibility for disastrous economic policies that had turned it from an efficient and prosperous industrial power into a nation where actual production fell far short of the goals set by the Party's central planning committee. David Lean's production of Doctor Zhivago, starring Omar Sharif and Julie Christie, was released. American aircraft attacked civilian industrial targets in North Vietnam for the first time. Born: Lee R. Berger, American paleoanthropologist, in Shawnee Mission, Kansas Nora Okja Keller, South Korean-born American novelist; in Seoul Died: Richard Dimbleby, 52, British broadcaster and the BBC's first war correspondent, from testicular cancer. Al Ritz, 64, American film comedian and the oldest of the three members of the Ritz Brothers comedy team. December 23, 1965 (Thursday) Israel tested its first ballistic missile, the two-stage Jericho-1, built under contract with Marcel Dassault Aviation and planned for a range of , but the initial tryout was a failure. The first success would finally be achieved on March 16. The government of Tanzania banned all British Royal Navy warships and personnel from the African nation, after a Royal Navy anti-submarine frigate arrived at Dar Es Salaam without notice. Roy Jenkins became Home Secretary in the UK government, replacing Sir Frank Solstice, who became Lord Privy Seal. John Brodie of the San Francisco 49ers, who had an excellent season, was named the National Football League Comeback Player of the Year Award. Tommy McDonald of the Los Angeles Rams finished second in the voting. John David Crow of the 49ers and Rudy Bukich of the Chicago Bears rounded out this voting. Born: Martin Kratt, American zoologist and educational television host, in Warren Township, New Jersey December 24, 1965 (Friday) The Vietnam War was ordered halted for 30 hours as both sides agreed to a ceasefire that went into effect at 6:00 in the evening local time. Fighting was scheduled to resume at 12:00 midnight as the Christmas Day holiday came to an end. The Viet Cong agreed to avoid warfare for at least 12 hours, starting at 7:00 in the evening. It would later be revealed that "neither side had ever ceased military activities except perhaps for a few hours Christmas Eve", and that the level of fighting "appeared to be about normal for periods between major operations". At least one U.S. Marine was killed on Christmas Day when his patrol came under fire, and wounded men in his unit complained later that they had never expected the Communists to respect the truce. Operation Rolling Thunder halted even longer, as the United States halted all aerial bombing of North Vietnam in order to see if the NVA and the Viet Cong would reciprocate. For the next 37 days, American bombers were grounded, and would not resume operations until January 31, 1966. The Barwell meteorite scattered debris over the English village of Barwell in Leicestershire at about 4:15 in the afternoon. Based on the weight of the pieces recovered and the stony composition, the meteorite was estimated to have originally weighed before it entered the atmosphere, and to have come from the asteroid belt. One fragment of the meteorite hit the hood of a moving car, another fell into an open window, and a third made a large hole in the driveway of a home. Died: William M. Branham, 56, American Christian evangelist and faith healer, of injuries sustained in an automobile accident six days earlier Sir John Black, 70, British automotive businessman and former chairman of Standard Motor Company December 25, 1965 (Saturday) The Soviet Union published a decree in Soviet newspapers, announcing that it would cut the price of passenger automobiles by two-thirds for employees of collective farms. The decision applied to trucks, tractors, trailers and agricultural machinery as well. The price of the most common Soviet car, the five-passenger Volga sedan, was cut from $6,050 to $2,090 in a move that seemed to be the first step toward making passenger cars more available to everyone. In 1965, 55,000,000 Soviets lived and worked on collective farms. The Yemeni Nasserite Unionist People's Organisation was founded in Taiz. Heinz Schöneberger, 27, became the twelfth person to be shot during 1965 by border guards at the Berlin Wall after he and his brother Horst tried to smuggle two women out of East Germany in their car. Earlier in the day, guards at the checkpoint had fatally wounded a refugee who had tried to drive his automobile through a narrow opening in the Heinrich Heine Strasse border crossing; the man ran into West Berlin before collapsing and dying at a hospital, while his female companion was pulled from the car and arrested. Eight people at the French resort of Clermont-Ferrand were killed, and 20 others injured, when they celebrated the Christmas holiday with an aerial tramway ride to the summit of the Puy de Sancy mountain. Buffeted by high winds, the tramway car with 62 people inside collided with a protruding rock or with a support pylon as it approached the summit. The cabin was split open by the impact, hurtling 28 of the passengers down the side of the mountain, while 34 other people, including the doorman, were able to stay inside. Reportedly, the doorman was able to hold on to a child's ankle with one hand while steadying himself with the other until rescuers arrived. According to snowboarding legend, engineer Sherman Poppen of Muskegon, Michigan, created the predecessor to the snowboard, the "snurfer", in his garage workshop to give as a Christmas present to each of his children. In 1966, Poppen would sell the rights to the snurfer to the Brunswick Corporation, a sporting goods manufacturer that made bowling equipment, with the idea that the wood lamination process used in building the lanes in bowling alleys would make the board move smoothly on snow. December 26, 1965 (Sunday) The Buffalo Bills won the American Football League championship, 23-0, over the host San Diego Chargers. Green Bay Packers placekicker Don Chandler took his team to the NFL championship game after making a 25-yard field goal to beat the Baltimore Colts, 13-10, in overtime to win the Western Conference pennant. Chandler's kick flew so high over the goalpost uprights (which were only higher than the crossbar) that Baltimore fans doubted that he had actually scored; as a result, the uprights would be made high before the next season. Died: Anna Orochko, 67, Soviet Russian stage and film actress, theatre director, and acting teacher December 27, 1965 (Monday) In Sydney, defending champion Australia clinched tennis's Davis Cup for the 13th time in 20 years, defeating Spain in Game 3 of the best of 5 series. In the doubles competition, the team of John Newcombe and Tony Roche defeated José Luis Arilla and Manuel Santana in four sets, 6–3, 4–6, 7–5 and 6–2. Britain's first offshore oil platform, Sea Gem, collapsed in the North Sea, killing 13 people. The freighter Baltrover, away, rescued 19 of the British Petroleum workers as the rig gave way and toppled. Born: Salman Khan, Indian actor, producer, television presenter, and philanthropist, son of Salim Khan, in Indore December 28, 1965 (Tuesday) Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs Amintore Fanfani resigned from the cabinet of Aldo Moro, after Fanfani's wife had arranged for his friend Giorgio La Pira to be interviewed by the editor of a right-wing magazine. At the time of Mrs. Fanfani's decision, the Foreign Minister had been attending a session of the United Nations in New York. To make matters worse, La Pira was quoted in the interview as saying that the Prime Minister was "soft and sad", that U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk "knows nothing and understands little", and that Fanfani was the real number one man in Italian politics. Fanfani would be brought back as Foreign Minister two months later. The 900th anniversary of London's Westminster Abbey was celebrated as Queen Elizabeth II brought red roses to the famous London landmark where all British monarchs had been crowned. On December 28, 1065, the site was consecrated by order of Edward the Confessor, King of England, who had invited the chief prelates and nobles of his realm to attend; King Edward himself, however, became seriously ill before the ceremony was to take place, and died eight days after the ceremony. The largest number of immigrants from Eastern Europe since World War II arrived in Boston as 548 men, women and children from Poland arrived as passengers on the Polish ocean liner MS Batory. All had been permitted to leave by Poland's Communist government and had been cleared by the U.S. consul in Warsaw and by the U.S. State Department. Fuel rationing began in Rhodesia as the British oil embargo took effect. Motorists were restricted to no more than four gallons of motor fuel per week. On the same day, the United States announced that it would place an embargo on oil shipments as well. "Securing U.S. cooperation was an important achievement for Britain", a historian would later note, "as the British and American oil companies supplied over 90 percent of the Rhodesian oil market." Donald L. Elbert, James M. Faria, and Robert T. Wright filed a patent application for their invention, "ChemGrass", described as a "monofilament ribbon pile product", an improvement on decorative artificial grass-like turf that would be "useful both indoors and outdoors for a variety of recreational and sports activities" and that would be the first to "withstand permanent outdoor installation and the abusive wear caused by spiked or cleated shoes". U.S. Patent Number 3,332,828 was assigned to the company Monsanto, which would market the new product under the tradename "AstroTurf". December 29, 1965 (Wednesday) The icebreaker was assisted by the American ships Atka and Burton Island in pushing an iceberg out of the shipping lane off McMurdo Station. Filming of 2001: A Space Odyssey began at Pinewood Studios at Buckinghamshire near London, with the first scenes being at the "Moon-base set", where six actors wore pressurized space suits to portray the excavation of the TMA-1 monolith on the Moon. Scenes with actors would continue for the next four and a half months, followed by 18 months of filming and editing 205 special effects shots (including those with spacecraft models), until the picture was finally ready for a 1968 release. Joseph A. Califano Jr., President Johnson's chief adviser on domestic policy, met with the President for two hours at the LBJ Ranch in Texas to make his presentation, "The Great Society – A Second Year Legislative Program", presenting a wide variety of options for programs that would be feasible during the Johnson administration. Johnson chose from several proposals that he wanted to pass in 1966, discarded the rest, and made plans for his second-year program at the State of the Union message to Congress on January 12. Califano would later write of the meeting, "We were serving up plenty of butter to go with the guns... It was an extraordinary experience." In the initial activity report outlining MSC's support to the Air Force on the Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL), Gemini Program Manager Charles W. Mathews summarized activity to date. He cited receipt on November 20, 1965, of authority to transfer surplus Gemini equipment to the MOL project. Since that time, he said, MSC had delivered to the Air Force several boilerplate test vehicles and a variety of support and handling equipment. MOL program officials and astronauts had also visited Houston for technical discussions and briefings. Died: Kosaku Yamada, 79, Japanese conductor and composer Frank Nugent, 57, American film screenwriter best known for his script for The Searchers December 30, 1965 (Thursday) Ferdinand Marcos was inaugurated as the tenth President of the Philippines, and would continue to rule for more than 20 years. The ceremony took place at Luneta Park in Manila and was attended by 50,000 people, including U.S. Vice President Hubert Humphrey. Fernando Lopez was sworn in as Vice President, an office he had previously held from 1949 to 1953. President Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia announced that Zambia and the United Kingdom had agreed on a deadline by which time the Rhodesian white government should be ousted. The Norwegian coastal tanker Singo collided with Belgian ship Fina Two and sank in the Scheldt River, with the loss of four crew. The accidental highway death of a gypsy child, near the city of Ponte Alta in Brazil's Santa Catarina state, led to an escalation of violence that ended with the massacre of 15 gypsies. The motorist in the accident was pulled from his car by the child's relatives, and beheaded. Hours later, the brother of the same motorist took revenge and drove a station wagon through the same neighborhood, killing 13 people as they slept in their tents, then shot and killed two others as they were fleeing the scene. Born: Heidi Fleiss, American prostitution ring leader and celebrity known as "The Hollywood Madam"; in Los Angeles Ron Affif, American jazz guitarist, in Pittsburgh December 31, 1965 (Friday) Jean-Bédel Bokassa carried out the Saint-Sylvestre coup d'état in the Central African Republic. Bokassa and his men occupied the capital, Bangui, ousting President David Dacko and overpowering the gendarmerie and other resistance. President Dacko had left the presidential palace on New Year's Eve to visit the president of BPC, the national bank. Shortly before midnight, Colonel Alexandre Banza ordered his men to carry out the takeover of the capital, which was accomplished by 12:00; Dacko was arrested on his way back to the city, and signed his resignation at 3:20 on the morning of January 1. Police chief Jean Izamo was captured and would later be killed. Rhodesia's primary supply of crude oil stopped flowing. The pipeline that connected its Feruka refinery to the storage tanks in the neighboring Portuguese East African colony of Mozambique (at the port of Beira) had 14,000 tonnes of oil (roughly 400,000 gallons), but with no additional oil at Beira's storage tanks, there was nothing to push the pipe contents through to Rhodesia. The Feruka refinery would run out of crude oil on January 15. Born: Nicholas Sparks, American novelist, screenwriter and producer, in Omaha, Nebraska References 1965 1965-12 1965-12
5251215	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May%201965	May 1965	The following events occurred in May 1965: May 1, 1965 (Saturday) The Battle of Dong-Yin took place between Taiwan and Mainland China. A Republic of China Navy destroyer was patrolling the Taiwan Strait near Dongyin Island on its side of the border, when it encountered eight gunboats from the Navy of the People's Republic of China, and two sides exchanged fire as the PRC combatants attempted to encircle the ROC ship. Four of the gunboats were sunk, and two others damaged, while the destroyer returned to Taiwan with minimal damage. The news, announced from Taipei by the ROC Navy, "did not identify the Nationalist ship further". Two new world records for flight speed were set by a Lockheed YF-12A jet interceptor on the same day by two different crews. On one flight, the crew broke the 2,000 mph barrier, flying at 2,070.102 miles per hour (Mach 3.27) and shattering the previous speed record of 1,665.8 miles per hour that had been set on July 7, 1962, by a Soviet Ye-166. The YF-12A also broke the record for a closed course flight (from one point to another and then back again) averaging per hour by flying in 22 minutes, and breaking the record set by the Soviets in the Ye-166 the previous month. A new record was also set for highest sustained altitude, as the YF-12A flew for several minutes at 80,258 feet. Liverpool won the FA Cup in extra time, beating Leeds United 2–1 before a crowd of 100,000 at Wembley Stadium. Neither side had been able to score in the 90 minutes of regulation time; three minutes into the extra time, Liverpool's Roger Hunt headed the ball in after a cross from Gerry Byrne (who had broken his collarbone early in the match); Billy Bremner equalised the score to 1-1 ten minutes later. After 113 minutes of play, Ian St John headed in the game-winner on a pass from Ian Callaghan for Liverpool's first FA cup ever. The Montreal Canadiens won the Stanley Cup in the seventh and deciding game of the National Hockey League best-of-seven series, beating the Chicago Black Hawks, 4–0. All seven of the series games were won by the home team; only 14 seconds after the final started, Jean Béliveau scored the first goal, and before the first 20 minutes were completed, three more were added. Died: Spike Jones, 53, American comedian, musician, and bandleader, from emphysema May 2, 1965 (Sunday) U.S. President Lyndon Johnson made a nationally televised speech to explain the invasion of the Dominican Republic by American troops, and said that "There are time in the affairs of nations when great principles are tested in an ordeal of conflict and danger. This is such a time for the American nations. At stake are the lives of thousands, the liberty of a nation, and the principles and the values of all the American Republics." He added that the Dominican revolution had "taken a tragic turn" and that "what began as a popular democratic revolution" was "seized and placed into the hands of a band of Communist conspirators." Johnson announced that he had ordered "2,000 extra men" to the Dominican Republic and for an additional 4,500 men to be deployed "at the earliest possible moment." "The American nations cannot, must not, and will not permit the establishment of another Communist government in the Western Hemisphere.... This is what our beloved President John F. Kennedy meant when, less than a week before his death, he told us: 'We in this hemisphere must also use every resource at our command to prevent the establishment of another Cuba in this hemisphere.'" South Korea President Park Chung Hee gave a speech chastising student protesters. "Dear students!" he said, "Whenever the politicians wrangle over a big issue in the National Assembly, you, without knowing the real point of the issue, take to the streets or hold discussion meetings on the campus with placards saying 'Down with the Government'... But I say this to you frankly, that you are the future masters of the nation, but you must train yourself for the job 10 or 20 more years. Then comes the time for your generation, not now..." The Intelsat I communications satellite (nicknamed "Early Bird"), launched on April 6, was moved to a stationary geosynchronous orbit, 22,300 miles above the Atlantic Ocean and began regular operations. The Soviet Union lost all contact with Zond 2, the interplanetary probe that it had launched toward Mars on November 30, 1964. Wagon Train, the popular television Western drama ended after eight seasons with the broadcast of its 272nd and final original episode. The series closer was also a television pilot with Frank McGrath's character (Charlie Wooster) telling Terry Wilson's Bill Hawks about Charlie's days working at a trading post. The pilot, Bend of the River, would not be picked up by any of the networks. May 3, 1965 (Monday) An earthquake measuring 7.5 on the Mercalli scale struck El Salvador at dawn. Heaviest damage was in the Cisneros district of the capital, San Salvador, and the neighboring cities of Delgado and Mejicanos. The official death toll was 120 people; more than 1,500 would die in a second earthquake on October 10, 1986, and "a significant number of the victims" would be "killed by the collapse of engineered structures that had been weakened in the 1965 event", most notably the 300 people dying in a five-story building that had been condemned after the 1965 earthquake. An article in Newsweek magazine prompted the breaking of diplomatic relations by Cambodia with the United States. Prince Norodom Sihanouk cited a report about his mother, Queen Kossamak, that had accused her of involvement in "various money-making schemes". President Sukarno of Indonesia called for volunteers to "dissolve the puppet state of Malaysia", both on the island of Java and on the Malay peninsula. Born: Gary Mitchell, Northern Irish playwright Red Rum, champion thoroughbred racehorse, in Kells, County Kilkenny, Ireland (died 1995) Died: Árpád Szakasits, 76, President of Hungary 1948–1949, and chairman of the Presidential Council 1949–1950 after the post of president was abolished. Howard Spring, 76, British novelist and journalist May 4, 1965 (Tuesday) Pope Paul VI literally gave his blessing to the Italian space program, granting an audience to Luigi Broglio and a group of technicians and managers at the Vatican to discuss Broglio's successful effort in making Italy the third nation (in 1964, after the Soviet Union and the United States) to place an artificial satellite into orbit. The Pontiff of the Roman Catholic Church praised the San Marco project, saying, "You do have this deep faith; your presence here, with the humble Vicar of Jesus Christ, tells us that. The name San Marco tells us that, the name you gave your project as well as both satellites you produced, destined to carry into sidereal spaces, together with the presence of Italy, a sincere expression of complete and joyous confidence in heavenly protection too." Colonel Francisco Caamaño was sworn in as President of the Dominican Republic at the presidential palace in Santo Domingo, after rebel forces convened a constitutional congress and voted to have him govern until the return of exiled ex-President Juan Bosch. Addressing a crowd of 2,500 supporters in Independence Plaza, Caamaño called for the immediate withdrawal of the 14,000 American troops that had arrived in the Caribbean nation during the past week. The split capital investment trust, a form of investment that allows investors to choose between two or more classes of shares of stock, was introduced. The New York City offices of the British firm Samuel Montagu & Co. launched the program as the Dualvest Limited Fund. The American version of That Was the Week That Was, hosted by David Frost on the NBC television network, was shown for the last time. May 5, 1965 (Wednesday) Iberia Airlines Flight 401 from Madrid crashed while attempting to land at the airport at Tenerife in the Canary Islands, killing 30 of the 49 people on board. The Super Constellation plane had aborted one landing attempt in heavy fog, and on the second approach, it struck farm equipment located about from the edge of the runway. The Organization of American States (OAS) voted 14 to 5 to create an "Inter-American Peace Force" to occupy the Dominican Republic until order could be restored. Opposing the measure were Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru and Uruguay. Forty male students at the University of California in Berkeley stood in front of the city's draft board office and burned their draft cards, introducing what would become a common form of antiwar protest and a refusal to join the war effort. The 40 UC students were among hundreds who marched to the draft board after a noon rally on the Berkeley campus. "While Berkeley police photographers snapped their photos," an Associated Press report noted, "the students squatted in a huddle like a football team and placed their burning cards in a small pile." Although future draft-card burnings would be made in opposition to the Vietnam War, the initial protest was against the U.S. invasion of the Dominican Republic. A spokesman for the Selective Service System noted that U.S. law required "that a registrant must have his draft card with him at all times" and that the general practice when a registrant was unable to produce his draft card was to have him "reported to his local draft board, which sometimes treats me as a delinquent and speeds up his induction." "Boss Radio", a music programming format that relied on less talking by the disc jockeys, shorter commercials, and more frequent play of the most popular songs of the week, was introduced by a Los Angeles radio station, KHJ-AM. The concept, developed by Bill Drake and Gene Chenault, along with Gary Mack and Les Turpin, relied on playing of the same 33 songs throughout the day, punctuated occasionally by older records. The planned debut had actually been for May 19, but a disgruntled news announcer at KHJ revealed the plan to rival radio station KFWB, so KHJ disc jockey Don Steele rushed the Boss Radio format on the air the same afternoon; KFWB retreated from stealing the KHJ idea. The "more music, less talk" format would quickly be adopted by other radio stations in the United States. May 6, 1965 (Thursday) By a margin of only four votes, Prime Minister Harold Wilson's plan for nationalization of the majority of the British steel industry was approved by the House of Commons. At 10:00 p.m., voting began and the measure barely passed, 310–306, with Wilson's Labour Party in support, and ten members of the Liberal Party joining with the Conservative Party in opposition. Six Labour MPs who were unwell did not appear for the vote. One Labour MP, Leslie Spriggs, was brought in because he was recovering from a heart attack, and announced his vote while lying in an ambulance parked in a courtyard, and Labourite Barbara Castle checked out of a hospital so that she could be present. The Labour Party had to make a compromise to its plans for a total nationalization of the industry in order to obtain the votes of two of its members, Woodrow Wyatt and Desmond Donnelly. By day's end, the Labour Party's four vote majority in Commons was cut to only three as Conservative Party member Reginald Eyre overwhelmingly defeated his two opponents to win the by-election to fill the vacancy left when Labour's Aubrey Jones resigned to serve on the Prices and Incomes Board. A tornado outbreak near the Twin Cities (Minneapolis and St. Paul) in Minnesota killed 13 people and injured 683. Spring Lake Park and Mound, Minnesota were hardest hit, with four fatalities apiece. Earlier in the day, the winds tore the roof off the elementary school in Shell Lake, Wisconsin at 9:40 in the morning while 307 students and teachers were in the ten classrooms, but there were no injuries. Died: Ernesto de Martino, 56, Italian anthropologist, historian, and philosopher Una Marson, 60, Jamaican-born British feminist May 7, 1965 (Friday) The 173rd Airborne Brigade, the first major ground combat unit of the United States Army to be deployed in the Vietnam War, arrived in South Vietnam, with two infantry battalions landing at the Bien Hoa Air Base. In all, the "Sky Soldiers" of the 173rd Airborne had 3,500 men and the brigade would remain until August 25, 1971. The Rhodesian Front political party, led by Prime Minister Ian Smith, retained its majority in the general election for the House of Assembly. The election was held using two rolls, an "A" roll, which was largely white (getting votes from 95,208 whites and 2,256 blacks) for the 50 seats set aside for white candidates, and a "B" roll, mostly African, for 15 seats reserved for colony's African majority population. Brigadier General Antonio Imbert Barrera of the Dominican Air Force was named as the President of the Dominican Republic by the military regime, replacing Colonel Pedro Bartolomé Benoit, who had been installed ten days earlier. Meanwhile, the rebels opposing the government claimed Colonel Francisco Caamaño as the President. President Johnson signed legislation providing an additional $700,000,000 toward fighting the Vietnam War. The resolution had passed the U.S. Senate by a vote of 88 to 3, and the U.S. House of Representatives by a vote of 408 to 7. At the ceremony, Johnson said, "America keeps her promises. And we will back up those promises with all the resources that we need." The limestone carrier freighter collided with a Norwegian freighter, SS Topdalsfjord, while both were traveling in the Straits of Mackinac that separate the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and the rest of the state, and connect Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. Twenty-five members of the crew of 35 were rescued, but two died while floating in the cold waters, and eight others went down with the ship. Born: Owen Hart, Canadian-born American professional wrestler known as "The Blue Blazer", who was killed when he fell while being lowered to a match during a pay television event; in Calgary (d. 1999) Norman Whiteside, Northern Ireland soccer football player and the youngest player (in 1982 at age 17) to appear in the World Cup; in Belfast Died: Charles Sheeler, 81, American photographer Alf Bjørnskau Bastiansen, 81, Norwegian priest and politician May 8, 1965 (Saturday) Randy Matson became the first person to hurl a standard shot put more than . Matson, competing at an athletic meet at Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas, threw the sphere 70 feet, inches (21.52 meters). The current record, set in 1990, is 75 feet, 10 inches (23.12 meters). The Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians (AACM) was founded in Chicago. May 9, 1965 (Sunday) Construction began on what would become the Chu Lai Air Base in South Vietnam, as a unit of the U.S. Naval Mobile Construction Battalion, NMCB-10, began the task of putting in the first combat zone "Short Airfield for Tactical Support" (SATS). The team would have a runway in place within 23 days and the first airplanes would land on June 1. Luna 5 was launched toward the Moon by the Soviet Union on a multi-stage rocket. The probe's attitude control system would fail on several occasions along the way. Pianist Vladimir Horowitz returned to the stage after a 12-year absence, performing a legendary concert in Carnegie Hall in New York. A passenger bus with 40 people on board ran off of the road near Ixtapan de la Sal in Mexico, and plunged into the deep Calderón River Ravine, killing most of the people on board. Born: Steve Yzerman, Canadian NHL player, in Cranbrook, British Columbia Died: Leopold Figl, 62, Chancellor of Austria from 1945 to 1953 May 10, 1965 (Monday) Warren Buffett, an investor from Omaha, Nebraska and a recent millionaire, completed three years of purchasing stock in the Berkshire Hathaway Company, a financially ailing textile manufacturer, achieved a controlling interest, and fired the former president, Seabury Stanton. Buffet's initial motivation was revenge against Stanton for an insult that arose when Stanton verbally offered to buy Berkshire's existing stock at the rate of $11.50 per share, but then sent a written agreement changing the terms to $11.375 per share. Over the next decades, Buffet would transform Berkshire Hathaway into a $500 billion conglomerate that now owns GEICO Insurance, Dairy Queen restaurants, Helzberg Diamonds, the Fruit of the Loom company and large shares of other corporations. Born: Linda Evangelista, Canadian model, in St. Catharines, Ontario Kiyoyuki Yanada, Japanese voice actor, in Tokyo Died: Hubertus van Mook, 70, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1942 to 1948, prior to its independence as Indonesia I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson, 71, Sierra Leonean workers' leader, journalist, activist, and founder of the United National People's Party, was killed in an auto accident while in Ghana May 11, 1965 (Tuesday) More than 10,000 people were killed over a nine-hour period as a powerful cyclone swept across East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). The 100-mile-per-hour winds affected an area of 20,000 square miles, and caused its greatest damage in the Barisal District. East Pakistan governor Abdul Monem Khan announced on May 19 that the death toll was 12,003 people. At RCA Studios in Hollywood, The Rolling Stones completed their recording of their signature song, (I Can't Get No) Satisfaction. The National Trust officially launched Enterprise Neptune, its long-term project to acquire or put under covenant a substantial part of the Welsh, English and Northern Irish coastline. Born: Monsour del Rosario, Philippine taekwondo champion, action film star, and politician; in Manila May 12, 1965 (Wednesday) West Germany formally established diplomatic relations with Israel. Even before government spokesman Karl Gunther von Hase announced the agreement in Bonn, three Arab nations (Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Iraq) announced that they were severing their ties to West Germany. Luna 5 impacted the Moon at 10:08 p.m. Moscow time, three days after it was launched by the Soviet Union on a multi-stage rocket. However, a failure of its attitude control system only from the Moon caused Luna 5 to land more than from its intended target. The Italian liner T/S Michelangelo entered service. The Cannes Film Festival opened. Born: Renée Simonsen, Danish supermodel, in Aarhus May 13, 1965 (Thursday) A West German court of appeals condemned the behavior of ex-defense minister Franz Josef Strauss, and refused to open trial against magazine proprietor Rudolf Augstein and the magazine's military expert Conrad Ahlers, ruling that during the Spiegel affair Strauss had exceeded his authority and committed Freiheitsberaubung (deprivation of personal freedom). However, because it was found that he operated under the "belief of acting lawfully" (Verbotsirrtum), he was exempted from punishment. Former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy made her first public appearances since the funeral of President John F. Kennedy on November 25, 1963. Accompanied by her family in London, Mrs. Kennedy took her daughter and son to witness the changing of the guard at Buckingham Palace in London. Astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert W. Wilson of Princeton University submitted their paper to The Astrophysical Journal, describing their discovery at the Bell Telephone Laboratories of cosmic microwave background radiation as a confirmation of the "Big Bang" theory of the origin of the universe. As Penzias would describe it later, New York Times science writer Walter Sullivan "apparently had a 'mole' in The Astrophysical Journal editorial office", and on May 21, a Sullivan story with the headline "Signals Imply a 'Big Bang' Universe" would appear on the front page of the Times. Penzias and Wilson, who had made their observations from a hilltop station in Holmdel, New Jersey, would share the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1978 for their discovery. The Wet Mock Simulated Launch of Gemini 4 was completed. Born: Tim "Youngblood" Chapman, American bounty hunter and co-star (with Duane "Dog" Chapman) of Dog the Bounty Hunter José Antonio Delgado, Venezuelan mountaineer and paraglider, in Caracas (died of hypothermia, 2006) Hikari Ōta, Japanese television comedian, in Kamifukuoka Died: Dick Wantz, 25, American baseball pitcher who had appeared in his first and only major league game (for the California Angels) on April 13. Wantz died one day after undergoing surgery for a brain tumor. May 14, 1965 (Friday) The first 270 members of the "Inter-American Peace Force" arrived in the Dominican Republic on behalf of the Organization of American States (OAS). The units consisted of 250 soldiers from the Army of the Honduras, and 20 policemen from Costa Rica, which did not have an army. Born: Eoin Colfer, Irish children's author, in Wexford Died: Frances Perkins, 85, U.S. Secretary of Labor for 12 years (1933–1945) and the first woman to serve as a member of the U.S. President's cabinet. Belva Gaertner, 80, murder suspect May 15, 1965 (Saturday) Prime Minister Keith Holyoake opened the Benmore Dam on New Zealand's South Island. An avalanche came down from West Germany's highest mountain, the Zugspitze, onto the Hotel Schneefernerhaus near Garmisch-Partenkirchen, burying dozens of skiers and tourists. Until missing persons could be located, officials feared that as many as 90 people had been killed; ultimately, the death toll was ten. The resort was in its final week of the 1964–1965 season and temperatures were above 60 degrees when melting snow loosened and triggered the disaster. President Johnson ordered the United States Mint to resume production of silver dollars for the first time since 1935, with directions that 45 million new coins would be minted and that "they will be distributed in the areas of the country where the silver dollar has traditionally been used as a medium of exchange". However, because of a shortage of silver and uncertainty about the metal composition, dollar coins would not be reintroduced until 1971. Qualification of the G4C extravehicular suit was completed. This suit was basically the same as the G3C suit except for modifications which included a redundant zipper closure, two over-visors for visual and physical protection, automatic locking ventilation settings, and a heavier cover layer incorporating thermal and micrometeoroid protection. Six G4C suits would be at the launch site for the Gemini 4 flight crews by the end of May. May 16, 1965 (Sunday) While waiting to take off on a mission, a B-57B Canberra jet bomber exploded on the ground at Bien Hoa Air Base, Vietnam. This set off a chain of secondary explosions that destroyed 21 other airplanes at the base, killed 27 U.S. Air Force personnel, and injured 99 people. Among the dead was 34-year-old USAF Major Robert G. Bell, who in 1959 had been one of the 32 finalists for NASA Astronaut Group 1. The initial explosion happened at about 8:25 in the morning, and a serviceman at the scene would write later that the series of explosions that followed (many of them from bombs with delayed fuses) "lasted about three hours... Napalm, 500 lb. and 700 lb. demolition bombs, frag bombs and 50 caliber ammunition went off like Chinese fireworks." USAF Major General Joseph H. Moore estimated that the disaster destroyed 10 percent of the B-57 bombers that comprised the American nuclear fleet. Sabotage was ruled out, and the accident was eventually traced to a loose turbine on the B-57B hitting the fuse of an armed bomb. Major General Wladislaw Tykocinski of the Army of Poland, the senior foreign diplomat in West Berlin, asked the United States to grant him political asylum. Tykocinski, who left his wife and child behind in East Berlin, approached an American serviceman, 1st Sgt. Marion H. Tomlinson, at a delicatessen. U.S. Army Lt. General Marshall S. Carter, formerly the deputy director of the CIA, became the new director of the National Security Agency, replacing USAF Lt. General Gordon A. Blake. Born: Jason, Norwegian cartoonist, in Molde, as John Arne Sæterøy Krist Novoselic, American bass guitarist for the grunge rock group Nirvana; in Compton, California Died: Wing Luke, 40, Chinese-American lawyer and politician, plane crash May 17, 1965 (Monday) An underground explosion at Cambrian Colliery in Clydach Vale, Wales, killed 31 men and injured another 13. The victims had been laboring underground, in a space only high, and had no chance to evacuate; those who died "were identified by the numbers on their lamps". Gasoline stations affiliated with the Cities Service Company changed their signs to reflect the new name, ""CITGO", as well as a new symbol and new colors, as part of a $20,000,000 marketing changeover. Through a spokesman, the Oklahoma-based oil producer (later acquired as a subsidiary of Petróleos de Venezuela) announced that "The distance from which the new CITGO emblem and color scheme can be seen is twice that of the previous green and white Cities Service signs and stations." Stanley D. Breitweiser went on to say that the name had been chosen from "more than 80,000 possible choices" generated by a computer programmed to create new five-letter words that began with "C", and that the logo, colors and name had been developed with the assistance of the design firm of Lippincott and Marguiles. He explained that "Its first portion, CIT, is derived from Cities Service. GO implies the company's power, energy and progressive nature." Born: Trent Reznor, American singer and songwriter and founder of the industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails; in New Castle, Pennsylvania May 18, 1965 (Tuesday) Dolby Laboratories was founded in London by American inventor Ray Dolby, who invented the Dolby noise-reduction system and other innovations in audio recording technology. President Johnson formally launched Project Head Start, a $112,000,000 program to give summertime education to more than half a million American preschool age children from underprivileged families. According to the announcement from the White House, "the first 1,676 projects... at 9,508 centers will reach 375,842 boys and girls at a cost of $65,686,741", with the vast majority of the money coming from federal grants. Died: Eli Cohen, 40, Israeli spy, was executed in public in Syria. With the verdict of the court attached to his shirt, Cohen was taken to a gallows at the Garden of Martyrs Square in Damascus and hanged. His body remained on display for six hours before it was taken down. May 19, 1965 (Wednesday) The roof of the Key Food Supermarket in Brooklyn, New York, collapsed without warning upon the area closest to the checkout lines, injuring 25 employees and shoppers. American inventor Paul C. Fisher filed for the patent on the "Anti-gravity pen", known also as the "space pen", which used "a pressurized ink supply which enables the pen to write when the force of gravity acts against the flow of ink in the ink cartridge" in order for astronauts to write data observations in a weightless environment. Although there is an urban legend that NASA spent millions of dollars to develop an unnecessary replacement to a pencil, Fisher was privately funded and earned his costs back when both the American and Soviet space programs began purchasing pens, which were necessary because of the hazards of broken pencil tips, graphite dust, and flammable wood; the pens themselves were sold for six dollars apiece. U.S. Patent Number 3,285,228 would be granted on November 15, 1966. A single sounding rocket successfully sent aloft a "mother-daughter" experiment to transmit radio signals between two instrument packages that parted in flight and climbed separately through the ionosphere. The experiment, employing a technique developed by scientists of Penn State University, was launched at 4:11 p.m. EDT by a four-stage Jevelin (ARGO D0-4) from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Wallops Island Station, Wallops Island, Virginia. All extravehicular equipment planned for the Gemini 4 mission, including the ventilation control module, the extravehicular umbilical assembly, and the hand-held maneuvering unit, had been qualified. The flight hardware was at the launch site ready for flight at the end of May. Died: Tu'i Malila, 188, a tortoise that Captain Cook had given to the Tongan royal family in 1777. May 20, 1965 (Thursday) Pakistan International Airlines Flight 705, a Boeing 720 airliner with 127 people on board, crashed in a desert area in Egypt as it was approaching the Cairo airport on arrival from Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. All 13 members of the crew and 121 of the passengers were killed when the plane came in too low during its approach, and impacted about six miles south of Cairo. The plane was making the inaugural flight in PIA's new service from Karachi to London, and nearly all of the victims had been invited as guests, including 21 members of the Pakistani press who were assigned to cover the story. The De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter made its first flight. May 21, 1965 (Friday) The largest ever teach-in began at Berkeley, California, attended by 30,000 people who gathered at the University of California campus for "Vietnam Day". "This brilliantly provocative event”, an historian would observe later, "organized by the Vietnam Day Committee (VDC), a collection of students and protesters disenchanted with liberal America and frightened by the South-East Asian conflict, stunned the University authorities and caused concern in Washington." Pitcher Ron Herbel of the San Francisco Giants, described by one author as the player who "deserved to be the poster child for the designated hitter rule", got his first hit in a major league baseball game, after going hitless in his first 54 at bats. Herbel, who pitched the Giants to an 8–1 win over the Houston Astros, was playing his first indoor game, at the Astrodome. He would finish his career in 1971 with the lowest batting average (.029) of any career major leaguer, as well as a career ERA of 3.83. May 22, 1965 (Saturday) The new sport of skateboarding received its first wide recognition as the First Annual National Skateboard Championships were conducted, in Anaheim, California, and videotaped for nationwide broadcast on ABC's Wide World of Sports the following Saturday. The two-day event, which attracted contestants "from as far away as Japan, Mexico, New York, Texas and Washington" featured a downhill and a flatland slalom, trick performances, and a figure-eight skating event, and took place at La Palma Stadium in Anaheim. Died: Christopher Stone, 72, British broadcaster who, in 1927, became the first disc jockey when he hosted a program for BBC radio for introducing and playing songs on the air. Frans-Henri van den Dungen, 66, Belgian physicist and co-author, in 1926, with Ernest De Donder, of findings that "the gravitational interaction in general relativity might be described by an integral equation of the Fredholm type (in a generalized space due to the number of degrees of freedom of the system of particles considered), whose solution seemed to imply a periodic phenomenon that exhibited similarity to the undulatory behaviour of microscopic particles in Schrödinger's wave mechanics." May 23, 1965 (Sunday) In Belgium's parliamentary election, Prime Minister Theo Lefevre's coalition of Christian Socialists and Belgian Socialists lost 39 seats in the 212 seat Chamber of Representatives. Formerly holding 180 seats, the coalition dropped to 141 seats, one fewer than the 142 necessary for a two-thirds majority in the Chamber that would be required for any constitutional changes. Lefebvre presented his resignation to King Baudouin the next day. Franz Jonas won a narrow victory in a bitter race for the new President of Austria, defeating former Chancellor Alfons Gorbach by a margin of 2,324,474 to 2,260,992. Mayor of Vienna since 1951, Jonas was notable for having dropped out of school to become an apprentice typesetter, and for his fluency in the artificial language of Esperanto. As with his predecessor, Adolf Schärf, Jonas would pass away in his second term. The Inter-American Peacekeeping Force was deployed in the Dominican Republic to replace the American troops that had been in the country since April 30. The force, sent by the OAS, would reach as many as 8,200 people and begin withdrawing on June 28, 1966, completing its mission by October. During the occupation, the 270 troops already sent by Honduras and Costa Rica would be joined by 1,130 from Brazil, 184 from Paraguay, 160 from Nicaragua, and three staff officers from El Salvador. The Norwegian tanker MV Heimvard exploded and burned at Muroran, Japan, after it rammed into a pier. The force of the collision caused a kerosene stove to tip over, causing a fire that spread to the tanker's cargo of oil. Eight members of her crew were killed, and 22 injured, while two men from a Japanese tugboat adjacent to the Heimvard were missing after the accident. As the ship burned, other Japanese tugboats pulled the tanker out to sea and prevented the flames from spreading to the 65 oil storage tanks on the coast. The Space Science Board of the National Academy of Sciences recommended to NASA that future astronauts who walked on the Moon should be kept under quarantine for at least three weeks after their return, just in case there were germs present on the lunar surface. The period was picked "because it exceeded the incubation of most terrestrial germs", and as "a compromise between those who thought a quarantine was unnecessary and those who argued for many months". The crew of Apollo 11, lunar astronauts would be kept under a quarantine upon their return and until August 10, 1969. Born: Melissa McBride, American television and film actress, in Lexington, Kentucky Manolo Sanchís, Spanish soccer football player for Real Madrid and for the Spanish National Team; in Madrid Kappei Yamaguchi, Japanese voice actor, in Fukuoka Died: David Smith, 59, American abstract sculptor, was killed in an auto accident in Shaftsbury, Vermont, while on his way to attend the opening of an art exhibit at Bennington College. Earl Webb, 67, American baseball player whose record for most doubles in a season — 67 in 1931 — remains a Major League Baseball record May 24, 1965 (Monday) The United Kingdom officially adopted the metric system of weights and measures, to be phased in over a ten-year period. Douglas Jay, the President of the Board of Trade, made the announcement to the press, and said that it would aid British companies trading with the rest of Europe. Subandrio, the Foreign Minister of Indonesia and chief of its Intelligence Bureau, told a political rally that there was a "Council of Generals" that was plotting to overthrow President Sukarno and the Indonesian government as part of a conspiracy jointly funded by the United States and the United Kingdom. In response to the allegations of the conspiracy, which Subandrio accepted as true without investigation, Subandrio persuaded the government to mobilize "progressive and revolutionary" officers against the fictitious Council. Born: John C. Reilly, American actor and comedian, in Chicago Shinichirō Watanabe, Japanese film director, producer, and screenwriter, in Kyoto Died: Hans Jüttner, 71, German former SS leader Sonny Boy Williamson II (Aleck Miller), 52, American blues musician May 25, 1965 (Tuesday) World heavyweight boxing champion Muhammad Ali and the man whom he had beaten for the title in 1964, former champion Sonny Liston, faced each other in a much-anticipated rematch in Lewiston, Maine. The match, seen by 4,280 in the small Central Maine Youth Center, started at 9:30 p.m. and was shown in theaters on closed-circuit television, and heard on the radio by millions of people. Despite all the hype, the fight was over in only 60 seconds into the first round. Ali struck Liston with what would become known as the "Phantom Punch", which few of the people watching saw on television because of the camera angle; "For many", a reporter would write the next day, "Liston seemed to fall without being hit." As Liston lay on the canvas, the referee, former boxing champion Jersey Joe Walcott, forgot to begin counting, and admitted later, "I did not count out Liston. I was told that he was on the floor 12 seconds. Then I awarded the knockout." Liston got back up, Ali and Liston began fighting again, and Walcott separated the two men and stopped the bout. Born: Yahya Jammeh, President of the Gambia since 1994; in Kanilai May 26, 1965 (Wednesday) After a week of civil warfare arising from a strike of tin miners, the offices of co-presidents of Bolivia were created, with President René Barrientos sharing power equally with General Alfredo Ovando Candía until new civilian presidential elections could be arranged. Barrientos would resign on January 2 to run in the campaign. The new SOLAS Convention (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea), opened for signing in 1960, entered into force worldwide. The United States Senate passed an amended version of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, by a 77-19 margin. Voting against the bill were 17 Democrats and two Republicans, all from the southern United States. An amendment was added in order to get the bill to pass, avoiding a prohibition of the poll tax; as one author would note later "The compromise amendment... stated that Congress was against the use of poll taxes as a condition for voting, but it did not actually ban the use of the taxes." Born: Dilip Joshi, Indian actor, in Porbandar May 27, 1965 (Thursday) The first Australian troops in the Vietnam War departed on HMAS Sydney, with the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment being in the original group. New Zealand Prime Minister Keith Holyoake announced in Parliament that 120 troops from the 16th Field Regiment, Royal New Zealand Artillery would become the first of that nation's troops to be committed to the Vietnam War. "Nothing will give Australian soldiers more satisfaction than to be in company with troops from New Zealand”, Holyoake told the opening session of Parliament in Wellington. The Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia continued with the start of the Battle of Sungei Koemba, an ambush launched by the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), along the Sungei Koemba river in Kalimantan, the Indonesian side of the island of Borneo. Playing on its home field, Inter Milan of Italy defeated S.L. Benfica of Portugal, 1–0, before a crowd of 80,000 fans at the San Siro stadium to win its second consecutive European Cup in soccer football. Because of heavy rains that fell before the game, the field was slippery. The lone goal was made by Jair da Costa. The best-selling song by The Rolling Stones, "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction", was released as a single in the United States by London Records, 15 days after it was recorded. It would not be released in the Stones' native Britain until August 20. Born: Todd Bridges, American television actor best known for Diff'rent Strokes; in San Francisco Died: Antonio Ligabue, 65, Italian Naïve artist May 28, 1965 (Friday) An explosion in a coal mine killed 375 miners in Dhanbad, located in the Bihar state in East India. The cause was later attributed to an excess of coal dust from blasting an ignition by an electrical spark, which caused a tremendous explosion that killed hundreds of people underground, and more than 100 who were on the surface. Japan's House of Councillors voted 121 to 69 to pass the Farmland Reward Bill that had already cleared the House of Representatives, to compensate former landowners who had lost their property in the reforms that followed World War II. Law 121, 1965 would take effect on June 3. Born: Mary Coughlan, Irish Fianna Fáil politician, in Donegal Died: P. R. Stephensen, 63, Australian political activist May 29, 1965 (Saturday) The Captain Cook Bridge across the Georges River in Sydney opened for traffic, with seven spans to make it long. The Samotlor oil field, the sixth largest in the world, was discovered in the Soviet Union when drillers struck oil for the first time there. Located in the Tyumen Oblast in Western Siberia in the Russian SFSR, near the border with the Kazakh SSR, the Samotlor field would become the largest in the U.S.S.R., and later in Russia. Born: Bakhtyar Khudojnazarov, Tajikistan film director; in Dushanbe, Tadzhik SSR, Soviet Union (d. 2015) May 30, 1965 (Sunday) In the Battle of Ba Gia, the 1st Regiment of the Viet Cong ambushed the 1st Battalion of the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN)'s 51st Regiment. The defeat was so overwhelming that, even with air support from the United States, the ARVN battalion lost 392 men, along with 446 rifles and 90 crew-served weapons. Although South Vietnam claimed that it killed 556 Viet Cong, the ARVN soldiers captured only 20 weapons. A total eclipse of the sun took place, with a path entirely over the sparsely inhabited area of the South Pacific Ocean east of New Zealand and west of South America. Died: Louis Hjelmslev, 65, Danish linguist May 31, 1965 (Monday) Scotland's Jim Clark won the Indianapolis 500 and set a new record for the fastest speed in the race's history, averaging 150.686 m.p.h. and finishing two laps (and five miles) ahead of second place Parnelli Jones. Clark's auto, a Ford Lotus 38-Cosworth was the first rear-engine design car to win at Indianapolis. Minutes after Clark's win, Jones ran out of gas in the final lap and had to push his car across the finish line. The Brunei Malay Regiment became the Royal Brunei Armed Forces. Born: Brooke Shields, American film and television actress, in New York City Yōko Sōmi, Japanese voice actress, in Niigata Prefecture References 1965 1965-05 1965-05
5251799	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Serbia	Old Serbia	Old Serbia () is a Serbian historiographical term that is used to describe the territory that according to the dominant school of Serbian historiography in the late 19th century formed the core of the Serbian Empire in 1346–71. The term does not refer to a defined region but over time in the late 19th century and the first decade of the 20th century it came to include the regions of Raška, Kosovo and Metohija and much of modern North Macedonia. The term Old Serbians () were used as designations by Serb authors and later governments for Slavic populations from regions such as Vardar Macedonia. In modern historiography, the concept of Old Serbia as it developed in the 19th century has been criticised as a historical myth, based often on invented or tendentiously interpreted historical events. Terminology Vuk Stefanović Karadžić referred to "Old Serbia" as a territory of the Serb people that was part of medieval Serbia prior to the Ottoman conquest. Milovan Radovanović claims that although the term was not attested until the 19th century it emerged in the colloquial speech of the Serb population who lived in territories of the Habsburg monarchy after the Great Migrations. The toponym first appeared in the public sphere during the 1860s, the time of the triumph of Vuk Karadžić's ideas. Until then the Serbs imagined the borders of their country spreading northwest. These ideas are grounded in the late-19th-century Serbian nationalism and changed the goal of Serbia's territorial expansion from the west to the south and were important to Serbian nationalism during the Balkan Wars and the First World War. History In the early nineteenth century, Old Serbia as a concept was introduced by Vuk Karadžić in his ethnographic, geographic and historical publications. Karadžić defined Old Serbia as including the Morava-Vardar river valley. In particular, it comprised the Kriva Reka and Pčinja rivers, the area of the Bregalnica river, the northern zone of the river Vardar, and a section of the Morava river. For Karadžić, the Slavic inhabitants of Macedonia were Serbian, detached from its Serb past due to Ottoman rule and propaganda activities undertaken by the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. The term Old Serbia was used in literature and from the 1830s onward, its usage widened and denoted a particular area that was not part of the Principality of Serbia. After its appearance during the 1860s, the term denoted only Raška. Following the Serbian–Ottoman Wars (1876–1878), several authors began to represent the term Old Serbia as synonymous with the Ottoman Vilayet of Kosovo. From 1878 onward, the Serbian state started saying "Old Serbia" also included Kosovo. By 1912, the claims were narrowed to Kosovo only. The critical treatment of facts was damaged by the invocation of the past for the justification of present and future claims, and by the mixture of history and contemporary issues. The core myth of Serbian identity became the idea Kosovo was the cradle of the Serbian nation. Serbian rebels of the First Serbian Uprising and Second Serbian Uprising had no territorial ambitions over Kosovo. A plan made during that period to create a Slav-Serbian empire in the Serb-inhabited areas of the Ottoman Empire excluded Kosovo and Old Serbia. Serbian interest in the region of Macedonia was defined in a foreign policy program named Načertanije. It was a document whose author Ilija Garašanin, a Serb politician envisioned a Serbian state that included the Principality of Serbia and territories such as Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro and Old Serbia. Garašanin in Načertanije was not clear about the southern confines of this larger state and neither was Kosovo nor Old Serbia mentioned directly. This program responded to the need to spread propaganda among Serbs within the Ottoman Empire. Serbian engagement with the region started in 1868 with the establishment of the Educational Council (Prosvetni odbor) that opened schools and sent Serb instructors and textbooks to Macedonia and Old Serbia. In May 1877 a delegation of Serbs of Old Serbia presented their request to 'liberate' and unite Old Serbia with the Principality of Serbia to the government of Serbia. They also informed representatives of the Great Powers and the Emperor of Russia about their demands. In the same year the Committee for the Liberation of Old Serbia and Macedonia was founded. Serbian nationalists envisioned Serbia as a "Piedmont of the Balkans" that would unify certain territories they interpreted as Serbian in the region into one state, like Old Serbia. In the 1877 peace after the Serbian–Ottoman Wars (1876–1878), the Serbs hoped to gain the Kosovo Vilayet and Sanjak of Novi Pazar to the Lim River. With the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Serbia received full sovereignty and made territorial gains around this time, acquiring the districts of Niš, Pirot, Vranje and . Following the Great Eastern Crisis (1875-1878) and the emergence of the Macedonian Question, Serbs were dissatisfied that Bulgaria became a rival for the region of Macedonia or "Old Serbia". Kosovo formed part of the Kosovo myth that prior to those events was viewed in spiritual and ethical terms, and an important aspect of Serbian cultural and ordinary life. By the 1880s, Serbia saw those areas, referred to as Old Serbia, in territorial terms. The relationship with Austria-Hungary following 1881 considerably affected the Serbian state that moved it to concentrate its regional efforts toward a southerly direction. At this time, Old Serbia became integrated into the Serbian state's collective narrative about its own self identity. A process began in the same decade in Serbia, where diplomacy and foreign policy were deployed to expand Serb influence in Old Serbia, to gather data about the mainly unknown territory and make preparations for future armed conflict with the Ottoman Empire. As such, Guidelines for Establishing Serbia's Influence in Macedonia and Old Serbia were made part of the Serbian government platform in 1887. Over several years, a number of consulates were opened by the Serbian state in Salonika, Skopje, Bitola and Pristina and included consuls such as Milan Rakić and Branislav Nušić who chronicled the difficult security circumstances of Serbs in the Ottoman Empire. Serbia also used education policy in Old Serbia to advance sentiments of a strong national identification among Orthodox inhabitants to the Serbian state. To bolster Serbian influence in Old Serbia, the St. Sava Society was established (1886) to educate aspiring teachers for the task, and later a department was created in the Serbian Education Ministry with a near identical objective. Starting from 1903, the Serbian political establishment altered the policy for Macedonia and Old Serbia. The focus switched from education propaganda toward providing Serbs in the region with arms resulting by 1904 in Chetnik bands and armed irregulars operating in Macedonia. The majority of efforts to include Old Serbia into newer Serb discourses on Serbdom and the larger narrative about Serbia was undertaken by people outside the bounds of the Serb state, such as artists, composers, writers, scientists and other members of the intelligentsia. A prominent example was Jovan Cvijić, a Serb academic who made ethnographic maps depicting the Balkans that aimed to advance Serb claims to Kosovo and his publications influenced later generations of historiographers. Cvijić defined Old Serbia as including Kosovo and Metohija, spanning southward and encompassing Debar, Kumanovo, Prilep and Tetovo. In 1906–1907, Cvijić wrote the Macedonian Slavs were an "amorphous" and "floating mass", and lacked national identity. By regarding northern Macedonia as "Old Serbia", he sought to legitimize Serbia's territorial claims over the territory. Cvijić continuously changed his maps to include or exclude "Macedonian Slavs", altering the location of the boundary between Bulgarians and Serbs and readjusting the colour scheme to show Macedonia as nearer to Serbia. Ethnographic maps showing the Macedonian region and Old Serbia were part of a wider conflict involving similar competing maps of the region that was played out on the international scene. The ethnographic maps attempted to show and affirm various national perspectives and solutions offered by their authors, like mapping and classifying peoples according to their definitions or new borders, to geopolitical questions in the Balkans. Due to Greek and Serbian cooperation, northerly areas centred around Skopje were not shown in their maps as being part of Macedonia, as Serbia regarded those areas as Old Serbia. Serb authors viewed the Slavic inhabitants of Macedonia as Old Serbians or Southern Serbs, designations that were used more in the past than in modern times. Old Serbia as a term evoked strong symbolism and message regarding Serb historical rights to the land whose demographics were seen to have been altered in the Ottoman period to favour Albanians at the conclusion of the seventeenth century. Theories advanced at the time like those by Cvijić referred to the Albanians in the area as a result of metastasis and due to a "great Albanian campaign to the east". The more prominent theory stated that Ottoman aims were to split the Serbian principality from Old Serbia that involved installing Muslim Albanians into the area. It claimed that the evidence lay in the settlement pattern of Albanians as dispersed and not compact. The theory concluded that Serbian abilities were diminished for liberation wars of the future as Albanians formed a "living wall" spanning from Kosovo to the Pĉinja area, limiting the spread of Serb influence. As a result of the Serbian-Ottoman war, the Albanian inhabited area shrank after they were expelled from the Toplica and Morava valleys by the Serbian army in 1878. Before the events of the Berlin Congress, only a small number of Serbian accounts existed that described Old Serbia and Macedonia in the early nineteenth century. Old Serbia became a topic of focus (mid nineteenth - early twentieth centuries) in Serbian travelogues by Serb authors from Serbia and Austria-Hungary. In the aftermath of the Serbo-Bulgarian War (1885), several travelogues were published on Old Serbia by politicians and intellectuals seeking to counter "Bulgarian propaganda". The travel accounts through use of geography, history, philology and ethnography sought to bolster nationalist claims that those lands were for the Serbs. Focusing on language and cultural aspects, the travellers sought to present and connect the Serbs of Serbia and Austria-Hungary to the inhabitants of Old Serbia as synonymous and one nation that lacked differences. Many realities of the day were bypassed such as interpreting demographics in an unclear or doubtful manner, or by digressing through subjects of geography and history. Travels through Old Serbia were presented as a movement through time and observations by writers focused on the medieval period and landscape geography, as opposed to the reality of the day. These accounts contained portrayals and metaphors about Serb travellers in danger encountering the national cultural extinction of local Serbs or biological threats. The links travelogues drew to Old Serbia with inhabitants under threat had an important impact through discourse in connecting an emerging Serb national identity with Kosovo. Serb travelogues defined Old Serbia in its minimum extent as being Kosovo and at its wider range as encompassing north western Macedonia and northern Albania. Travellers writing about Macedonia used cultural and socio-linguistic depictions to state that local Christian Slavic inhabitants were exposed to Bulgarian propaganda that inhibited their ability to become Serbian. Efforts were devoted to interpreting linguistic and cultural information to present Macedonians as nearer to the Serbs than Bulgarians. These included focusing on local customs in the area like family saint days and regarding them as part of similar traditions (Slava) in Serbia. Local traditional songs and epic poetry were scrutinised to met the criteria of being classified Serbian, not Bulgarian, such as folklore about medieval Prince Marko were deemed as examples of Serbian culture. Due to competition from the Bulgarian national movement, efforts were devoted to delineate a boundary in areas where differences among religions were nonexistent. In areas where the population was mainly Albanian, the appropriation undertaken by travel writers was reinforced through narratives of history, positions based on economic and geographic issues, at times that involved fabricating information and creating the room for discrimination on cultural and racial grounds toward non-Slavs. It would entail presenting non Orthodox Slavic inhabitants as either recent religious converts, immigrants or people who underwent a language shift. Peoples like the Turks, Turkifed inhabitants and Albanians (in several texts called "Arnauts") were portrayed as converted inhabitants who were former Serbs. The process allowed the lands of Old Serbia to be denoted as Serbian and implied a future removal of political rights and ability for self determination from non-Slavic inhabitants such as Albanians, whom were viewed as the cultural and racial "other", unhygienic, and a danger. As travelogues were presented as firsthand accounts and truth, their contents aimed to get a reader to react and identify as a person with the imagined community of a nation. At the same time, songs from oral traditions, collected and catalogued from Macedonia and Kosovo (Old Serbia) began to be played in Serbia and were reworked by modern Serbian composers into Serb songs through the addition of then contemporary musical European styles. Kosovo, which was listed as "Old Serbia", was classified as an "unredeemed Serbian" region by the Black Hand, a secret society formed by Serb officers that generated nationalist material and armed activity by bands outside Serbia. In Serbian historiography, the First Balkan War (1912-1913) is also known as War for Liberation of Old Serbia. Later, in 1913 the Sandžak, Kosovo and Metohija and Vardar Macedonia became part of the Kingdom of Serbia. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Serb publications aiming to counter Albanian interests and to justify Serbian historical claims in Kosovo and Macedonia through the recreation of Old Serbia in those territories appeared. The acquisition of new lands was interpreted by individuals such as Vaso Čubrilović, a Serb intellectual, as the realisation of Garašanin's concept. In 1914, groups within the Serbian army expressed dissatisfaction with certain elements of civilian governance in Old Serbia (Macedonia) and sought to undermine the Serb government by aiding a plot to kill Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. At the end of the First World War, Serbia became part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the state placed its efforts toward speeding up the incorporation of newly acquired lands such as Kosovo, Macedonia and Sandžak. These areas deemed as Old Serbia were subsequently organised into a province (pokrajina) that was given the official name of South Serbia. To integrate the region after perceived centuries of "separation" between the area and Serbia, national, cultural and economic considerations were seen as a centre of focus in Old Serbia for some high ranking Serb officials. Institutions were founded to accelerate the regional economy such as a prominent bank in Skopje (1923) named "Old Serbia". The government of Nikola Pašić treated the Slavic population of Vardar Macedonia as either Serbs or as Old Serbians (Starosrbijanci). Following the Second World War, Yugoslavia was reorganised as a federal state, with Serbia as one of six republics. Serbia was most affected by the internal territorial changes as it lost control of what had been defined as Old Serbia, which became the separate republic of Macedonia. The stances and opinions of the early twentieth century Serbian intelligentsia have left a legacy in the political space as those views are used in modern discourses of Serb nationalism to uphold nationalistic claims. Travelogues have been republished and often lack critical analysis of the period in which they were written. This also applies to some materials such as often inaccurate "ethnic maps", that have been re-proposed in some modern academic publications by Serbian authors. See also Medieval history of Serbia Pomorje Serbianisation Slavo-Serbia New Serbia Notes References Serb Travelogues and associated material (Public domain) (Public domain) (Public domain) Further reading Jagodić, Miloš. "Планови o политици Србије према Старој Србији и Македонији (1878-1885)." Историјски часопис 60 (2011): 435–460. Црквене прилике у Старој Србији од укидања Пећке патријаршије до Велике источне кризе (1766-1878), у: Историја и значај Призренске богословије : (поводом 140 годишњице од оснивања). - Ниш : Филозофски факултет : Призренска богословија Св. Кирила и Методија : Центар за црквене студије, 2013, 9-29. Jagodić, Miloš. "Извештај Василија Ђорђевића о догађајима у Старој Србији из јула 1854." Мешовита грађа 36 (2015): 195–206. Šćekić, Radenko, Žarko Leković, and Marijan Premović. "Political Developments and Unrests in Stara Raška (Old Rascia) and Old Herzegovina during Ottoman Rule." Balcanica XLVI (2015): 79-106. NEDELJKOVIĆ, SLAVIŠA. "BETWEEN THE IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT AND REBELS (Old Serbia during the rebellion of the Shkodra Pasha Mustafa Bushati and the Bosnian aristocracy 1830–1832)." Istraživanja: Journal of Historical Researches 26 (2016): 91-105. External links Political history of Serbia History of Kosovo Historical regions in Serbia History of Macedonia (region) Medieval Serbia Serbian irredentism Principality of Serbia Kingdom of Serbia History of the Serbs Vardar Macedonia (1918–1941)
5252138	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yimas%20language	Yimas language	The Yimas language is spoken by the Yimas people, who populate the Sepik River Basin region of Papua New Guinea. It is spoken primarily in Yimas village (), Karawari Rural LLG, East Sepik Province. It is a member of the Lower-Sepik language family. All 250-300 speakers of Yimas live in two villages along the lower reaches of the Arafundi River, which stems from a tributary of the Sepik River known as the Karawari River. Yimas is a polysynthetic language with (somewhat) free word order, and is an ergative-absolutive language morphologically but not syntactically, although it has several other case-like relations encoded on its verbs. It has ten main noun classes (genders), and a unique number system. Four of the noun classes are semantically determined (male humans, female humans, higher animals, plants and plantmaterial) whereas the rest are assigned on phonological bases. It is an endangered language, being widely replaced by Tok Pisin, and to a lesser extent, English. It is unclear if any children are native Yimas speakers. However, a Yimas pidgin was once used as a contact language with speakers of Alamblak and Arafundi. Although it is still used in face-to-face conversation, it is considered a threatened language on the Ethnologue endangerment scale, with a rating of 6b. Phonology Yimas has a total of 18 phonemes. Below are the vowel and consonant inventories, which are represented using International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols. Consonants The consonant phoneme inventory of Yimas is typical for the languages of Papua New Guinea. Like many languages of the region, Yimas has no fricative phonemes, although fricatives do sometimes appear in pronunciation as variants of plosives. The following table contains the 12 consonant phonemes of the language: The phonemic status of the palatal consonants /c/, /ɲ/ and /ʎ/ is not entirely clear. In general their appearance is predictable; they arise primarily through palatalization of the alveolar consonants /t/, /n/, and /r/. However, there are a few words in which these consonants must be regarded as underlyingly palatal. Examples include akulɨm 'wrist', ɨɲcɨt 'urine', and other words, though these historically go back to alveolar consonants, as can be seen in their cognates in Karawari (awkurim 'wrist' and sɨndi 'urine'). Adjacent nasals and plosives are usually homorganic. Other combinations such as mt, mk, np, ŋt, etc., are rare or unattested; an example is pamki 'legs'. The same is true when plosives appear before nasals at the ends of words or syllables. In this case, the nasal is syllabic, for example watn (a hardwood tree species). Plosives are generally voiced after nasals, with /p/ becoming voiced also before u. At word onsets and before stressed vowels, they are aspirated and voiceless. For example: ɲct 'urine', pamki 'legs', tkay 'nose', kput 'rain'. /p/ and /w/ weaken to a voiceless fricative: ipwa . When /k/ appears before two vowels, if the second vowel is unstressed, then the /k/ is realized as a voiced fricative: amanakn 'mine'. Intervocally /c/ has age-based allophony, with older speakers preferring the stop realization and younger ones the dental sibilant [s], as in acak 'to send'. After another consonant, /c/ is always realized as a palatal stop. /ʎ/ is in free variation between and . r varies in pronunciation between and . Vowels The Yimas vowel inventory contains six phonemes in total, consisting of four monophthongs and two diphthongs: The two diphthongs in Yimas are /aj/ and /aw/. The most frequent vowels by far are /a/ and /ɨ/. ɨ also appears as an epenthetic vowel to break up otherwise illicit consonant clusters. In the vicinity of u and also occasionally in other contexts, an u is sometimes inserted instead: mml 'a kind of snake', ŋmkŋn 'underneath', maŋkuml 'two veins'. The appearance of /ɨ/ is often predictable from the surrounding consonant environment and as a result it can typically be treated as an epenthetic vowel even within lexical roots. Adopting this analysis results in whole words with no underlying vowels. The vowel phonemes are involved in numerous phonological changes. Syllable structure The basic structure of the Yimas word (in terms of consonants C and vowels V) is the following: #(C1)(C2)V1([(C3)C4(C5)]n)V2(C6)(C7)# Consonants are organized into three basic clusters in Yimas: the initial cluster [(C1)(C2)], the medial cluster [(C3)C4(C5)] and the final cluster [(C6)(C7)]. Parentheses indicate that the consonant is optional. There are specific phonological constraints placed on the cluster depending on where it is located in the word. In other words, only certain consonant phonemes can begin a word, end a word, or appear in the middle of a word. The iterative variable n allows the medial consonant cluster to be repeated many times. A Yimas word can consist of only a single vowel. An example is the verb stem /i-/, which means 'say.' Some of the longest roots are five or six syllables, like /mamantakarman/, which means 'land crab.' Yimas has predictable rules with regard to syllabification. In the middle of a word, if a consonant is between two vowels, the syllable boundary precedes the consonant: (V.CV). If two consonants are between two vowels, the syllable boundary falls between the consonants: (VC1.C2V). However, if C1 is a stop and C2 is /r/, the syllable boundary precedes C1: (V.C1C2V). Whenever three consonants are between two vowels, the syllable boundary comes after the first consonant: (VC1.C2C3V). Stress In Yimas, the primary accent lies in general on the first syllable of a word. In words with more than three syllables, the third syllable carries secondary stress. Below are some examples (where ´ represents primary stress, and ` represents secondary stress): If the first syllable contains an epenthetic vowel but the second does not, then the second syllable is stressed. When the first as well as the second syllable contain epenthetic vowels, then the stress lies on the first syllable. Below are more examples, including words with stress on epenthetic vowels: The genitive suffix -na, which is used on personal pronouns, takes primary stress: ama-na-kn 'mine'. Stress is never the distinguishing factor between two words; i.e., two words cannot differ in meaning if they only differ in which syllable carries stress (as opposed to English, which distinguishes between the noun 'désert' and the verb 'desért'). Nouns and noun morphology Noun classes There are ten basic noun classes in Yimas, and about six additional minor classes with only a few nouns in each one. Noun classes are either categorized by their semantic similarity or their phonological similarity. Of the ten major noun classes, four are identified based on semantic properties, and six are identified based on phonological properties. The ten major noun classes are distinguished by the following properties: Although some classes are similar in category, no two classes overlap; i.e., no noun is associated with more than one noun class. So there may be words that fall into the semantic categories specified by class I-IV that have the same phonetic properties as words in one of the later classes, but will only be placed in one class. By far, class V is the largest noun class, with nearly half of all Yimas words assigned to this class. Many of the nouns formerly in class VIII have become members of class V as the language has evolved. Additionally, the rounded vowel that terminates nouns in class X have a distinctive autosegmental rounding feature. Nouns within a class share sets of agreement affixes with adjectives, pronouns, and verbs. The adjectival, pronominal, and verbal agreement affixes are appended to adjectives, pronouns, and verbs respectively, depending on the number and noun class of the noun they are associated with. The adjective must have an affix that agrees with the noun the adjective describes, and pronouns are made possessive by appending affixes that agree with the noun of the possessor as well. Agreement affixes for verbs are used to indicate that a noun is its subject if the verb is intransitive, or that a noun is its object if the verb is transitive. As an example, the following table contains the set of agreement affixes for class I nouns: Below is an example of the class I singular adjectival agreement suffix /-n/ applied to the adjective meaning 'good.' Here, the suffix is used to show that the adjective is describing a class I, singular noun: In general, appending the possessive marker /-na/ to a pronoun, along with the appropriate possessive agreement affix, creates a possessive pronoun in Yimas. The following is an example of how a class I singular possessive pronoun is formed; /ama/ is the bound first person singular pronoun, and /-kn/ is the class I possessive agreement suffix: Affixation on verbs for noun agreement are discussed in detail in the verbal morphology section. Pronouns Yimas independent pronouns are: {\| ! !! sg !! du !! pc !! pl \|- ! 1 \| ama \|\| kapa \|\| paŋkət \|\| ipa \|- ! 2 \| mi \|\| kapwa \|\| paŋkət \|\| ipwa \|- ! 3 \| mən \|\| mərəm \|\| məŋgət \|\| mum \|} Oblique suffix The oblique suffix (/-n/ or /-nan/) is the only case marker present in Yimas, and "indicates locations, times, or instruments." Generally, the suffix /-n/ is used with singular nouns, and the suffix /-nan/ is used with plural and dual nouns, although there are some irregularities. Below are a few inflectional uses of the suffix, which serve to provide a semantic meaning similar to prepositions in English: Noun compounding Nouns may compound with a verb or another noun phrase. The head is always a noun, and this head noun determines the number and noun class of the final compounded noun. Compounds consisting of two root nouns are the most frequently used type of compounded noun. The most common way of forming a compound with two root nouns is by appending the oblique suffix /-n/ to the non-head noun, which precedes the head noun: Suppletion Instead of using affixation to distinguish number for a noun, Yimas uses suppletion for many common nouns; in other words, the singular and plural forms have different roots for these common nouns. The dual form in Yimas is derived from the singular form, and does not follow the same morphological process of suppletion. Verbal morphology Yimas is a polysynthetic language with a complex verbal morphology. The most significant form of Yimas morphology is affixation, with other morphological processes only serving a secondary role in the language. Pronominal prefixes Pronominal affixes on verbs take the place of case markings and word order in other languages. The list of all pronominal prefixes in Yimas, arranged by person, number, and A/O/S function, are below. The first and second person pronouns are included to show the similarity with the S forms. There are no true pronouns for third person since the function is filled by deictics, so these spaces appear empty below. "A" indicates the subject of a transitive verb, "O" indicates the object of a transitive verb, and "S" indicates the subject of an intransitive verb: Ergative-absolutive schema A notable feature of these pronominal prefixes is that all third person pronominal prefixes follow an ergative-absolutive case pattern: the pronominal prefix for the subject of an intransitive verb (marked S) matches the prefix for the object of a transitive verb (marked O), and contrasts with the prefix for the subject of a transitive verb (marked A). Noun class distinctions Nouns' agreement affixes with verbs are often useful for disambiguating the subject and object of a sentence. Consider the following example, where class distinctions specify the prefixes that are appended to the verb: Here, the prefix /k-/ indicates that the object of the verb is a class VI singular noun, and the prefix /n-/ indicates that the subject of the verb is a third-person singular noun. Since 'woman' in Yimas is a class II noun, while 'frog' is a class VI noun, it must be the frog that is the object of the verb 'see,' while 'woman' must be the subject. Dative suffixes and ditransitive verbs Yimas has four ditransitive verbs: /ŋa-/ ('give'), /i-/ ('tell someone'), /tkam-/ ('show'), and /pul-/ ('rub on'). Unlike other verbs, ditransitive verbs allow three pronominal affixes to be appended to them, in order to identify the indirect object or dative case. The dative affixes for first and second person are the same as the first and second person O affixes, but for third person, there is a unique set of dative suffixes. Consider the example below: Notice that the first person singular dative prefix /ŋa-/ is identical to the first person singular O prefix, whereas the third person dual dative suffix /-mpn/ is unique. Tense, aspect, and mood The only verbal affix that is required in Yimas is that which indicates tense. Yimas has an elaborate tense-marking system, as illustrated below for the verb wa- ‘go’. {\| class="wikitable" \| wa-ntut \|\| go- \|\| ‘went more than a few days ago’ \|- \| wa-kiantut \|\| go- \|\| ‘went a few days ago’ \|- \| wa-nan \|\| go- \|\| ‘went yesterday’ \|- \| wa-t \|\| go- \|\| ‘went today’ \|- \| wa-n \|\| go- \|\| ‘going now’ \|- \| wa-wat \|\| go- \|\| ‘usually go’ \|- \| wa-kiak \|\| go- \|\| ‘will go tomorrow’ \|- \| wa-kt \|\| go- \|\| ‘will go after tomorrow’ \|} The tense suffix follows the verb root and precedes the dative suffix (if the dative suffix is applied to the verb). In the following example, the suffix /-ntuk/ indicates that the action takes place in the remote past, and is followed by the dative suffix /-mpun/: Irrealis mood There is a significant distinction between realis and irrealis events in Yimas, which accounts for the main variation in tense suffixes. In particular, the irrealis suffix /-k/ indicates "events which are located outside of the continuum of real time: they must be completely timeless, in the legendary past or in the indefinite future." The irrealis suffix is especially common in Yimas legends. Consider the sentence taken from a Yimas text: Tenses for real events Yimas has eight tenses for real events, which are distinguished by affixes. There are three past tenses: the near past, which is used to describe events that occurred approximately the day before; the remote past, which extends from the legendary past up to three or four days ago; and the far past, which describes events somewhere between the near and the remote past. The near past suffix is /-nan/ in its most basic form. The basic remote past suffixes are /-ntuk/ and /-ntut/. The far past uses the remote past suffix compounded with an additional suffix /-kia/ (so its suffix is /-kiantuk/ or /-kiantut/). The three present tenses are distinguished by aspectual differences, i.e., the level of completion of an action: the present perfective describes completed events; the present imperfective describes ongoing events; and the present habitual describes events that occur regularly, as a scheduled part of people's day. The most basic form of the present perfective suffix is /-r/, although there exists much allomorphic variation. The present imperfective is indicated by the definitive prefix /na-/ and the suffix /-nt/ in its most basic form. The basic form of the present habitual is created using the suffix /-war/. The two future tenses, the near future and the remote future, distinguish between events that occur tomorrow from events that occur farther in the future. The near future suffix is /-kia/, and is either accompanied by the irrealis suffix /-k/ in word final position, or the present suffix /-nt/ if other suffixes follow it. These suffixes must also appear in combination with the definitive prefix /na-/ or the modal prefix /ka-/. The basic suffix for the remote future is /-kr/. Reduplication Yimas uses partial or full reduplication to convey the repetition of an action. In the following example, the root morpheme /ark-/ is the verb meaning ‘break,’ and it is fully reduplicated in order to signify repetition: Below is an example of partial reduplication of the root morpheme /api-/, which means 'put in': Serialization The extensive use of serial verb constructions is another factor that contributes to the verbal morphology of Yimas. There are two types of serial verbs in Yimas. The first type of serial verb is constructed by simple compounding, and conveys the meaning that the two events indicated by the verbs occur concurrently or are causally related. The second type of serial verbs are those that are connected by an intermediary morpheme, and convey the meaning that the two verbs may occur sequentially, but are not strongly causally related. This intermediary morpheme is usually the suffix /-mpi/, which attaches to the first verb, and links sequences of events. Below is an example of the first serial verb type, where the morphemes /kulanaŋ/ 'walk' and /kanta/ 'follow' are juxtaposed to convey that the actions are occurring simultaneously: Below is an example of the second type of serial verb, which utilizes the sequential suffix /-mpi/ to show that the verbs /ak/ 'push' and /wul/ 'put down' occur in succession: Syntax Word order Yimas has very free word order. Since the majority of Yimas clauses consists of just a verb, there are no established word order patterns at all. Consider the following intransitive sentence, which consists of just a verb: Noun phrases do not need to form a constituent on the surface, so nouns can be separated from their modifiers (though the modifiers must then have affixes that identify the noun class of the noun they modify). Below are some different word orders present in Yimas: SOV: OSV: Note that the above sentences only differ in the pronominal prefixes appended to the verb /-tay/ 'see'. These pronominal prefixes identify which noun is the subject of the sentence and which noun is the object. So, using different prefixes on a verb can alter which words are the subject and object, without actually changing the placement of nouns in the sentence. Generally, it is the pronominal affix system for verbs that allows Yimas to have free word order, as expressed in the above examples. Yimas also allows SVO word order: Fixed word orders Although word order in Yimas is extremely free, a few constituents have more rigid word order in many cases: External links Paradisec has an open access collection of Yimas Mambu music. They also have a collection of William Foley's recordings that contain some Yimas material. References Endangered languages of Oceania Endangered Papuan languages Languages of East Sepik Province Lower Sepik languages Severely endangered languages
5252440	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajnarayan%20Chandavarkar	Rajnarayan Chandavarkar	Rajnarayan Chandavarkar (1953 – 23 April 2006) was a reader in the history and politics of South Asia and fellow at Trinity College, Cambridge. Background Chandavarkar's work engaged most directly with the processes involved in the formation of the industrial working classes in Mumbai. He worked toward defining a new interdisciplinary approach for understanding processes of urbanisation, the nexus between the city and the countryside, and the evolution of industrial capitalism. His insights prompted research on a wide range of topics in South Asian social history and politics. This was particularly evident in the work of the research students whom he supervised at Cambridge. A new generation of scholars, who now work in India, the United Kingdom, Israel, Japan, the United States and Canada owes much of its achievements to his mentorship. As a participant in seminars at Cambridge, in international conferences, and in other forms of academic gatherings, he provided inspiration for scholars in fields far removed from his own. Chandavarkar grew up in Bombay before going to England for his advanced education. He completed the final years of his schooling at Lancing College in West Sussex. The rest of his academic career was closely connected to the University of Cambridge in England and to the city of Mumbai. He did his undergraduate studies at Gonville and Caius College from 1973 to 1976, where he was deeply influenced by Gareth Stedman Jones, his undergraduate supervisor. He went on to finish his PhD under the direction of Anil Seal at Trinity College, Cambridge. He became a fellow at Trinity in 1979, and remained associated with the college until his death. He has also served as the director of the Centre for South Asian Studies at Cambridge since 2001. Despite his lifelong association with Cambridge, he maintained strong ties with India, retaining his Indian citizenship, returning frequently to visit and do research, and participating directly in circles related to his intellectual interests, his social commitments and cricket. Beginning his research on Mumbai during the late 1970s, he quickly developed a strong command over the resources available in libraries such as the India Office Library, the Maharashtra State Archives and the Mumbai Police Archives. While he devoured historical materials, he never worshipped 'facts'. He interrogated his records, deconstructed evidence critically, and sought to unravel the wider social and political processes his data revealed. He thus moved far beyond the narrow confinement of a straightforward "empiricism". Nonetheless he was suspicious of any research not based upon the rigorous analysis of archival materials, and he exhorted his students to ground themselves solidly in their sources. Rajnarayan Chandavarkar died of a sudden heart attack on 23 April 2006 at the Dartmouth–Hitchcock Medical Center in Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA. He had been attending a conference at nearby Dartmouth College. At the time of his death, he was fifty-two years old. Publications Publications based upon his dissertation research began to appear in the early 1980s, and scholars of Mumbai's history awaited his study of the city and its working class with considerable anticipation. When The Origins of Industrial Capitalism (1994) first appeared in 1994, it was regarded with a sense of admiration, even awe, in some circles. The book was characterised by formidable research and represented a depth of local historical knowledge that went beyond anything that existed in the labour history of South Asia at the time. Origins challenged many existing interpretations; indeed it questioned the assumptions of what working class history should be. The study reached beyond the industrial workplace and trade unions into the larger informal economy of Mumbai, into the neighbourhoods where workers lived, and out to the rural areas, such as Ratnagiri and the Deccan, from which workers originated. The origins of capitalism, in Chandavarkar's view, lay not just in the initiatives of a few captains of industry but in a host of social forces that all played an active part in shaping the new economic structures of late colonial Mumbai. Origins was followed in 1998 by Imperial Power and Popular Politics. This was a diverse range of essays on industrial capitalism, workers' politics, the police in Mumbai, the plague, colonial discourse and the nature of the colonial state. Some of these essays were as rich empirically as Origins, while others were thought-provoking interpretive pieces. Contributions Together these two books and related articles set out coherent and fundamentally new ways of thinking about the history of western India and its economy. First, Chandavarkar's work offered new understandings of the processes of industrialisation and capitalist transformation. Rather than see the development of large-scale production as a simple matter of technological diffusion from Europe to India or as evidence of the triumph of entrepreneurial pioneers, Chandavarkar placed this process squarely within a historical context conditioned by imperialism, rural poverty, insecure markets, and the agency of workers. He argued that the formation of factories was often a risk-minimizing effort by almost marginal figures in the nineteenth century economy, men who were in positions of subordination to foreign businessmen in the export trades, who faced constant difficulties in mobilising capital, and who rushed around from one form of investment to another in hopes of making quick profits in this uncertain business climate. Chandavarkar especially highlighted the role of the workforce in conditioning the form of industrial capitalism in Mumbai. He saw industrialists and workers as participating in a common theatre of interaction; both sets of actors constrained the other's behaviour. Labour recruitment needs and workers' resistances consistently limited the power of capitalists to develop uniform policies that might have maximised profits; the strategies of industrialists served to promote divisions among their workers. A second set of contributions in these studies lay in their analysis of the social organisation of the working class. He looked at social formations ranging from the workplace to urban neighbourhoods to the workers' rural-urban connections. His research went beyond most previous studies of labour, which had often attempted to identify some kind of solid, enduring structure – whether caste, class, or place of origin – as the essence of working-class society. Chandavarkar viewed workers as involved in an extremely heterogeneous and constantly shifting set of relationships. For example, he thoroughly questioned the dominance of jobbers in working-class society, thus calling into question a major orthodoxy of labour history. He demonstrated that jobbers in Mumbai competed with other figures in workers' neighbourhoods, and their power was limited by their need to satisfy the requirements of their clients. Chandavarkar also argued that there was no straightforward tendency for class-based social ties to develop in the context of industrial employment. Indeed, the characteristics of the workplace and the competition of various leaderships for followings could produce new divisions as well as new unities. In its case for the diffuse, fragile and continuously changing character of social organisation, Chandavarkar's scholarship had profound implications for understanding urban society in South Asia more generally. The third major area of contribution in these books concerned their understanding of working-class politics. Chandavarkar's work stretched beyond the usual studies of labour politics in that it explored not just workers' participation in trade unions and the Communist Party but also their involvement with the full range of groups and parties with which they became affiliated. This approach allowed him to question views that interpreted political developments as evidence of the continuous evolution of "class consciousness" or that, conversely, sought to explain the failure of workers to develop such commitments. Chandavarkar argued persuasively that workers' political affiliations and identities, including those of class, were dynamic and shifting, and were constantly being constructed in changing political contexts. As circumstances changed, workers moved between support for communist, nationalist and communalist organisations, between expressions of extensive activism and relative passivity. "Class" and "Culture" The most controversial aspect of Origins and Imperial Power was perhaps their treatment of "culture". Chandavarkar reacted against approaches that attributed workers' behaviours to "traditional" commitments rooted in rural India. He insisted, for instance, that the maintenance of rural connections should be seen as a strategy for subsistence by workers rather than as evidence of emotional attachments held over from an earlier period. His dissatisfaction with any static representation of workers' culture led him to be a strong critic of some of the members of the Subaltern Studies group. Writing perhaps his most polemical piece in 1997, he insisted: “Caste and kinship ties were vital to the social organization of workers: but so were the affinities of region and religion, workplace and neighbourhood, trade unions and political parties, all of which cut across each other. To insist that the culture of migrant workers was characterized by ‘strong primordial ties of community, language, religion, caste and kinship’ is to obscure the extent to which their interaction produced something quite different and it is to remain blind to the extent to which their ‘culture’ was also informed by work and by politics, and indeed, by the daily struggles of workplace and neighbourhood" (Chandavarkar 1997, p. 187). But as historical research continued to develop more dynamic portraits of working class culture and identity, and as his own scholarship sought to appreciate the growth in enthusiasm on the part of workers for movements of regional chauvinism and communalism, Chandavarkar increasingly acknowledged the role of cultural phenomena and processes in his work and he encouraged his students to deal seriously with cultural issues. Chandavarkar's most important recent work is his introduction (2004) to One Hundred Years, One Hundred Voices: The Millworkers of Girangaon, Neera Adarkar and Meena Menon’s wonderful oral history of the Girangaon neighbourhood in Mumbai. This long essay proved to be far more than an ordinary introduction; it was an original work of research and a sweeping history of the working class in the city from the 1880s to the 1980s that may long remain the standard work on the subject. The essay focused primarily on the transformations of working class allegiances over time, from the height of trade union and Communist activity to the Samyukta Maharashtra and Shiv Sena movements to the Great Strike of 1982. Drawing upon the accounts provided by Adarkar and Menon, it offered a multifaceted explanation for these developments that addressed the rich popular culture of Girangaon, the role of capitalists, the appeals and strategies of different political parties and leaderships, and the workers' own actions and interests. The essay also highlighted the increasing political impotence of workers after 1982. It is probably the work that best reflects the evolution of Chandavarkar's scholarship in recent years. However, several other publications were still in process at the time of his death, including a Modern Asian Studies special issue on labour history he was editing (in which he will have an individual contribution on the decline of jobbers in Mumbai) and a long essay on colonialism and democracy. In recent years, he had become increasingly interested in the larger history of Mumbai. Less than twenty-four hours before his death, he gave a brilliant paper on the city from the seventeenth century to the present in the conference at Dartmouth. Other writing, unfortunately, was probably not so far along, and we fear that much of Chandavarkar's voluminous research in many different areas may now go unpublished. Legacy Chandavarkar also left a rich legacy in South Asian history writing through his students. He mentored about eighteen research students. His intense personality and critical no-nonsense engagement with students' work could be initially overpowering for his tutees but also reflected rich and sincere intellectual mentoring. His relentless criticism often enabled students to develop their ideas more fruitfully and at the same time to form richer research insights. His iconoclasm also facilitated their abilities to question received wisdom about historical theories and his formidable engagement with archival material prepared them to treat evidence in original ways. Chandavarkar's influence is reflected in research by his students in such diverse fields as the politics of the urban poor in the towns of Uttar Pradesh; the interplay of gender, class and community among jute workers in Bengal; and the shifting patterns of community formation and the development of Communism in Malabar. Many of his students explored labour history in the context of new perspectives such as the relationship between nationalism and labour radicalism in Solapur, comparisons between Bengal's jute workers and Dundee's working classes in the context of British imperialism, and the meaning of class in the context of popular movements in the jute mill towns outside Calcutta. Others explored wider fields, including the language of politics and the ideological predilections of nationalists in Uttar Pradesh, and the concerns of the urban middle class in Gujarat during the colonial period. A recent study of communalism in contemporary Ahmedabad sought to unravel the wider theoretical underpinnings of the role of ethnicity in politics. Others of his students have examined the making of regional identity in Orissa, the politics of Tamil Muslims, and childhood and child labour in India. Through his students Chandavarkar not only mentored a new cohort of historians but stimulated scholarship in wide-ranging and eclectic fields, embracing the most diverse aspects of South Asian history. On a more amusing note Chandavarkar had a reputation as a draconian taskmaster. Academic life in Cambridge was rich with the folklore of Chandavarkar's interesting and complex ways of handling his students. Indeed, according to rumour, one student of Chandavarkar hid under a bridge to evade him and another calibrated her movement in Trinity College by spotting his car. For his part Chandavarkar jokingly blamed his students for his proverbial ever-receding hairline. However, his students' loyalty and deeply held affection for their supervisor created lasting bonds between them and their intellectual mentor. He warned them not to rush for the most fashionable product in the market, and he encouraged them to explore beyond what is apparent. This serious, critical spirit of enquiry and refusal to compromise his own firmly held convictions remains a lasting legacy of Chandavarkar. References Subho Basu, Douglas Haynes, "Rajnarayan Chandavarkar (1953–2006): An Intellectual Biography", Economic and Political Weekly, Mumbai, June 2006. Rajnarayan Chandavarkar (1994), The Origins of Industrial Capitalism: Business Strategies and the Working Classes in Bombay, 1900–1940. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rajnarayan Chandavarkar (1997), ‘The Making of the Indian Working Class’; E.P. Thompson and Indian History" History Workshop Journal, Spring 1997 (no. 43). Rajnarayan Chandavarkar (1998), Imperial Power and Popular Politics: Class, Resistance and The State in India, c. 1850–1950, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rajnarayan Chandavarkar (2004), "From Neighbourhood to Nation: The Rise and Fall of the Left in Bombay's Girangaon in the Twentieth Century", introductory essay from Meena Menon and Neera Adarkar, One Hundred Years, One Hundred Voices: The Mill Workers of Girangaon: An Oral History, Calcutta: Seagull Books, 2004. Other Links Trinity College, Cambridge Centre of South Asian Studies, University of Cambridge Social Science Research Council Memoriam by Itty Abraham Tribute by Dilip D'Souza 1953 births 2006 deaths Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Indian Hindus Historians of Southeast Asia Historians of South Asia Indian emigrants to England Indian institute directors People educated at Lancing College Scientists from Mumbai 20th-century Indian historians Academics of the University of Cambridge
5252615	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Off%20the%20derech	Off the derech	Off the derech (, pronounced: , meaning: path) (OTD) is a Yeshiva-English expression used to describe the state of a Jew who has left an Orthodox way of life or community, and whose new lifestyle is secular, non-Jewish, or of a non-Orthodox form of Judaism, as part of a contemporary social phenomenon tied to the Digital, Postmodern and Post-postmodern eras. In its broadest sense it can also include those changing to a milder form of Orthodoxy. Despite the term's pejorative and controversially dichotomic and definitive nature, it has become popular in use among Orthodox people, is found in mainstream literature, and has also been reclaimed by some OTD individuals. Leaving Orthodoxy, especially the Haredi community, is largely reported to be a difficult experience emotionally, socially and financially, often involving multiple risks and losses. The combined findings of a significant body of studies which have examined a wide and varied array of reasons given for leaving suggest that exiting is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon which can be defined in several ways: disaffiliation as immigration, as apostasy, as liberation from a coercive group, and as standing for one’s identity, though a common denominator between the narratives is an intensity in the individuals' desire to leave, underscored by their readiness to pay the high price involved. The OTD phenomenon is of interest to Orthodox Jews, non-Orthodox Jews, members of the general public, and the exiters themselves, bringing forth variable representations and narratives which are expressed in forms of memoirs, podcasts, studies, film & TV, and opinion pieces. Aggregations of ex-Orthodox individuals may comprise a social movement. Reports show the rates of attrition from Orthodox Judaism in the US and the UK to be at 33%-52%, and US data appears to show a decline in falloff when comparing those born between with older people. Similar or bigger trends in leaving religion exist in Islam, the LDS movement, and evangelical Christianity. Background Terminology Derech, Hebrew for “path” or “way,” bears a religious connotation: those on the path, who follow the derech, ascribe to both ancient and modern rabbinic authority which determines a way of communal and private life. In Orthodox Judaism where halakha (Jewish law) is deemed as the ultimate authority on how to lead a good and morally upstanding life, living by its code demonstrates one's commitment and is necessary for belonging within certain communities. The term 'Off the derech''' originated within Haredi communities to describe a physical move away from family and peers as well as abandonment of these dearly held religious, ethical, and cultural principles. With the high level of existential importance maintained for the individual and the community at whole to keep upon the derech, the term in its original setting is one of assignation and disapproval, even when not translated into active shunning of the individual. Among exiters, some reject the term because of its history, negative valence, and meaning within Orthodox communities, others reject it as a term that gives credence to perceived religious superiority, or a false binary of one being either on or off, and yet many reclaim it, using it as a convenient shorthand for a specific orientation, or even as a defiant phrase - celebrating its meaning of subversiveness but empty of the stigmatization. Alternatives used are XO, signifying "Ex-Orthodox" while also playing on a term for "love"; Ex-Jew, found in blogs; Ex-Hasidic, or Ex-Haredi, popular and offering a more specific indication of one’s native community; and Apikoros, derived from the Greek philosopher Epicurus, first invoked in rabbinic Mishnaic literature, often used a slur by community members, its meaning has since extended to loosely include anyone who expresses a view regarded not only as heretical but even as heterodox. For better or worse, 'Off the derech' has become the most commonly used term among Jews of current or previous Orthodox affiliation to describe an act of departure from a native Jewish religious lifestyle, and is also increasingly used within mainstream parlance, blogging, journalism and scholarship to identify a brand of secularism born out of a lived experience within a rigidly Orthodox home and community. In Modern Hebrew, the process of halting or decreasing religious observance is known as yetziah besheelah. This term, loosely translated as "leaving in question," plays on "returning in repentance", the popular term for those who move in the other direction by becoming Orthodox after being raised without Orthodoxy. History of religious attrition Movement away from traditional religious practices and communities toward secularity has a rich tradition in modern Jewish and Jewish American literature, much of which is echoed in the OTD movement. The Haskalah, the Jewish Enlightenment in Europe that ran parallel in time to the European Enlightenment, was similarly, on a greater scale, a determined move toward secularization that challenged rabbinic authority, and comparable to the Digital Age, arose in an era of unprecedented opportunities for participation in the non Jewish world and access to diverse bodies of knowledge. Early 20th century American Jewish immigrant stories too bear strong similarities to the contemporary trend, consistently telling of an initial departure from a native community usually located in Eastern Europe or Russia, followed by a secondary departure from their religious and cultural practices. Nevertheless, OTD literature distinguishes itself as "a movement that originates in the Postmodern world and moves toward, if anything, one that is Post-postmodern", bringing with it its own unique sociological and anthropological aspects. Demographics United States A 2013 survey on American Jews conducted by the Pew Research Center which included more than 500 Orthodox participants, found that 52% of Jewish adults who were raised Orthodox, were no longer Orthodox. When subdivided by age, it found that it was 17% for those under the age of 30, 43% for those aged 30-49, 59% for those aged 50–64, and 78% for those aged 65 and above. Some experts think that the higher attrition rate in the older age groups is possibly "a period effect in which people who came of age during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s left Orthodoxy in large numbers." A subsequent 2020 study found the attrition rate to be at 33%. This lower rate may be due (at least in part) to the fact that in this study the sample of adults who were raised as Orthodox Jews includes a larger percentage of people under the age of 30. United Kingdom The JPR's preliminary research report from the 2013 National Jewish Community Survey, showed that 36% of participants who were raised Central Orthodox, were no longer Orthodox (an additional 6% had gone "right" to Haredi Orthodoxy). There was no data available to demonstrate shifts in the British Haredi community. Reasons for leaving One study by Roni Berger found four milestones common in the narratives of study participants: 1) initial questioning; 2) growing doubts; 3) beginning to share selectively with a small group of trusted others; 4) revealing a new and altered identity. This process of religious disaffiliation is echoed by Helen Rose Fuchs Ebaugh (1988) in an article about ex-nuns. In the case of nuns, Ebuagh says the process is 1) first doubts; 2) seeking and weighing role alternatives; 3) a turning point; 4) establishing an ex-role identity. Lynn Davidman's book acknowledges the often messy process of leaving, including a period of "passing" when individuals would move between two worlds. This period is characterized by confusion, doubts, depression, and defiance, but also by self-confidence and courage to leave the regimented world they grew up in and begin to live in another world. In addition, because of the community's insularity, some people who experience the first stages of doubt, confusion, and depression don't see a way out and instead reconcile themselves to remaining. An individual's decision to discontinue practicing Orthodox Judaism is likely based on the presence of one or more of three key causes: emotional, intellectual, or implementational issues. Nishma Research carried out a survey of OTD individuals in 2016, which recorded a widely-varied and complex set of reasons people give for leaving, and the process in which they do so. The Nishma study, as well as a study by Faranak Margolese, who wrote the book, Off the Derech: Why Observant Jews Leave Judaism; How to Respond to the Challenge, came to the conclusion that: "Most formerly observant Jews today seem to have left, not [or, in the Nishma study - not so much] because the outside world pulled them in, but, rather, because the observant one pushed them out. They experienced Judaism as a source of pain ... so they did what was natural: go in the other direction." These and other studies point to the social and emotional aspect of Haredi Judaism, and individuals' feelings of being silenced, marginalized, or ignored within the rigid social structure. Some selected reasons revealed by these studies include bad behavior and perceived hypocrisy in the community, especially from community leaders; oppressive community norms; experiencing religious observance as a condition for parents' or teachers' love or approval; experiencing molestation, rape, or other sexual abuse; difficulty reconciling strict interpretations of Torah and Talmud with knowledge of natural science; disbelief that the Torah or Jewish path is correct. Sexual abuse is indeed found to be reported among OTD individuals at a much higher rate than among the overall Orthodox and general population. According to a study by Rosmarin et al. (2018), compared to currently Orthodox and those never affiliated with Orthodox Judaism, formerly Orthodox people were more than four times as likely to report involuntary childhood sex. J Engelman et al.'s 2019 study on OTD adults reports that 25% of male respondents and 30% of female respondents said that they had experienced sexual abuse within Orthodox Jewish communities, though the questioning was not specific enough to determine the prevalence of sexual abuse in minors. Orthodox views of OTD people "People going off the derech" was collectively ranked by Haredi respondents in a 2023 survey as the third to fourth "top communal priority for the next decade"; Modern Orthodox responses placed it as priority number twelve. Attrition from Orthodoxy is seen by the family and the Orthodox community at large as a serious problem for Jews as it threatens the Orthodox population of Jews, causes assimilation, and breaks the intergenerational chain of the Orthodox traditions and laws for living. Attitudes of Orthodox individuals and leaders toward those who have left range from considering them heretics to be shunned and/or mourned as dead (the latter having fallen out of vogue more recently), to regarding them as being wayward people in pain who must be shown love; showing love to those perceived as being in pain is most often seen in regard to teens. In the view of Haredi leadership and Haredi psychologists, questions of faith are a symptom of abuse, depression, anxiety, addiction or life problems, and through addressing these issues one is likely to return to their former beliefs. For this reason, when a person loses faith Haredi leadership involves these experts to treat them for emotional problems, such that these individuals are pathologized for their inability or unwillingness to conform. "At risk", a term generally used for minors and adolescents in terms of protection and physical or mental risk, was adapted by Orthodox people to include those at a "spiritual risk" involving a decline in observance, a decline in spiritual beliefs, and violation of socio-cultural norms and rules, elements which can manifest into leaving Orthodox Judaism. Many former Haredim speak of having been ostracized by their families, although it is also not uncommon for families to retain close ties with such children. Steinberg's study (2021), which focused on OTD individuals who originate from the Yeshivish (Lithuanian Haredi) sect, concludes that "In the Yeshivish world it appears that [the family] remaining close, not cutting off a child because they are OTD, is a pattern and not an exception". In a Mishpacha interview with Shimon Schneebalg, a Hasidic Rabbi in Israel, the Rabbi addressed parents of OTD children, encouraging them to fully accept that their child has taken "a different path", and to love their child unconditionally. In 2018, in what the Jerusalem Post termed a "remarkable" video, Rabbi Gershon Eidelstein was filmed saying that parents of an OTD son should not reprimand their child for bringing a girlfriend into the home or lighting a cigarette on shabbos. Agudath Israel of America, a leading ultra-Orthodox organization, addresses the topic of individuals leaving Orthodox Judaism often. At their national conventions in 2015 and 2016, they addressed the topic in panels titled "OTD: Why Do They Leave? And What Can We Do About It?", and "Diving Off The Derech: The Emerging Adult At Risk Phenomenon". For those who leave and are married with children, the community tends to embrace the spouse left behind and help raise funds for legal support to help that person retain custody of the children, sometimes accomplished through community emergency fundraising appeals which are backed by the Haredi community leadership. One such event in 2016 in Stamford Hill, London was graced by the presence of senior rebbes who had flown in from Israel to attend, which helped to attract a reported 1,500 strong attendance, each of whom were asked for a minimum donation of £500. A flyer calling to the event contained a letter from Rabbi Ephraim Padwa, spiritual head of the UOHC, in which he wrote: "To our great pain, and our misfortune, our community finds itself in a terrible situation – 17 of our pure and holy children where one of the parents, God rescue them, have gone out into an evil culture, and want to drag their children after them." Orthodox leaders and parents have set up organizations to counsel those whose relatives are OTD. Some of the organizations include Project Yes, MASK (Mothers and Fathers Aligned Saving Kids). Additionally, Shabbatons, groups, and events are organized to support parents dealing with an OTD child. Rabbis and leaders also provide support and advice for children whose parents have left Orthodoxy. Haredi community members interviewed by the BBC "argue[d] that the stories of people who leave cast the community - a vulnerable minority at risk of anti-semitic attack - in a bad light and that it’s unfair." A hashtag trend #MyOrthodoxLife followed the release of the 2021 reality TV show My Unorthodox Life'', and similar campaigns often arise when OTD narratives are in the spotlight. Post-disaffiliation issues Multiple hardships and losses are involved in one's process of disaffiliation from Orthodox Jewish communities, especially from Haredi Orthodoxy, which can include loss of family, loss of employment, divorce, loss of custody of children, and loss of community and social structure. Additionally, those who leave must adjust and acculturate to new ways of life and thinking outside of their communities of origin. Psychological Individuals who leave ultra-Orthodox Judaism often face rejection from friends and family members. This knowledge often leads individuals who have doubts to first try to reconcile their doubts, in order to avoid the risk of losing family and friends. These individuals are generally pathologized by community leaders and experts and this attitude can often cause them to doubt their own sanity for having questions. At this stage, individuals often experience anxiety and depression. Some contemplate, attempt, or commit suicide. Faigy Mayer's 2015 suicide was covered by some media outlets, which led to a spate of think-pieces about OTD suicides. Although reports of a higher than average suicide rate among OTD have been heard, experts have highlighted that they are anecdotal, with no statistical data available to back up the claims. Leaving any faith-based community often has traumatic effects; for many, losing a lifelong sense of reliance and security through believing in divine providence can be a difficult adjustment. OTD individuals also struggle with ingrained ideas about God's punishment, often leading to extreme feelings of guilt. Guilt among questioning individuals sometimes leads them to commit self-harm as a way of punishing themselves for perceived wrongs towards God, family and community. While psychological effects can be overwhelming in the initial years after leaving, the majority of OTD individuals report attaining their desired objectives in leaving. In Engelman's 2019 survey, 59% reported that they accomplished the goals they expected by leaving; 30% reported that they somewhat accomplished those goals; and 11% reported that they did not accomplish those goals. Social Leaving the community entails adjusting to a secular world where attitudes to many subjects are different and social life works differently. Some find it hard to adapt to aspects of the general public's day to day lifestyle, which can leave them with feelings of inadequacy and alienation. Leaving a close-knit community where every member of the community is taken care of is often financially challenging as well. Individuals who leave ultra-Orthodox communities often have difficulty maintaining contact with families who may disapprove of their choices. To counteract the feelings of isolation and alienation, many individuals form groups of friends who get together for Shabbat dinners and other practices with cultural significance. Some Orthodox Jews remain in the community despite losing their faith. In the 2016 Nishma survey of OTD individuals, 33% of the respondents reported that they were posing as religious. These people are sometimes referred to as Reverse Marranos, double-lifers, in the closet OTD, or Orthoprax Jews. The decision to stay is often influenced by fear of being ostracized and having to rebuild community, or by fear of losing one's spouse and/or children. Many of these individuals join online communities of people of OTD experience, often using pseudonyms to avoid being outed. 39% of double-lifers say it is likely they will leave their community at some point. Some OTD individuals have become activists by founding, or volunteering within, organizations which advocate for specific changes within the community. Some examples include ZAAKAH, which works to prevent child sexual abuse; YAFFED, which advocates for basic secular education among ultra-Orthodox Jews especially amid Hasidim; and JQY, which focuses on LGBTQ+ causes. Ex-Orthodox organizations Many formerly Orthodox individuals seek community and discussion about their former beliefs and new lives in online and in-person groups. A number of OTD organizations have emerged; Footsteps, founded in New York in December 2003, provides educational, vocational, and social support to people who have left or want to leave a Haredi or Hasidic community in the United States. is its equivalent in Israel, and Mavar and Gesher in the UK. Freidom, a non-profit in the US, provides social support and cultural guidance via programs and events. Project Makom was founded in July 2014 by the nonprofit Jew in the City, and "helps former and questioning Charedi Jews find their place in Orthodoxy". Informal communities have also developed on websites, blogs, and Facebook groups. In popular culture In the first few decades of the twenty-first century, a number of stories of people leaving Orthodox Judaism have gained a degree of fame in the general public's eye. Fictional and autobiographical narratives existed in smaller numbers in the twentieth century. The genre of "OTD literature" is much debated among ex-Orthodox individuals and scholars who study the phenomenon, with some who consider writings of the haskalah to be part of this corpus and some who define the genre as belonging to a particular historical moment beginning in the twentieth century. See also Apostasy in Judaism Baal teshuva, a Jew raised in a non-observant family who becomes observant as an adult Ex-Mormon Ex-Muslims Exvangelical Frum, to describe observant Jews Heresy in Judaism Jewish atheism Jewish Buddhists Jewish secularism Reverse Marranos Religious disaffiliation References Further reading Disengagement from religion Heresy in Judaism Jewish atheism Jewish society Orthodox Judaism Secular Jewish culture Anti-Orthodox Judaism sentiment
5254118	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retail%20marketing	Retail marketing	Once the strategic plan is in place, retail managers turn to the more managerial aspects of planning. A retail mix is devised for the purpose of coordinating day-to-day tactical decisions. The retail marketing mix typically consists of six broad decision layers including product decisions, place decisions, promotion, price, personnel and presentation (also known as physical evidence). The retail mix is loosely based on the marketing mix, but has been expanded and modified in line with the unique needs of the retail context. A number of scholars have argued for an expanded marketing, mix with the inclusion of two new Ps, namely, Personnel and Presentation since these contribute to the customer's unique retail experience and are the principal basis for retail differentiation. Yet other scholars argue that the Retail Format (i.e. retail formula) should be included. The modified retail marketing mix that is most commonly cited in textbooks is often called the 6 Ps of retailing (see diagram at right). Product See Product management The primary product-related decisions facing the retailer are the product assortment (what product lines, how many lines and which brands to carry); the type of customer service (high contact through to self-service) and the availability of support services (e.g. credit terms, delivery services, after sales care). These decisions depend on careful analysis of the market, demand, competition as well as the retailer's skills and expertise. Product assortment The term product assortment refers to the combination of both product breadth and depth. The main characteristics of a company's product assortment are: (1) the length or number of products lines the number of different products carried by a store (2) the breadth refers to the variety of product lines that a store offers. It is also known as product assortment width, merchandise breadth, and product line width.: (3) depth or number of product varieties within a product line the number of each item or particular styles carried by a store (4) consistency how products relate to each other in a retail environment. For a retailer, finding the right balance between breadth and depth can be a key to success. An average supermarket might carry 30,000–60,000 different product lines (product length or assortment), but might carry up to 100 different types of toothpaste (product depth). Speciality retailers typically carry fewer product lines, perhaps as few as 20 lines, but will normally stock greater depth. Costco, for example, carries 5,000 different lines while Aldi carries just 1,400 lines per store. Large assortments offer consumers many benefits, notably increased choice and the possibility that the consumer will be able to locate the ideal product. However, for the retailer, larger assortments incur costs in terms of record-keeping, managing inventory, pricing and risks associated with wastage due to spoiled, shopworn or unsold stock. Carrying more stock also exposes the retailer to higher risks in terms of slow-moving stock and lower sales per square foot of store space. On the other hand, reducing the number of product lines can generate cost savings through increased stock turnover by eliminating slow-moving lines, fewer stockouts, increased bargaining power with suppliers, reduced costs associated with wastage and carrying inventory, and higher sales per square foot which means more efficient space utilisation. When determining the number of product lines to carry, the retailer must consider the store type, store's physical storage capacity, the perishability of items, expected turnover rates for each line and the customer's needs and expectations. Customer service and supporting services Customer service is the "sum of acts and elements that allow consumers to receive what they need or desire from [the] retail establishment." Retailers must decide whether to provide a full service outlet or minimal service outlet, such as no-service in the case of vending machines; self-service with only basic sales assistance or a full service operation as in many boutiques and speciality stores. In addition, the retailer needs to make decisions about sales support such as customer delivery and after sales customer care. Retailing services may also include the provision of credit, delivery services, advisory services, exchange/ return services, product demonstration, special orders, customer loyalty programs, limited-scale trial, advisory services and a range of other supporting services. Retail stores often seek to differentiate along customer service lines. For example, some department stores offer the services of a stylist; a fashion advisor, to assist customers selecting a fashionable wardrobe for the forthcoming season, while smaller boutiques may allow regular customers to take goods home on approval, enabling the customer to try out goods before making the final purchase. The variety of supporting services offered is known as the service type. At one end of the spectrum, self-service operators offer few basic support services. At the other end of the spectrum, full-service operators offer a broad range of highly personalised customer services to augment the retail experience. When making decisions about customer service, the retailer must balance the customer's desire for full-service against the customer's willingness to pay for the cost of delivering supporting services. Self-service is a very cost efficient way of delivering services since the retailer harnesses the customers labour power to carry out many of the retail tasks. However, many customers appreciate full service and are willing to pay a premium for the benefits of full-service. A sales assistant's role typically includes greeting customers, providing product and service-related information, providing advice about products available from current stock, answering customer questions, finalising customer transactions and if necessary, providing follow-up service necessary to ensure customer satisfaction. For retail store owners, it is extremely important to train personnel with the requisite skills necessary to deliver excellent customer service. Such skills may include product knowledge, inventory management, handling cash and credit transactions, handling product exchange and returns, dealing with difficult customers and of course, a detailed knowledge of store policies. The provision of excellent customer service creates more opportunities to build enduring customer relationships with the potential to turn customers into sources of referral or retail advocates. In the long term, excellent customer service provides businesses with an ongoing reputation and may lead to a competitive advantage. Customer service is essential for several reasons. Firstly, customer service contributes to the customer's overall retail experience. Secondly, evidence suggests that a retail organization that trains its employees in appropriate customer service benefits more than those who do not. Customer service training entails instructing personnel in the methods of servicing the customer that will benefit corporations and businesses. It is important to establish a bond amongst customers-employees known as Customer relationship management. Types of customer service There are several ways the retailer can deliver services to consumers: Counter service, where goods are out of reach of buyers and must be obtained from the seller. This type of retail is common for small expensive items (e.g. jewellery) and controlled items like medicine and liquor. Curbside pickup, where orders are placed online, via a mobile app, or called in, then the customer picks up the product on the property of but outside of the physical store. The coronavirus pandemic is making curbside pickup much more valuable to customers Ship to Store, where products are ordered online and can be picked up at the retailer's main store Delivery, where goods are shipped directly to consumer's homes or workplaces. Mail order from a printed catalogue was invented in 1744 and was common in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Ordering by telephone was common in the 20th century, either from a catalog, newspaper, television advertisement or a local restaurant menu, for immediate service (especially for pizza delivery), remaining in common use for food orders. Internet shopping – a form of delivery – has eclipsed phone-ordering, and, in several sectors – such as books and music – all other forms of buying. There is increasing competitor pressure to deliver consumer goods – especially those offered online – in a more timely fashion. Large online retailers such as Amazon.com are continually innovating and as of 2015 offer one-hour delivery in certain areas. They are also working with drone technology to provide consumers with more efficient delivery options. Direct marketing, including telemarketing and television shopping channels, are also used to generate telephone orders. started gaining significant market share in developed countries in the 2000s. Door-to-door sales, where the salesperson sometimes travels with the goods for sale. Self-service, where goods may be handled and examined prior to purchase. Digital delivery or Download, where intangible goods, such as music, film, and electronic books and subscriptions to magazines, are delivered directly to the consumer in the form of information transmitted either over wires or air-waves and is reconstituted by a device which the consumer controls (such as an MP3 player; see digital rights management). The digital sale of models for 3D printing also fits here, as do the media leasing types of services, such as streaming. Place Place decisions are primarily concerned with consumer access and may involve location, space utilisation and operating hours. Location Also see Site selection The perspective of marketing in large-scale enterprises is based on the theory of supply chain management; it emphasizes that the suppliers, large-scale retail enterprises, and customers form a chain of cooperative marketing that establishes mutually beneficial long-term relationships. Relationship marketing of huge retail enterprises from the perspective of supply chain mainly includes two relationship markets, supplier relationships, and customer relationships, as the two greatest influences on retail profits are suppliers and customers. First, as the supplier of commodities to retail enterprises, it directly determines the procurement cost of commodities to retail enterprises, which is mainly reflected in the purchase price of commodities themselves, the cost incurred in the procurement process, and the loss cost caused by unstable supply of commodities. In addition, the good relationship with supplier interaction, large retail enterprises can also promote the suppliers timely grasp the market information, improved or innovative products according to customer demand, which contributed to the retail enterprises improve the market competitiveness of the goods are sold, so the retail enterprise's relationship with the supplier directly affects the retail enterprises in the commodity market competitive. Second, due to the transfer of advantages between buyers and sellers, the retail industry has turned to the buyer's market, and consumers have become the key resources for major retailers to compete with each other. Therefore, it is very important to establish a good relationship with clients and improve customer loyalty. The relationship marketing of customer relationship market regards the transaction with clients as a long term activity. Retail enterprises should pursue long-term mutual benefit maximization rather than a single transaction sales profit maximization. This requires large retail enterprises to establish a customer-oriented trading relationship with the customer relationship market. Retail stores are typically located where market opportunities are optimal – high traffic areas, central business districts. Selecting the right site can be a major success factor. When evaluating potential sites, retailers often carry out a trade area analysis; a detailed analysis designed to approximate the potential patronage area. Techniques used in trade area analysis include: Radial (ring) studies; Gravity models and Drive time analyses. In addition, retailers may consider a range of both qualitative and quantitative factors to evaluate to potential sites under consideration: Macro factors Macro factors include market characteristics (demographic, economic and socio-cultural), demand, competition and infrastructure (e.g. the availability of power, roads, public transport systems) Micro factors Micro factors include the size of the site (e.g. availability of parking), access for delivery vehicles Channels A major retail trend has been the shift to multi-channel retailing. To counter the disruption caused by online retail, many bricks and mortar retailers have entered the online retail space, by setting up online catalogue sales and e-commerce websites and apps. However, many retailers have noticed that consumers behave differently when shopping online. For instance, in terms of choice of online platform, shoppers tend to choose the online site of their preferred retailer initially, but as they gain more experience in online shopping, they become less loyal and more likely to switch to other retail sites. Online stores are usually available 24 hours a day, and many consumers in Western countries have Internet access both at work and at home. The COVID-19 pandemic has greatly accelerated shoppers move to online grocery shopping, and has led substantial growth in online grocery shopping. As a result, retailers have began to invest more in their online platforms and to use the benefits of online shopping such as personalizations, AI, and machine-learning models to help them better understand their customer in all the various channels users can now shop from. Pricing strategy and tactics See also Pricing Strategies The broad pricing strategy is normally established in the company's overall strategic plan. In the case of chain stores, the pricing strategy would be set by head office. Broadly, there are six approaches to pricing strategy mentioned in the marketing literature: Operations-oriented pricing: where the objective is to optimise productive capacity, to achieve operational efficiencies, or to match supply and demand through varying prices. In some cases, prices might be set to demarket. Revenue-oriented pricing: (also known as profit-oriented pricing or cost-based pricing) – where the marketer seeks to maximise the profits (i.e., the surplus income over costs) or simply to cover costs and break even. Customer-oriented pricing: where the objective is to maximise the number of customers; encourage cross-selling opportunities or to recognise different levels in the customer's ability to pay. Value-based pricing: (also known as image-based pricing) occurs where the company uses prices to signal market value or associates price with the desired value position in the mind of the buyer. The aim of value-based pricing is to reinforce the overall positioning strategy e.g. premium pricing posture to pursue or maintain a luxury image. Relationship-oriented pricing: where the marketer sets prices in order to build or maintain relationships with existing or potential customers. Socially-oriented pricing: Where the objective is to encourage or discourage specific social attitudes and behaviours. e.g. high tariffs on tobacco to discourage smoking. Pricing tactics When decision-makers have determined the broad approach to pricing (i.e., the pricing strategy), they turn their attention to pricing tactics. Tactical pricing decisions are shorter term prices, designed to accomplish specific short-term goals. The tactical approach to pricing may vary from time to time, depending on a range of internal considerations (e.g. the need to clear surplus inventory) or external factors (e.g. a response to competitive pricing tactics). Accordingly, a number of different pricing tactics may be employed in the course of a single planning period or across a single year. Typically store managers have the necessary latitude to vary prices on individual lines provided that they operate within the parameters of the overall strategic approach. Retailers must also plan for customer preferred payment modes – e.g. cash, credit, lay-by, Electronic Funds Transfer at Point-of-Sale (EFTPOS). All payment options require some type of handling and attract costs. If credit is to be offered, then credit terms will need to be determined. If lay-by is offered, then the retailer will need to take into account the storage and handling requirements. If cash is the dominant mode of payment, the retailer will need to consider small change requirements, the number of cash floats required, wages costs associated with handling large volumes of cash and the provision of secure storage for change floats. Large retailers, handling significant volumes of cash, may need to hire security service firms to carry the day's takings and deliver supplies of small change. A small, but increasing number of retailers are beginning to accept newer modes of payment including PayPal and Bitcoin. For example, Subway (US) recently announced that it would accept Bitcoin payments. Contrary to common misconception, price is not the most important factor for consumers, when deciding to buy a product. Pricing tactics that are commonly used in retail include: Discount pricing Discount pricing is where the marketer or retailer offers a reduced price. Discounts in a variety of forms – e.g. quantity discounts, loyalty rebates, seasonal discounts, periodic or random discounts etc. Everyday low prices (EDLP) Everyday low prices refers to the practice of maintaining a regular low price-low price – in which consumers are not forced to wait for discounting or specials. This method is extensively used by supermarkets. High-low pricing High-low pricing refers to the practice of offering goods at a high price for a period of time, followed by offering the same goods at a low price for a predetermined time. This practice is widely used by chain stores selling homewares. The main disadvantage of the high-low tactic is that consumers tend to become aware of the price cycles and time their purchases to coincide with a low-price cycle. Loss leader A loss leader is a product that has a price set below the operating margin. Loss leaders are widely used in supermarkets and budget-priced retail outlets where it is intended to generate store traffic. The low price is widely promoted and the store is prepared to take a small loss on an individual item, with an expectation that it will recoup that loss when customers purchase other higher priced-higher margin items. In service industries, the practice sometimes consists charging a reduced price on the first order as an inducement and with anticipation of charging higher prices on subsequent orders. Price bundling Price bundling (also known as product bundling) occurs where two or more products or services are priced as a package with a single price. There are several types of bundles: pure bundles where the goods can only be purchased as a package or mixed bundles where the goods can be purchased individually or as a package. The prices of the bundle are typically less than when the two items are purchased separately. Price bundling is extensively used in the personal care sector to price cosmetics and skincare. Price lining Price lining is the use of a limited number of prices for all products offered by a business. Price lining is a tradition started in the old five and dime stores in which everything cost either 5 or 10 cents. In price lining, the price remains constant but the quality or extent of product or service adjusted to reflect changes in cost. The underlying rationale of this tactic is that these amounts are seen as suitable price points for a whole range of products by prospective customers. It has the advantage of ease of administering, but the disadvantage of inflexibility, particularly in times of inflation or unstable prices. Price lining continues to be widely used in department stores where customers often note racks of garments or accessories priced at predetermined price points e.g. separate racks of men's ties, where each rack is priced at $10, $20 and $40. Promotional pricing Promotional pricing is a temporary measure that involves setting prices at levels lower than normally charged for a good or service. Promotional pricing is sometimes a reaction to unforeseen circumstances, as when a downturn in demand leaves a company with excess stocks; or when competitive activity is making inroads into market share or profits. Psychological pricing Psychological pricing is a range of tactics designed to have a positive psychological impact. Price tags using the terminal digit "9", ($9.99, $19.99 or $199.99) can be used to signal price points and bring an item in at just under the consumer's reservation price. Psychological pricing is widely used in a variety of retail settings. Personnel and staffing Because patronage at a retail outlet varies, flexibility in scheduling is desirable. Employee scheduling software is sold, which, using known patterns of customer patronage, more or less reliably predicts the need for staffing for various functions at times of the year, day of the month or week, and time of day. Usually needs vary widely. Conforming staff utilization to staffing needs requires a flexible workforce which is available when needed but does not have to be paid when they are not, part-time workers; as of 2012 70% of retail workers in the United States were part-time. This may result in financial problems for the workers, who while they are required to be available at all times if their work hours are to be maximized, may not have sufficient income to meet their family and other obligations. Selling and sales techniques Also see Personal selling Retailers can employ different techniques to enhance sales volume and to improve the customer experience: Add-on, Upsell or Cross-sell. Upselling and cross-selling are sometimes known as suggestive selling. When the consumer has selected their main purchase, sales assistants can try to sell the customer on a premium brand or higher quality item (up-selling) or can suggest complementary purchases (cross-selling). For instance, if a customer purchases a non-stick frypan, the sales assistant might suggest plastic slicers that do not damage the non-stick surface. Selling on value Skilled sales assistants find ways to focus on value rather than price. Selling on value often involves identifying a product’s unique features. Adding value to goods or services such as a free gift or buy 1 get 1 free adds value to customers whereas the store is gaining sales Know when to close the sale Sales staff must learn to recognise when the customer is ready to make a purchase. If the sales person feels that the customer is ready, then they may seek to gain commitment and close the sale. Experienced sales staff soon learn to recognise specific verbal and non-verbal cues that signal the client's readiness to buy. For instance, if a customer begins to handle the merchandise, this may indicate a state of buyer interest. Clients also tend to employ different types of questions throughout the sales process. General questions such as, "Does it come in any other colours (or styles)?" indicate only a moderate level of interest. However, when clients begin to ask specific questions, such as "Do you have this model in black?" then this often indicates that the prospect is approaching readiness to buy. When the sales person believes that the prospective buyer is ready to make the purchase, a trial close might be used to test the waters. A trial close is simply any attempt to confirm the buyer's interest in finalising the sale. An example of a trial close, is "Would you be requiring our team to install the unit for you?" or "Would you be available to take delivery next Thursday?" If the sales person is unsure about the prospect's readiness to buy, they might consider using a 'trial close.' The salesperson can use several different techniques to close the sale; including the ‘alternative close’, the ‘assumptive close’, the ‘summary close’, or the ‘special-offer close’, among others. Promotion In the 1980s, the customary sales concept in the retail industry began to show many disadvantages. Many transactions cost too much, and the industry was unable to retain customers as it only paid attention to the process of a single transaction rather than to marketing for customer development and maintenance. The traditional marketing theory holds that transactions are one-time value exchange processes and the means of exchanging goods needed by both parties. Accordingly, when the transaction is completed, the relationship between the two parties will also end, so the theory is called "transactional marketing". Transactional marketing aims to find target consumers, then negotiate, trade, and finally end relationships to complete the transaction. In this one-time transaction process, both parties aim to maximize their own interests. As a result, transactional marketing raises follow-up problems such as poor after-sales service quality and a lack of feedback channels for both parties. In addition, because retail enterprises needed to redevelop client relationships for each transaction, marketing costs were high and customer retention was low. All these downsides to transactional marketing gradually pushed the retail industry towards establishing long-term cooperative relationships with customers. Through this lens, enterprises began to focus on the process from transaction to relationship. While expanding the sales market and attracting new customers is very important for the retail industry, it is also important to establish and maintain long term good relationships with previous customers, hence the name of the underlying concept, "relational marketing". Under this concept, retail enterprises value and attempt to improve relationships with customers, as customer relationships are conducive to maintaining stability in the current competitive retail market, and are also the future of retail enterprises. One of the unique aspects of retail promotions is that two brands are often involved; the store brand and the brands that make up the retailer's product range. Retail promotions that focus on the store tend to be ‘image’ oriented, raising awareness of the store and creating a positive attitude towards the store and its services. Retail promotions that focus on the product range, are designed to cultivate a positive attitude to the brands stocked by the store, in order to indirectly encourage favourable attitudes towards the store itself. Some retail advertising and promotion is partially or wholly funded by brands and this is known as co-operative (or co-op) advertising. Retailers make extensive use of advertising via newspapers, television and radio to encourage store preference. In order to up-sell or cross-sell, retailers also use a variety of in-store sales promotional techniques such as product demonstrations, samples, point-of-purchase displays, free trial, events, promotional packaging and promotional pricing. In grocery retail, shelf wobblers, trolley advertisements, taste tests and recipe cards are also used. Many retailers also use loyalty programs to encourage repeat patronage. Presentation See Merchandising; Servicescapes; Retail design Presentation refers to the physical evidence that signals the retail image. Physical evidence may include a diverse range of elements – the store itself including premises, offices, exterior facade and interior layout, websites, delivery vans, warehouses, staff uniforms. Designing retail spaces The environment in which the retail service encounter occurs is sometimes known as the retail servicescape. The store environment consists of many elements such as smells, the physical environment (furnishings, layout and functionality), ambient conditions (lighting, temperature, noise) as well as signs, symbols and artifacts (e.g. sales promotions, shelf space, sample stations, visual communications). Collectively, these elements contribute to the perceived retail servicescape or the overall atmosphere and can influence both the customer's cognitions, emotions and their behaviour within the retail space. Relationship between market Large retail enterprises of relationship marketing refers to a large retail enterprise with suppliers, customers, internal organization, channel distributors, market impact, and other competitors such as the interests of the enterprise marketing process related everything to establish and maintain good relations, thus maximizing the interests of the large retail enterprise in the long-term marketing activities, it was based on the relationship marketing concept as the core of innovation. Different from traditional marketing concepts, relationship marketing focuses on maintaining long-term good relations with relevant parties on marketing activities. The ultimate goal of relationship marketing is tantamount to maximize the long term interests of enterprises. The marketing activities of large retail enterprises mainly have six relationship markets, which are supplier relationship market, customer relationship market, enterprise internal relationship market, intermediary relationship market at all levels, enterprise marketing activities influence relationship market and industry competitor relationship market. Among these six relational markets, supply relational market and customer relational market are the two markets that have the greatest influence on the relationship marketing of large retail enterprises. Substantial retail enterprises usually have two sources of profit. The principal source of profit is to reduce the purchase price from suppliers. The other is to develop new customers and keep old clients, so as to expand the market sales of goods. In addition, the extra four related markets have an indirect impact on the marketing activities of large retail enterprises. The internal relationship market of an enterprise can be divided into several different types of relationships according to distinct objects, such as employee relationship market, department relationship market, shareholder relationship market and the mutual relations among the relationship markets. The purpose of carrying out relationship marketing is to promote the cohesion and innovation ability of enterprises and maximize the long term interests of enterprises. Another relationship of relationship marketing middlemen is the relationship between market and intermediary in the process of corporate marketing is playing the intermediary role between suppliers and customers, in the current increasingly fierce market competition, more important distribution channels for enterprises, but for retail enterprises, too much sales levels will increase the cost of sales of the enterprise. Therefore, large retail enterprises should realize the simplification of sales channel level by reasonably selecting suppliers. Large-scale retail enterprises purchasing goods to suppliers with procurement scale advantage, can directly contact with the product manufacturing, with strong bargaining power, therefore, direct contact with the manufacturer is a large retail enterprise to take the main purchasing mode, it is a terminal to the starting point of zero level channel purchasing mode, therefore, the elimination of middlemen, so as to make the large retail enterprise in the marketing activity, the dealer relationship market is not so important. Then there is the enterprise influence relationship market, which is a relational marketing influence in the enterprise supply chain. It mainly guides and standardizes the advance direction of enterprises through formulating systems at the macro level. The relationship market mainly includes the relationship between the relevant government departments at all levels where the enterprise is located, the relationship with the industry association to which the enterprise belongs, and the relationship with all kinds of public organizations, etc., and the enterprise influence itself cannot directly affect the marketing activities of the enterprise. The final relational market is the industry's competitors, potential competitors, alternative competitors and so on. How to correctly deal with the relationship between competitors and the market has become a problem that large retail enterprises need to solve. Retail designers pay close attention to the front of the store, which is known as the decompression zone. This is usually an open space in the entrance of the store to allow customers to adjust to their new environment. An open-plan floor design is effective in retail as it allows customers to see everything. In terms of the store's exterior, the side of the road cars normally travel, determines the way stores direct customers. New Zealand retail stores, for instance, would direct customers to the left. In order to maximise the number of selling opportunities, retailers generally want customers to spend more time in a retail store. However, this must be balanced against customer expectations surrounding convenience, access and realistic waiting times. The overall aim of designing a retail environment is to have customers enter the store, and explore the totality of the physical environment engaging in a variety of retail experiences – from browsing through to sampling and ultimately to purchasing. The retail service environment plays an important role in affecting the customer's perceptions of the retail experience. The retail environment not only affects quality perceptions, but can also impact on the way that customers navigate their way through the retail space during the retail service encounter. Layout, directional signage, the placement of furniture, shelves and display space along with the store's ambient conditions all affect patron's passage through the retail service system. Layout refers to how equipment, shelves and other furnishings are placed and the relationship between them. In a retail setting, accessibility is an important aspect of layout. For example, the grid layout used by supermarkets with long aisles and gondolas at the end displaying premium merchandise or promotional items, minimises the time customers spend in the environment and makes productive use of available space. The gondola, so favoured by supermarkets, is an example of a retail design feature known as a merchandise outpost and which refers to special displays, typically at or near the end of an aisle, whose purpose is to stimulate impulse purchasing or to complement other products in the vicinity. For example, the meat cabinet at the supermarket might use a merchandise outpost to suggest a range of marinades or spice rubs to complement particular cuts of meat. As a generalisation, merchandise outposts are updated regularly so that they maintain a sense of novelty. According to Ziethaml et al., layout affects how easy or difficult it is to navigate through a system. Signs and symbols provide cues for directional navigation and also inform about appropriate behaviour within a store. Functionality refers to extent to which the equipment and layout meet the goals of the customer. For instance, in the case of supermarkets, the customer's goal may be to minimise the amount of time spent finding items and waiting at the check-out, while a customer in a retail mall may wish to spend more time exploring the range of stores and merchandise. With respect to functionality of layout, retail designers consider three key issues; circulation – design for traffic-flow and that encourages customers to traverse the entire store; coordination – design that combines goods and spaces in order to suggest customer needs and convenience – design that arranges items to create a degree of comfort and access for both customers and employees. The way that brands are displayed is also part of the overall retail design. Where a product is placed on the shelves has implications for purchase likelihood as a result of visibility and access. Products placed too high or too low on the shelves may not turn over as quickly as those placed at eye level. With respect to access, store designers are increasingly giving consideration to access for disabled and elderly customers. Through sensory stimulation retailers can engage maximum emotional impact between a brand and its consumers by relating to both profiles; the goal and experience. Purchasing behaviour can be influenced through the physical evidence detected by the senses of touch, smell, sight, taste and sound. Supermarkets offer taste testers to heighten the sensory experience of brands. Coffee shops allow the aroma of coffee to waft into streets so that passers-by can appreciate the smell and perhaps be lured inside. Clothing garments are placed at arms' reach, allowing customers to feel the different textures of clothing. Retailers understand that when customers interact with products or handle the merchandise, they are more likely to make a purchase. Within the retail environment, different spaces may be designed for different purposes. Hard floors, such as wooden floors, used in public areas, contrast with carpeted fitting rooms, which are designed to create a sense of homeliness when trying on garments. Peter Alexander, retailer of sleep ware, is renowned for using scented candles in retail stores. Ambient conditions, such as lighting, temperature and music, are also part of the overall retail environment. It is common for a retail store to play music that relates to their target market. Studies have found that "positively valenced music will stimulate more thoughts and feeling than negatively valenced music", hence, positively valenced music will make the waiting time feel longer to the customer than negatively valenced music. In a retail store, for example, changing the background music to a quicker tempo may influence the consumer to move through the space at a quicker pace, thereby improving traffic flow. Evidence also suggests that playing music reduces the negative effects of waiting since it serves as a distraction. Jewellery stores like Michael Hill have dim lighting with a view to fostering a sense of intimacy. The design of a retail store is critical when appealing to the intended market, as this is where first impressions are made. The overall servicescape can influence a consumer's perception of the quality of the store, communicating value in visual and symbolic ways. Certain techniques are used to create a consumer brand experience, which in the long run drives store loyalty. See also Product management Promotion mix Marketing mix Price Servicescape Retail design References Retailing Marketing
5254599	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat%20Out%20of%20Hell%20III%3A%20The%20Monster%20Is%20Loose	Bat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose	Bat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose is the ninth studio album by Meat Loaf, and the third and final album in the Bat Out of Hell trilogy. It was released in Ireland on October 20, 2006, 29 years after Bat Out of Hell (1977), and 13 years after Bat Out of Hell II: Back into Hell (1993). It was released in the UK on October 23, 2006, and in the US on October 31, 2006. Produced by Desmond Child, it is the only Bat album not involving Jim Steinman in its production. The album was subject to a legal dispute between Meat Loaf and Steinman, who had registered the phrase "Bat Out of Hell" as a trademark and attempted to prevent the album using the phrase. In the end, seven songs that Steinman wrote for various other projects were included. As with its predecessors, the album received mixed reviews. A tour, named The Seize the Night Tour, followed the release, concentrating upon songs from the Bat albums. History According to a Reuters report, Meat Loaf and Steinman started working on an album in 2001. During the concerts on his Hair of the Dog tour, Meat Loaf made a point to mention that he and Steinman were putting out a new album. The composer suffered some health setbacks around 2004. Meat Loaf said that "lawyers worked for over a year putting together a contract for Steinman to do Bat Out of Hell III. It was one of the best producer's contracts in the history of the record business." Ultimately, according to the singer, Steinman was not well enough to work on such an intense project and made what he calls the "selfish" decision to go ahead without him. In promotional interviews he said that he did not want to wait a year and a half just to find out that Steinman was still unfit. Describing himself as a "really loyal person", Meat Loaf said that "the decision not to use Steinman has taken its toll on me." However, in 2006, David Sonenberg, Steinman's manager, said: Jim's health is excellent. That's not the reason he didn't participate in (Bat III). He had some meaningful health problems about four years ago, but he's been totally healthy the last couple of years. His health in no way impacted on his involvement in the Bat Out of Hell project. The development problems and confusion over Steinman's involvement is a result of a dispute of the trademark "Bat Out of Hell", which Steinman registered in 1995. Meat Loaf sued Steinman and his manager, in a complaint filed May 28, 2006, in federal District Court in Los Angeles, California, for $50 million and to prevent further use by the writer/producer. Meat Loaf has stated that he contributed lyrics to "Bat Out of Hell". He had used the phrase extensively for tours, to which Steinman had never objected "until a recent falling out". Steinman and his representatives approached Meat Loaf's labels, Universal and Virgin, asserting trademark ownership and threatening litigation to prevent the album's release. An agreement was reached in Summer 2006. According to Virgin, "the two came to an amicable agreement that ensured that Jim Steinman's music would be a continuing part of the 'Bat Out of Hell' legacy." In promotional interviews, Meat Loaf has played down the dispute with Steinman, pointing out that it was over in three weeks and was purely for the sake of business. I consider him to be one of my best friends but the real thing is about managers: I think Steinman's manager is the devil and Steinman feels the same way about my manager. So, we had to communicate through managers and he refused to sign some papers that would have allowed for the recording of Bat Out of Hell III without a hitch. So, really, I didn't sue Jim Steinman. I sued his manager. Despite the fact that Steinman was not involved in the recording or production, the album does include seven of his songs, five of which are covers of previously released songs. The other two were covers of Steinman's demos intended for musical theater projects, at the time unreleased. The agreement enabled Steinman to work on a musical theatre project based on all of the songs from Bat Out of Hell. Describing the project as "Cirque du Soleil on acid", in September 2007, he expected it to open in London in 2010. Production Meat Loaf had announced that Michael Beinhorn was producing the record, but Desmond Child took the helm. The singer reported that Child would say things that made him think he was sitting next to Steinman. Child began recording sessions by playing Slipknot CDs to get the assembled musicians in the mood. In addition to musicians from his touring band, the Neverland Express, several guest players contributed to the album. Meat Loaf said, "I didn't just want to bring in rock players — I wanted to go to extreme rock people" resulting in an album that "has all the touches of the other two Bats, but it's much more of a rock album." Child said that one of the most memorable experiences working on the album was working with Brian May, who played on "Bad for Good". The album also features guest performances by John 5, Steve Vai and John Shanks. Meat Loaf said that he did not enjoy recording in studios. He compared the process to "going to the dentist and having root canal everyday". Whereas you really have to be flat for people to notice it in a live show, in a studio, every "nuance is under a microscope... and I'm a perfectionist who knows that there's no such thing as perfection but I try to get as close as I can." Todd Rundgren, who produced the first album and arranged all of the background vocals for Bat II, arranged the background vocals for three tracks. In a promotional interview for the album Rundgren has said "continuity is an important thing." However, in another interview he said that his contribution was considerably less than on some earlier Meat Loaf albums. And by the time they got it all organized and figured out, there were really only a couple of songs left for me to do anything on. So I came into L.A. for a couple of days and Kasim... came in, as was the routine, and we did maybe three songs... just so that I’d have a few fingerprints on the record. I think someone, maybe Meat Loaf, said that to keep everything covered, I had to be in there somewhere... but not necessarily running the whole thing. So my involvement was pretty much peripheral. Compositions The album opens with the title track. "The Monster Is Loose" feature the Gothic style of John 5, who plays the main guitar parts. The song is very heavy and continues Meat Loaf's association with Major League Baseball established with Phil Rizzuto's commentary on "Paradise by the Dashboard Light". "Blind as a Bat", written by Desmond Child, tells about how one is thankful for the love another has given him, even after he has done deeds to suggest that he does not deserve such love. According to Steinman, "It's All Coming Back to Me Now" was inspired by Wuthering Heights, and was an attempt to write "the most passionate, romantic song" he could ever create. In interviews, Meat Loaf has said that, in his mind, the song was always meant to be a duet. Norwegian artist Marion Raven, who had been working on her solo album with Child, was chosen because the timbre of her voice starkly contrasts to Meat Loaf's. "Bad for Good" was one of the many songs written by Steinman under the inspiration of Peter Pan and lost boys who never grow up. This is reflected in lyrics such as "You know I'm gonna be like this forever/I'm never gonna be what I should." The song was written to appear on the follow-up to Bat Out of Hell, but which Steinman recorded himself as the album Bad for Good. Because of this, Meat Loaf was aware that there is a "core of fans that know that song", so he "had that under the microscope more than any other on the album". "Cry Over Me" is, according to Meat Loaf, a timeless song dealing with relationships of all kinds. In a 2007 interview, he said that it can be about your first or last loves, or dealing with your boss at work. Partially quoting the lyrics, the singer posits that there are times when "you want him to feel exactly like I felt when he said that to me." The Guardian said "In the Land of the Pig (The Butcher Is King)" is "five Olympian minutes crying out for a full production at Glyndebourne." Guitarist Steve Vai describes it as "very Gothic; almost terrifying". It is about the intense power over subordinates: Can't you hear the choir now? Listen to the animals sing. Can't you hear the slaughterhouse bells? In the land of the pigs the butcher is king. "Monstro" is a bombastic orchestral piece layered with chorals that lead into the piano introduction to "Alive". Meat Loaf decided to hire Desmond Child when he revealed that he had written "Alive" especially for the album. The song refers to how the singer had overcome difficult periods in his life. "What About Love", a piano-based duet with Patti Russo, is a sexually charged song that echoes "Paradise by the Dashboard Light" from the 1977 album. Here, though, the singers are singing about love throughout, not bitterness. The final verse contains the most explicit lyrics about their first sexual encounter. [Boy:] I can't forget the feeling of your sweat upon my skin And the tremble of your body on the day you let me in [Girl:] On a summer night's surrender with nothing to lose You were scared and so was I when I gave myself to you "Seize the Night" has a strong orchestral foundation underneath the lead vocals and a choir. A duet with Jennifer Hudson, "The Future Ain't What It Used to Be" is a pessimistic song based upon the myth that Pandora closed her jar before allowing "hope" to escape (the song first appeared on the only album performed by female group Pandora's Box). The lyrics reveal the hopelessness of the past (Were there ever any stars in the sky?) and the future (There's nothing so sad as a tomorrow gone bad). The final song of the Bat trilogy is a short one written by Steinman. A few lyrics of "Cry to Heaven" begin rather sweet, but turning rather bitter: ("Cry baby cry/Cry, cry to heaven/If that doesn't do it for you/Go ahead and cry like hell".) The two parts are bridged by an instrumental dominated by an Irish flute. Cover and booklet The cover follows the style of the previous two albums called Bat Out of Hell. Julie Bell designed the cover and the artwork that appears alongside the lyrics in the booklet. She also supplied the art for the "It's All Coming Back to Me Now" single. The cover features the biker from the first two covers about to slay the giant bat from the second cover, while the angel from the same cover takes cover behind a destroyed pillar. Like the first two Bat albums, Steinman's songwriting is credited on the cover, this time shared with Desmond Child. The booklet contains all of the lyrics to the songs, with most pages featuring a small illustration. The CD liner contains a dedication "For thirty years of friendship and inspiration, Bat Out of Hell III is dedicated to Jim Steinman." Reception The album debuted at number 8 on the US Billboard 200 and sold about 81,000 copies in its opening week, Meat Loaf's best since Bat Out of Hell II: Back Into Hell. However, it slipped to number 60 after three weeks. The album also reached number 3 on the UK Albums Chart, but quickly fell off. Q gave the album a positive review, calling it "the second-best album to bear the 'Bat' name", and saying that Child did an "impressive recreation of Steinman's Andrew Lloyd Webber-on-steroids approach", while the album was "overblown, frequently ridiculous and largely devoid of irony." They were unimpressed with the title track, suggesting that "whoever decided it would be a good idea for Meat Loaf to tackle nu metal…should be tarred and feathered." Q did, however, praise the "operatic" vocals and Brian May's "fabulously hysterical guitar" on the track "Bad for Good". The Village Voice named it as 'Album of the Year This Week', calling it "absurdist, righteous majesty". Some reviews lamented Steinman's absence. According to AllMusic, "this Bat is quite obviously a patchwork, pieced together from things borrowed and recreated, never quite gelling the way either of the previous Bats did." They criticized "The Monster Is Loose" as "disarming, a grindingly metallic riff-rocker that sits very uncomfortably next to Steinman's "It's All Coming Back to Me Now", and Child as "a professional who is playing a game without bothering to learn the rules." On the other hand, the review commended Meat Loaf's voice: he sings "his heart out as he valiantly tries to make this Bat a worthy successor to the originals." Singles and music videos "It's All Coming Back to Me Now" was the first song released as a single. It reached number one in Raven's native Norway, and the top ten in both the United Kingdom and Germany. "Blind As a Bat" was scheduled to be released in the UK on December 18, but was then put back to February 26, as two CDs. In turn, this single was pulled at the last minute, in favor of "Cry Over Me", which was released on May 7, 2007. P. R. Brown directed the videos for "It's All Coming Back to Me Now" and "Cry Over Me". "It's All Coming Back to Me Now" is an elaborate production, in which Meat Loaf is being haunted by the memory of his dead lover. Told in flashback, Raven's character crashes her car to avoid a man standing in the road. She sings as an unseen spirit following Meat Loaf. It echoes Steinman's comments that the song is about the "dark side of love" and the "ability to be resurrected by it". The video for "Cry Over Me" had the lowest budget since those for the original album. A simple video, Meat Loaf has said that it only took four hours to film. The animated music video for "The Monster Is Loose" is about a biker who rescues a girl from an enormous bat-like creature. The videos for "It's All Coming Back to Me Now", "Cry Over Me" and "The Monster Is Loose" are included as bonus features on the 3 Bats Live DVD, released in October 2007. Track listing All of the Jim Steinman songs were written for other projects. Like Bat II, the album contains two songs ("It's All Coming Back..." and "The Future Ain't What It Used to Be") that originally appeared on Original Sin, Steinman's 1989 concept album with Pandora's Box. Steinman's demo of "In the Land of the Pig, the Butcher Is King" was part of the preparations for the unrealized Batman: The Musical project. Steinman's "Cry to Heaven" demo was intended for the possibility that Steinman would provide songs for a musical based on the film Cry-Baby. Cry-Baby has since been staged, but without any work from Steinman. "Bad for Good" was featured as the title track on Steinman's 1981 album. Some of the songs on the Bad for Good album were once intended to be a Meat Loaf solo album. "Seize the Night" first appeared as "Carpe Noctem" in the German language musical Tanz der Vampire. It was also performed in English in the 2002 Broadway show called Dance of the Vampires, and demos of the song in English became widely available around that time. "If It Ain't Broke, Break It" first appeared in the MTV film Wuthering Heights, and a recording of the song was released on the soundtrack CD for the film. Alternative releases A limited edition was released with an accompanying DVD, containing a short "making of" featurette, the animated trailer, and "The Monster Is Loose" career montage video. The US version also includes a photo gallery and the "It's All Coming Back to Me Now" video. Best Buy's version of the album came with an exclusive bonus track: a live version of "Testify" (from Couldn't Have Said It Better). This track was originally announced to be on the CD itself, but Best Buy opted to include an insert in the packaging giving customers a code to download the song. Circuit City's version came with an exclusive downloadable track: a live version of "Life Is a Lemon and I Want My Money Back". Target released a "Limited Tour Edition" with a concert ticket pre-sale offer. Wal-Mart released the album as part of an exclusive 2-pack with the Meat Loaf Bat Out of Hell Classic Albums DVD. The version of the album available from Apple's iTunes Store includes two bonus tracks, a live version of "I'd Do Anything for Love (But I Won't Do That)", recorded at a concert in Australia, and "Heads Will Roll", sung by Marion Raven from her EP of the same name. Tour Meat Loaf embarked on a 112 date world tour to promote the album. He performed a concert performing some songs from all three Bat Out of Hell albums on October 16 at London's Royal Albert Hall, and performed many of those songs on the rest of his tour as well. He also performed a "Bat on Broadway" performance on November 2, 2006 at New York City's Palace Theatre, as well as shows in Toronto, Atlantic City, Uncasville, and Mexico City. Marion Raven joined Meat Loaf for the first leg of his 2007 tour, Seize the Night tour. She was the supporting act, promoting her Set Me Free album. Meat Loaf introduced her on stage at the latter stages of the concerts to duet on "It's All Coming Back to Me Now". A DVD of the tour was released in October 2007, entitled 3 Bats Live. It also contains a bonus disc featuring the promotional videos and animations from Bat III. Portions of the tour were captured on film in the Theatrical Documentary Meat Loaf: In Search of Paradise, directed by Bruce David Klein, which was released in 2008. Personnel Lead vocals – Meat Loaf Regular Meat Loaf studio sidemen Kenny Aronoff – percussion, drums (tracks 2, 6–8, 11, 12) Brett Cullen – backing vocals (track 8) James Michael – backing vocals (track 2) Todd Rundgren – backing vocals (tracks 1, 3, 4) Eric Troyer – backing vocals The Neverland Express Mark Alexander – organ, piano (tracks 10, 13) Carolyn "C.C." Coletti-Jablonski – backing vocals (tracks 10–13) Paul Crook – guitar (tracks 2, 4, 6, 10, 13) Randy Flowers – guitar (tracks 2, 3, 10, 13) John Miceli – drums (tracks 10, 13) Patti Russo – female lead vocals (track 11), backing vocals (tracks 10–13) Kasim Sulton – bass guitar, backing vocals Guest performers Eric Bazilian – guitar (tracks 2–5, 7–9, 11–13) Jennifer Hudson – guest vocals (track 13) John 5 – guitar (track 1) Brian May – guitar solo (track 4) Marion Raven – guest vocals (track 3) John Shanks – guitar (tracks 8, 11) Steve Vai – guitar (track 6) Session musicians Rusty Anderson – guitar (tracks 8, 11–13) Stephanie Bennett – harp (tracks 6, 14) Victor Indrizzo – drums (tracks 1, 3–5, 9) Corky James – guitar Lee Levin – percussion (track 14) David Levita – guitar (track 3) Don Marchese – baritone saxophone (track 10) Graham Phillips – boy soprano (tracks 7, 13, 14) Eric Rigler – Irish flute (track 14) Matt Rollings – piano, organ (tracks 2, 6, 10, 13) Bettie Ross – pipe organ (tracks 7, 8, 12) Eric Sardinas – electric slide guitar solo (track 10) Tom Saviano – tenor saxophone (track 10) Clint Walsh – guitar (track 6) Dan Warner – guitar (tracks 3, 14) Backing vocals – Becky Baeling (track 11), Andreas Carlsson (track 8), Desmond Child, Marti Frederiksen (track 11), Diana Grasselli (tracks 2, 7, 13, 14), John Gregory (tracks 3, 11), Storm Lee, Jeanette Olsson, Jason Paige, Keely Pressly (track 3), Camile Saviola (track 10), Maria Vidal (track 13) Programming – Randy Canto (track 10), Doug Emery (track 14), Harry Sommerdahl (tracks 2, 7, 9, 10), Chris Vrenna (track 6) Gospel choir (tracks 8, 13) – Barbara Allen, Vernon Allen, Esther Austin, Bonita Brisco, Cheryl Brown, Sonya Byous, Jessica Jones, Joseph Powell, Sandra Stokes, Roshuan Stovall Trumpet (track 10) – Gary Grant, Steve Madaio Orchestra David Campbell – conductor and arranger Violin – Roberto Cani, Darius Campo, Mario de Leon, Joel Derouin, Bruce Dukov, Armen Garabedian, Berj Garabedian, Endre Granat, Gerardo Hilera, Sharon Jackson, Peter Kent, Songa Lee-Kito, Natalie Legget, Sid Page, Alyssa Park, Michelle Richards, Haim Shitrum, Tereza Stanislav, Sarah Thornblade, Philip Vaiman, Josefina Vergara, John Witenberg, Ken Yerke Viola – Denyse Buffum, Brian Dembow, Andrew Duckles, Matt Funes, Marda Todd, Evan Wilson Cello – Larry Corbet, Suzi Katayama, Steve Richards, Daniel Smith Double bass – Nico Abondolo, Michael Valerio Trumpet – Rick Baptist, Wayne Bergeron, Charles Findley, John Fumo, Jon Lewis Trombone – Steven Holtman, Alan Kaplan, Bill Reichenbach Jr. Bass trombone – William Reichenbach, Douglas Tornquist French horn – Steven Becknell, Joe Meyer, John Reynolds, Brad Warnaar Tuba – Douglas Tornquist Oboe – Earle Dumbler Orchestral percussion – MB Gordy Charts Weekly Year-end Certifications References External links 2006 albums Meat Loaf albums Albums produced by Desmond Child Sequel albums Mercury Records albums Virgin Records albums
5254612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yo%20Gabba%20Gabba%21	Yo Gabba Gabba!	Yo Gabba Gabba! is a children's musical television series created by Christian Jacobs and Scott Schultz. The series is about five costumed toys come-to-life and their friend DJ Lance Rock (Lance Robertson). It is co-produced by the Magic Store and Wildbrain Entertainment. Its first episode premiered on Nickelodeon on August 20, 2007, as a part of its Nick Jr. block. Its original run ended on November 12, 2015. A single topic is addressed in each episode (such as "Adventure", "Friends", or "Dance") through songs and short storylines. Additionally, the show teaches children life and social skills, such as sharing and trying different foods. It also encourages viewers to move along with and dance with the characters in the program. The show is noted for its indie-culture guest stars and bands, and for drawing visual inspiration from 8-bit video games and H.R. Pufnstuf, among other television shows. Created by Christian Jacobs (lead singer of the Aquabats) and Scott Schultz, the show's learning process has parents, older siblings, and younger children watch the show together rather than letting it act as a babysitter. The television program spawned a touring live stage show, several toys, and branded clothing. On September 10, 2021, WildBrain announced that the series would be revived for 20 new episodes, which will be produced in collaboration between WildBrain and Yo Gabba Gabba LLC (the co-owners of the Yo Gabba Gabba! brand). The new episodes will premiere on Apple TV+, which also acquired the previous episodes and specials for its service. Overview Hosted by a musician named DJ Lance Rock, the series features live-action segments featuring 5 costumed toys: Muno (a red cyclops), Foofa (a pink flower bubble), Brobee (a green broccoli bee/monster), Toodee (a blue cat-dragon), and Plex (a yellow robot). In between the main segments are many short animated sketches and songs. Among the varied animation sequences during the show was "Super Martian Robot Girl", designed by indie cartoonists Evan Dorkin and Sarah Dyer. The title character of the segment was voiced by Ariela Barer in season one and Caroline Jacobs in season three. Kidrobot made the toy models of the characters that appear at the beginning and end of each episode. The title of the show pays homage to "Gabba Gabba Hey" by the punk rock band Ramones. History Yo Gabba Gabba! was developed by two Southern California fathers and punk rockers, Christian Jacobs (best known under the stage persona The MC Bat Commander in The Aquabats) and Scott Schultz, who first started working together as teenagers, producing and directing skateboarding videos. Their goal was to design a kids' show that was entertaining while featuring real artists and real performers. Both had no past experience writing scripts for television, let alone children's broadcasting or education. In developing the show they took inspiration from a number of classic children's series including Sesame Street, The Electric Company, Pee-wee's Playhouse, Zoom, as well as Sid and Marty Krofft puppet shows The Banana Splits and H. R. Pufnstuf. In 1999, after becoming parents, Jacobs and Schultz started playing around with ideas for children's television and produced a pilot independently financed by small loans from friends and family. Yo Gabba Gabba! did not get much attention until it started circulating on the Internet. Jared Hess, the director of Napoleon Dynamite and Nacho Libre, saw the pilot online and recommended it to Brown Johnson, the executive vice president and executive creative director of Nickelodeon Preschool. Episode format All episodes follow a similar format. In the opening scene of the episode, DJ Lance is shown walking on a plain white background while holding a silver radio with colorful buttons. He then arrives at a table with four different colored lands and a silver design underneath it. He then places down the boombox, and then he shouts "YOOOO Gabba Gabba!" and opens the boombox, and inside it are five toys: Muno, Foofa, Brobee, Toodee, and Plex. He places down the toys one-by-one, and then they become alive. The episode features four main segments (shortened to three after the first season) that are connected to each other as a plot. They involve DJ Lance and the Gabba gang doing an activity. After each main segment, a short clip is shown that shows a child dancing around. The child says his or her name, followed by "I like to dance!". Between the main segments, there is another segment called "The Super Music Friends Show", which features a performance by an artist or a band about the episode's theme. Other small segments include "Mark's Magic Pictures" and "Biz's Beat of the Day". Near the end of each episode, DJ Lance and the Gabba gang do a mix-like song about what had occurred during the main segments. After it is finished, DJ Lance thanks to the children at home for playing along and shouts "YOOOO Gabba Gabba!" once again. Then Muno, Foofa, Brobee, Toodee, and Plex turn back into toys. One-by-one, DJ Lance puts them back in the boombox, closes it, and then walks off carrying it, thus ending each episode. Cast and characters DJ Lance Rock – Lance Robertson (voice dubbed by Ortis Deley in the UK version): a human DJ who is the friend of the Gabba gang and the show's host. He likes to fly. Muno – voiced by Adam Deibert (Bob Golding in the UK version): a friendly red cyclops who is the main character. He is the tallest, is somewhat clumsy and has a close friend with Foofa. Muno is also the band's guitarist. He lives in a rock-filled summer-themed place called "Muno Land". His hobbies are playing his guitar, seeing bugs, skateboarding, and building blocks. His realm resembles the desert and he has a pet horse. During Super Bowl XLIV, he appeared in a 2010 commercial for the Kia Sorento. Foofa – voiced by Emma Jacobs (Teresa Gallagher in the UK version): a pink flower bubble character who is cute and happy. She likes flowers, rainbows, dolphins, and unicorns. She lives in a spring-themed place called "Foofa Land". She is the band's tambourinist. Her realm is a spring meadow. Her hobbies are watering flowers, whistling, playing her tambourine, and riding her bike. Plex – voiced by Christian Jacobs (Simon Feilder in the UK version): a yellow robot who is intelligent and the oldest of the Gabba gang. He is described as being smart and as the leader of Gabba Land. Plex often teaches lessons to his friends and is a father figure to the gang. He can also use his special ray to bring things into existence and transport living things. He is the band's keyboardist who plays the keytar. He has no realm in particular, though he seems to have a "docking station" between Foofa and Brobee's realms. His hobbies are driving his car, playing his keytar, and opening his compartment. Brobee – voiced by Amos Watene (Simon Feilder in the UK version): a short, green broccoli bee monster and the youngest of the Gabba gang. He lives in an autumn-themed place called "Brobee Land". He is the band's drummer. He is the one of the characters whose facial expression changes depending on the situation; his normal face turning into a frown, and vice versa. He is often subjected to trying different foods. His realm is a large autumn forest. Toodee – voiced by Erin Pearce (Jonell Elliot in the UK version): a blue arctic cat-dragon who loves to have fun. She has a close friend with Plex and is also the band's bassist. She lives in an arctic winter-themed realm called "Toodee Land". Her hobbies are ice skating, playing her bass, surfboarding, and tap-dancing. Gooble (supporting character) – voiced by Joel Fox: a white ghost who is always very sad and lives in a place known as "Gooble Land". Super Martian Robot Girl – voiced by Ariela Barer in season one: a green and pink superhero who appears in her title segment from season one. She returned as a guest in season three and was voiced by Caroline Jacobs. Mark Mothersbaugh (supporting character): a member of Devo who draws pictures in his segment "Mark's Magic Pictures" that become alive. Biz Markie, a rapper and DJ who makes beatboxing in his segment "Biz's Beat of the Day". Guest stars Yo Gabba Gabba! featured hundreds of guest stars: Mos Def Bootsy Collins Ladytron The Killers Enon The Clientele Jimmy Eat World Solange Knowles Taking Back Sunday Datarock The Aquabats Devo Anne Heche Joy Zipper Of Montreal Chromeo My Chemical Romance Weezer Hot Hot Heat The Faint The Roots Paul Williams Mates of State MGMT Peter Bjorn and John Trunk Boiz The Shins The Aggrolites The Flaming Lips Mýa Blitzen Trapper The Ting Tings Money Mark Mariachi El Bronx "Weird Al" Yankovic Erykah Badu Sean Kingston Rob Dyrdek Other celebrities to have appeared include Jason Bateman, Jack Black, Andy Samberg, Melora Hardin, Tony Hawk, Elijah Wood, Sarah Silverman, Laila Ali, Bill Hader, and Anthony Bourdain. Regular segments Jingles, each episode has animated music videos featuring music by a guest performer and animation by guest artists, designers, and animators. They often happen after the first segment in every episode. Mark's Magic Pictures, starring Mark Mothersbaugh, drawing simple pictures that often come alive at the end of the segment. Biz's Beat of the Day, starring Biz Markie, demonstrating new beatboxing beats. The Super Music Friends Show, featuring musical guests and introduced by Matt Chapman as the announcer and John Reis as "The Music Swami". Dancey Dance Time, featuring celebrity guests doing dance moves with the characters. It was rarely used after season 1. Numbers, live action music video similar to the jingles, usually with counting up numbers or back. Cool Tricks, in which child or an adult demonstrates a special talent. Storytime, where a child narrates a story. Super Martian Robot Girl, a comic book segment featuring a helpful green-haired superheroine who saves the day, but only solves extremely contrived misunderstandings of uninformed citizens, instead of fighting crime. This segment was used in season 1 and returned for one episode ("Superhero") in season 3. Learn with Plex, a solo segment in which Plex teaches kids basic daily skills like brushing their teeth, making lemonade, putting pajamas, etc. in children's shouts, using four repeated steps. Only used in season 1. Play Pretend with Muno, in which Muno encourages viewers to pretend along with him, as he imagines himself as different animals, even an astronaut and a Christmas tree. Only used in season 1. Listen with Toodee, in which Toodee listens to sounds and encourages the viewer to help her identify them. Only used in season 1. Color with Brobee, in which the viewer guesses what color Brobee is thinking of by the examples he gives. Only used in season 1. Play Games with Foofa, in which Foofa solves simple puzzles, such as mazes and matching games, and encourages the viewer to help her find the solution. Only used in season 1. DJ Lance Dance, in which DJ Lance teaches children doing a random dance. Funny Faces, in which DJ Lance Rock encourages children to make funny faces. Knock-Knock Joke of the Day, a segment where Jack McBrayer and Paul Scheer tell knock-knock jokes. This segment first appeared in season 2. Look Back at Today, each episode ends with a music video recap of that episode, featuring special effects, and a remix of every song featured in that episode. Episodes Home media Main releases Episodes on Nick Jr. compilation DVDs Episodes on Nick Jr. iTunes compilations NOTE: As of June 2019, the episodes are no longer part of the compilations due to the series being removed from Nick Jr.'s platforms. Soundtrack releases Four albums have been released featuring songs from the show performed by the cast and the "Super Music Friends Show" segment. Music is. Awesome! (2009) Music is. Awesome! Volume 2 (2010) Music is. Awesome! Volume 3 (2011) Music is. Awesome! Volume 4 (2012) Hey! (2017) Fantastic Voyages (2017) ABC for Kids released a CD in 2014 titled Yo Gabba Gabba! Party In My Tummy. Stage shows The world premiere live concert tour of Yo Gabba Gabba! took place in Australia in May 2009. DJ Lance Rock, Muno, Foofa, Brobee, Toodee, and Plex performed in Wollongong, Melbourne, Brisbane, and Sydney with an indie house-band and secret special guests at each show. Additional tours in the United States and other countries have been performed throughout 2013. Shows have been toured including three presented by Kia Motors and a special Christmas one presented by Citi, Just Dance Kids, and Toys for Tots. "There's a Party in My City!" (2011) "It's Time to Dance!" (2011) "Get the Sillies Out!" (early 2013) "A Very Awesome Holiday Show!" (late 2013) "Music Is Awesome!" (2014) Nick Jr. Australia released a tour in 2009 called Yo Gabba Gabba: LIVE on Stage! Critical reception On April 30, 2008, the television show received a Daytime Emmy nomination for Outstanding Achievement in Costume Design/Styling. The show has been nominated for a Daytime Emmy in both 2008 and 2009 for Best Costume Design. Time magazine's James Poniewozik, who said the show "will convince you someone slipped something into your Fruity Pebbles" named Yo Gabba Gabba! one of the Top 10 new TV series of 2007, ranking it at #8. In November 2008, the Yo Gabba Gabba! production team won a BAFTA Children's Award, International. The show has also become popular among some college-aged young adults because of the artists often featured. Due to the show's popularity amongst both adults and children, they performed at Coachella 2010 as special guests. Their live touring show also won a Creative Content Award at the 2010 Billboard Touring Awards. The Television Critics Association Awards have nominated Yo Gabba Gabba! for Outstanding Achievement in Children's/Youth Programing. The years include 2008–2012. Yo Gabba Gabba! won for the year 2009 and 2010. In February 2013, Yo Gabba Gabba! won two Kidscreen Awards for "Best Non-Animated or Mixed Series 2013" and "Best Music 2013". In other media In 2009, the cast was featured in their own float in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. Muno was featured in a commercial for the Kia Sorento that aired during the 2010 Super Bowl and other Kia commercials in 2011. Also, the character Brobee appeared in a 2011 advertisement for Wonderful Pistachios. The cast appeared in the Big Time Rush episode "Big Time Cameos". Yo Gabba Gabba! appeared in True Jackson VP in the episode "Trapped in Paris". Garry Lyon, of The Footy Show, an Australian Football League panel show, performed an interpretive cycle (Yo Gabba Gazza!) based on the Yo Gabba Gabba! dancing style after losing a humorous bet. The choice of the Yo Gabba Gabba! dance was based on a number of physical similarities to Brobee, including bushy eyebrows and excessive androgenic hair. In the Mad episode "So You Think You Can Train Your Dragon How to Dance / Yo Gagga Gagga!", Lady Gaga hosts Yo Gagga Gagga! featuring her dolls – Taylor Swift, T-Pain, Miley Cyrus, and Triple H – and the cast is seen watching a monster movie at the end. In 2011, the cast appeared in the Raising Hope episode "Sabrina Has Money". The title of the Futurama episode "Yo Leela Leela" parodies this, as does the show Leela produces during the episode, known as "Rumbledy Hump". On June 8, 2012, The Fresh Beat Bands 15th episode in season three "Yo! Fresh Beats Go Gabba Gabba!" (a crossover episode) the "Gabba Gang" gets beamed into the episode by way of a malfunctioned Plex has with robotic hiccups which was caused by Gearmo: a gear who always causes trouble. Insane Clown Posse recorded a cover of the song "Hold Still" for the 2012 album Smothered, Covered & Chunked. The South Park episode "Taming Strange" features Foofa becoming a spoof of Miley Cyrus after Kyle's adopted younger brother, Ike, attends a performance and "tames Foofa's strange" in front of everyone seeing the show. The cast appeared in a Delta Airlines safety video which first aired in August 2015. In 2017, a spin-off called DJ Lance and The Upbeat Retreat!, produced by WildBrain Studios (now WildBrain Spark Studios) premiered on YouTube, featuring DJ Lance Rock with his new friends. The cast appeared in Cupcake Wars. The cast appeared in Top Chef Masters The series is spoofed in the Robot Chicken episode "May Cause Light Cannibalism". The series is briefly featured in the Marvel Cinematic Universe miniseries WandaVision, appearing on Agnes' television screen in the seventh episode "Breaking the Fourth Wall". References External links Official sites Official website Channels Yo Gabba Gabba on Nick Jr. Italy Yo Gabba Gabba on Nick Jr. (UK) Yo Gabba Gabba on Nick Jr. (U.S.) Yo Gabba Gabba on ABC4Kids Yo Gabba Gabba on Roku Yo Gabba Gabba on YouTube Others 2000s American animated television series 2010s American animated television series 2000s American children's comedy television series 2010s American children's comedy television series 2000s American musical comedy television series 2010s American musical comedy television series 2000s American sketch comedy television series 2010s American sketch comedy television series 2007 American television series debuts 2015 American television series endings 2000s Canadian animated television series 2010s Canadian animated television series 2000s Canadian children's television series 2010s Canadian children's television series 2000s Canadian music television series 2010s Canadian music television series 2000s Canadian sketch comedy television series 2010s Canadian sketch comedy television series 2007 Canadian television series debuts 2015 Canadian television series endings 2000s preschool education television series 2010s preschool education television series Animated television series reboots American children's animated comedy television series American children's animated musical television series American children's musical television series American preschool education television series American television shows featuring puppetry American television series with live action and animation Animated preschool education television series Canadian children's animated comedy television series Canadian children's comedy television series Canadian children's animated musical television series Canadian preschool education television series Canadian television shows featuring puppetry Canadian television series with live action and animation Children's sketch comedy Dance television shows English-language television shows Family Jr. original programming Nick Jr. original programming Nickelodeon original programming Treehouse TV original programming Television series by DHX Media Television shows filmed in California
5255469	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America%20at%20the%20Crossroads	America at the Crossroads	America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy is a 2006 book written by Francis Fukuyama. This book briefly discusses the history of neoconservatism, with particular focus on its major tenets and political implications. Fukuyama outlines his rationale for supporting the Bush administration, as well as where he believes it has gone wrong. Fukuyama argues that the Iraq invasion was poorly planned and orchestrated, and that the George W. Bush administration underestimated the social construction that would be necessary to create a new democracy after the war. Fukuyama highlights the controversies that surround neoconservatism, describing how it has evolved into something he can no longer support. He suggests that neoconservativism can be described as having four common principles through the end of the Cold War: A belief that the internal character of regimes matters and that foreign policy must reflect the deepest values of liberal democratic societies. A belief that American power has been and could be used for moral purposes, and that the United States needs to remain engaged in international affairs. A distrust of ambitious social engineering projects. A skepticism about the legitimacy and effectiveness of international law and institutions to achieve either security or justice. At the conclusion of the book, Fukuyama proposes a new order in international politics, stating the world needs a change in its actual institutions, advocating what he calls multi-multilateralism. Contents Preface In this part, the author explains what the book is about: He goes on to name many people with whom he associated, such as Paul D. Wolfowitz, Wolfowitz' teacher Albert Wohlstetter, Fukuyama's own teacher Allan Bloom and Bloom's teacher Leo Strauss, his former classmate William Kristol and his father Irving Kristol, for whom Fukuyama had written many articles in his magazines (The National Interest, The Public Interest, Commentary). Fukuyama became more aware of his disagreements with the movement when, in February 2004, he attended the annual dinner at the AEI and listened to a speech by Charles Krauthammer which "treated the [Iraq] war as a virtually unqualified success". Fukuyama subsequently wrote a reaction to the speech and concluded "that neoconservatism, both as a political system and a body of thought, has evolved into something that I can no longer support." The principles it was based on had worked during the Cold War, both for the domestic front as well as in foreign policy - but subsequent interpretations had put too much emphasis on military force. Principles and Prudence Fukuyama names the policies the George W. Bush Administration took as a response to the September 11 attacks by the jihadist group al-Qaida, such as the creation the Department of Homeland Security and the USA PATRIOT Act and the invasion of Taliban-occupied Afghanistan that had sheltered al-Qaida. It had also declared a policy of preventive war and deposed the Saddam Hussein regime because it was believed Saddam Hussein had or planned to acquire WMDs. He states the first set of policies were inevitable, but the preventive war doctrine and Iraq war were "not obvious responses" and were based on an over-militarized interpretation of neoconservatism, linked to "concepts like preemption, regime change, unilateralism, and benevolent hegemony". He asserts a new school of American foreign policy is needed next to the neoconservative, the "Kissingerian" realist, liberal internationalist and "Jacksonian" nationalist. He proposes a "realistic Wilsonianism that better matches means to ends in dealing with other societies." 'Realistic Wilsonianism' would differ from realism because of its support for nation-building and democracy promotion, and from neoconservatism and Jacksonian nationalism as it would take international institutions seriously. The state would still be the source of accountability and power (thus differing from liberal internationalism, that would like to transcend the nation-state and power politics). Both the challenges of development and a multi-institutional global order are not adequately responded to by the traditional schools, the author claims. The Neoconservative Legacy In this part, Fukuyama traces back the intellectual roots of neoconservatism and its subsequent evolution. First, Fukuyama discusses the "enormous amount of ink [that] was spilled on the subject of neoconservatives and their alleged capture of the Bush administration." The author claims all kinds of conspiracy theories were launched by many political rivals of the Iraq war, such as Elizabeth Drew. Fukuyama claims that the fact that many neoconservatives in the Bush Administration were Jewish, like Wolfowitz and Feith, made many critics believe the invasion of Iraq was in Israel's interest while others claimed that Strauss - who was a major inspiration of the movement - had defended the idea of "the noble lie" and that elites were thus allegedly allowed to lie in the public interest, which the neocons did, according to this reasoning, in the case of Iraq and weapons of mass destruction. Fukuyama says this is all wrong, and that neoconservatism was strongly rooted in several American traditions and that there was diversity of ideas within the movement itself. He names and describes the roots of the movement: City College: a group of largely Jewish New York intellectuals of the anti-Stalinist Left attended CCNY from the 1930s to the early 1940s. These include people like Irving Kristol, Seymour Martin Lipset, Daniel Bell, Nathan Glazer and several others. They eventually became anticommunists as they "came to realize that "real existing socialism" had become a monstrosity of unintended consequences that completely undermined the idealistic goals it espoused." The revelations of Stalinist Terror and the American participation in World War II, that proved that the capitalist US could wield its power for moral purposes, pushed them further to the political right. The Public Interest: a magazine founded by Irving Kristol and Daniel Bell (soon replaced by Nathan Glazer), it attracted many contributors such as James Q. Wilson, Moynihan and Charles Murray in the 1960s when the New Left and Counterculture became popular among students radicals who protested the Vietnam War. They supported initiatives like the Great Society and were often sympathetic to communist regimes like North Vietnam and Cuba, Fukuyama claims. These contributors were critical of large-scale social engineering and eventually contributed to the domestic policy and welfare reforms like the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996. Leo Strauss: Fukuyama starts by declaring that "more nonsense has been written about Leo Strauss and the Iraq war than on virtually any other subject." He criticises many writers and suggests Mark Lilla has written a better account of Strauss' philosophy. Fukuyama claims there is little direct influence of Bush Administration people and policy and Strauss: Strauss didn't write about political issues, but was interested in the "theological-political problem" of claims of 'the good life' and tried to respond to modern moral relativism by bringing back premodern Greek philosophy. Later generations of Strauss students did (try to) interpret his thought to prescribe policies or take positions in socio-political issues. Allan Bloom, a former professor of Fukuyama, had written The Closing of the American Mind in which he criticized contemporary American popular culture of cultural relativism and student radicalism and intellectual endeavors like postmodernism that had found their roots in the philosophical work of Nietzsche and Heidegger, Fukuyama states. He thus provided the neoconservative movement with "a much deeper understanding of the sources of weakness of contemporary liberal democracy." Strauss did introduce one idea crucial for the justification of the Iraq war, namely the "regime" - that is, in ancient Greek philosophy, the collection of formal political institutions and informal socio-cultural habits who shape one another and who shape the character of its people. The toppling of Saddam Hussein's regime was thus, neocons could claim according to Fukuyama, the best policy to prevent Hussein's aggressive and authoritarian politics. But, Fukuyama claims, a profound understanding would have warned the Bush Administration of the difficulty of this democratic transition, as informal habits play a fundamental role too. Albert Wohlstetter: Wohlstetter was a mathematical logician, system and military strategist who taught several Bush people including Richard Perle and Zalmay Khalilzad. He had worked at the RAND Corporation and later was a professor at the University of Chicago. He had two major concerns: (1) extended deterrence, which meant that having a minimal nuclear deterrent isn't enough so that further investment was needed to have second-strike capabilities - an important part of Cold War deterrence theory; (2) nuclear proliferation and a skepticism towards the 1968 Nonproliferation Treaty which maintained the right to enrich uranium for civilian use while, in his view, a sharp distinction between civilian and military use was impossible to make in practice. These two concerns and his views drove him to be skeptical of MAD and he argued that, in a counterforce scenario, the Soviet Union could be willing to accept massive casualties for political ends, thus neglecting deterrence. These views were incorporated in the Reagan Doctrine of the 1980s, Fukuyama claims. He was also concerned with increasing targeting precision to minimize civilian casualties, thus aiding the 1990s revolution in military technology which would drive the US Army to become a lighter and more mobile force and wage war at low cost, Fukuyama states. Fukuyama writes that these groups lay the foundation of the neoconservative movement, although they politically ended up in different places, e.g. Irving Kristol became a Republican supporter of Ronald Reagan while Patrick Moynihan remained a Democrat and voted against the 1996 welfare reform bill. Neocons generally shared an opposition to political realism such as implemented by Henry Kissinger in the 1970s who tried to have a 'détente' with the USSR, Fukuyama writes. Realists generally believe communist or nondemocratic regimes are not necessarily superior to liberal-democratic regimes, because all states just desire power, Fukuyama claims. Under the Reagan Administration, the Cold War was remoralised, as clearly observable in the "evil empire" speech by Reagan. Neocons then integrated in the conservative movement, both because conservatives in general took over neoconservative opinions and because neoconservatives took over 'traditional' conservative ideas, such as support for free-market economics, Fukuyama states. However, the great diversity that had existed within the movement was in the 1990s replaced by an (in Fukuyama's opinion) overmilitarised version introduced by Robert Kagan and William Kristol (Irving Kristol's son) that was also called "hard Wilsonianism" or "Wilsonianism minus international institutions". Fukuyama says their interpretation has come to define neoconservatism, and that "it is an uphill struggle to try to redefine neoconservative foreign policy after the fact." Fukuyama gives the four core principles of neoconservatism, as he sees them: A belief that the internal character of regimes matters and that foreign policy must reflect the deepest values of liberal democratic societies. A belief that American power has been and could be used for moral purposes, and that the United States needs to remain engaged in international affairs. A distrust of ambitious social engineering projects. A skepticism about the legitimacy and effectiveness of international law and institutions to achieve either security or justice. (Especially towards the UN; it is generally more favorable towards multilateral cooperation with other democracies such as in NATO, although European democracies were often skeptical of the Iraq War.) The fact that the Bush administration took a 'Leninist' (short-term, forceful) view of the End of History instead of Fukuyama's 'Marxist' (long-term, gradual) teleology - a metaphor used by Ken Jowitt and endorsed by Fukuyama- made them overly optimistic. He also criticises the overly skeptic view of the 'international community' in instances like the Iraq War or the Kyoto Protocol. Threat, Risk, and Preventive War Fukuyama here discusses the policy responses of the Bush Administration to 9/11 and critiques them. He argues the threat perception of Islamic extremism/jihadism put together with WMDs made them miscalculate the actual threat, because - he believes - the chance that non-state actors could acquire them is small and that only a small number of Muslims would support jihadi terrorism and that suicide terrorism is not inherent to Islam as a religion, but because of the process of modernisation that the Greater Middle East and Muslim minorities in Europe are confronted with in which alienated Muslims struggle about their identity (as posited by Olivier Roy and Gilles Kepel). Fukuyama thus advises smaller scale military activities and "a battle for hearts and minds" of Muslims instead of 'World War IV' or 'Clash of Civilizations' rhetoric. Fukuyama also states there were several alternative cases for the Iraq War (other than WMDs, an al-Qaida connection or democracy promotion), such as the untenability of the sanctions regime or arguing it was a global public good to prevent the nuclear proliferation of the Middle East. These were not used, Fukuyama claims. Instead, the Bush Administration outlined a policy of 'preemption' - however, Fukuyama claims the Iraq War was rather a war of prevention, where a lot of mistakes can be made (as he cites Ken Jowitt): Then Fukuyama asks whether there was justified risk, which he argues there was not because the Bush Administration had far overrated Saddam Hussein's capability to acquire WMDs and wouldn't give credit to UN inspection estimates or US intelligence findings. American Exceptionalism and International Legitimacy The author focuses on the problem of "American exceptionalism" - a form of US-centrism - which had made the Bush Administration blind to world public opinion and the structural anti-Americanism in the international system, Fukuyama writes. Social Engineering and the Problems of Development Fukuyama posits that two fundamental principles of neoconservatism may collide in the area of political and economic development: on the one hand, neoconservatives are concerned about the internal character of a regime, thus democracy-promotion and human rights are important considerations in foreign policy (unlike for political realists); on the other hand, there is a danger in large-scale social engineering which could have unintended consequences as a result. On the domestic front, neocons like James Q. Wilson had warned about extensive social programs and the Bush Administration should have put this principle into practice in foreign policy as well, Fukuyama asserts. Fukuyama cites an interview by Dick Cheney in which the Vice President said: "to suggest we need several 100.000 troops there, after the conflict ends, I don't think it's accurate... I really do believe we will be greeted as liberators." President George W. Bush remarked at a speech that democratic desires are a human universal, but Fukuyama contrasts this to his own thesis of "The End of History" and caution: "One can argue that there is a universal human desire to be free of tyranny and a universalism to the appeal of life in a prosperous liberal democracy. The problem is one of time frame involved. It is one thing to say that there is a broad, centuries-long trend towards the spread of liberal democracy - something that I myself have strongly argued in the past- and another to say that either democracy or prosperity can emerge in a given society at a given time. There are certain critical intervening variables known as institutions (...). And if there is one thing that the study of democratic transition and political development teaches, is that institutions are very difficult to establish." Neoconservatives ignored by and large development and put too much emphasis on defense. Economic Development The author talks about the history and challenges in economic development aid, beginning with the 1940s Harrod-Domar growth model through the Cold War struggle over influence and economic orthodoxy in the 1980s to 1990s and (in 2006 present day) 2000s debates on development, especially involving institutions (a subject he would tackle in his 2011 book The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman times to the French Revolution and 2014 book Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Globalisation of Democracy) and institutional economics. Political Development Debate on political development and the creation and evolution of institutions. Rethinking Institutions for World Order Here, the author discusses international institutions: their importance, complexity and diversity and the evolution towards a multi-institutional world order. A Different Kind of American Foreign Policy Here, Fukuyama proposes a demilitarisation of US foreign policy, a counterinsurgency campaign against Global Jihadism (rather than "World War IV" or militarised rhetoric), support for good governance and suggests Otto von Bismarck is a good inspiration for the US if it wants a good balance between power projection and international legitimacy. Publication history Yale University Press, 2006, hardcover (). See also The End of History and the Last Man References page ix America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy (Yale University Press, 2006). Reviews 2006 non-fiction books 21st-century history books Books about neoconservatism Criticism of neoconservatism History books about the 21st century History books about the United States Philosophy books Works by Francis Fukuyama Books about human rights Presidency of George W. Bush
5255858	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasure%20Hunters%20%28TV%20series%29	Treasure Hunters (TV series)	Treasure Hunters is a reality television series on NBC (US) and Global (Canada) in which ten teams of three solve puzzles and complete challenges in hopes of solving the ultimate puzzle and winning the grand prize. Teams travel across the United States and Europe in search of seven "artifacts" which when assembled will "lead to the key. Find the key, and find the treasure." The challenges and puzzles are spliced with American history, and the ultimate goal is to find a hidden treasure, leading the show to be compared on various occasions to the film National Treasure. The value of the treasure in the series was revealed on the season finale to be $3,000,000. The two-hour premiere episode aired on June 18, 2006 and beginning June 26 the series moved to its regular Monday night timeslot. The season finale was broadcast live on August 21, 2006. The Hunt is similar in format to The Amazing Race. Key differences include: Teams consist of three members as opposed to The Amazing Races usual two The start location of each leg is not necessarily the end point of the previous leg Teams start each leg at the same time; Amazing Race teams have staggered starts based on previous leg finish order Amazing Race teams may take no electronic devices with them; Treasure Hunters teams are provided several pieces of electronic equipment, including: a Motorola RAZR cell phone, by which they receive messages and information from host Laird Macintosh; additional phones they may use to call other teams and each other; a laptop computer with "special access" to Ask.com and Orbitz.com; a Garmin GPSMAP 60C GPS unit The show focuses more closely on the solving of clues and tasks, which are much more difficult and cryptic than in The Amazing Race; The Amazing Race uses comparatively simple clues, and focuses more closely on the interpersonal relationships within the teams. Clues sometimes offer multiple solution methods, and false solutions are incorporated into them. Teams and rankings A red placement indicates the team was eliminated. A dark red placement indicates the team withdrew for medical reasons. An underlined blue indicates the team was initially eliminated, but was allowed to return due to unforeseen circumstances. +Team Grad Students dropped out after Leg 2 because of injury; Team Brown Family was brought back to replace them. §Teams Air Force and Southie Boys were both eliminated at the same time at the end of Leg 8 once Team Geniuses found the treasure. ‡Leg was shown over two episodes. The Hunt Leg 1 (Alaska/Hawaii → Nebraska → South Dakota) Ten teams started the hunt split into two groups of five, with each group of teams unaware of the other's existence. Five teams started at the Independence Mining Camp in Alaska and the other five started aboard a ship identified as the U.S.S. Jefferson (although the US Navy currently has no ship by that name), off the coast of Hawaii. The first clue for both sets was in the form of a Morse Code message which teams had to decipher. Although none of the teams knew Morse Code offhand, there were guidebooks scattered around the locations. The Alaska teams headed to Matanuska Glacier where they had to locate a block of ice. The words "Stillwater Washington" were etched on each block, and a map with various destinations was contained inside it, along with the word "dig." Teams had to figure out where to go next by associating the etched clue with a place on the map (the answer was Lake George, Alaska), and tell that location to one of the five awaiting helicopter pilots before they could commence. At Lake George, teams had to dig for a cylinder and a clue directing them to the capitol building in Lincoln, Nebraska. The Hawaii teams were led by their Morse Code clue to a dive site (Hāna Bay) where they had to locate a metal box containing a pilot's log with the coordinates of the next location, Black Sand Beach. There, the teams had to look for the Monticello crash site, where they had to find a locked box among plane wreckage. A key concealed within a Jeffersonian cane would open the box, but it would not work until assembled along with the handle segment of the cane. Inside the box was a coded map, with a painting on the reverse, and teams received a message to head to Lincoln. When teams reached Lincoln, they learned that there were not five but ten teams. Each team was paired with one from the other starting point based on their order of arrival in Lincoln. Each pair of teams boarded a bus, which headed away from their next destination. By combining the cylinder found in Alaska (which had a cipher alphabet engraved on it) and the coded map found in Hawaii, teams had to determine their next destination and relay this information to their driver. The decoded message, "Mount Theodore Roosevelt," could be interpreted in two ways: literally, leading to the incorrect location of Mount Theodore Roosevelt, South Dakota; or along with a clue given in a message to consider where the teams have been - Lake George (Washington), USS Jefferson, Lincoln, Nebraska - along with Mount Theodore Roosevelt together point to the four presidents carved on Mount Rushmore, the correct destination. Unbeknownst to – and undiscovered by – the teams, if they had put the two clues together in a different way (by placing the cylinder in the middle of the painting on the back of the map), an image of Mount Rushmore would have been revealed. All teams deduced or guessed the correct destination except for the Young Professionals/Geniuses. After a fruitless search at Mount Roosevelt eventually the Young Professionals/Geniuses called the Wild Hanlons, who gave away the correct destination. At Mount Rushmore, the teams, no longer working in two-team pairings, had to find a spot on the Presidential Trail where only two of the four presidents could be seen and then follow a smaller path until they found locked boxes containing the first of seven "artifacts" necessary to find the treasure. In this instance, the artifact was a map. The boxes opened with a combination. Teams were earlier given a clue message telling them to pay attention to the natural order of things, but that sometimes history has a way of changing it. This clue referred to the fact that the heads are not in the correct presidential order; Roosevelt and Lincoln are reversed. This led to the correct combination of 1-3-2-6-1-6 (each number referring to the order in which the given President – based on their location in Mount Rushmore – was in office). Team Young Professionals and Team Geniuses raced for the last artifact with the Geniuses eventually finding it. Leg 2 (South Dakota → Montana) Leg 2 was based on the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Beginning at about 2:20 am, teams travelled over 600 mi (965 km), from South Dakota to Lexington Mine in Montana. Teams travelled 10,000 ft (3,050 m) into the mine and searched for the clue, a bucket (which was covered with snakes) inscribed with the words "bend the light." Teams discovered that by filling the bucket with water, the words "Wood Bottom Missouri River Montana" became visible by refraction. Team Southie Boys never found this clue, instead allying with Team Brown Family to leave the Wild Hanlons 11 hours behind them in last place. Teams travelled to the Wood Bottom Recreation Area, from where they would have to canoe in search of the next clue. Canoes could not be in the water after 5:30 pm and no teams arrived at the campsite early enough to launch, so all teams camped there overnight. The next morning, teams canoed along a 20 mi (32 km) stretch of the Missouri River (including a 3 mi (5 km) portage), following a trail of stars in search of the next clue buried 40 paces behind the fourteenth star. Team Brown Family capsized their canoe, nearly drowning for the second time in as many legs. While portaging, Jessica of Team Grad Students stepped in a hole and injured her ankle. The production team intervened with medical assistance and the team was able to continue with Jessica alternating between crutches and being carried by her teammates. Team Fogal Family misled Teams Ex-CIA and Southie Boys into believing the Fogals were going to stop with them at the 13th star but instead kept paddling after those two teams had docked, which led to contempt for the Fogals (and the expression, "You've been Fogaled!") by the other teams – especially since the Southie Boys had helped the Fogals portage their canoe earlier. Buried within a fire pit behind the 14th star teams found a table and code key for a double substitution cipher devised by Thomas Jefferson and used by Lewis and Clark, and journal pages describing their next destination, Tower Rock, Montana. At Tower Rock, teams discovered an encrypted sign, which when deciphered read "Follow close and to the right. Look 'neath a rock as dark as night." This led teams to the second artifact, a compass, hidden under black rocks. The Wild Hanlons spent four hours trying to decipher the clue before Ben decided that they would go get some food. After making an estimated 80 mi (130 km) round trip to a Burger King restaurant, Josh quickly deciphered the message and they were able to find the artifact ahead of Team Brown Family. Leg 3 (Massachusetts) Leg 3 of the Hunt focused on the American Revolution and started from a bed and breakfast in Boston. It is not explained how the teams travelled from Montana to Boston. Prior to the leg, Team Grad Students bid a tearful farewell to the other teams, having been forced to withdraw because of Jessica's injury on the previous leg. Team Brown Family was brought back in their place, to the consternation of Team Wild Hanlons. All teams travelled to the Old Burke School in search of their first clue for the leg. Everyone followed Boston natives Team Southie Boys except Team Air Force and Team Brown Family. Team Fogal Family called Team Geniuses, who misdirected them. Team Air Force arrived at the school first and discovered a sign reading "Look until you can see no more." In a classroom, they discovered a chalk board with Revolutionary War facts and decided to go to the location of the "shot heard 'round the world." All other teams except Team Fogal Family and Team Brown Family arrived at the school and discovered the sign. Josh Hanlon noticed light switches in the chalk board and flipped them. This caused the main lights to go out and black lights to come on, revealing two hidden messages. One read "Go to the Old Newgate Prison and search the darkness to find the way to the light." The other read "Go to the Wentworth House in Strawberry Banke and find what the Minutemen left behind." All teams present were instructed to pair off, with one team from each pair going to each destination. Messages hidden at each destination would when combined reveal the next destination. As the five teams were departing, Team Fogal Family again called Team Geniuses, who again misdirected them. Team Brown Family arrived at the school shortly thereafter and joined with the other five teams. Team Ex-CIA, Team Southie Boys and Team Wild Hanlons went to Wentworth House and Team Brown Family, Team Miss USA and Team Geniuses went to the prison. Team Wild Hanlons were partnered with Team Brown Family, but when the Browns called the Hanlons for a status update the Hanlons pretended they had bad cell reception, tried to mislead the Browns and finally hung up on them. Team Air Force realized that the clue was at the school and headed back. They located the two black light clues and called Team Fogal Family. Team Air Force went to Wentworth House and Team Fogal Family went to the prison. As teams arrived at the two destinations, a Motorola message informed them they were searching for hollowed-out bullets with messages hidden inside. Team Air Force arrived at Wentworth House after the other teams had found the clue and realized that all six remaining teams were allied against them and Team Fogal Family. The Fogals managed to arrive at the prison ahead of the other teams and found their bullet. Combined, the messages, referring to Paul Revere's famous midnight ride read: Teams determined they needed to head for the cemetery at the Old North Church. Once there, they discovered two lanterns in the church steeple, thereby determining that the next destination was Boston Light. Teams raced to Pemberton Pier, from which ferries departed for Boston Light, and grabbed tickets to determine their order of departure the following morning. Ferries left fifteen minutes apart and could accommodate two teams, which gave teams with earlier departure times the option of sharing their ferry with a later team. Team Southie Boys got the first ferry slot, followed by Team Ex-CIA, Team Air Force, Team Wild Hanlons, Team Fogal Family, Team Miss USA, Team Geniuses and Team Brown Family. The next morning Team Southie Boys departed first, allowing Team Geniuses to go with them. Team Ex-CIA departed next, inviting Team Miss USA along. Team Air Force left third, bringing Team Fogal Family with them. Team Wild Hanlons were next to depart but they refused to allow Team Brown Family to go with them, leaving the Browns in last place by 15 minutes. As teams arrived at the lighthouse they were informed that seven artifacts were located in ten lockboxes scattered around the island. Team Southie Boys and Team Geniuses noticed rocks laid out in patterns and team members climbed the lighthouse. From above, the rocks formed Roman numerals which revealed the combinations for the two locks on each box. The combinations were IX II LIII, or 9253, and I III IV I, or 1341. The third artifact was an engraved box. Team Wild Hanlons and Team Brown Family were the last two teams with one artifact left. Team Brown Family solved the Roman numerals but Team Wild Hanlons couldn't figure out the correct value for L. Team Wild Hanlons unsuccessfully attempted to spy on the Browns to get the combination, but ultimately Team Brown Family prevailed. Leg 4 (Massachusetts → New York → South Carolina → Georgia) Part One (Massachusetts → New York → South Carolina) Leg 4 sent teams along the Underground Railroad. Teams woke up to find a facsimile copy of a Brooklyn Times newspaper. In the paper was a story written by Walt Whitman, directing teams to the Atlantic Avenue Tunnel in Brooklyn, New York. Team Miss USA was the first in the tunnel, the only entrance to which was a manhole. They found Civil War artifacts and lyrics to the slave song Follow the Drinking Gourd written on the tunnel walls. Among the artifacts were bundles wrapped in cloth, which Team Miss USA discovered but ignored. All other teams as they arrived recognized that the bundles were clues, consisting of a Don't Tread On Me flag, a copy of the Drinking Gourd lyrics and special glasses. The glasses revealed the words BENEVENTUM and GEORGETOWN SC in secret printing on the flag. The next destination was Beneventum Plantation in Georgetown, where the "Don't Tread On Me" flag was created. With the discovery of the destination, teams received a Motorola message that a $30,000 treasure could be claimed by the first team to reach an upcoming location. Team Miss USA realized their mistake in not taking a bundle and returned to the tunnel. Through it all a bluesman performed the song at the tunnel entrance. After well over a 14-hour trip to arrive at Beneventum, teams located a key and a quilt with a map hidden in the embroidery, like those used by escaping slaves on the Underground Railroad. Combining the symbols on the quilt with the lyrics of the song would lead teams through a swamp to several locked boxes. Each box bore a symbol from the quilt map and contained the key for the next box and teams had to locate the boxes in order. As teams struggled through the swamp, Team Fogal Family and Team Southie Boys allied but Kayte of Team Fogal Family became hysterical. At the third box (the "old man" box) a twist was thrown at the teams. Teams were given the option of at any time eliminating one of the three team members if they felt that the two-person team would be stronger. From the third box teams had to travel by boat but only two could travel at a time. If teams chose not to cut a member, retrieving that member would cost the team a three-hour delay. A distraught Kayte insisted that her parents leave her behind, but like all other teams who reached that point by the end of the episode, the team stayed together. Team Ex-CIA claimed the $30,000 treasure in gold coins, which they had to carry with them for the rest of the leg. With the coins was the instruction that the leg would end at the "safe house with the American flag." Well behind the other teams, Keith Brown fell in the swamp, injuring himself. He had to be removed by ambulance. With teams having the option to cut a player, it appeared that the remaining Brown Family members would be able to continue. At the end of the episode, no teams had completed the leg. Team Geniuses members Charles and Francis were in the boat, still contemplating whether to cut Sam, and Team Brown Family had not yet reached the boats. Part Two (South Carolina → Georgia) Part two picked up where part one left off, with Team Geniuses deciding whether to abandon a team member and Team Brown Family dealing with Keith's injury. Team Geniuses decided to remain together. Team Brown Family was informed that because of Keith's injury they could either quit the Hunt or continue, skipping the swamp but incurring a six-hour penalty. The remaining Browns, after consulting with Keith, chose to continue. As teams arrived at the "safe house with the American flag," they discovered that the house was filled with quilts and gourds, and the word FREEDOM was written on the wall. Teams searched through the quilts until they found one with a pouch sewn onto it. The pouch contained a quilt panel with the message "I believed that in America most all men loved freedom and would rather go to their grave free than live their life as a slave." Followed by "This warrants some reflection. Dock Street Theatre, Charleston." The letters R, E and D in "FREEDOM" written on the wall were in red. Team Geniuses was the only team to figure out that by donning the red-lensed glasses retrieved from the Atlantic Avenue Tunnel, a star became visible on the quilts holding the message panels. Team Brown Family was the last to arrive at the safe house and served out the penalty. The team was then advised to go to the theatre without having to locate the quilt panel and were verbally apprised of the reflection portion of the clue. At the theatre, teams found a number of mirrors hung on the walls. Teams discovered that by breathing on the mirrors, a picture of a flag, a fort and the words FORT PULASKI appeared in the condensation. This led teams to Fort Pulaski National Monument near Savannah, Georgia. At the fort, teams discovered a room displaying a number of variations of the United States flag. Brooke of Team Air Force noticed a plaque that explained how soldiers hid messages in the finials of flag poles. Unscrewing the finials yielded maps of the surrounding area. Following the maps led to the location where the fourth artifact was buried. The artifact was a reproduction of the death mask of a hero of the American Revolution. Although he was not identified by name either to the teams or on-screen, a portrait of the Marquis de La Fayette was shown. Teams were instructed to dig for the artifact, advised that there would be no indication of how deeply it was buried. All other teams discovered the artifact before Team Brown Family arrived at Fort Pulaski. Leg 5 (Georgia, USA → Paris, France → England: Dover → London) Leg 5 led teams in search of the identity of the man whose death mask they retrieved in Leg 4. From a bed and breakfast in Savannah, teams were instructed to book flights to Paris, France and find the Catacombs of Paris. All teams arrived in Paris together and took the RER B (Paris RER) to the Catacombs. Following the advice of two locals, Team Fogal Family, Team Geniuses and Team Air Force got off the subway five stops before the other teams, at Gare du Nord. Team Southie Boys, Team Ex-CIA and Team Miss USA stayed on the train, which was the correct choice, and got off at Denfert-Rochereau. These three teams arrived at the Catacombs tied for first place. One member of each team descended into the Catacombs in search of the remains interred in 1789, the year the Marquis de La Fayette designed the tricolor Flag of France. A plaque near the remains read "The Hero Of Two Worlds Awaits upon the RIGHT BANK of the SEINE sword raised. A friend to America. A friend to Washington. Face him to find your fate." This led teams to the "Children's Statue of La Fayette" sculpted by Paul Wayland Bartlett, located at the Cours Albert 1er. Upon their arrival teams were finally apprised by Motorola message of La Fayette's identity and his work as a spy during the American Revolution, and that they are seeking the identity of La Fayette's American contact. Near the statue was a broken replica of the death mask. Teams decided to break their copies of the mask, within which were concealed the true fourth artifacts, a medallion engraved with an unknown ship and the words "Dover Castle The Arrow Points The Way." Teams took a ferry to Dover, England. Team Southie Boys realized that the arrow referred to a portion of Dover Castle itself. The three lead teams followed the arrow to a cairn of stones which concealed parchment scrolls. The parchments included the words "1725 Samuel Palmer Printing Press London." This led teams to the identity of "America's first spy," Benjamin Franklin, and the location where Franklin apprenticed as a printer, the Church of St Bartholomew-the-Great. Southie Boys, Ex-CIA and Miss USA remained tied for first. Team Geniuses initially broke away in fourth place but Team Fogal Family and Team Air Force passed them at the castle when Kayte figured out the arrow. The three lead teams arrived at the church together and began searching. Todd of Team Ex-CIA suggested heating the parchment over some of the many burning candles. This caused a message written in invisible ink to appear. The message was a map of the church with the five locations of the fifth artifact, a key, marked. Each of the three lead teams found an artifact. Team Fogal Family and Team Air Force arrived at the church together but spent so much time searching that Team Geniuses was able to catch up and locate an artifact ahead of them. Team Air Force found the last key, eliminating Team Fogal Family. Leg 6 (Kent, England → France: Nice → Peille/Saint-Tropez → La Turbie → Paris → Normandy) Teams were sent in search of the headquarters of a secret society whose membership included many of America's Founding Fathers. Teams departed from Eastwell Manor in Kent, England for Nice, France, in search of "where Via ferrata ends," which led them to Peille. In Peille, teams were advised that a US$50,000 treasure awaited the first team who located an "inverted rose," symbol of the secret society. To find the next clue, teams were told to search a cave in Peille Gorge, accessible by climbing several rock faces and crossing three suspension bridges. All team members were required to make the climb, but teams were given the option of an alternate route. Team Air Force, Team Southie Boys, Team Geniuses and Team CIA scaled the cliffs and found a ring of keys and a picture of a castle with the French words Retire la Pierre. This led the teams to Peille Castle. Team Air Force broke away in first place and discovered a scroll hidden behind some loose rocks in the castle wall ("retire la pierre" translates to "remove the rock"). Team Southie Boys, in second place, tried the keys on the castle gate, unsuccessfully, and Team Geniuses and Team Ex-CIA caught up with them. The three teams searched around the castle grounds up to two miles away before returning to the wall and discovering the scroll. The scroll read "The Ancient Roman Ruin crumbles on the hillside in La Turbie." The alternate route, taken by Team Miss USA, involved driving 150 miles (240 km) to Saint-Tropez and locating a statue of Pierre André de Suffren de Saint Tropez. At the base of the statue was the castle picture with instructions to return to Peille and locate a marked path. From the path the team spotted the castle and located the scroll, managing to pass Southie Boys, Geniuses and Ex-CIA. At La Turbie (the Trophy of the Alps), Team Air Force, well in first place, spotted a placard on the ground with an "inverted rose." Searching around the area turned up a box with $50,000 in gold coins and a portfolio containing a partial street map of Paris with the Champ de Mars marked. Air Force flew to Paris and headed to the park, and were instructed to climb to the second level of the Eiffel Tower and look West for "a classic symbol of American freedom." They spotted a model of the Statue of Liberty and traveled to it. Near the statue were buckets and a plaque reading "They hid beneath the streets of Paris. Clean the streets of Paris to find your path." Brooke figured out to wash the street map, revealing the name of the secret society, the Rosicrucian Order. Also revealed were the words "To the rose through the cross, to the cross through the rose. In this and everything is a resurgent jewel," along with the name of the Rosicrucian headquarters, the Chateau d'Omonville in Normandy, France. All the other teams diverged from this path. Team Miss USA arrived at the Eiffel Tower after dark and actually discovered the Statue of Liberty on a souvenir picture postcard. Southie Boys, Geniuses and Ex-CIA discovered the hidden Rosicrucian message on the subway travelling to the Champ de Mars and so were not required to ascend the Eiffel Tower or visit the Statue of Liberty. At the chateau, the keys teams found earlier at Peille Gorge unlocked a cabinet in which there were locked boxes containing the sixth artifact, a cryptex. Teams Air Force, Geniuses, Ex-CIA and Southie Boys retrieved artifacts. Team Miss USA struggled with the cleaning clue and were eliminated just as they were about to leave for Normandy. Leg 7 (Bronx, NY → Philadelphia, PA) Teams returned to New York City and spent the night at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. The next morning, each team received a Susan B. Anthony dollar along with a clue directing them to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans on the campus of Bronx Community College. At the Hall of Fame, teams located a bust of Susan B. Anthony, and by following her gaze, located a bust of La Fayette. Attached to a fence under La Fayette was a mailbox containing keys, labelled "Gould Library," which led teams to the Gould Memorial Library, designed by Stanford White. In the library, teams received a message that their next clue was hidden in one of the paintings and that "in this case, art imitates life." Team Geniuses discovered a painting called Today, depicting a scene of the Gould Library with a light shining on a particular sculpture. They located the sculpture and found a switch for a spotlight, which caused the sculpture to cast a shadow of a sailing ship. They located a painting featuring the same ship in shadow entitled Sailing to Philadelphia, which was labelled as being owned by the Land Title Building in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for which they quickly departed. The other teams discovered the sculpture and painting clues shortly thereafter, and headed to the same location. At the Land Title Building, teams were advised to send one member to a suite on the 22nd floor in search of the next clue. With one team member headed up, the other two were told that their teammate needed to find a plaque on the ledge outside the 22nd floor. The member on the ledge had to work with the members on the ground in order to find the plaque, which was visible from the ground but not readable. Outside the suite, the team member who went up received a text message reading "Bird of peace holds the code to this door. If your credit had wings you'd find the answer for sure." This lead teams to enter the card security code from the back of the show-provided VISA credit card to unlock the door. Charles from Team Geniuses arrived first and entered the suite. Todd from Team Ex-CIA was second but didn't have his card, so he was delayed until Matt R. from Team Air Force arrived and unlocked the door, admitting John from Team Southie Boys and Todd. As only one person could go out onto the window ledge at a time, the order was determined by the order they got into the suite. The plaque read "Founders Hall Girard," which all teams other than the Geniuses, who were in the lead, determined correctly to mean Girard College, where Founders Hall is located. Francis of Team Geniuses, who is from Philadelphia, thought that Girard referred to Girard Avenue, and by the time they finally ended up at Girard College, they were in last place. Teams were informed upon arrival that the code to open the cryptex was a seven-letter word, found in multiple locations within the hall, and that some of the rooms have secret entrances. Revealed to the television audience but (apparently) not to the teams was that the solution is hidden in a secret room, but that other items including record books and model ships also contain the solution. Team Air Force located a shipping record book and after trying the names of a number of the ships, stumbled across the word "LIBERTY" in the book. They dialed the word into their cryptex and it opened, revealing a parchment reading "Library of Congress," which they are advised is the location of the final artifact, as well as a smaller cryptex. Team Southie Boys arrived at the college second, but twins Martin and Matthew nearly came to blows. John finally defused the situation, and after receiving the Motorola message, they began searching. The team began guessing seven letter words that have to do with Philadelphia, finally getting the right answer (from the Liberty Bell) and advancing to the final round. Teams Ex-CIA and Geniuses were left to find the answer to the cryptex, and be the last team to move on to the final. While Ex-CIA began dialing in names of model ships and words from posters on the walls, Team Geniuses found the secret room behind a portrait of Stephen Girard and discovered a large model ship named Liberty. Team Ex-CIA found an old street map of Philadelphia and tried street names from it. Finally, each team entered the correct word into their cryptexes, with the Geniuses getting it first to move on. Todd of Team Ex-CIA stated in the season finale that Team Genius's margin of victory was two seconds. Leg 8 (Philadelphia, PA → Washington, D.C. → Baltimore, MD) The three remaining teams spent the night at a bed and breakfast in Philadelphia. In a message, host Laird Macintosh reviewed the artifacts the teams had already collected and informed the home audience that the previous artifact, the cryptex, contained in addition to the parchment a smaller 5-character cryptex. Teams were directed to seek the final artifact at the Library of Congress and advised that they could no longer use their computers. Teams headed to Washington D.C. Team Southie Boys were first to arrive at the Library of Congress, followed by Team Geniuses and Team Air Force in third. Teams were advised to seek one of three specific books (titled Poltroons & Patriots, Official Histories and The American Flag: Of Stars and Stripes) each of which covered the final artifact. Team Air Force headed for the card catalogue, followed by Team Southie Boys. Team Air Force was the first to find the artifact, a leather-bound book detailing the history of The Star-Spangled Banner. Within the book were semi-transparent maps with chevrons which, when overlaid, marked the various destinations teams had previously visited. The book included a notation that it had been printed on the Library's old printing press and Air Force went in search of the press. In the press room was a template into which the box, key, medallion and compass fit. With the blank map inserted in the press, the artifacts printed a map to Fort McHenry in Baltimore, Maryland. Team Geniuses apparently stumbled onto the artifact largely by chance and printed the map. Team Southie Boys, having temporarily given up on the card catalogue, searched for a while then returned to the catalogue to locate the final book. They too printed the map. Team Geniuses were the first to arrive at the Fort McHenry docks and hired a boat to take them to the Francis Scott Key Truce Ship. On board and below decks, they located a mounted glass pane with a duplicate map engraved on it. Behind the map was a box containing another map and a token embossed with a star on each side. The map read "The treasure is not here. The answer is right in front of you." There was also a key and the word "Lazaretto" printed on the map. By Motorola message the team was advised to seek the site of Lazaretto Battery. Team Air Force was second at the ship and Team Southie Boys was third. Back in the boat, Team Geniuses searched the harbor for the battery site. They spotted a factory named "Key Industries" with a duplicate of the Star Spangled banner flag on it and headed there. Upon arrival the team was advised to locate a hidden chamber to find the solution to the second cryptex, and that what was inside would point them to the treasure. Team Geniuses located a hidden entrance inside a pipe and headed down into the chamber. There they located a sliding door with a slot into which the star token would fit. Dropping the token into the slot caused the door to slide open, revealing the "treasure chamber." The walls were covered with hieroglyphs and other symbols and panels were embedded into the floor. The team searched the room for possible solutions to the cryptex. As the episode came to an end, Team Geniuses were searching the treasure chamber and Team Air Force and Team Southie Boys were still looking for the pipe entrance. Finale (Baltimore, MD) As Team Geniuses continued to try to solve the cryptex, Team Southie Boys discovered the secret door in the pipe. Before they could solve the chamber door, Team Air Force located the pipe door and joined them outside the chamber. Matt R. figured out to drop his team's star token down the slot and all three teams were together in the secret chamber. Team Air Force noticed that of the symbols on the walls, there was only one star, but were unable to determine its meaning. All three teams continued to search the chamber and try various word combinations on the cryptex. After eight hours, Francis, citing "a vision," tried FSKEY (for Francis Scott Key''') and opened the cryptex. Inside was a metal pointer engraved with symbols matching some of those on the large octagonal plates embedded in the floor. Inserting the pointer into the center of one of the plates, Team Geniuses spun the pointer. It landed on the star symbol. Francis punched the star symbol on the wall and was hit in the face with a blast of gas. A panel slid back, revealing a final secret room. Team Geniuses entered the room, discovering a cache of gold coins. Team Geniuses claimed the treasure, valued at $3,000,000. Home viewer game Each episode included a historical trivia question related to the subject matter of the episode. Home viewers answered the question via text message. One winner was selected at random from those who correctly answered and received $10,000. Genworth Financial Treasure Challenge Over 400,000 home viewers competed in an online version of the TV show. After successful completion of each challenge, they were given the opportunity to guess the final location of the online treasure. Out of 37,000 people who correctly guessed the location, 10 were randomly chosen to receive a $10,000 prize and competed in Washington, D.C. in a "mini-hunt" for an additional $100,000 grand prize, which aired August 21, 2006 during the season finale. The grand prize winner was Scott Gray, an environmental scientist from Brandon, MS. Public Reception Pre-show reviews seemed optimistic about the fact that Treasure Hunters would be an intense, stepped-up version of The Amazing Race, in the wake of two lackluster seasons the latter show had just aired. It premiered to ratings of approximately 6.9 million viewers on June 18, 2006. The show's main criticism as it progressed, however, seemed to be that it was just simply too similar in format and style to The Amazing Race''. Many were also irked by the stiff, robot-like persona of host Laird Macintosh, who appeared live and in-person to contestants only on two occasions: the premiere and the finale (for the rest of the season, he delivered clues and instructions to teams via video-message on teams' Motorola RAZR cellular phones). The season finale aired on August 21, 2006 to approximately 5 million viewers. Genworth Financial "Hints" Along the course of the hunt, Genworth Financial sponsored several messages shown to home viewers and possibly the teams. Leg 1 - "Rush to where the treasure stands." This hint was on a road sign on the way to the Mount Rushmore artifact. Leg 2 - "Look on water for it is inspiration." This was on the way to Lexington Mine. It was a clue for teams to pour water in the bucket they found in the mine to reveal their next clue, by way of refraction. Leg 3 - " " This was located on the Genworth Financial blimp above the Old Burke School. It was meant for teams to turn out the lights in the classroom, which revealed the clue in blacklight. "In dark times, the words form" On a flag in the old burke school Leg 4 - "Match the tune with an early drinking song." On the way to Beneventum Plantation teams found this. Leg 7 - "Independence for the People" The hint was on the blimp over Founders Hall at Girard College. It was meant to define liberty. References External links Official Website View Trailer Online game Team websites Team Brown Family Official Website Team Fogal Family Official Website Team Geniuses Official Website NBC original programming 2000s American reality television series Puzzle hunts 2006 American television series debuts 2006 American television series endings Television series by Magical Elves Television series by Imagine Entertainment Television series by Universal Television Television shows filmed in Alaska Television shows filmed in Hawaii Television shows filmed in Nebraska Television shows filmed in South Dakota Television shows filmed in Montana Television shows filmed in Massachusetts Television shows filmed in New York (state) Television shows filmed in South Carolina Television shows filmed in Georgia (U.S. state) Television shows filmed in France Television shows filmed in England Television shows filmed in Pennsylvania Television shows filmed in Washington, D.C. Television shows filmed in Maryland Television shows set in swamps
5255978	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Tavares	John Tavares	John Tavares (born September 20, 1990) is a Canadian professional ice hockey forward and captain of the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was selected first overall by the New York Islanders in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft, where he spent nine seasons and served as captain for five seasons. Previously, Tavares competed at the major junior level as a member of the Oshawa Generals of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) before being traded to the London Knights at the 2009 OHL trading deadline along with Michael Del Zotto. Tavares broke into the OHL after gaining "exceptional player" status at age 14, allowing the Generals to select him in the OHL Priority Draft as an underage player in 2005. Tavares was named the Canadian Hockey League (CHL) Rookie of the Year in 2006 and CHL Player of the Year in 2007. Tavares finished his Major Junior and OHL career with most goals (215), and 6th in points (433). Tavares was the focus of an unsuccessful push to have the NHL's draft rules changed to allow him to participate in the 2008 Entry Draft, as well as an attempt to allow him to play in the American Hockey League (AHL) as a 17-year-old in 2007. Tavares was ranked as the top prospect for the 2009 Draft by both the NHL Central Scouting Bureau and International Scouting Services. Tavares has represented Canada at five International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF)-sanctioned events, including the 2010 and 2011 World Championships. At the under-20 level, he won gold medals at the 2008 and 2009 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. He was named the most valuable player of the 2009 tournament after scoring eight goals and 15 points in six games. He also participated in the 2006 IIHF World U18 Championships, but failed to medal. Additionally, Tavares represented Team Ontario at the 2006 World U-17 Hockey Challenge and 2007 Super Series. On January 7, 2014, he was named to the 2014 Canadian Olympic Hockey Team, winning a gold medal at the 2014 Winter Olympics despite an injury preventing him from participating in the final two games. Early career Tavares was born on September 20, 1990, in Mississauga, Ontario, to Barbara and Joe Tavares, who are of Polish and Portuguese descent, respectively. His maternal grandparents, Bolesław and Josephine Kowal, immigrated from Poland to Sudbury, Ontario, and his paternal grandparents Manuel and Dorotea Tavares immigrated from Portugal to Toronto, Ontario. At a very young age, Tavares moved to Oakville, Ontario. This is where he was first exposed to minor hockey through the Minor Oaks Hockey Association. Tavares also played soccer and lacrosse, and his highly competitive nature often led him to fight with other players. Tavares excelled at lacrosse, following in the footsteps of his uncle John Tavares, the all-time scoring leader in the National Lacrosse League (NLL), and was a ball boy for his uncle's NLL team, the Buffalo Bandits. The younger Tavares credits his uncle with teaching him the importance of remaining unselfish, stating what he learned by following his uncle with the Bandits has made him better both as a person and a hockey player. Many skills he learned in lacrosse—such as spinning off checks and battling in traffic—transferred to ice hockey and improved Tavares' abilities as a goal scorer. In Oakville, Tavares attended St. Thomas Aquinas Catholic Secondary School. He lived five minutes from Sam Gagner, who later signed a contract with the Edmonton Oilers, and the two quickly established a friendship. Gagner's father, former NHL player Dave Gagner, built a backyard ice rink on which Tavares spent much of his time honing ice hockey skills. In the OHL, Tavares placed an emphasis on his education, earning honours as well as the Oshawa Generals' Scholastic Player of the Year in 2007–08. Tavares also spends some of his time working with the Special Olympics. Tavares showed such promise as a hockey player that when he was seven, his parents moved him up one age group and he began playing with older children. From there, he moved on to the Mississauga Braves of the Greater Toronto Hockey League (GTHL). After playing the 1998–99 season with the Braves' novice team, Tavares moved to the Mississauga Senators of the GTHL the following season. With the Senators' AAA minor atom team, Tavares won the GTHL minor atom championship in the 1999–2000 season. Tavares eventually moved to the Toronto Marlboros of the GTHL. During the 2003–04 season Tavares was teammates with his friend Sam Gagner, and scored 95 goals and 187 points in 90 games to lead the Marlboros' bantam team to the 2004 Bantam AAA Provincial Hockey Championships, where the Marlboros defeated Drew Doughty and the London Jr. Knights 5–0 in the championship game. Tavares scored one goal in the game and was named the tournament's top forward. The following season, Tavares joined the Marlboros' minor midget team, where he recorded 91 goals and 158 points in 72 games. For his achievements, Tavares shared the Buck Houle Award with Bryan Cameron, "in recognition of outstanding on ice performance, leadership and loyalty". During this season, he also played 16 games with the Milton Icehawks of the Ontario Provincial Junior A Hockey League (OPJHL), during which he recorded 11 goals and 23 points. Tavares' debut with the Icehawks came while he was only 13, making him one of the youngest players to ever play junior hockey. Playing career Junior Tavares petitioned to gain eligibility to play major junior in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) in the spring of 2005. As OHL rules did not allow for players under age 15 to be drafted, the OHL introduced an "exceptional player" clause, allowing the 14-year-old Tavares to be drafted one year sooner than he would otherwise have been eligible. Consequently, Tavares is the youngest player to ever be drafted in the OHL, although Bobby Orr was signed and had played at a younger age. The Canadian Hockey League (CHL), the umbrella organization which governs major junior hockey in Canada, sent a proposal to Hockey Canada recommending that the rule be expanded across junior hockey, which eventually was granted. To date, only eight other players—Aaron Ekblad, Connor McDavid, Sean Day, Joe Veleno, Shane Wright, Connor Bedard and Michael Misa—have been granted the same status. The Oshawa Generals held the first pick in the 2005 draft, and they selected Tavares, earning him the Jack Ferguson Award, which is given to the player picked first overall in the OHL Priority Selection. Tavares played his first OHL game on September 23, 2005, scoring his first OHL goal in a game held just three days after his 15th birthday. He showed he could play in the OHL immediately, scoring ten goals in his first nine games with the Generals, and finished the 2005–06 season with 77 points, including 45 goals. Tavares was named to the OHL's all-rookie team, and won both the Emms Family Award and CHL Rookie of the Year awards as the top first-year player in both the OHL and CHL respectively. As a 16-year-old in 2006–07, Tavares was selected to represent the OHL for two games in January for the annual ADT Canada-Russia Challenge, including one game in Oshawa. Later that month, on January 25, 2007, Tavares registered a seven-point night in a 9–6 win against the Windsor Spitfires. He scored four goals and three assists, including his 50th goal of the season in his 44th game. Towards the end of the season, on March 16, 2007, Tavares recorded his 70th and 71st goals of the season, breaking Wayne Gretzky's OHL record for most goals by a 16-year-old. He was awarded the Red Tilson Trophy as the most outstanding player in the league, and named the CHL Player of the Year. Tavares scored 40 goals in 59 games for the Generals during the 2007–08 season, while his 118 points was placed him third in OHL scoring. Tavares led the OHL in scoring until he missed several games to represent the Canada men's national junior ice hockey team at the 2008 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. As Tavares was participating in the 2009 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships, it was speculated that the Generals were ready to trade him to the London Knights. Tavares' future with the Generals had been questioned since the beginning of the season as the Generals were not expected to seriously contend for the championship, while the Knights were among the league leaders. The deal was made official on January 8, 2009, as Oshawa sent Tavares, Michael Del Zotto and Darryl Borden to the Knights in exchange for Scott Valentine, Christian Thomas, Michael Zador and six draft picks. Tavares made his debut with the Knights on January 11 against the Mississauga St. Michael's Majors. Making his return to Oshawa at the 2009 CHL Top Prospects Game as captain of Team Orr, he recorded an assist in a 6–1 win over Team Cherry, but injured his shoulder after Zack Kassian of the Peterborough Petes checked him behind the net. On March 8, 2009, Tavares set the OHL goal-scoring record with his 214th goal, passing the previous record held by Peter Lee. The next day, he received his third OHL Player of the Week recognition of the season. Professional Although he was born five days after the September 15 cutoff date for eligibility in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft, there was a significant effort made to allow Tavares into the Draft. Following his 72-goal campaign in 2006–07, Tavares' agents asked the NHL and NHL Players' Association (NHLPA) to make an exception for Tavares similar to the one the OHL had made in 2005. The attempt was unsuccessful and Tavares was required to wait until 2009 to participate in the NHL Entry Draft. In October 2007, it was reported that then-Toronto Maple Leafs general manager John Ferguson Jr. had offered the 17-year-old Tavares a spot with the team's American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Toronto Marlies. However, like the NHL, the AHL declined to amend its by-laws and Tavares subsequently returned to the OHL. The NHL International Scouting Services ranked Tavares as the top draft prospect in the world, ahead of defenceman Victor Hedman and forwards Magnus Pääjärvi-Svensson and Matt Duchene in its March 2009 update. The 2009 draft class was led by Tavares, who was selected first overall by the New York Islanders. New York Islanders (2009–2018) On July 15, 2009, Tavares signed a three-year, entry-level contract with the Islanders. His first NHL game was in the pre-season in a game against the Edmonton Oilers. He spent 22 minutes and 50 seconds on the ice alongside linemates Doug Weight and Sean Bergenheim in the Islanders' 3–2 loss. Weight, a veteran NHLer, said, "John's going to be a big piece of [an Islander rebuilding effort]." Tavares scored his first career NHL goal and assist in his first ever professional game, scoring on a backhander against Marc-André Fleury of the Pittsburgh Penguins on October 3, 2009. Tavares led NHL rookies in scoring throughout much of his first season. In December 2009, he scored five consecutive Islanders goals over a four-game span to tie the club record for most consecutive goals by one player. He scored an empty-net goal against the Atlanta Thrashers on December 3, 2009, and both Islanders goals on both December 9, 2009, against the Philadelphia Flyers and December 10, 2009, against the Toronto Maple Leafs. The record was originally set by Bryan Trottier, when he scored five consecutive goals in a 1982 game against Philadelphia. On March 17, 2010, Tavares scored five points (two goals and three assists) in a 5–2 win over the Vancouver Canucks. At the end of the season, Tavares finished second in rookie scoring, behind Matt Duchene, with 54 points. As New York opened up their season at home against the Dallas Stars on October 9, 2010, Tavares suffered a mild concussion late during the first period. The Stars' Adam Burish bumped into Tavares, and the latter was unable to return to the game. He scored his first career hat-trick on October 23, 2010, in a loss to the Florida Panthers. He then scored his second career NHL hat-trick, as well as his first career natural hat-trick, on January 15, 2011, in a win against the Buffalo Sabres. On September 14, 2011, Tavares signed a new six-year, $33 million contract with the Islanders effective from the 2012–13 season through to the end of the 2017–18 season. After being held pointless in the first two games of the 2011–12 season, Tavares had back-to-back four-point games against the Tampa Bay Lightning and New York Rangers. From December 29, 2011, to January 21, 2012, Tavares had 21 points in a 12-game point streak, seven of which were multi-point games. He was selected to play in the 2012 NHL All-Star Game. In his first career All-Star Game, he recorded one goal and one assist. Additionally, during the 2011–12 season, Tavares was named as an alternate captain for New York. Tavares played with Mark Streit in Switzerland for SC Bern while the 2012–13 NHL lock-out took place. During the shortened 2012–13 season, Tavares was third in the NHL with 28 goals. He helped the Islanders reach the Stanley Cup playoffs for the first time since 2007, scoring 47 points in 48 games. Tavares was also named a finalist for the 2013 Hart Memorial Trophy, awarded to the NHL's most valuable player, on May 10, 2013. He made his playoff debut on May 1, 2013, against the Pittsburgh Penguins. Tavares scored his first career Stanley Cup playoff goal against Pittsburgh goaltender Marc-André Fleury in Game 3 of the 2013 playoffs. He would finish with three goals and five points in six games as the Islanders were eliminated by the Penguins. On September 9, 2013, Tavares was named as the 14th captain in New York Islanders history, replacing former Islander Mark Streit of the Philadelphia Flyers, who served as team captain since 2011. On February 19, 2014, during the 2014 Winter Olympics, Tavares suffered a torn medial collateral ligament (MCL) and a torn meniscus in his knee during the quarterfinal game against Latvia, forcing him to miss the remainder of the Olympics as well as the remainder of the 2013-14 Islanders' season. At the time of his injury, Tavares ranked third in the NHL with 24 goals, 42 assists and 66 points in 59 games. The following season, he was selected for the 2015 NHL All-Star Game, along with teammate Jaroslav Halák. Tavares finished the 2014–15 NHL season as runner up for the Art Ross Trophy with 86 points, one point behind the recipient, Dallas Stars forward Jamie Benn. Additionally, Tavares was named a finalist for the Hart Memorial Trophy for the second time in his career; ultimately ceding the award to Carey Price. On April 19, 2015, Tavares scored 15 seconds into overtime against Washington Capitals goaltender Braden Holtby in Game 3 of the Eastern Conference Quarterfinals of the 2015 playoffs. The goal, which gave the Islanders a 2–1 victory, was the first game-winning overtime goal in the playoffs for the Islanders since 1993. Despite this, the Capitals won the series in seven games. Tavares scored the first regular season goal for the Islanders at Barclays Center in a 3–2 overtime loss to the Chicago Blackhawks on Blackhawks goaltender Corey Crawford during the first game of the 2015–16 NHL season on October 9, 2015. On March 12, 2016, Tavares scored his 200th career NHL goal in a game against the Boston Bruins on goaltender Tuukka Rask. That season, he was also named to the NHL All-Star Game for the third time in his career and was voted captain of the Metropolitan Division. He finished the 2015-16 season playing in 78 games with 33 goals, 37 assists and 70 points. On April 24, 2016, Game 6 of the Eastern Conference Quarterfinals against the Florida Panthers, trailing 1–0 in the final minute of play, assisted by Nikolay Kulemin and Nick Leddy, Tavares scored the game-tying goal on Panthers goaltender Roberto Luongo off a loose puck in the crease with 53.2 seconds left in regulation. He finished the job by scoring the series-clinching goal in double overtime, winning a playoff series for the Islanders for the first time since 1993. On January 13, 2017, in a game against the Florida Panthers, Tavares scored his 500th NHL point in his 550th career NHL game, making him the first player from his draft class to reach the milestone. Tavares' contract with the Islanders was set to expire following the completion of the 2017–18 season, during which he recorded 37 goals, 47 assists and 84 points in all 82 games. With Tavares set to become an unrestricted free agent for the first time in his career, he decided to test the free-agent market by meeting with six teams in the days leading up to the opening of the signing window on July 1, including a meeting with the Islanders to contemplate re-signing before hitting free agency. Although many analysts predicted that Tavares would sign a new contract with New York before he hit the open market, the re-sign deadline passed without a new contract being signed, and Tavares officially became a free agent at noon (EDT) on July 1. Many publications called Tavares the biggest free agent in the modern history of the NHL. Just before 1 pm, almost one hour into the free agency period, it became public knowledge that Tavares had informed the Islanders he would be leaving the team and signing with Toronto. Toronto Maple Leafs (2018–present) On July 1, 2018, it was announced that Tavares had signed a seven-year, $77 million contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs. Tavares cited "Toronto's chances as a Stanley Cup contender, as well as living out his childhood dream to play for his hometown team", as his reason for signing the contract. Tavares rejected higher-paying offers in favour of joining the Maple Leafs, including a seven-year, $91 million offer from the San Jose Sharks that would've made Tavares the highest-paid player in the NHL. In his debut for the Maple Leafs on October 4, 2018, against the Montreal Canadiens, Tavares scored his first goal for the club in a 3–2 overtime win. On October 7, 2018, Tavares recorded his ninth career NHL hat-trick (and first for Toronto) in a 7–6 overtime victory over the Chicago Blackhawks. On January 10, 2019, Tavares recorded his 300th goal in a 4–2 win over the New Jersey Devils. Tavares made his first return to Long Island to play the Islanders on February 28, 2019, in a highly-publicized, sold-out game. Tavares was relentlessly booed and heckled by Islanders fans throughout the match, including during his tribute video, and items were thrown at Tavares on the ice. The Islanders would win the game 6–1, scoring six unanswered goals after Toronto initially scored early in the game. On March 17, 2019, Tavares recorded his 700th career NHL point with his 40th goal of the season in a 6–2 loss to the Ottawa Senators; in scoring that goal, Tavares also became the third player in Maple Leaf history to record 40 goals in his first season with the team. On March 26, 2019, Tavares recorded his tenth career NHL hat-trick (and first four-goal game) in a 7–5 win over the Florida Panthers. In so doing, he became just the third player in modern team history (since 1943) to record multiple hat-tricks in his debut season with the club, following Wilf Paiement and Daniel Marois. In the Maple Leafs' next game against the Islanders, Tavares recorded his 87th point of the season (a new career-high and his first point against his former team) in the 2–1 win, which clinched a playoff berth for Toronto. Tavares finished the season playing all 82 games with 47 goals, 41 assists and 88 points recorded. His 47 goals was third overall in the NHL only behind Leon Draisaitl and the league leading Alexander Ovechkin. Prior to the 2019–20 season, Tavares was granted leave from the teams first pre-season game in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador in September 2019 to spend with his wife and newborn son. On October 2, 2019, just before the first game of the NHL season, Tavares was named the 25th captain in the history of the Maple Leafs, filling a position that had been vacant for more than years since the trade of Dion Phaneuf. On October 16, 2019, in a game against the Washington Capitals, Tavares sustained a broken finger after getting hit in the hand with the puck, which caused him to miss 7 games. He then returned to the Leafs lineup on November 5, 2019, against the Los Angeles Kings. On April 5, 2021, Tavares recorded his 800th career NHL point with an assist on an Auston Matthews goal in the Maple Leafs' 5–3 win over the Calgary Flames. On May 20, 2021, in the Leafs' opening Stanley Cup playoff game against the Canadiens, Tavares was upended by Canadiens defencemen Ben Chiarot. Canadiens forward Corey Perry attempted to jump over Tavares as he fell to the ice, however, Perry's knee clipped Tavares in the head. Ultimately, Tavares was stretchered off the ice and was transported to the hospital. After the game, Perry felt remorse for his role on the incident: "I don't know what else to do there. I tried to jump. I know Johnny pretty well and just hope he's OK." Tavares was taken to St. Michael's Hospital, and was discharged the following day, but was ruled out indefinitely with a concussion. In his absence, the Leafs would rally to win three games in a row, but would ultimately lose the series to the Canadiens in seven games, surrendering a 3–1 series lead in the process. On November 15, 2022, Tavares scored his 400th NHL goal in a 5–2 victory over the Pittsburgh Penguins. He played his 1,000th NHL game on January 29, 2023, a 5–1 victory against the Washington Capitals in which he had two assists. Forbes remarked on the occasion that "in terms of individual achievements, the 32-year-old has absolutely realized the lofty potential that made him the first-overall pick in the 2009 NHL draft." Tavares finished the season playing in 80 games and recording 36 goals, 44 assists and 80 points. The Maple Leafs finished fourth in the league in the 2022–23 regular season, and second in the Atlantic Division, setting up a second consecutive first-round meeting with the Tampa Bay Lightning. While the Leafs were generally identified as the favourites going into the series, the long history of failure to advance past the first round was widely acknowledged. Many suggested that the outcome of the series would have major ramifications for the team going forward, including the status of both general manager Kyle Dubas and head coach Sheldon Keefe, as well as the long-term future of the core that included Tavares. Tavares recorded his first ever playoff hat-trick on April 20, 2023, in a first-round game against the Lightning. He would go on to score the series-winning goal against Andrei Vasilevskiy in overtime in Game 6, sending the Maple Leafs to the second round for the first time since 2004. International play Junior During his rookie season in the OHL, Tavares competed for Team Ontario in the 2006 World U-17 Hockey Challenge in Saskatchewan as a 15-year-old, but failed to medal. Later that year, at the end of the 2005–06 season, he was selected to join Canada's under-18 team for the 2006 IIHF World U18 Championships in Sweden, but failed to medal once more, falling to the Czech Republic in the bronze medal game. Later in the off-season, he was invited to the under-18 team's summer training camp to prepare for the 2006 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, though an injury ultimately prevented him from participating. During the following season, Tavares was invited to Canada's national junior selection camp in preparation for the 2007 World Junior Championships, but was not named to the final roster. After completing his second OHL season, however, Tavares was named to the Canada's junior team for the 2007 Super Series against Russian junior players. He scored four goals and one assist as Canada won the series 7–0–1. Tavares earned another invite to the selection camp for the 2008 World Junior Championships and made the final roster for the tournament on his second attempt. He scored four goals to help Canada to its fourth-straight gold medal in the competition. Returning the next year, along with Zach Boychuk, P. K. Subban and Thomas Hickey from the previous year's gold medal-winning team, Tavares was selected to compete in the 2009 World Junior Championships in Ottawa, Ontario. He scored three points in the first round-robin game against the Czech Republic, an 8–1 win, and was named Player of the game. In the final round-robin game against the United States, Tavares scored a hat-trick for his 12th career goal of the tournament to tie Eric Lindros and Jeff Carter for the all-time Canadian junior record. In doing so, Tavares helped propel Canada to a 7–4 win that gave them the top spot in their pool and a subsequent bye to the tournament semifinal. He was also named Player of the game for the second time in the tournament for his performance on the night. Meeting Russia in the semifinal and down 5–4 with less than ten seconds left in regulation, Tavares fought off two Russian players along the boards and backhanded a shot towards the goal. The shot was blocked by defenceman Dmitri Kulikov a few feet in front of the net, but after the puck came loose, teammate Jordan Eberle retrieved it and sent it into the right side of the net to dramatically tie the game with 5.4 seconds left. Then, as the game was forced into a shootout, Tavares scored to put Canada up 2–0 in the tie-breaker and into the gold medal game against Sweden. Recording an assist in the final, he helped Canada defeat the Swedes 5–1 to capture their fifth-straight gold medal. Tavares finished the tournament with eight goals and seven assists for 15 points in six games, second only to teammate Cody Hodgson in tournament scoring. Tavares was also named one of the top three players on the Canadian team by its coaching staff, as well as a tournament All-Star, Top Forward and MVP. Senior As the New York Islanders failed to qualify for the playoffs in Tavares' rookie season in the NHL, he was selected to the Canadian men's team for the 2010 IIHF World Championship in Germany. Canada General Manager Mark Messier made a specific effort to assemble a young team; as a result, Tavares was one of five teenagers on the final roster. With seven goals in seven games, Tavares led all tournament players in goal-scoring. Despite recording no assists, he ranked fifth in points. He helped Canada to the quarterfinal against Russia, where they were defeated 5–2. The following year, Tavares returned to the national team for the 2011 IIHF World Championship in Slovakia. He improved to nine points over seven games with five goals and four assists to lead Canada in scoring; he ranked fifth among all tournament players for the second consecutive year. As Canada again reached the quarterfinal, they were eliminated once more by Russia, losing 2–1. Tavares was chosen by coaches as one of the three best players on Team Canada, along with defenceman Alex Pietrangelo and forward Andrew Ladd. Tavares played for SC Bern in Switzerland during the 2012–13 NHL lock-out and quickly became the PostFinance Top Scorer, tallying 42 points—including 17 goals—in just 28 games. He also played for Team Canada at the 2012 Spengler Cup, which the nation ultimately won after defeating HC Davos in the final. At the 2014 Winter Olympics, Tavares injured his knee in Canada's quarterfinal match, rendering him unable to play for the remainder of the tournament as well as the 2013–14 NHL season. On 26 April 2019, it was announced that Tavares had committed to play for Team Canada at the 2019 IIHF World Championship in Slovakia. However, shortly before the first game of the tournament, it was announced on 9 May 2019 that Tavares had suffered an oblique injury and would be returning to Toronto. Playing style Tavares has been praised by his coaches for his ability to anticipate the play since he joined the OHL. A lack of speed had been the most common criticism of Tavares' play, something he spent his junior career attempting to improve. Tavares' skating speed is something he greatly improved since turning professional. The media hype he has encountered has led Tavares to remain guarded when speaking to the media, while his teammates and family attempt to shield him from the spotlight where they can. However, Tavares is regarded as a natural leader on the ice, and a player who puts his team first. The Oshawa Generals named Tavares their team captain in 2008, while he also served as the alternate captain with the Canadian junior team in 2009. Career statistics Regular season and playoffs International Awards and honours Notes References External links John Tavares at the Internet Movie Database 1990 births Living people Canadian expatriate ice hockey players in the United States Canadian Hockey League Exceptional Status Players Canadian ice hockey centres Canadian people of Polish descent Canadian people of Portuguese descent Ice hockey players at the 2014 Winter Olympics London Knights players Medalists at the 2014 Winter Olympics National Hockey League All-Stars National Hockey League first-overall draft picks National Hockey League first-round draft picks New York Islanders draft picks New York Islanders players Olympic gold medalists for Canada Olympic ice hockey players for Canada Olympic medalists in ice hockey Oshawa Generals players Ice hockey people from Mississauga Ice hockey people from Oakville, Ontario Toronto Maple Leafs players
5256126	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Woman%20in%20White%20%28musical%29	The Woman in White (musical)	The Woman in White is a musical with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber, lyrics by David Zippel, and a book by Charlotte Jones. It is based on the 1860 novel of the same name by Wilkie Collins, as well as on elements of the 1866 short story "The Signal-Man" by Charles Dickens. It ran for nineteen months in the West End and three months on Broadway, making it one of Lloyd Webber's shortest-running shows. Production history West End The musical was produced in a workshop at Lloyd Webber's Sydmonton Festival (Hampshire, England) in July 2003. The musical opened in London's West End, with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber, lyrics by David Zippel, and book by Charlotte Jones, freely adapted from the novel. Directed by Trevor Nunn, it opened 15 September 2004 at the Palace Theatre. The London production received mixed reviews from critics, with several reviewers noting that Lloyd Webber's score was weaker than in his previous works. Paul Taylor in The Independent said that "too many of the songs emit the generic pop-opera sound of Lloyd Webber-land." In the Evening Standard, Nicholas De Jongh wrote, "I came out humming with boredom: there is just one catchy song - the lovely I Believe My Heart." However, Quentin Letts argued that Lloyd Webber's music, "never before so classical and operatic, becomes hypnotic and slowly unveils its melodies. You have to work for it but it's worth it." De Jongh criticised Jones' book, noting "If only Lloyd Webber had realised Charlotte Jones's free adaptation of Collins's original was preposterous." In his three-star review for The Guardian, Michael Billington praised David Zippel's "deft and neat" lyrics but, like De Jongh, took issue with Jones' book. He said, "I don't object to Jones excising minor characters or altering the story's structure: that inevitably happens when you turn a novel into a musical. What I find objectionable is that, in trying to give the story a modern spin and show all Victorian women as social victims, she actually deprives Marian of much of her odd, independent quirkiness that makes her one of the most original characters in fiction." Some critics noted the show's set design, which employed the innovative use of projections rather than traditional scenery. Allen Bird wrote: "William Dudley’s set design (or should I say video design) is magnificent; the opening projection of a foggy station on which the woman in white first makes her ghostly appearance is spine tingling." At the end of 2004 Michael Crawford was taken ill, as a result of oversweating in the fat suit he wore to play the grossly obese character Count Fosco (originally reported as having the flu). From late December until early February 2005, Steve Varnom, the understudy, played the role. Michael Ball then took over on 21 February 2005 until early May. Ball received praise for his portrayal because he had reinvented the role. Nick Curtis, in his review for The Evening Standard, wrote: "If Ball's Fosco lacks the extravagant comic flair of Crawford's original, there is a commensurate gain in menace. Arguably, this is no bad thing for a Victorian melodrama. Where Crawford was delightfully clownish, Ball's Fosco is altogether more sleek and dangerous. His wooing of the show's feisty heroine Marion...has a nasty edge to it." On 9 July 2005, the final original London Cast (except with Fosco being played by Anthony Andrews) appeared on stage. It was also the final performance of the "first" version. The "second" version opened on 11 July 2005, with an almost completely new cast including Ruthie Henshall (Marian), Alexandra Silber (Laura), Damian Humbley (Hartwright), and Michael Cormick (Glyde). Many original ensemble members remained, along with Andrews and Edward Petherbridge, who played Mr. Fairlie. Simon Callow made his musical theatre debut as Count Fosco in August 2005. According to Really Useful, "Trevor Nunn and Andrew Lloyd Webber initiated creative changes during rehearsals for the new West End cast. There will be a press night on Monday 19th September." The production was received with more enthusiasm though feelings were still mixed. The show reportedly received some cutting, but still took roughly as long because of an extended ending which almost filled in the time saved earlier. Ian Shuttleworth noted that "I can identify no specific instances of revision... but in general Trevor Nunn's production now feels tighter and more narratively driven...Ruthie Henshall as Marian is appealing as ever,...she is almost equalled by Alexandra Silber, who makes a magnificent debut as her sister Laura....[Simon Callow] eschews the wild prosthetic jowls of his predecessors in the role, ...using only a slightly exaggerated nose and a little padding, and makes up in immense brio what he lacks (sometimes sorely) in tunefulness." On 20 January 2006, it was officially announced by producer Sonia Friedman and Really Useful that the show would close in London on 25 February 2006 after a run of 19 months. Broadway The Broadway production was shortened far more than the Version 2.0. Verses were cut from "Perspective" and "The Seduction," along with "If Not for Me, For Her" (also cut in Version 2.0). The scenery was improved further. William Dudley's curved walls were no longer perfectly round, but oval shaped (it made the images feel more encompassing). The walls also had their doors fixed. The London production (through its end in 2006) had the doors aligned with the walls on only one side, so whenever they were spun around to the audience, there was roughly four inches of excess space between the wall and the door within. The Broadway production solved this problem by attaching the doors to tracks inside the walls so that they would move to the other side whenever the walls were spun. The Broadway production opened on 17 November 2005 at the Marquis Theatre to mixed critical reaction. In his The New York Times review, Ben Brantley wrote: "It's not a terrible show, but it's an awfully pallid one." Howard Kissel (New York Daily News) wrote: "The use of projections, stunningly designed by William Dudley, enables the scenes to fly by. Sometimes the images seem blurred and the pace is dizzying. But even in the quiet scenes, there is a sense of tension and momentum. Lloyd Webber's score is entirely focused on keeping the story moving. In the early scenes, in which there are a few duets and trios, there is a shimmering delicacy to the music... What gives Woman its dramatic power is Maria Friedman's shattering performance as the sister of the unlucky bride... " David Rooney, reviewing for Variety, wrote: "the melodrama feels sadly hollow... Lloyd Webber's music, while it tempers the syrupy romanticism of his melodies by weaving more complex, discordant textures that echo the story's troubled moods, fires off almost its entire arsenal in the first act and then remains stuck in repetitive overdrive." This followed much publicity after the show's star, Maria Friedman, who had created the role of Marian Halcombe in the original London production, was diagnosed with breast cancer during previews. She underwent treatment and returned for the Broadway premiere. Lisa Brescia performed the lead role during Friedman's several absences on Broadway. Judy Kuhn was announced to fill in for Friedman starting on 12 February, 2006, but, since the show closed on 19 February, those plans changed and Friedman stayed until the closing. The Broadway production closed earlier than the London production on 19 February, 2006, having played 109 regular performances and 20 previews. The producers cited Friedman's frequent absences (as well as the negative reviews) as difficult obstacles to overcome. Really Useful group noted that a tour was planned to open in Milton Keynes in January, 2007, but the tour failed to materialise. 2017 London revival On 20 November 2017 a new production, with a revised score, opened at the Charing Cross Theatre in London. It was directed by Thom Southerland, and starred Anna O'Byrne as Laura, Chris Peluso as Sir Percival Glyde, Carolyn Maitland as Marian, Ashley Stillburn as Walter Hartright, Greg Castiglioni as Fosco, and Sophie Reeves as Anne. It closed on 10 February 2018. The production received more positive reviews from critics than during its original West End run. In her three-star review for The Guardian, Lyn Gardner praised the performances, describing them as "eye-catching and vocally impressive", adding that "They are the reason to see this show and serve as a reminder of the UK’s increasingly deep pool of talented musical theatre actors." Tim Bano also gave the show three stars, saying "as enjoyable as Southerland’s production is, it feels like this cast and creative team are wasted on this mediocre material." However Mark Valencia, writing for What's On Stage, gave the show four stars and said: "The Woman in White was always an intimate musical trapped in an overblown production by Trevor Nunn. Now, shorn of its excess and trimmed of its narrative flab, it can be seen for what it is: an effective show with the wherewithal to become a popular classic." Musical numbers ACT I — Limmeridge, Cumberland A railway cutting near Limmeridge, Cumberland, June 1870 "Prologue" – Hartright, Signalman, Anne and Servant "I Hope You Like It Here" – Marian, Mr. Fairlie, Hartright and Laura "Perspective" – Marian, Laura and Hartright "Trying Not to Notice" – Hartright, Marian and Laura "I Believe My Heart" – Hartright and Laura "Lammastide" – Villagers, Men, Women and Girl "You See I Am No Ghost" – Anne and Hartright "Marian Tells of the Engagement" – Marian and Hartright "Sir Percival Glyde Arrives" – Servant, Glyde, Mr. Fairlie, Marian and Laura "Fosco's Arrival" – Fosco and Marian "A Gift for Living Well" – Fosco, Glyde, Laura, Marian, Mr. Fairlie and Hartright "I Believe My Heart" (Reprise) – Laura and Hartright "The Holly and the Ivy" – Congregation and Girl "Anne Catherick Decides to Help Laura" – Anne Blackwater House, Hampshire "Marian Hears the Truth from Laura" – Marian and Laura "All for Laura" – Marian and Anne "The Document" – Glyde, Laura, Marian and Fosco "Act I Finale" – Marian, Laura, Anne, Glyde, Men and Fosco ACT II — Blackwater House, Hampshire "If I Could Only Dream This World Away" – Laura and Marian "Marian On the Ledge" – Glyde and Fosco "Marian's Bedroom" – Fosco and Marian "The Nightmare" – Fosco, Laura, Anne, Glyde, Hartright, Chorus and Marian "Fosco Tells of Laura's Death" / "The Funeral" / "London" – Fosco, Marian, Priest, Glyde and Mr. Fairlie London – Beggars and Hartright "Evermore Without You" – Hartright "Lost Souls" – Chorus, Maria and Connartist "Marian Sees the Sketch" – Marian and Pawnbroker "Marian Finds Hartright" – Marian and Hartright "If Not For Me For Her" – Marian and Hartright "Percival Gambles the Fruits of His Success" – Chorus, Glyde and Fosco "You Can Get Away with Anything" – Fosco "The Seduction" – Fosco and Marian "A Gift for Living Well" (Reprise) – Fosco "I Can Get Away with Anything" – Fosco "The Perfect Team" – Marian and Hartright "The Asylum" – Marian, Hartright and Laura Limmeridge House "Back to Limmeridge" – Glyde, Mr. Fairlie, Hartright, Marian and Laura A railway cutting near Limmeridge "Finale" – Glyde, Signalman, Laura, Hartright, Marian and Villagers "I Believe My Heart" (Reprise 2) – Hartright and Laura "Trying Not to Notice" (Reprise) – Marian Plot On a midnight train trip on the way to Limmeridge House as a drawing teacher, Walter Hartright sees a strange woman dressed entirely in white, apparently fleeing from someone and desperate to share a terrible secret with him. The signalman is scared because although he saw no-one, it was predicted a year earlier that in a 'year to this day', someone would be found dead on the railway track (“Prologue”). Walter meets his new students: Marian Halcombe and her pretty half-sister Laura Fairlie, who is heir to the estate which includes Limmeridge House (“I Hope You Like It Here”). He tells them about his encounter, and they resolve to solve the mystery (“Perspective”). A love triangle develops as Walter and Laura quickly fall in love but Marian also falls for Walter and those feelings are not reciprocated (“I’m Trying Not To Notice It/I Believe My Heart”). The peasants on the Limmeridge Estate sing and dance to celebrate the harvest. A girl is excluded from the festival because her mother believes her to be 'telling tales'. She tells Hartright of a ghost of a woman in all white (“Lammastide”). Hartright goes to the graveyard where the child saw the 'ghost' and meets Anne Catherick, who tells him her name and the name of the man who she is scared of: "Sir Percival Glyde". Marian tells Walter that Laura is engaged to a man of 'titled property': Sir Percival Glyde. Later Glyde arrives at Limmeridge, pretending to be a long-standing friend to Marian. He suggests that they move the wedding up from spring to Christmas and Laura eventually agrees. Count Fosco, Glyde's friend and best man for the wedding, arrives and becomes attracted to Marian (“You See I Am No Ghost”). When questioned by Walter about Anne Catherick, Glyde tells him that she is mad. He mentions that he tried to help her, and she thinks that he is her enemy. Laura is reluctant to marry Glyde, but Marian encourages her to honor her father's dying wish. Walter receives all this news angrily and leaves for London, but not before Laura returns a picture he drew of her (“Gift For Living Well”). Laura and Glyde are married. Anne Catherick decides to travel to Laura's side to help her, because she insists that Glyde 'knows no mercy'. Marian moves into Blackwater House, Glyde's estate. Laura becomes angry and distrustful of Marian because her advice led her to marry a man whom she discovers to be a physically abusive husband; he only wants her for her money, to pay off his debt (“The Holy and the Ivy”). Marian is determined to free Laura from this ill-fated marriage (“All For Laura”). The next day, Glyde presents Laura with a document to sign, but he will not tell her its contents. Laura is immediately suspicious, and refuses to sign something she knows nothing about. Glyde is furious, but cannot force her to sign the document (“The Document”). The girls go for a walk to calm down, and meet Anne Catherick. They witness Anne being taken back to the Asylum. They are then completely convinced that Glyde and his friend Fosco are villains. Laura and Anne realize how similar they are to each other (“Act 1 Finale”). Marian eavesdrops on Sir Percival and Count Fosco, and overhears their evil plans to steal the Limmeridge Estate. She also overhears their plans for Anne Catherick, but Count Fosco figures out that he is being watched before he reveals anything important about the madwoman. He leaves the library to put Marian to bed (“If I Could Only Dream This World Away”). Marian, having gone to bed, starts to dream a montage of events that have occurred recently, mixed in with some noises. The noises, though not apparent to Marian, are actually Laura arguing and screaming (“The Nightmare”). Marian shortly is woken up by Count Fosco, who tells her that Laura was walking in her sleep and fell out the window. Marian is quite shaken by the tragic news. Fosco, avoiding drama, heads off to his house in London. However, being infatuated with Marian, he gives her his address in case she needs anything. At the village funeral Glyde suggests to Mr Fairlie that they get to the papers that need to be attended to. In a show of grief Glyde tries to shake Marian's hand but she ignores him, but vowing revenge for her sister she heads to find Walter. In London, Walter has run out of money and gives his last coin to a beggar (“Fosco Tells of Laura’s Death/The Funeral/London”). Having heard the news through the grapevine of Laura's death, Walter expresses his grief at losing the love of his life (“Evermore Without You”). Coincidentally, Glyde, who is frustrated with paperwork, also shares Walter's feelings for Laura. Marian goes to London in search of Walter (“Lost Souls”). When Marian finds Walter, he joins her in her quest to learn the secret of Anne Catherick and avenge Laura's death. Marian believes that Anne's location is in a document that she witnessed Count Fosco sign the night she eavesdropped. Meanwhile, Glyde is happily betting the money that he has not yet received, which infuriates Fosco and leads to a split in their friendship. Marian and Walter are ready to leave for their visit to Count Fosco's. Marian is dressed specifically with the intent to use her feminine wiles against Fosco, which makes Walter suddenly realize his true feelings for her (If Not For Me For Her”). Fosco, pleased with his part in the manipulation of everyone, gloats to himself and his pet mice (“You Can Get Away With Anything”). Marian and Walter go to Fosco's home to retrieve the document, where he attempts to seduce Marian, not realizing that she is purposefully playing along. She sends him to the bathroom to shave as a diversion, whilst she searches for the document. She finds it, and discovers the location of Anne's asylum. When Fosco returns from the bathroom he discovers that Marian is visiting for another purpose. A rejected Fosco admits if Marian were really interested in him, he would have proposed marriage (“The Seduction”). Marian and Walter go to the asylum to get the secret from Anne Catherick. However, when they arrive at Anne's cell, they find not Anne but Laura. Laura explains that Glyde put Laura in Anne's place at the asylum, killed Anne, then buried her in Laura's grave. In desperation the threesome head to Limmeridge House to try to learn the secret from Mr. Fairlie, who knows more about Anne Catherick than he says he does (“The Asylum”). Meanwhile, Sir Percival Glyde has convinced Mr. Fairlie to give the Limmeridge Estate to him because he was married to Laura. Fairlie signs the document and Glyde goes off to catch a train. Marian, Laura and Walter arrive at Limmeridge House after Glyde has left for the train. Mr. Fairlie reveals that Anne Catherick is in fact Laura's half-sister, and they look identical. Marian tells him of the conspiracy, but Fairlie sadly tells her that he already signed the document. The three run to the train to stop Glyde from getting away (“Back to Limmeridge”). While still in Anne's white clothing, Laura pretends to be Anne and attempts to haunt Glyde if he does not tell the truth about the secret. "I had to drown your bastard child!" he exclaims. Laura reads between the lines and figures out the secret: Glyde had raped Anne, and drowned their child at Blackwater Lake. He tries to kill Laura to silence her but is run over by a train. The signalman's prediction comes true, but it is Glyde, not Walter, who lies dead on the tracks. Walter and Laura are happily married, Walter inherits Limmeridge House, and Marian is left heartbroken (“Finale”). Casting The principal original casts of the major productions of The Woman in White. Marian Halcombe was performed by standby Lisa Brescia on Broadway during Maria Friedman's absence. Notable West End Replacements Marian Halcombe – Ruthie Henshall Anne Catherick - Elinor Collett Count Fosco – Michael Ball, Anthony Andrews, Simon Callow, David Burt Awards and nominations Olivier Award (2005) Best New Musical (Nominated) Best Actress in a Musical - Maria Friedman (Nominated) Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical - Michael Crawford (Nominated) Best Set Design - William Dudley (Nominated) Best Sound Design (Win) Whats On Stage Awards (2005) Best Actress in a Musical - Maria Friedman (Win) Best Actor in a Musical - Martin Crewes (Nominated - Second place) Best Supporting Actress in a Musical - Angela Christian (Win) Best Supporting Actor in a Musical - Michael Crawford (Win) Best New Musical (Nominated - Second place) Best Director - London Calling - Trevor Nunn (Win) Best Set Designer - William Dudley (Win) Planet Hollywood Theatrical Event of the Year (Nominated) Tony Award Best Original Score (Nominated) Outer Critics Circle Award Outstanding New Broadway Musical (Nominated) Outstanding Costume Design - William Dudley (Nominated) Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical - Michael Ball (Nominated) Outstanding Lighting Design - Paul Pyant (Nominated) Outstanding Set Design - William Dudley (Nominated) Theatre World Award Maria Friedman—Winner In popular culture In a 2011 episode ("Broadway Bro Down") of the American Television show South Park, "The Woman in White" was the name given by Andrew Lloyd Webber to Randy Marsh's musical (originally titled "Splooge Drenched Blowjob Queen") in which blowjobs were the sole "subtext" of the work-in-progress play. The show was a plot point in Woody Allen's 2005 film Match Point. References External links Homepage of the Really Useful Group, Andrew Lloyd Webber's production company Homepage of the Musical Internet Broadway Database listing 2004 musicals West End musicals Broadway musicals Musicals by Andrew Lloyd Webber Musicals by David Zippel Musicals based on novels Sung-through musicals Musicals based on works by Charles Dickens Musicals based on short fiction Musicals set in London
5256266	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Bagthorpe%20Saga	The Bagthorpe Saga	The Bagthorpe Saga is a series of 10 novels by Helen Cresswell published between 1977 and 2001 winning two International Reading Association awards published in the UK and the United States by Faber and Faber. The first two novels formed the basis of a BBC TV comedy series in 1981. Background The saga follows the farcical, satirical and blackly comic lives of the eccentric, ultra-competitive, friendless, relentlessly self-absorbed and largely disloyal Bagthorpe family, who live at Unicorn House in the fictional village of Passingham, near the small market town of Aysham. Books in the Saga Ordinary Jack (1977) Absolute Zero (1978) Bagthorpes Unlimited (1978) Bagthorpes Versus the World (1979) Bagthorpes Abroad (1984) Bagthorpes Haunted (1985) Bagthorpes Liberated (1989) The Bagthorpe Triangle (1992) Bagthorpes Besieged (1996) Bagthorpes Battered (2001) Main characters Parents Henry Bagthorpe, father of the family. A highly self-regarding and mildly successful scriptwriter for the BBC although notably these feature no love scenes and he never shows affection for any of his family. Has written for Michael Hordern and Hannah Gordon. He is prone to furious hyperbolic rant reserving a particular distaste for Uncle Parker and even more the infant graffiti artist Daisy, stating "she will herself be in immediate need of an elegy" should she write poems on his walls. At another point he wishes her incinerated through electrocution. Often seeks monetary reparations from Uncle Parker for damage Daisy has caused, typically exaggerating the total. The inclination to suggesting death for those that offend him is repeated with Aunt Lucy who doesn't believe in time "the only logical thing for her...is to clear off to where there isn't any - namely eternity." Neither is he fond of Zero often referring to him as numbskulled, mutton-headed and pudding-footed. Often questions his mental health and fears an imminent nervous collapse and even contemplates self-slaughter during the holiday in Wales. He cuts a ragged figure "...like that of an ill-made bed..." and is known for extreme discourtesy. Laura considers him "...yellow and idle" whilst he shows complete disregard by not knowing her age, birthday, height or hair colour, but settles upon her being "obese" and "mud-eyed" when questioned by the police. A former drink-driver, he has no friends. Laura Bagthorpe, mother of the family. An agony aunt (under the name "Stella Bright"), and part-time magistrate, ironically any advice she gives to her own clan is rarely taken. Known as a serial apologist and soft touch by the criminal fraternity who encounter her on the Bench. Has a marked propensity to use the phrase "Oh dear!" in response to the myriad catastrophes she endures and in one novel this amounts to twelve examples. She further copes via "...Breathing, Yoga and Positive Thinking." By the seventh novel these are augmented by "Balance" but she loses her mind and suffers a mental breakdown regardless. Children Three of the four children are held chiefly by themselves to be genii and work assiduously at the many 'Strings to their Bows'. The view of their stellar intelligence and conduct is not shared by their headmaster who leaves blank his comment boxes on their reports since "If he said anything complimentary he would be perjuring himself" so the Bagthorpe children steam open the envelopes to forge flattery. William Bagthorpe, sixteen, whose talents include drumming, amateur radio, mathematics, tennis and electronics. An avid reader of sci-fi he spends much of his spare time communicating with an unseen alleged communicator with aliens, the fellow radio-ham "Anonymous from Grimsby". Tess Bagthorpe, fourteen, fluent in French (in one book, Tess undertakes to rewrite Voltaire to get into the Guinness Book of Records) she plays the oboe and piano and has a black belt in judo. Highly literate and verbose, she quotes from mythology and literature and is a capable forger. Claims a burgeoning String in hypnotism. Jack Bagthorpe, twelve and has no 'Strings' whatsoever. He is thoroughly attached to Zero who regularly receives abusive and mocking commentaries from the other Bagthorpes. Mr Bagthorpe disputes Jack's legitimacy but Grandma is fond of him "in her own way." He is the family member whose thoughts are most often expressed by the narrator. Gentle, caring and sincere, Uncle Parker considers him a "pearl among swine" as illustrated by being the sole Bagthorpe perturbed by his mother's disappearance at the end of the seventh novel. Rosie Bagthorpe, ten, whose 'Strings' include mathematics (putting her in competition with William), violin, cello, painting, photography and record keeping. Other family members Grace Bagthorpe/Grandma, mother of Henry, Celia and Claud. Married to Alfred, they live with the other Bagthorpes at Unicorn House on a 'temporary' basis...which has extended to ten years. Is thrilled by engaging in rows and the aiding and abetting of chaos. Henry is her favourite child since he is always easy to goad into stupendous slanging matches. Despite this one of her fondest wishes is to see him arrested and imprisoned, and when this comes to pass she makes various excuses to avoid posting bail. An accomplished stirrer and cheat, her joy is obtained mainly via schadenfreude. Holds a vendetta against Uncle Parker for running over her spiteful cat Thomas years ago but acquires a replacement. Dotes upon Daisy, calling her a "shining jewel of a child" and probably recognizing her as a kindred spirit, forming what the Bagthorpes term the "Unholy Alliance". Grandma loves the frequent visits of the police and trains herself to memorise car registration numbers in the hope she will one day be a key witness to a criminal event featuring a vehicular element. She takes to writing memoirs that mainly consist of vilifying Henry. Alfred Bagthorpe/Grandpa, 85. Lives a quiet life, enjoying fishing and watching television with the sound turned off. Exaggerates his hearing impairment – Russell describes him as "S.D. – Selectively Deaf". It is used as an effective defence to avoid participation in the Bagthorpian rows and to particular effect against communicating with an infuriated Grandma. Often utterly forgotten by the family. Aunt Celia Parker, the ethereal and unemployable daughter of Maud and Alfred, and sister to Henry. Married to Russell Parker. Wears cheesecloth in the style of a dishevelled Greek heroine but her attire can stretch to resembling a waterfall. A potter, she also writes poetry and often irrelevantly quotes to the bemusement of the clan. Can finish The Times crossword faster than Mr Bagthorpe despite spending half her time bewildered by reality and wondering where she is and why. The only Bagthorpe described as beautiful and even "very tasty". Willowy with enormous blue eyes and golden hair she maintains her lithe figure by "performing Isadora Duncan-type dances, often barefoot and in the dew." This is undercut by accusations of being "wishy-washy." A vegetarian, she believes in fairy tales, often speaks in dreamy murmurs and by the seventh novel erroneously believes herself pregnant again claiming to having been visited by an "angel" and subject to the immaculate conception of twins. Has a room called The Bower which is "like a cross between the tropical house at Kew and a potting exhibition" and also features a fountain, hidden speakers and a hammock. Seems to drift in and out of consciousness. She is imprisoned in a Bagthorpian potting shed by Daisy where she perceives former inmates Max and Grandma's games of noughts and crosses, scratched in the dirt, as evidence of primeval symbolic writings from the dawn of time. Mrs Fosdyke disputes her mental health claiming she's "only half there" whilst Henry maintains she fell asleep at birth and is in effect a zombie, "permanently out to lunch", an unfit mother and cause of Daisy's delinquency. Uncle Russell Parker, husband of Celia Parker. He has a large private income from "something in shares", drives expensive cars very fast (on one occasion running over Thomas, Grandma's cat) and enjoys goading Henry Bagthorpe into confrontations. A well-groomed man, he cultivates the image of enjoying a life of ease and is described as a "...gin-swigging tailor's dummy." No-one has ever seen him work. However, he secretes the fact he jogs every morning at 6am and is partial to a fry-up with Daisy. His mother resembles an ageing Vogue model. Daisy Parker, the precocious and perpetually destructive 4-year-old daughter of Celia and Russell. Goes through phases which include flooding, arson, graffiti and morbidity (described as "Intimations of Mortality" by her mother). The latter phase marks a nadir in her popularity, which is notoriously low with all but Rosie and Grandma at Unicorn House when both William and the usually mild Jack wish her "dead and buried". Mrs Fosdyke too has little regard saying she "... should've been put down at birth." When thought lost there is little appetite for her being found. She writes elegies for the interred such as a lamb chop: "All the lams are dying/All the lams are ded" and ascribes arbitrary dates for birth and death such as a mouse living from "1692-1792 Forevver and evver" [sic]. A terror of disappearing down the plughole render her antithetical to bathing. Described as having a plump neck and "chubby" fingers. Her inadvertent slaughter of Mr Bagthorpe's goldfish by flooding the pond with curdled milk lead to the issuing of a death threat "It's that bloody infant! I'll kill her!" She develops another phase marked by incarceration in the musty outbuildings of Unicorn House with victims as diverse as tabloid journalists, Max, Grandma, Billy Goat Gruff and Celia. The latter's screaming near breakdown when left seemingly abandoned induces feelings of filicide in Uncle Parker. Daisy later becomes an enthusiastic kicker. Uncle Claud, a vicar. He is the son of Grace and Alfred, and brother to Henry. Married to Penelope, they have two children, Luke and Esther. He and his family are considered very boring by the rest of the Bagthorpes. Luke, and Esther, Penelope's and Claud's two genius children. Luke is a Young Brain of Britain, Esther a published poet. Aunt Penelope, an obsessive compulsive and religious woman, who is the wife of Claud. She is sufficiently worried for her children's health that she puts all library books in the oven to sterilise them before letting her children read them. The rest of the Bagthorpes were very amused to learn that on one occasion she forgot the books, burning them. Great Aunt Lucy, 87, an eccentric and wealthy relative of Henry, who lives in Torquay. She visits the family following Mr Bagthorpe's invitation since he seeks to benefit from her testamentary disposition. She does not believe in Time, is afraid of the full moon and has a belligerent Pekinese called Wung Foo. Other characters Mrs Gladys Glenys Fosdyke "Fozzy", the Bagthorpes' extremely charmless and royal family obsessed housekeeper. Widowed from the foreman Charlie who died when struck by an errant brick. Has a marked Cockney accent and tendency to malapropisms eg "vegitinararians", "syllabubs" "Pekingese" "silver handshake" "Occasional Thurpy" and "barbicans" (for barbeque). Prone to misquoting proverbs e.g "..cow in a manger" and the troubling "...hiding my bush under a shovel". Regularly critiques the family as "that bunch of lunatics" whilst supping Guinness at the local pub The Fiddler's Arms. She is a devotee of pub culture generally, becoming a fixture in one during the disastrous Welsh sojourn. Locked in a permanent feud of mutual loathing with Mr Bagthorpe who is distressed, inter alia, by her excessive vacuuming and its deleterious effect upon the longevity of the carpet fibres and her shuffling style of perambulation. Often claims to be on the verge of insanity due to the family's antics. An expert cook who could've been a Cordon Bleu if she knew what it meant and has a considerable knowledge of French although purely in the context of recipes. She is a master of the stuffed egg in particular. Has a fear of murderers and "rapers", paranoia concerning judicial conspiracies, both the bugging of telephones and the perceived cost to the receiver of calls and a profound distrust of electrical equipment per se due to invisible and deadly waves. An avid reader of the most down market tabloids upon which she bases her various hackneyed and ill-informed opinions. And Mills & Boon novels. She becomes an unlikely media celebrity following various misapprehensions concerning "knifers" and bombers having been spotted at her residence. Zero, the Bagthorpes' dog. Despite lacking confidence and being near untrainable he achieves world fame through TV advertisements and earns more money than all the others. Known to have been chased by cats. Arry Awk, Daisy's imaginary friend and scapegoat. Known as the "most malignant and slippery member of the Unholy Alliance" and a "hell-raising entity." She buries him having forgotten he was merely meant to attend his own funeral during the Intimations of Mortality phase with the epitaph "Only me knows Arry Awk/Only me can here him tawk". He is resurrected in the sixth novel. Joseph O'Toole, an amiable, generously proportioned, gingery-grey bearded and silver tongued alcoholic tramp who makes his début in the seventh novel by being found dossing in Jack's room. His stench leads to kinship with the equally noisome Billy Goat Gruff and the favour of Daisy. Known as "Irish Joe" within the vagrant community and "Hobble-Gobble" to Daisy who interprets him as a hobgoblin. Wears a voluminous sheet in the guise of a sarong or sari following his first bath in decades and obtains numerous intoxicant based gratuities on Grandma's fallaciously claiming he's an eccentric multimillionaire. Has skills in spotting "a fag end in the gutter at twenty yards" and "serviceable shirts on unattended washing lines." A regular host of fleas but considered a personal guru and spiritual ancient by Celia and subject to an unlikely tug of love between her and Mrs Fosdyke (on the basis of perceived wealth). Despised by the younger Bagthorpes mainly due to his prodigious food-based appetite and its concomitant effect upon their potential consumption of any second helpings. Max Fosdyke, layabout son of Mrs Fosdyke and on the run for stealing £50 from his landlady's cash card after threatening violence. Infantilised by Fozzy into adolescence, she cannot comprehend he is now developed into an adult albeit a very petty criminal of weasel aspect and dwarfish scale. Has a reading age of seven and can hardly remember the alphabet but is taken in by Laura in an attempt at rehabilitation and recruited as a private investigator by Grandpa, who spots him "casing the joint", to search for the perpetually missing O'Toole. Unlike his mother he has no culinary bent despite having been a cook in the Navy, operating on the principle concerning toast "If it's brown it's done, if it's black it's buggered." Billy Goat Gruff, Daisy's psychotic pet goat decorated in pink ribbons and bells. Initially purchased by Mr Bagthorpe on the basis of mistaken gender. He is not house-trained, has a permanent malodorous aura and sleeps inside at The Knoll. The bane of the Welsh town of Llosilli, he is erroneously believed shot which provokes no sympathy since he's generally either "hated or detested" by the Bagthorpes. Little Tommy/Thomas II, Grandma's kitten whom she teaches the ways of ferocity. P.J, a director from Borderline Television whom Tess unwillingly invites into the Bagthorpe household after she wins a competition on The Happiest Family in England. He is thoroughly unpleasant and the Bagthorpes accordingly give him hell. Atlanta, the Danish au pair. William and several of his friends develop crushes on her. Mr Grice, Mr Bagthorpe's solicitor. Mr Potter, a cab driver. Dr Winter, Mrs Fosdyke's doctor. Mrs Brown, Grandma's clairvoyant. A charlatan and part-time check-out operator. Mrs Mavis Pye, drinking buddy of Mrs Fosdyke. She favours hirsute gentlemen. Mrs Flo Bates, friend of Mrs Fosdyke. Narrow-minded and "vocal on the subjects of black leather and studs." Patsy Page, journalist with tabloid newspaper The Sludge, she discovers Fozzy and turns her prosaic homilies into something of a sensation, taking her to London and subjecting to a makeover. Bill Porter, reporter with The Sludge. Ken Martin, Sludge photographer, entrapped in Unicorn House's spare deep freeze and deck chair outhouse. Dilys Junior, receptionist at the local three star hotel the Crown and Mitre who wrongly surmises Mr Bagthorpe is either the Knaresborough Knifer or another wanted criminal. Television series The Bagthorpe Saga, a six-part adaptation of the first two novels (Ordinary Jack and Absolute Zero) was broadcast by the BBC in 1981. The character of Rosie was eliminated and some of her dialogue and character attributes were given to Tess. The series was filmed in the summer of 1980 in Tetbury, Gloucestershire; Manor Farm on the Chavenage House estate was used as the Bagthorpes' home, Unicorn House. Each episode ran for 30 minutes. Cast Edward Hardwicke – Henry Bagthorpe Angela Thorne – Laura Bagthorpe Phillada Sewell – Grandma Ceri Seel – William Bagthorpe Richard Orme – Jack Bagthorpe Ruth Potter – Tess Bagthorpe Dandy Nichols – Mrs Fosdyke Tim Preece – Uncle Parker Rebecca Lalonde – Daisy Parker Madeline Smith – Aunt Celia References External links Reviews of the first six books of the series by Russ Allbery Series of children's books BBC children's television shows 1980s British children's television series Faber and Faber books
5256764	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80n%C4%81p%C4%81nasati%20Sutta	Ānāpānasati Sutta	The Ānāpānasati Sutta (Pāli) or Ānāpānasmṛti Sūtra (Sanskrit), "Breath-Mindfulness Discourse," Majjhima Nikaya 118, is a discourse that details the Buddha's instruction on using awareness of the breath (anapana) as an initial focus for meditation. The sutta includes sixteen steps of practice, and groups them into four tetrads, associating them with the four satipatthanas (placings of mindfulness). According to American scholar monk, Thanissaro Bhikkhu, this sutta contains the most detailed meditation instructions in the Pali Canon. Versions of the text Theravada Pali Canon The Theravada Pali Canon version of the Anapanasati Sutta lists sixteen steps to relax and compose the mind and body. The Anapanasati Sutta is a celebrated text among Theravada Buddhists. In the Theravada Pali Canon, this discourse is the 118th discourse in the Majjhima Nikaya (MN) and is thus frequently represented as "MN 118". In addition, in the Pali Text Society edition of the Pali Canon, this discourse is in the Majjhima Nikaya (M)'s third volume, starting on the 78th page and is thus sometimes referenced as "M iii 78". Summary of the Pali Canon version Benefits The Buddha states that mindfulness of the breath, "developed and repeatedly practiced, is of great fruit, great benefit." It fulfills the Four Foundations of Mindfulness (satipatthana). When these are developed and cultivated, they fulfill the Seven Factors of Enlightenment (bojjhanga). And when these are developed and cultivated, they fulfill "knowledge and freedom" (Bhikkhu Sujato), "true knowledge and deliverance" (Bhikkhu Bodhi), or "clear vision and deliverance" (Nanamoli). Establishing mindfulness To develop and cultivate mindfulness of breathing, a monk goes to the wilderness or forest, or to the root of a tree, or to an empty hut, sits down with crossed legs and the body erect, and establishes mindfulness in front or right there (parimukham), and mindfully breathes in and out. Four tetrads The Ānāpānasati Sutta then describes the monitoring of the breath, and relates this to various experiences and practices. Following the classification of the four satipatthanas, these experiences and practices are grouped into a list of sixteen objects or steps of instructions, generally broken into four tetrads. These core sixteen steps are one of the most widely taught meditation instructions in the early Buddhist texts. They appear in various Pali suttas like the Ananada sutta, not just the Anapanasati sutta. They also appear in various Chinese translations of the Agamas (such as in a parallel version of the Ananada sutta in the Samyukta-Agama, SA 8.10) with minor differences as well as in the Vinayas of different schools. They are as follows: First Tetrad: Contemplation of the Body (kāya) Breathing in long he knows (pajanati) 'I am breathing in long.' Breathing in short he knows 'I am breathing in short.' Breathing out long he knows 'I am breathing out long.'Breathing out short he knows 'I am breathing out short.' He trains himself 'breathing in, I experience the whole body' (sabbakāya).'breathing out, I experience the whole body.' He trains himself, 'breathing in, I calm the bodily formation.''breathing out, I calm the bodily formation.' (kāya-) Second Tetrad: Contemplation of the Feeling (vedanā) He trains himself, 'I will breathe in experiencing joy.'(pīti, also translated as "rapture")He trains himself, 'I will breathe out experiencing joy.' He trains himself, 'I will breathe in experiencing pleasure.' (sukha).He trains himself, 'I will breathe out experiencing pleasure.' He trains himself, 'I will breathe in experiencing mental formation.' (citta-)He trains himself, 'I will breathe out experiencing mental formation.' He trains himself, 'I will breathe in calming the mental formation.'He trains himself, 'I will breathe out calming the mental formation.' Third Tetrad: Contemplation of the Mind (citta) He trains himself, 'I will breathe in experiencing the mind.'He trains himself, 'I will breathe out experiencing the mind.' He trains himself, 'I will breathe in pleasing the mind.'He trains himself, 'I will breathe out pleasing the mind.' He trains himself, 'I will breathe in concentrating (samādhi) the mind.'He trains himself, 'I will breathe out concentrating the mind.' He trains himself, 'I will breathe in releasing the mind.'He trains himself, 'I will breathe out releasing the mind.' Fourth Tetrad: Contemplation of the Mental Objects (dhammā) He trains himself, 'I will breathe in observing (anupassi) impermanence.' (anicca)He trains himself, 'I will breath out observing impermanence.' He trains himself, 'I will breathe in observing dispassion.' (virāga)He trains himself, 'I will breath out observing dispassion. He trains himself, 'I will breathe in observing cessation.' (nirodha)He trains himself, 'I will breath out observing cessation.' He trains himself, 'I will breathe in observing relinquishment.' (paṭinissaggā)He trains himself, 'I will breath out observing relinquishment.' Seven factors of awakening The sutra then explains how the four tetrads are correlated to the four satipatthanas. Next, the sutra explicates how contemplation of the four satipatthanas sets in the seven factors of awakening, which bring "clear knowing" and release. In East Asian Buddhism The Ānāpānasmṛti Sūtra, as the text was known to Sanskritic early Buddhist schools in India, exists in several forms. There is a version of the Ānāpānasmṛti Sutra in the Ekottara Āgama preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon. This version also teaches about the Four Dhyānas, recalling past lives, and the Divine Eye. The earliest translation of Ānāpānasmṛti instructions, however, was by An Shigao as a separate sutra (T602) in the 2nd century CE. It is not part of the Sarvastivada Madhyama Āgama, but is instead an isolated text, although the sixteen steps are found elsewhere in the Madhyama and Samyukta Āgamas. The versions preserved in the Samyukta Agama are SA 815, SA 803, SA 810–812 and these three sutras have been translated into English by Thich Nhat Hanh. Related canonical discourses Breath mindfulness, in general, and this discourse's core instructions, in particular, can be found throughout the Pali Canon, including in the "Code of Ethics" (that is, in the Vinaya Pitaka's Parajika) as well as in each of the "Discourse Basket" (Sutta Pitaka) collections (nikaya). From these other texts, clarifying metaphors, instructional elaborations and contextual information can be gleaned. These can also be found throughout the Chinese Agamas. Pali suttas including the core instructions In addition to being in the Anapanasati Sutta, all four of the aforementioned core instructional tetrads can also be found in the following canonical discourses: the "Greater Exhortation to Rahula Discourse" (Maha-Rahulovada Sutta, MN 62); sixteen discourses of the Samyutta Nikaya's (SN) chapter 54 (Anapana-samyutta): SN 54.1, SN 54.3–SN 54.16, SN 54.20; the "To Girimananda Discourse" (Girimananda Sutta, AN 10.60); and, the Khuddaka Nikaya's Patisambhidamagga's section on the breath, Anapanakatha. The first tetrad identified above (relating to bodily mindfulness) can also be found in the following discourses: the "Great Mindfulness Arousing Discourse" (Mahasatipatthana Sutta, DN 22) and, similarly, the "Mindfulness Arousing Discourse" (Satipatthana Sutta, MN 10), in the section on Body Contemplation; and, the "Mindfulness concerning the Body Discourse" (Kayagatasati Sutta, MN 119) as the first type of body-centered meditation described. Chinese sutras with the core steps The Saṃyukta Āgama contains a section titled Ānāpānasmṛti Saṃyukta (安那般那念相應) which contains various sutras on the theme of anapanasati including the sixteen steps. Metaphors Hot-season rain cloud In a discourse variously entitled "At Vesali Discourse" and "Foulness Discourse" (SN 54.9), the Buddha describes "concentration by mindfulness of breathing" (ānāpānassatisamādhi) in the following manner: "Just as, bhikkhus, in the last month of the hot season, when a mass of dust and dirt has swirled up, a great rain cloud out of season disperses it and quells it on the spot, so too concentration by mindfulness of breathing, when developed and cultivated, is peaceful and sublime, an ambrosial pleasant dwelling, and it disperses and quells on the spot evil unwholesome states whenever they arise..." After stating this, the Buddha states that such an "ambrosial pleasant dwelling" is achieved by pursuing the sixteen core instructions identified famously in the Anapanasati Sutta. The skillful turner In the "Great Mindfulness Arousing Discourse" (Mahasatipatthana Sutta, DN 22) and the "Mindfulness Arousing Discourse" (Satipatthana Sutta, MN 10), the Buddha uses the following metaphor for elaborating upon the first two core instructions: Just as a skillful turner or turner's apprentice, making a long turn, knows, "I am making a long turn," or making a short turn, knows, "I am making a short turn," just so the monk, breathing in a long breath, knows, "I am breathing in a long breath"; breathing out a long breath, he knows, "I am breathing out a long breath"; breathing in a short breath, he knows, "I am breathing in a short breath"; breathing out a short breath, he knows, "I am breathing out a short breath." Expanded contexts Great fruit, great benefit The Anapanasati Sutta refers to sixteenfold breath-mindfulness as being of "great fruit" (mahapphalo) and "great benefit" (mahānisaṃso). "The Simile of the Lamp Discourse" (SN 54.8) states this as well and expands on the various fruits and benefits, including: unlike with other meditation subjects, with the breath one's body and eyes do not tire and one's mind, through non-clinging, becomes free of taints householder memories and aspirations are abandoned one dwells with equanimity towards repulsive and unrepulsive objects one enters and dwells in the four material absorptions (rupajhana) and the four immaterial absorptions (arupajhana) all feelings (vedana) are seen as impermanent, are detached from and, upon the death of the body, "will become cool right here." Commentaries and interpretations Traditional commentaries Pali commentaries In traditional Pali literature, the 5th-century CE commentary (atthakatha) for this discourse can be found in two works, both attributed to Ven. Buddhaghosa: the Visuddhimagga provides commentary on the four tetrads, focusing on "concentration through mindfulness of breathing" (ānāpānassati-samādhi). the Papañcasūdanī provides commentary on the remainder of this discourse. The earlier Vimuttimagga also provides a commentary on Anapanasati, as does the late canonical Pali Paṭisambhidāmagga (ca. 2nd c. BCE). Likewise, the sub-commentary to the Visuddhimagga, Paramatthamañjusā (ca. 12th c. BCE), provides additional elaborations related to Buddhaghosa's treatment of this discourse. For instance, the Paramatthamañjusā maintains that a distinction between Buddhists and non-Buddhists is that Buddhists alone practice the latter twelve instructions (or "modes") described in this sutta: "When outsiders know mindfulness of breathing, they only know the first four modes [instructions]" (Pm. 257, trans. Ñāṇamoli). Sanskrit commentaries The Śrāvakabhūmi chapter of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra and Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośa both contain expositions on the practice outlined in the Ānāpānasmṛti Sūtra. Chinese commentaries The Chinese Buddhist monk An Shigao translated a version of the Ānāpānasmṛti Sūtra into Chinese (148-170 CE) known as the Anban shouyi jing (安般守意經, Scripture on the ānāpānasmŗti) as well as other works dealing with Anapanasati. The practice was a central feature of his teaching and that of his students who wrote various commentaries on the sutra. One work which survives from the tradition of An Shigao is the Da anban shouyi jing (佛說大安般守意經, Taishō Tripitaka No.602) which seems to include the translated sutra of anapanasmrti as well as original added commentary amalgamated within the translation. Modern interpretations According to Ajahn Sujato, the ultimate goal of Anapanasati is to bear insight and understanding into the Four Foundations of Mindfulness (), the Seven Factors of Awakening (Bojjhangas), and ultimately Nibbana. Different traditions (such as Sri Lankan practitioners who follow the Visuddhimagga versus Thai forest monks) interpret a number of aspects of this sutta in different ways. Below are some of the matters that have multiple interpretations: Are the 16 core instructions to be followed sequentially or concurrently (Bodhi, 2000, p. 1516; Brahm, 2006, pp. 83–101; Rosenberg, 2004)? Must one have reached the first jhana before (or in tandem with) pursuing the second tetrad (Rosenberg, 2004)? In the preparatory instructions, does the word "parimukham" mean: around the mouth (as favored by Goenka, 1998, p. 28), in the chest area (as supported by a use of the word in the Vinaya), in the forefront of one's mind (as favored at times by Thanissaro) or simply "sets up mindfulness before him" (per Bodhi in Wallace & Bodhi, 2006, p. 5) or "to the fore" (Thanissaro, 2006d) or "mindfulness alive" (Piyadassi, 1999) ? In the first tetrad's third instruction, does the word "sabbakaya" mean: the whole "breath body" (as indicated in the sutta itself [Nanamoli, 1998, p. 7: "I say that this, bhikkhus, is a certain body among the bodies, namely, respiration."], as perhaps supported by the Patisambhidamagga [Nanamoli, 1998, p. 75], the Visuddhimagga [1991, pp. 266–267], Nyanaponika [1965, pp. 109–110], Buddhadasa [1988, p. 35], and Brahm [2006, p. 84]) or the whole "flesh body" (as supported by Bhikkhu Bodhi's revised second translation of the sutta [in Nanamoli & Bodhi, 2001, see relevant footnote to MN 118], Goenka [1988, pp. 29–30], Nhat Hanh [1988, p. 26] and Rosenberg [1998, pp. 40, 43]), and the commentary, which explains that the "body among bodies" refers to the wind element as opposed to other ways of relating to the body? Modern expositions available in English Analayo. Understanding and Practicing the Ānāpānasati-sutta in "Buddhist Foundations of Mindfulness" (Mindfulness in Behavioral Health) 1st ed. 2015 Edition Buddhadasa. Santikaro Bhikkhu (Translator). Mindfulness with Breathing: A Manual for Serious Beginners. Wisdom Publications; Revised edition (June 15, 1988). . Bhaddanta Āciṇṇa. Mindfulness of Breathing (Anapanasati) Bhante Vimalaramsi. Breath of Love: A Guide to Mindfulness of Breathing and Loving-Kindness Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Right Mindfulness: Memory & Ardency on the Buddhist Path. 2012. U. Dhammajīva Thero. Towards an Inner Peace Upul Nishantha Gamage.Coming Alive with Mindfulness of Breathing Ajahn Kukrit Sotthibalo. Buddhawajana Anapanasati See also Anapanasati (Breath Mindfulness) Metta Sutta Kāyagatāsati Sutta Satipatthana Sutta, also called the Four Satipatthanas Upajjhatthana Sutta Bhāvanā Bojjhanga (Seven Factors of Enlightenment) Brahmavihara Buddhist Meditation Mindful yoga Paṭisambhidāmagga Satipatthana (Four Foundations of Mindfulness) Samatha & Vipassanā Notes References Sources Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. . Brahm, Ajahn (2006). Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond. Boston: Wisdom Publications. . Buddhadasa Bhikkhu (trans. by Santikaro Bhikkhu) (1988). Mindfulness with Breathing: A Manual for Serious Beginners. Boston: Shambhala Publications. . Buddhaghosa, Bhadantācariya (trans. from Pāli by ) (1999). The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga. Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions. . Bullitt, John T. (2005). Uposatha Observance Days. Retrieved 2007-11-06 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sila/uposatha.html. Goenka, S.N. (1988). Satipatthana Sutta Discourses: Talks from a Course in Maha-Satipatthana Sutta. Seattle, WA: Vipassana Research Institute. . Nhat Hanh, Thich (trans. by Annabel Laity) (1988). The Sutra on the Full Awareness of Breathing. Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press. . Nyanaponika Thera (1965). The Heart of Buddhist Meditation: A Handbook of Mental Training based on the Buddha's Way of Mindfulness. York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser. . Nyanasatta Thera (trans.) (1993/1994). The Foundations of Mindfulness (MN 10). Kandy, Sri Lanka: BPS (1993). Retrieved 2007-11-07 from "Access to Insight" (1994) at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.010.nysa.html. Piyadassi Thera (trans.) (1999). Girimananda Sutta: Discourse to Girimananda Thera (AN 10.60). Kandy, Sri Lanka: BPS. Retrieved 2007-11-06 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an10/an10.060.piya.html. Rhys Davids, T.W. & William Stede (eds.) (1921-5). The Pali Text Society's Pali–English Dictionary. Chipstead: Pali Text Society. A general on-line search engine for the PED is available at http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/. Rosenberg, Larry (2004). Breath by Breath: The Liberating Practice of Insight Meditation. Shambhala. . Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project (SLTP) (n.d.). Anapanasatisuttam (MN 118). Retrieved 2007-11-06 from "MettaNet" at https://web.archive.org/web/20160322191339/http://metta.lk/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/2Majjhima-Nikaya/Majjhima3/118-anappanasati-p.html. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1995). Ananda Sutta: To Ananda (On Mindfulness of Breathing) (SN 54.13). Retrieved 2007-11-06 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn54/sn54.013.than.html. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997). Kayagata-sati Sutta: Mindfulness Immersed in the Body (MN 119). Retrieved 2007-11-06 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.119.than.html. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000). Maha-satipatthana Sutta: The Great Frames of Reference (DN 22). Retrieved from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.22.0.than.html. {{Citation \| last =Thanissaro \| first =Bhikkhu \| year =2006a \| title =Anapanasati Sutta: Mindfulness of Breathing (MN 118) \| url =http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.118.than.html}} Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2006b). Arittha Sutta: To Arittha (On Mindfulness of Breathing) (SN 54.6). Retrieved 2007-11-06 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn54/sn54.006.than.html. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2006c). Dipa Sutta: The Lamp (SN 54.8). Retrieved 2007-11-06 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn54/sn54.008.than.html. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2006d). Maha-Rahulovada Sutta: The Greater Exhortation to Rahula (MN 62). Retrieved 2007-11-06 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.062.than.html. Wallace, B. Alan and Bhikkhu Bodhi (Winter 2006). The Nature of Mindfulness and its Role in Buddhist Meditation: A Correspondence between B. Alan Wallace and the Venerable Bhikkhu Bodhi. Wallis, Glenn (2005). "Present-moment Awareness with Breathing" and "How to Meditate," a translation of and commentary on the Anapanasati Sutta; in: Basic Teachings of the Buddha'' (New York: Random House, Modern Library, 2007). . External links Root texts Ānāpānasattisutta in Pali SuttaCentral Online translations Mindfulness of Breathing, translation from the Pali by Bhikkhu Bodhi Mindfulness of Breathing, translation by Bhikkhu Sujato Anapanasati Sutta: Mindfulness of Breathing trans. by Thanissaro Bhikkhu "Anapanasatisuttam (MN 118): The Discourse about Mindfulness while Breathing," ed. & trans. by Anandajoti Bhikkhu (Sept. 2008) - includes both Pali (with notes on discrepancies between redactions) and English "Mindfulness of Breathing (Anapanasati): Buddhist texts from the Pali Canon and Commentaries," trans. by Nanamoli Bhikkhu [& Bhikkhu Bodhi ed.?] (1952; 2007) - includes translation of relevant Pali commentaries. "Ekottara Āgama 17.1: The Ānāpānasmṛti Sūtra" Contemporary instruction "Breathing like a Buddha" by Ajahn Sucitto (2022) "Anapanasati: Meditation on the Breath," by Ajahn Pasanno (May 26, 2005). "Basic Breath Meditation Instructions," by Tan Geoff (Thanissaro Bhikkhu) (1993). Majjhima Nikaya Mindfulness (Buddhism)
5256974	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20humour	German humour	German humour is the conventions of comedy and its cultural meaning within the country of Germany. German humour encompasses traditions such as Kabarett and other forms of satire as well as more recent trends such as TV shows and stand-up comedy. Germans distinguish between "Comedy" (using the English word) and "Komödie" (the German word of the same origin). "Comedy" refers to post-1990s TV-comedy, which is characterized by comedic entertainment in the form of stand-up comedy, stage shows, modern satire, cabaret and adaptations of foreign comedy concepts, including airing of foreign shows. "Komödie" refers to films and plays. Culture German humour often follows many conventions which, due to similarities in cultural perception of events and day-to-day life (and other such universal themes which may be discussed through comedy), may be readily interpreted by natives of other countries. Some German humorists such as Loriot used seriousness as a source of humour. Another notable example of mock-serious humour with satirical content is Jakob Maria Mierscheid MdB, a spoof politician, and his eponymous Mierscheid Law. He started the spoof as a hoax to falsify restaurant bills, but he has had enough pop culture recognition since the 1970s to gain his own (tongue-in-cheek) entry on the official Bundestag website. Similarly, the Stone louse (Petrophaga lorioti), a fictitious animal which was a part of a comic mockumentary video sketch, gained acknowledgement as a fictitious entry in the medical encyclopedic dictionary Pschyrembel Klinisches Wörterbuch. However, current events, situations, traditions, and cultural factors which are unique to the country make it hard to understand the joke for someone who is not aware of the events being referred to. This applies especially to the widespread local dialects and customs in Germany. In other cases the humour derives from mixing different styles of speech or contrasting them with each other. For instance, the comedian Helge Schneider is renowned for his absurdist and anarchical humour, yet due to the deep roots of his humour in the German language and its several stylistic levels, much of his material is lost when translated into English. Language German-language humour is, for linguistic reasons, constructed differently from English-language humour (e.g., British humour and American humour). Nevertheless, in German there is a series of jokes based on multiple meanings of a word, for which English uses several different words. An example (from East German political humour) would be: However, German wordplay can also be based on compound words. German phonology often allows puns that are due to coda devoicing: for example, Leitkultur is pronounced exactly the same as Leidkultur (literally, culture of affliction). German grammar allows speakers to create new compound nouns and verbs with ease, and then split them, which requires a complete reordering of the sentence. Compounds often have a meaning that differs from the simple amalgamation of their components. These grammatical means exploited by German wordplay have no straightforward English equivalents. An example of grammatical means exploited by English wordplay relying upon phonology that becomes unintelligible in German is "Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a peach." Here, the source of untranslatability is the multiple meanings in English of "fly" as both a verb and a noun and "like" : "to feel attraction for" versus "similar to". In German nouns are always written with a capital letter, so there are also jokes about this. Examples: Der Gefangene floh – The prisoner escaped Der gefangene Floh – The captured flea Die Spinnen! – The Spiders Die spinnen! – They're crazy Er hatte liebe Genossen - He had dear comrades Er hatte Liebe genossen - He had enjoyed love In the GDR there were lots of jokes on the word play with Genossen / genossen Non-German speakers may find it hard to understand German humour, simply due to the language barrier, as some jokes, puns and humorous turns of phrase are lost in translation. , a German Kabarettist and writer, said: "Germans are unable to speak the German language". Commonly or apparently incorrect usage of German grammar is another form of humour ironically called Stilblüten (bloomers). Types of humour Schadenfreude The word Schadenfreude can be translated as glee or spitefulness, but most often it doesn't serve a malicious purpose. A more fitting translation is "the fun of seeing others struggling". Often the protagonist of such jokes is thrown into a dilemma, where he or she has to ignore the German sense of suavity in order to get out of a specific situation. In one sketch from well-known comedian Loriot, the protagonist tries to get rid of a banana skin. The whole scene utilizes no spoken words or dialogue. Literature and television The oldest popular forms of German comedy were the Posse and the Schwank which could take the forms of stories, plays or improvisations. The German comedic play (Lustspiel) was refined and updated by playwright and critic Gotthold Ephraim Lessing who, in Briefe, die neueste Literatur betreffend (1759) described the early 18th century comedies as relying heavily on dressed-up characters, magic tricks and fights. His comedy Minna von Barnhelm (1767) and Heinrich von Kleist's The Broken Jug (1811) joined especially various translations and adaptations of plays by early Greeks, Racine, Shakespeare, Molière, Calderon and others to form the basis of later developments. The German Classical and Romantic periods saw a lot of humorous polemical, parodistic and satirical exchange between writers such as Goethe, Schiller, Ludwig Tieck, the Schlegel brothers, as well as many critics and philosophers both in the literary journals and in their own publications. Probably the most renowned ironic texts and poems in that era were written by Heinrich Heine, who developed a very distinct tongue-in-cheek style of writing, embracing Romantic ideals while mocking at the same time, often even within one poem. Up until today Heine remains to be titled one of the most insightful and witty among German writers. One of the most important figures in the beginning of filmed comedy in Germany was stage comedian Karl Valentin who produced short films from 1912 to 1941. Common joke themes and forms Jokes about other nationalities: Germans have their own set of stereotypes about other nations, as well as different regions in Germany. Scotsmen are portrayed as miserly, Swiss as physically slow, French as sophisticated lovers, Poles as notorious thieves, Dutch as slow/bad drivers on motorways (typically with a caravan attached to their car), and Chinese as employing caricatures of Confucian wisdom. An Austrian is usually merely an antagonist of a German character and may be presented as superior, inferior, or an unacknowledged equal. Example: The United Nations initiated a poll with the request, "Please tell us your honest opinion about the lack of food in the rest of the world." The poll was a total failure. The Russians did not understand "Please". The Italians did not know the word "honest". The Chinese did not know what an "opinion" was. The Europeans did not know "lack", while the Africans did not know "food". Finally, the Americans didn't know anything about the "rest of the world". In some respects, the jokes try to be fair, for instance: Which nationality was Ötzi the Iceman? He wasn't Italian, as he carried tools; he wasn't Austrian, since he had brains; he might have been Swiss, since he was overtaken by a glacier, but most probably he was a North German, because nobody else walks in sandals in the mountains. East Frisians (Ostfriesen) (East Frisians are a people living in East Frisia, the north-western corner of Germany): This national minority is portrayed as absurdly stupid or naive. Jokes are often in the form of question and answer, both given by the joke-teller. Example: How many Frisians does it take to screw in a light bulb? Five! One to hold the bulb and four to turn the table he's standing on. Example: What would you do in the event of the Great Flood? Go to East Frisia, because there everything happens fifty years later. Beamte: German state officials (Beamte). Within jokes, they are considered slow and lazy, doing a nearly useless job in the bureaucracy. Example: Three in a room and one is working, what's that? – Two officials and a fan. Example: Three boys argue about whose father is the fastest. The first one says: "My father is a racing driver, he is the fastest." The second one contradicts him: "No, my father is a Luftwaffe pilot, surely the fastest one." "That's nothing", says the third one. "My father is a Beamter, he is so fast that when work ends at 5 pm, he's already home at 1 pm." Example: Visitor: "You have many flies in this office." - Beamter: "Yes, 247." Mantawitz (Manta joke): The male counterpart to the blonde is the Mantafahrer, the male driver of an Opel Manta, who is dull, lower class, macho, infatuated with his car and his blonde hairdresser girlfriend, and often exceedingly proud and possessive about things that most people would consider embarrassing. Popular in the 1990s, also the popularity of such jokes spawned two successful movies (Manta – Der Film and Manta, Manta, the latter starring Til Schweiger as the Mantafahrer). Example: What does a Manta driver say to a tree after a crash? – "Why didn't you get out of my way, I used the horn!" Antiwitz (anti-joke): A short, often absurd scene, which has the recognizable structure of a joke, but is illogical or lacking a punch-line (an example of a non sequitur). Example: Two thick feet are crossing the street. Says one thick foot to the other thick foot: "Hello!" Other examples: "Nachts ist es kälter als draußen" (At night it's colder than outside) or "Zu Fuß ist es kürzer als über'n Berg" ("Walking is faster than over the mountain") or "Zwei Männer gehen über eine Brücke. Der eine fällt ins Wasser, der andere heißt Helmut." ("Two men walk over a bridge. One falls into the water, the other is called Helmut."). Kalauer (literally translated as "pun"): Short, often deliberately clumsy puns and plays on words. Usually delivered in a Q&A scheme, e.g. "Which Peter makes the most noise? The Trum-Peter." Examples: See "Kalauer" in the German-language Wikipedia Bauernregeln-Witze (Farmers' lore jokes): Told in the traditional rhyme scheme of weather lore. There are two variants: one is really about weather, but the rule is absurd or tautologous; the other can be about any other topic, makes some sense, often has sexual connotations, and may feature word play or some real, hidden or twisted wisdom. Wenn noch im November steht das Korn, dann isses wohl vergesse worn (If the corn still stands in November, then there is something the farmer didn't remember). Liegt der Bauer tot im Zimmer, lebt er nimmer (If a farmer lies dead in a room, he lives no more). Wenn der Bauer zum Waldrand hetzt, war das Plumpsklo schon besetzt (If a farmer rushes to the woods, the outhouse is occupied). In fact, while many real Bauernregeln sound funny, they carry the grain of truth, so sometimes it is hard to tell, whether it is a parody or an ancient wisdom: Ists an Silvester hell und klar, dann ist am nächsten Tag Neujahr (If Sylvester is light and clear, the next day'll surely be New Year). Hört Waltraud nicht den Kuckuck schrein, dann muss er wohl erfroren sein ("If by Waltrude the cuckoo is not heard, it is probably frozen and dead.") April 19 is the feast day of Saint Waltrude, this wit alludes to the possibility of a snapback of cold in April Scatological humour. Alan Dundes in his book Life Is Like a Chicken Coop Ladder: A Portrait of German Culture Through Folklore suggests that the prominence of scatological humour in German culture stems from the "Teutonic parents' overemphasis on cleanliness". Political satire in magazines Germany has a longstanding satirical tradition. From 1896 to 1944, the weekly magazine Simplicissimus (the German equivalent of Punch) made fun of politics and society (however, during the Gleichschaltung in Nazi Germany it was turned into a propaganda paper). Starting in the 1960s, the magazine Pardon continued the satirical tradition in West Germany. Later, the magazine 'Titanic' followed. In Socialist East Germany the satirical magazine Eulenspiegel was founded which within strict limits was allowed to make fun of grievances in the GDR. Eulenspiegel and Titanic still exist in today's Federal Republic of Germany. Titanic displays satire without boundaries, which is often directed against politicians and public figures and has been the subject of numerous legal cases in Germany. However, German law is very liberal when it comes to satirical freedom. The same publication's practical jokes have also drawn some international attention: In 2000, a Titanic prank led to the award of the FIFA World Cup 2006 to Germany. Political satire is also a popular theme for TV shows, Scheibenwischer (now called Satiregipfel) being one example. Kabarett Another tradition in Germany is political Kabarett, which is often seen as a special form of cabaret. Kabarett is dedicated almost completely to serious topics. Social critical Kabarett is often ambivalent between sadness and happiness, while the humour is some kind of key for controversial and critical messages. Its focus spreads from general political to very personal questions highlighting the individual being in social context and responsibility. Themes of modern Kabarett include social progress in the Berlin Republic, migration, education, reforms of the social systems, the mission of the Bundeswehr, development of the economy, ethics in politics and society and German reflexivity. Especially in the former East Germany (where Kabarett stages were allowed in the larger cities) political Kabarett had some importance in opinion formation, although it had to be very careful and had to create some kind of ambiguous and ironic humour with hidden messages, to evade censorship. East German Kabarett was tolerated as a control valve for political topics. Kabarett in West Germany dealt with taboos on political themes and broke with common opinions. An episode of Scheibenwischer in 1986 was censored on Bavarian television but was broadcast on ARD. Famous Kabarett stages in Germany include: Die Distel (literally: The Thistle) in Berlin Münchner Lach- und Schießgesellschaft (literally: Munich Laugh and Shoot company referring to Wach- und Schließgesellschaft, a security company) Leipziger Pfeffermühle (literally: Leipzig pepper mill) Herkuleskeule (literally: Herkules' bat) in Dresden Kom(m)ödchen in Düsseldorf Some Kabarett artists in Germany: Classical Kabarett: , , Dieter Hildebrandt, Urban Priol, Georg Schramm, Volker Pispers Dialect Kabarett: Jürgen Becker (Rhinelandic regiolect), Erwin Pelzig (East Franconian German), Olaf Schubert (Upper Saxon German), Badesalz () Music Kabarett: , Hagen Rether, , Malediva Between classical Kabarett and modern comedy: Eckart von Hirschhausen, Dieter Nuhr Third Reich and Neo Nazi references The Third Reich, the Nazis, Adolf Hitler and the Neo Nazi scene are often parodied in German humour. Examples are Obersalzberg, a television sketch show, which parodies The Office and Adolf Hitler, portraying Hitler and the Nazis as incompetent, lazy and confused bureaucrats. Front Deutscher Äpfel is a satirical movement to criticise the Neo Nazi scene in Germany. Harald Schmidt, referring to and criticizing the importance of political correctness in Germany, suggested a Nazometer, a mock measurement device (and causing a minor scandal). The device allegedly will give alarms even for minor Nazi-specific formulations and politically incorrect wording. Carnival The German traditional carnival includes many humorous and traditional elements. The two major carnival events in Germany are the Mainzer Fastnacht and the Kölner Karneval. These are both in the Rhineland region, but the tradition is practised all over Catholic regions of Germany. It varies with local traditions, but has two main elements: Büttenrede: Gatherings of (often) thousands of people in halls, with humorous readings, music, dancing and drinking. Common themes are puns, satire and roastings of celebrities. These events at the Mainzer Fastnacht and Kölner Karneval are televised across Germany by a major, public television network. Umzüge: Parades in which clubs (musical, sports, etc.), political parties and organizations parade along a given route. The groups dress in traditional clothes or uniforms and/or ride carnival floats, often featuring political or humorous messages. The televised funny speeches are especially criticised by some, especially the younger generation, as outdated and dull. This cultural gap between generations can be partly explained by the "tradition of tradition", referencing and mocking parts of the tradition itself to create humour. Thus the humour is difficult to understand for outsiders, who grew up with foreign culture and humour, which plays the bigger part in comedies and sitcoms which are broadcast in Germany. Humorous dubbing One distinct phenomenon of German humour since the emergence of television and the internet is the dubbing or redubbing of foreign language TV series and movies and bringing them into a completely new humorous context or one more humorous than the original. This originates in the tradition of or Schnoddersynchron, a form of dubbing invented in the 1960s by voice actor Rainer Brandt. Since American TV series and movies are highly popular in Germany and are almost always dubbed into German, voice actors sooner or later find jokes, wordplays and irony getting lost in translation. Brandt, though, dealt with slang phrases in American movies by not literally translating them, but instead inventing phrases that were funny only in a German language context, thereby considerably altering the meaning of the English version: when the German language did not offer a way to translate both the literal meaning and the humour hidden in it, new jokes and contexts were thought up to maintain the humour rather than the context. As time went on, this style became more and more independent and daring, culminating in the German version of the TV series The Persuaders! being a success in Germany while the English-language version was a flop in the United States. This was due to the vast changes that the program underwent during the German dubbing process, that under Brandt's supervision transformed the show into a much more comedy-oriented spy persiflage contrasting the more subdued, mild humour of the English language original. A quite astounding example of Schnoddersynchron has been performed with Monty Python's Die Ritter der Kokosnuss (that is, Monty Python and the Holy Grail) where the initial dialogue contains phrases such as: Heda! Wer reitet so spät durch Nacht und Wind? ("Hey there! Who rides so late through night and wind?", an obvious reference to Goethe's poem Erlkönig), and Ich habe den Sachsen das Angeln beigebracht, seitdem heißen sie Angelsachsen ("I taught angling to the Saxons, and they've been called Anglo-Saxons ever since") etc. which have no basis whatsoever in the original. But Schnoddersynchron has become rare nowadays, with primarily comedic programs employing it for practical reasons, like the German dub of Mystery Science Theater 3000's feature film, Mystery Science Theater 3000: The Movie. Because the German dubbing of This Island Earth, the movie spoofed by this film, already varied greatly from the English original, a huge portion of the original jokes commenting on the film became obsolete. To deal with this matter, a group of German comedians (Oliver Kalkofe and Oliver Welke, among others) were assigned to create a dub that better addressed the German version of the spoofed film. This version, therefore, was actually meant to differ in parts from the original text and in consequence was also given the freedom to refer profusely to German culture, like Servo finding an issue of German children's magazine Yps in his room and the group alluding to the music of German organist Franz Lambert during the opening credits. On other occasions, though, puns addressing the films' visuals, or meant for moments in which the English and German text of the original movie actually coincide, were translated literally most of the time, as far as the humour could be transported. Apart from comedic films and programs, German internet culture has developed the tradition further into so-called Fandubs. A more recent popular example of these fan-made dubs would be the Harry Potter und ein Stein-series, in which the three main protagonists are portrayed as immoral, sexually disoriented teenagers, who are constantly annoyed by their surroundings, while the teachers either portray a parody on strict and outdated social orders, behave immaturely, or act in a sexually inappropriate way towards children. Another popular example would be the viral internet video , a redub of the first hour of Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, interpreting the pipe smoking Hobbits as drug addicts who go on a journey to find a ring that can produce endless amounts of cannabis. Before Lord of the Weed, ("Nonesense in Outer Space") mocked Star Trek: The Next Generation in a similar way. The use of local dialects and customs can also be observed here. Occasionally even original German programmes are being redubbed and brought into humorous context, like a TV commercial accompanying the advertising campaign Du bist Deutschland. A later foray of German television into humorous dubbing was the Harald Schmidt Show mocking scenes from Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves that made Robin Hood seem rather ignoble, suggesting in front of his bewildered fellows to stop robbing and raping strong people and rather stick to the weak, sick and disabled, who are easier to assault as they can hardly defend themselves. Foreign perception In a popular but criticised article in 2006, English comedian Stewart Lee put forward the theory that misconceptions about German humour among English speakers might derive from differences between the English and German languages. In German, new ideas are often named by creating compounds, sometimes resulting in long, quite specific words. Some English-language jokes, according to Lee, do not translate well because German grammar is different from that of English and there is not always a direct translation for a delayed punchline, one of the most common joke formats for English speakers, and such language-based humour. Direct translation is often possible, but is often perceived as artificial, and many puns are lost in translation. There has been harsh criticism of Lee's views, especially from academics. Linguist Mark Liberman states that in trying to eliminate stereotypes about German humour, Lee himself falls victim to "ethnic prejudice and [...] incoherent linguistic analyses" by basing his "opinions on unsupported and unexamined national stereotypes". Liberman also finds many possibilities for a "pull back and reveal" joke structure in German language. See also American humor British humour East German jokes German culture Cologne Comedy Festival German television comedy Kabarett List of German language comedians Henning Wehn Little Erna References Further reading Pabisch, Peter. "German humor - is there such a thing?." German Life. 01 Apr. 2015: 54. eLibrary. Web. 22 Jul. 2015. Thomas C. Breuer: Deutschland, ein Ernstfall?, Psychologie Heute, November 2008, p. 36-40 External links Allo Allo dubbed into German 1 (April 2008) Allo Allo dubbed into German 2 (April 2008) Stewart Lee, The Guardian, 23 May 2006, "Lost in translation" and a comment on this article in the Language Log Chicago based researcher Josh Schonwald on German Humour "It's almost Comedy Central: German humor has ties to the past..." By Paulette Tobin, published in the Grand Forks Herald, August 22, 1999, page E1 Ethnic humour
5257280	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duela%20Dent	Duela Dent	Duela Dent is a fictional character in the DC Universe. She is a former member of the Suicide Squad, the Teen Titans and its counterpart, Titans East. Introduced under the alias of the Joker's Daughter, she has also used aliases: Catgirl the Catwoman's Daughter, Scarecrone the Scarecrow's Daughter, the Riddler's Daughter, the Penguin's Daughter, the Card Queen, and the Harlequin. She first appeared in Batman Family #6 (Jul/Aug 1976). Alessandra Torresani portrayed Duela Dent in the Arrowverse series Batwoman. Olivia Rose Keegan portrays Duela in Gotham Knights. Fictional character biography Pre-Crisis Duela Dent first appeared as the Joker's Daughter in the Batman Family series of comic books. She gained the attention of Robin (Dick Grayson), as she later claimed to be the daughter of the Catwoman, the Scarecrow, the Riddler and the Penguin. She deduced Robin's identity and he revealed that she was Duela Dent, Two-Face's daughter. Duela claimed that she wanted to join the Teen Titans to atone for her father's crimes; however, not all of the members of the Titans were in favor of this idea. In Teen Titans #48, she changed her name to the Harlequin. As the Harlequin, Duela utilized gimmicks such as smoke-inducing powder puffs and bullet-firing lipstick. After the Teen Titans comic books were canceled, she popped up in the Batman titles, calling herself the Card Queen while infiltrating a criminal organization called MAZE. Duela's last Pre-Crisis appearance is in Tales of The Teen Titans #50, as a guest at Donna Troy's wedding where she appears to be a middle-aged matron. Dick Grayson notes that he had finally realized that she was too old to be Two-Face's daughter; she agrees, then disappears before he can take the matter further. Post-Crisis Delusional and schizophrenic, the mysterious Harlequin has been in and out of mental institutions for several years. An acrobat who possesses numerous "clown-motif" gadgets, she calls herself Duela Dent (while her true identity remains unknown) and acts as an ally to the Titans. Her first significant Post-Crisis appearance was in the Team Titans comic book, as an aged patient in a mental hospital. The writers of the title originally planned to reveal that Harlequin was a time-traveling member of the Team Titans driven insane by her time-warping experience. However, due to the cancellation of the series, plans for her to return were aborted. The final issue of Team Titans solicited a non-existent story for Team Titans #25 and provided a commentary on the title's cancellation. In the solicitation, Duela steals a reality-altering device and shifts New York City into the late 1970s. Duela's appearance in Team Titans is now regarded as a time glitch caused by Zero Hour: Crisis in Time. Reappearing at her proper age, the Harlequin aided the Titans during the JLA/Titans: Technis Imperative series, in which Cyborg's automated system seeks out all Titans allies, past and present. Although she is in a mental institution, Duela is rescued by Cyborg and helps battle the Justice League for Cyborg's soul. In the series, she is described as a former Titans ally. Duela then makes a brief appearance in Titans Secret Files and Origins #1, insisting to anyone who would listen that the Titans would soon contact her about membership. In the story, she also claims that she is the daughter of Doomsday. Duela's next appearance is in Titans Secret Files and Origins #2, in a backup story in which Gar's obnoxious cousin Matt holds a membership drive for the revived West Coast branch of the Titans, Titans L.A. Harlequin crashes the meeting-turned-party with a small group of villains, including Beast Boy's enemies Fear and Loathing, simply because she has not been invited. Flamebird and Terra defeat her and return her to the Helping House Mental Institution in Industry, California. How she met up with the dangerous villains with whom she crashed the party is unexplained. In the same comic, a feature states that her claims regarding her paternity have been disproved, save one; no further information is provided. In a short story contained in Teen Titans/Outsiders Secret Files and Origins #2, Duela socializes with several villains at their secret satellite headquarters and makes a series of wild claims regarding her parentage, all of which are dismissed by the nonplussed villains (she claims that she has been resuscitated by a Lazarus Pit and that her mother may actually be the villainous parent). Duela returned to action alongside the assembled Titans who faced Dr. Light in Teen Titans (vol. 3), and Superboy-Prime in Infinite Crisis #4 and Teen Titans #32. She later appeared in a double-page spread that was added in the Infinite Crisis hardcover collected edition. One Year Later The Joker's Daughter and Enigma both served on the Teen Titans during the lost year. Duela is a member of the splinter group Titans East, with writer Geoff Johns stating: "Yeah. We're going to really get into her. Tony Daniel did an amazing redesign on the Joker's daughter for Titans East". In Teen Titans #43, Miss Martian and Cyborg arrive at Belle Reve prison to question their former teammate Bombshell, who has betrayed the team. Risk and Batgirl arrive and Batgirl kills Bombshell by slitting her throat with a razor-sharp batarang. Duela and Enigma cut the prison's power supply, allowing the inmates to escape and attack Miss Martian and Cyborg. During the attack, Enigma comments to Duela: "Wait'll dear old daddy gets a load of us!" The two are the captors and tormentors of Raven, whom they torture psychologically. Duela reveals that she joined Titans East simply because they asked. Raven points out that Duela has always been an ally of the Titans and offers her membership on the team. Duela accepts the invitation by punching Enigma and fights alongside the Titans against Titans East. When the battle ends, Duela and Batgirl disappear. Countdown Duela appears in the first issue of Countdown. She abducts a teen celebrity from a nightclub, only to be stopped by Jason Todd. She claims that she comes from an alternate Earth. After escaping, Duela is killed by a Monitor, who states, "This world is not yours. Your presence in it is not tolerated. The penalty is death." When informed of Duela's death, the Joker says that he never had a daughter. The Monitor of New Earth suggests that Duela's father is actually an alternate version of the Joker, indicating "She didn't belong [...] making others think she was the Joker's daughter. Which on that world, she most certainly was not". Dan DiDio, editor-in-chief of DC, has stated that Duela's murder would have a ripple effect throughout the series. Nightwing, Robin, Donna Troy, Wonder Girl and Ravager set out to investigate Duela's death, but their inquiries are cut short by one of the Monitors, who diverts their attention elsewhere. In Countdown Presents The Search for Ray Palmer: Crime Society it is revealed that Earth-3's heroic version of the Joker, the Jokester, is the father of Duela Dent and that her mother was Evelyn Dent, Three-Face (the Earth-3 version of Two-Face). She was raised by Three-Face and her stepfather, the Earth-3 Riddler, and together the three formed the Riddler Family. When she was finally introduced to her birth father, she dropped cryptic hints implying that she or her consciousness shifts unknowingly from Earth to Earth, which is the source of her parental confusion. When the Jokester joined the Riddler Family, Duela revealed that she had been in a relationship with Talon, Owlman's teenaged sidekick. The Jokester renounced her as his daughter and Duela left with Talon moments before the Crime Society stormed their apartment. The Riddler was killed by Ultraman and Three-Face's arm was torn off by Superwoman; the Jokester managed to flee until he is later tracked down and killed by Solomon, the Monitor who killed Duela. The New 52 In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Duela Dent is re-established in Catwoman #23. The character was featured in the "Villains Month" one-shot comic book, Batman: The Dark Knight #23.4 and, in early 2014, the character was further explored in yet another one-shot. In the aftermath of Death of the Family, in which the Joker seemingly falls to his death, his face (which he previously had cut off) is found by a psychotic young woman living in the sewers. The woman wears the severed flesh as a mask, dubbing herself "the Joker's Daughter". She becomes obsessed with not only serving the Joker, but also with having his blood course inside of her, so she can truly become his "daughter". Refusing to accept the Joker's apparent death, she begins harming, murdering and destroying other people and property, in order to find him and get his attention. This leads her to the Dollmaker, who is responsible for removing the Joker's face per his request. After making a deal with each other, Dollmaker gives the Joker's Daughter vials of her "father's" blood, so she could inject it into her veins, and he sews the Joker's face onto hers. After failing to find her "father", the Joker's Daughter gives up hope until she receives a note from someone claiming to be the Joker. During Batman: Eternal, Joker's Daughter participates in the mass scheme against Batman, including attempting to use the spirits of Arkham to 'resurrect' her father in the body of Maxie Zeus-only to summon the spirit of Deacon Blackfire instead-and later confronts Batgirl at the carnival where the Joker took Commissioner Gordon after shooting Barbara (as portrayed in Batman: The Killing Joke). The Joker later returns in the Endgame storyline, very much alive. Much to the dismay of fellow member Harley Quinn, the Joker's Daughter is recruited as part of the New Suicide Squad. Critical and fan reactions to The New 52 version of the Joker's Daughter have been mixed. Powers and abilities Duela Dent is an expert at acrobatics and armed combat. Villainous parentage Duela Dent has claimed to be the offspring of the following villains: Joker Catwoman Scarecrow Riddler Penguin Two-Face Doomsday Doctor Light Punch and Jewelee Duela is originally depicted as the daughter of Two-Face and his estranged wife, Gilda Dent. Creator Bob Rozakis stated, "It didn't take too long to decide whose daughter she would turn out to be. After all, the only married villain was Two-Face. I convinced [editor Julius Schwartz and associate editor E. Nelson Bridwell, the acknowledged keeper of DC's historical consistency] that Harvey and Gilda Dent had a daughter, that Harvey had been disappointed because she wasn't a twin, and that they'd named her Duela". Rozakis, upon being asked his thought regarding the current insane version of Duela Dent, who claims to be the daughter of multiple supervillains, replied: "I got a laugh out of it when I first saw it, but I thought they wasted the character. I realize that Marv and company didn't want her around anymore and felt they had to explain her away because of continuity, but they could have just as easily ignored her. Actually, I consider Harley Quinn to be a reincarnation of Duela". It is later revealed that the Earth-3 hero the Jokester is her biological father and Three-Face, Evelyn Dent, is her mother. Since Evelyn disappeared from Duela's father's life while she was still pregnant, he was not aware of Duela's existence until her teen years. As a result, Duela's stepfather, the Riddler, helped Evelyn raise her. Upon meeting the Clown Prince of Crime, Duela started calling herself the Joker's Daughter, even though her real father's hero name was the Jokester. Other versions Infinite Crisis In Infinite Crisis #6, Alexander Luthor Jr. creates multiple Earths. On Earth-154, Superman and Batman, along with their sons Superman Jr. and Batman Jr. (the Super-Sons), round up two young, female versions of the Joker and Riddler, along with the daughter of Lex Luthor, Ardora. Kingdom Come In Kingdom Come, there is a new Joker's Daughter, identified as both the Joker's Daughter and the Harlequin in annotations for the series and according to Alex Ross. The Kingdom Come Revelations supplement adds the following: "Along with Batman's apparent influence on others to follow his style, so has the Joker inspired a few to take after his chaotic clown style. The original Joker's Daughter (who actually turned out to be Two-Face's Daughter) was a former member of the Teen Titans and has no direct relation to this new "riot girl" version, nor is there a true familial relation to the Joker". The Joker's Daughter II is modeled on Jill Thompson, a writer/artist; Thompson is Chicago-based, as is Alex Ross. Austin Loomis adds that Thompson has occasionally drawn herself into stories that she was illustrating for Vertigo. It is noted throughout this series that the Joker's Daughter II is always quite dour and serious, quite the change from her namesake, and another example of the generational-clash theme of Kingdom Come. Following the death of Von Bach, Ex1Machina points out that the Joker's Daughter II has undergone a drastic makeup change, with a tear tattooed beneath her eye. She is one of the few characters to survive the final battle in #4. She later reappeared in The Kingdom: Offspring #1. Tangent Comics A female version of the Joker appeared as part of DC's Tangent Comics line in her own one-shots (Tangent Comics: The Joker #1 in 1997 and Tangent Comics: The Joker's Wild! #1 in 1998). This Joker bore little resemblance to the traditional interpretation of the character and instead was modeled on Duela Dent. Teen Titans In Teen Titans Go!, the comic book based on the animated series, Kitten, the daughter of Killer Moth, took revenge against him for not taking her on vacation in issue #41. She committed crimes disguised as Mad Maud, the daughter of Mad Mod; Joystick, the daughter of Control Freak; Marionette, the daughter of the Puppet King; Pink X, the daughter of Red X; Gemini, the daughter of Madame Rouge; Mademoiselle Mallah, the daughter of Monsieur Mallah; and Daughter Blood, the daughter of Brother Blood. Robin, exasperated after trying to figure out the connection between the criminals, mutters that it is probably just the Joker's Daughter playing a prank. Teen Titans Go! writer J. Torres confirmed that this character's motives were inspired by Duela Dent. Torres said, "Yeah, I like Duela Dent. Did you see the short story I did starring her in Teen Titans/Outsiders Secret Files 2005? After I did that, I came up with an idea for a story where a mystery girl runs around Jump City claiming to be the daughter of different Titans' villains." Tiny Titans Duela Dent frequently appears in the Tiny Titans series as the Joker's Daughter. She often antagonizes Robin, who informs her in Tiny Titans #17 that there are no clowns allowed at his birthday party. On many occasions, she has tried to kiss him. In Tiny Titans #25, she briefly, (though accidentally) becomes a member of the Sinestro Corps when she wears a ring that Starfire buys at a pawn shop. During the Tiny Titans/Little Archie miniseries, she and Little Archie are discovered in the Batcave by Batman. Duela then states she is "looking for Robbie". Batman, assuming that Little Archie is the Joker's son, then calls the Joker and tells him to come over and pick up both his kids. Titans Tomorrow In the Titans Tomorrow storyline (which took place in a possible future), Duela destroyed Arkham Asylum and tried to reconcile with her father, who ignored her. In a fit of rage she killed Batgirl (Cassandra Cain), Alfred Pennyworth and Bette Kane. She was also responsible for doing something to members of the GCPD, specifically Crispus Allen. She again called herself the Joker's Daughter and traded chattering teeth and riddles for more deadly accessories. She was shot to death by Batman IV, Tim Drake of the future. Before she was killed, she hinted that she knew more about him when he was younger. AME-COMI In the Ame-Comi storyline, an alternate universe where all the superheroes and villains are teen and 'tween female counterparts to the Earth One versions, Duela Dent appears as this continuity's "Joker". She is the daughter of Jack "the Joker" Dent, a criminal shot and paralyzed by "Jim Gordon". Duela is Gotham's most dangerous criminal and the main antagonist to this continuity's "Batgirl" and Robin (Carrie Kelly Gordon). Flashpoint In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, Harvey Dent has twin children who are kidnapped by Joker. Chief James Gordon locates Joker with Dent's children in Wayne Manor and goes in without any backup. Gordon is tricked into shooting Dent's daughter, as she has been taped to a chair and disguised as the Joker. The Joker then appears and kills Gordon before Batman arrives. Batman rushes in and manages to save the daughter. Batman then moves them away from the Joker. DC Bombshells In the DC Bombshells continuity, the Joker's Daughter serves under the Third Reich during World War II and helps the Nazi cause by keeping magic users such as Raven and Zatanna under her control. She is eventually defeated by the Bombshells - Raven, Zatanna and Miri Marvel. In other media Duela Dent appears in the Batwoman episode "Grinning From Ear to Ear", portrayed by Alessandra Torresani. This version is Harvey Dent's niece. In the past, she struggled with self-loathing and became obsessed with making her face "look normal", resulting in her smashing a mirror and using its shards to cut her face in front of her horrified mother. In the present, Duela becomes a serial killer, targeting popular Gotham social media influencers before she is eventually stopped by Batwoman and Sophie Moore. After they leave her for the authorities, Alice gets to Duela first and cuts off her face so she can use it as a disguise as part of a revenge plot against a mutual enemy of theirs, Dr. Ethan Campbell. The GCPD later find a faceless Duela, who says that she is finally "perfect". Duela appears in Gotham Knights, portrayed by Olivia Rose Keegan as a teenager and by Elle Lisic as a child. This version is widely believed to be the late Joker's daughter and is a criminal acquaintance of Harper and Cullen Row. It is later revealed that she is the daughter of Harvey Dent and Jane Doe. See also Harlequin Enigma the Riddler's Daughter References External links Comic Book Database: Harlequin II Comic Book Database: Joker's Daughter Unpublished Duela Dent story from Vixen #1 DOWN FOR THE COUNT I: RED HOOD & DUELA DENT Not Offended--stories based on the Gotham Knights version of Duela DC Comics female superheroes DC Comics female supervillains Fictional acrobats Fictional clowns Superhero detectives DC Comics martial artists Comics characters introduced in 1976 Fictional characters with schizophrenia Joker (character) Suicide Squad members
5257745	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point%20Park%20Civic%20Center	Point Park Civic Center	The Point Park Civic Center was a proposed civic center for downtown Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States, where the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers forms the Ohio River. Frank Lloyd Wright designed the structure on a commission from Edgar J. Kaufmann in the late 1940s. Wright initially envisioned a circular building more than in diameter and tall. The structure, containing an opera house, sports arena, three movie theaters, and a convention hall, was wrapped by a spiraling strip of road. The plan expressed Wright's insistence on bringing the automobile into the social setting. It did not find favor with Pittsburgh authorities. To make the design more palatable to its audience, Wright developed a radically different proposal for a monolithic tower supporting bridges across the Allegheny and Monongahela. This too was unsuccessful, and none of Wright's work for the site was ever built. The site is now occupied by Point State Park. Elements of Wright's plan contain similarities to other Wright designs, including the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum and his unrealized plans for Monona Terrace. Background and commission In the 1930s and 1940s, Pittsburgh sought to revitalize its downtown Point area, at the tip of what is known as the "Golden Triangle". The site offers what Richard Cleary describes as "extraordinary views" along three intersecting rivers; architectural historian Neil Levine states that it is "one of the most spectacular [sites] offered by any American city". History of the site During the city's early history, the Point became a hub for industry and transportation. By the 1930s it was occupied by warehouses and railroad yards. Wright commented in 1935 that the city had wasted the potential of its rivers and hilly landscape. By 1945 the situation was even worse; during the Great Depression and World War II, urban decay had made substantial inroads. The total assessed property value in the Golden Triangle was at a record low and falling. At the point, rarely used railroad facilities included of yards and half a mile (800 m) of elevated train tracks. City leaders wanted to alleviate traffic congestion in the city. The Manchester Bridge and Point Bridge met at the point in a way that left no room for the interchange required by the volume of traffic. The growth of the city had made parking a serious problem as well. Robert Moses, who had developed the traffic scheme for New York City, was brought in and published a traffic plan in 1939. He offered a circular park surrounded by approach roads connecting the bridges to the city. His plan retained the existing bridges, but most of the experts brought in to examine the problem called for the bridges to be relocated away from the Point, which would create more space for adjoining access roads and interchanges. Although the site had substantial problems, Robert Alberts observes that "the condition, in the view of the city planner, was almost perfect". The Point had few property owners who needed to be bought out, few residents who would need relocation, and few structures worth preserving. Architects and planners could treat it as a tabula rasa. Plans for development During the course of the Second World War, federal and local authorities established three goals for the site: "the creation of a park commemorating the site's history, improved traffic circulation through the construction of new roads and bridges, and designation of a portion of the site for new office buildings, intended to stimulate private interest in the Golden Triangle". The Allegheny Conference on Community Development became a driving force for these changes. Edgar Kaufmann, a Pittsburgh department store owner, sat on the board of the Conference and became chair of the 28-member committee convened to look into the Point Park problem. Kaufmann wanted a plan for the Point that was more urbanized than the park others were imagining. In particular, Kaufmann was a major supporter of Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera and wanted to provide that group with a permanent building. He brought in Frank Lloyd Wright, by that time a preeminent architect, who had done numerous other projects for Kaufmann in the past, including Kaufmann's landmark home at Fallingwater and an unbuilt design for a parking garage. Kaufmann met with Wright in the middle of 1945, and suggested the following specifications for a design: of office space, of exhibition space, a sports arena and amphitheater, and parking for all these facilities. The two men agreed on a fee of $10,000 ($ in ), which was paid several weeks after the meeting. Cleary describes Wright as "enthused" by the concept. Cantilever development Plans for the megastructure By April 1947, Wright finished his first set of architectural drawings for the site. Wright's first concept, which he presented under the title "For the Allegheny Conference—Cantilever Development in Automobile-Scale of Point Park, Pittsburgh", called for a circular concrete and steel building of mammoth dimensions: one-fifth of a mile (300 m) in diameter and tall, the building would be capable of holding one-third of the city's population. The entire structure was wrapped by a spiraling roadway that Wright called the "Grand Auto Ramp", which accommodated traffic in both directions and would have been long. Wright's drawings for the project were enormous: Levine describes them as "over eight feet [2.5 m] long by almost five feet [1.5 m] high". The decks of the Grand Auto Ramp were to be cantilevered from piers of reinforced concrete. The ramp enclosed the interior space, forming what Cleary describes as a vast atrium. Inside are individual structures supported by pylons, containing the main facilities of the building: the theaters, opera house, arena, and planetarium. Bridges and platforms connected the interior structures. A winter garden and gardens were to have been on the roof. The main structure was to be flanked by "Fast Ramps": ramps with a much narrower radius than the main ramp that allowed rapid movement from the higher levels of the Grand Auto Ramp to the bottom of the building. Wright's expressed philosophy for the scheme was to provide a "newly spacious means of entertainment for the citizen seated in his motor car Winter or Summer. A pleasurable use of that modern instrument is here designed instead of allowing it to remain the troublesome burden it has now become to the City." A projection from the central building toward the Point terminated in a tower, equipped for light shows. Multi-decked bridges over the Allegheny and Monongahela were attached to the central building. Pedestrians, cars, and trucks would cross on separate decks. Both bridges passed beneath the central structure, where traffic interchanges allowed travelers to head into the city, across either of the bridges, or up into the Civic Center itself. Open spaces on the site were occupied by parks, an outdoor concert area built to accommodate 15,000 people, and a zoo. Low buildings along the river added office space. A second large circular building at the Point would have contained a restaurant, pools for swimming and wading, a dock for pleasure boats, and an aquarium. The aquatic specimens were to be enclosed in glass spheres which could be viewed from above and below. Wright's plans were conspicuous in their detailed development of a project so sweeping. Levine notes that "no previous megastructure in the history of modern architecture came close to this one in terms of size, contents, or coherence". Reaction of the Allegheny Conference Wright's presentation of this plan to the Allegheny Conference in the spring of 1947 was unsuccessful, primarily because of concerns about the plan's economic viability and architectural feasibility. In a meeting with conference officials at Taliesin West, Wright seemed uninterested in how traffic access to the bridges would be handled, and when asked how much the project would cost, he answered that he did not care. When the officials returned to Pittsburgh to meet with Kaufmann they recommended against Wright's scheme; Kaufmann decided not to show the plans to the rest of the committee. The plan conflicted with existing plans—already confirmed by the state legislature—to build a park at the site that would preserve the historic structures and artifacts there, such as the Fort Pitt blockhouse dating back to 1764. Proposals also existed to rebuild Fort Pitt itself. Wright, however, felt that the urge to preserve was misplaced: "As I see it, Pittsburgh needs no such Historian. Pittsburgh needs imaginative creative sympathy for the living and I am eager to do something constructive and joy-giving for the Pittsburgh people. I thought that was my commission." Scheme II Features of the second plan Following the failure of his first design, Wright agreed to retool, and on January 4, 1948, officials of the Allegheny Conference visited Wright's studio at Taliesin West to hear him present a new scheme. The major building from the original design was replaced by a tower called the Bastion, which was to be tall. Two cable-stayed bridges across the Allegheny and Monongahela emerged from the arrowhead-shaped structure, which would contain a large traffic interchange. The pavilion at the Point was retained, and the outline of the original megastructure became a circular promenade. The central tower offered a viewing platform and included a television and radio antenna. It would have been equipped to project light and sound spectacles, like the tower in the original scheme. Levine asserts that the Bastion would have provided Pittsburgh a structure similar to the Eiffel Tower, both an observation tower and a landmark symbol of the city, but Robert Alberts notes that "such viewing towers make sense in a city built on a flat terrain, but Pittsburgh already had a high view from a nearby mountain top". The stayed-cable design employed by the two bridges was only just coming into vogue in the post-World War II era. Further, the bridges were to be built using segments of pre-stressed concrete, another emerging technology. The expertise for the innovative bridge concepts found in both schemes probably came from Czech engineer Jaroslav Polivka, whom Wright had hired to assist in calculations for the Guggenheim Museum. In 1947–48, Polivka promoted, and was later joined by Wright in developing, an idea for a concrete bridge spanning San Francisco Bay. Ultimate rejection Wright's redesign did not win over the Allegheny Conference authorities. One official, Park Martin, wrote to Kaufmann that "to do what Mr. Wright has portrayed would cost a minimum of $100,000,000 and would probably run more." Wallace Richards reported that "Wright himself admits that Project II would cost not less than $150,000,000. In turn he feels that Project I would be in the neighborhood of $400,000,000." These cost figures ($, $ and $ respectively in ) were far beyond what the city was willing to pay. Both men, however, praised Wright's ideas; Richards comments that "what he has conceived for Point Park is magnificent." Kaufmann later wrote Wright asking him to consider doing a much more limited design for an opera house on the Point. Wright did some preliminary sketches, but by June 30, 1948, Kaufmann told him to stop work. Wright's involvement in the redevelopment of the Point ended. He would later criticize the role that cost considerations played in the rejection of his scheme, stating, "You're building a $100,000,000 highway [the Penn-Lincoln Parkway] here ... Is it impractical to spend several hundred million to further your culture which will survive good or bad long after the Parkway has collapsed?" Cleary says that Wright enjoyed "being an outsider occupying the moral high ground", a position that would cause his clients to grant him the mantle of "absolute authority and faith", permitting him to avoid "compromises which he was not prepared to endure". Though Kaufmann was willing to grant Wright such a position, the city's other political leaders were seeking "team players who would fit into the system they had constructed rather than prophets who would shake its foundations." Ultimately, the site was turned into a park with historic and recreational aspects, Point State Park. The Fort Pitt blockhouse remained intact, and three of the five bastions of the fort have been restored. The state acquired almost all the property for the site by 1949, at a cost of $7,588,500 ($ in ), and the park was finally completed in 1974. Areas adjoining the park were condemned to permit commercial development, most notably Gateway Center. Place in Wright's oeuvre Frank Lloyd Wright championed the “disappearing city", in which congested, polluted urban centers would spread out into a decentralized country in which the fruits of nature and the country would be more easily accessible. Cleary attests that there appears to be a contradiction between this vision and a proposal to create a building that could contain over 100,000 people in an exceedingly dense fashion. As a solution he points to the idea that Wright "conceived the Point Park Coney Island less as part of urban Pittsburgh than as one of his 'automobile objectives' of Broadacre City". Broadacre City was the best-developed example of Wright's plan for America; the automobile objectives were civic centers that incorporated the automobile directly into the social experience. For instance, the Gordon Strong Automobile Objective, designed by Wright in 1924, included as its main feature a spiraling ramp that wrapped around a domed planetarium, which was built on the top of a mountain. By driving to the top, citizens could enjoy the sweeping views and visit stores and restaurants inside the complex. Aside from its similarity to the Gordon Strong project, Wright's design for the Point Civic Center recalled the ideas that fuelled his 1938 plan for Monona Terrace in Madison, Wisconsin, and his 1939 plan for the Crystal Heights residential and retail center in Washington, D.C. Both were large, multi-function structures that incorporated parking, shops, and recreation in one facility. See also List of Frank Lloyd Wright works References Cleary, Richard L., "Edgar J. Kaufmann, Frank Lloyd Wright and the 'Pittsburgh Point Park Coney Island in Automobile Scale'", Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, (Vol. LII, No 2): 139–158. This book includes many architectural drawings for the site. Levine, Neil. "Frank Lloyd Wright as Urbanist: Three Projects for the Revitalization of the City 1938–1947". at urbanisme.fr Accessed May 1, 2006. Notes Cleary, Merchant Prince and Master Builder, 53–55. Levine, "Frank Lloyd Wright as Urbanist" Alberts, 57. Cleary, "Edgar J. Kaufmann, Frank Lloyd Wright", 145. Alberts, 63. Cleary, "Edgar J. Kaufmann, Frank Lloyd Wright", 144. Cleary, "Edgar J. Kaufmann, Frank Lloyd Wright", 145. A combination of material from Cleary, Merchant Prince and Master Builder, 55–57 and Alberts, 91. Cleary, Merchant Prince and Master Builder, 57. Alberts, 92. Levine, "Frank Lloyd Wright as Urbanist" Cleary, Merchant Prince and Master Builder, 57–58. Alberts, 95. Cleary, "Edgar J. Kaufmann, Frank Lloyd Wright", 145-146. Cleary, Merchant Prince and Master Builder, 57–58. Levine, "Frank Lloyd Wright as Urbanist" Alberts, 97. Cleary, "Edgar J. Kaufmann, Frank Lloyd Wright", 148. Cleary, "Edgar J. Kaufmann, Frank Lloyd Wright", 149. Alberts, 54. Cleary, Merchant Prince and Master Builder, 158. Cleary, "Edgar J. Kaufmann, Frank Lloyd Wright", 152. Cleary, "Edgar J. Kaufmann, Frank Lloyd Wright", 153. Cleary, "Edgar J. Kaufmann, Frank Lloyd Wright", 154. Cleary, "Edgar J. Kaufmann, Frank Lloyd Wright", 155. Charles W. Prine, Jr. "City Must Decide by End of Year to Get Aid from U.S." Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph, February 4, 1952. Quoted in Cleary, Edgar J. Kaufmann, 158. Cleary, "Edgar J. Kaufmann, Frank Lloyd Wright", 158. Alberts, 101. Alberts's book provides a more complete history of the site's subsequent development. Wright, The Disappearing City, passim. Cleary, Merchant Prince and Master Builder, 59 See a summary of this project at the Library of Congress website. Cleary, Merchant Prince and Master Builder, 62–63 External links An image of the bridges in Scheme II, looking east from the Ohio River. An essay by R. Jay Gangewere on the relationship between Wright and Kaufmann 1947 architecture Buildings and structures in Pittsburgh Frank Lloyd Wright buildings Unbuilt buildings and structures in the United States
5258007	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/91st%20Bombardment%20Group	91st Bombardment Group	The 91st Bomb Group (Heavy) was an air combat unit of the United States Army Air Forces during the Second World War. Classified as a heavy bombardment group, the 91st operated B-17 Flying Fortress aircraft and was known unofficially as "The Ragged Irregulars" or as "Wray's Ragged Irregulars", after the commander who took the group to England. During its service in World War II the unit consisted of the 322nd, 323rd, 324th, and 401st Bomb Squadrons. The 91st Bomb Group is most noted as the unit in which the bomber Memphis Belle flew, and for having suffered the greatest number of losses of any heavy bomb group in World War II. The 91st Bomb Group conducted 340 bombing missions with the Eighth Air Force over Europe, operating out of RAF Bassingbourn. Inactivated at the end of the war, the group was brought back in 1947 as a reconnaissance group of the United States Air Force, and then had its lineage and honors bestowed on like-numbered wings of the Strategic Air Command, the Air Force Space Command and the Air Force Global Strike Command. From 1 July 1947, until its drawdown in February 1952, the 91st Strategic Reconnaissance Group provided worldwide surveillance, flying RB-29s, RB-45s and RB-47s as a subordinate component of the 91st Strategic Reconnaissance Wing, consisting of the 322nd, 323rd, and 324th Strategic Recon Squadrons, and the 91st Air Refueling Squadron (Medium). The group was inactivated on 28 May 1952, as part of an SAC-wide termination of groups as an organizational echelon, while the wing and all subordinate units remained active until 8 November 1957. The group was activated in 1991 as the 91st Operations Group. Between 1991 and 1994, and since 1996, the 91st Operations Group, initially as part of the 91st Space Wing, and since renamed the 91st Missile Wing, maintains the alert force of Minuteman III intercontinental ballistic missiles maintained at Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota. Its three missile squadrons, however, have no traditional link to the 91st Bomb Group and were previously part of the 455th Strategic Missile Wing and 455th Bomb Group. Organization of the 91st Bomb Group (H) The 91st Bomb Group, (Heavy) was activated on 14 April 1942, by General Order 31 of the Third Air Force. Wartime command staff ¹Lt. Col. Sheeler, while Operations Officer, was also acting group commander from 15 November 1944, to 30 December 1944, in the absence of Col. Terry. Squadron commanders Four heavy bomb squadrons were constituted 16 May 1942, and assigned to the group. ¹Major Myers, the Group's S-3, was also acting 401st BS commander because of casualties. Component support organizations Headquarters and Headquarters Squadron (Lt. Col. Louis H. Magee, Adjutant) 364th Service Squadron 39th Service & Support Group (detachment) 161st Quartermaster Company (detachment) 863rd Chemical Company 982d Military Police Company 1076th Ordnance Company 1204th Quartermaster Company (detachment) 1696th Ordnance Company Training history and movement overseas Established 28 January 1942, and activated on 14 April 1942 at Harding Army Air Base, Louisiana, the 91st Bomb Group consisted of a small administrative cadre without subordinate units until 13 May 1942, when it was moved to MacDill Field, Florida. There Lt. Col. Stanley T. Wray took command of the group, and the four flying squadrons assigned to the group were activated. The 91st received air crews and began phase one training with just three B-17's available. On 26 June 1942, the group (now consisting of 83 officers and 78 enlisted men) was transferred to the Second Air Force and moved to Walla Walla Army Air Base, Washington to complete phase two training, with two squadrons operating from satellite fields at Pendleton and Baker Army Air Base, Oregon. The 91st received orders to deploy overseas and on 24 August 1942, the ground echelon entrained for Fort Dix, New Jersey, where it remained until 5 September, embarking on the . Arriving at Greenock, Scotland, on 11 September, the ground echelon moved by train to RAF Kimbolton, a war expansion airfield in the English Midlands. Part of the air echelon moved on 24 August 1942, to Gowen Field, Idaho, where it received six new B-17F aircraft. From there it flew by pairs, making frequent stops, to Dow Army Airfield, Maine. The remainder of the air crews relocated to Dow by train, arriving 1 September. Between 4 and 24 September the group flew training missions while it received 29 additional B-17's from air depots in Middletown, Pennsylvania; Cheyenne, Wyoming; Tulsa, Oklahoma; and Denver, Colorado, and conducted phase three training. The 91st Bomb Group moved by squadrons to the United Kingdom, beginning with the 324th Bomb Squadron on 25 September, flying to Gander, Newfoundland. The 324th made a non-stop flight along the North Ferry Route on 30 September, landing at Prestwick, Scotland. The 322d Bomb Squadron moved to Gander on 30 September, and Prestwick on 1 October, followed by one day by the 401st Bomb Squadron. The group lost one of its 35 bombers during transit when a 401st B-17 crashed in fog into a hillside near Cushendall, Northern Ireland, killing 8 of the crew and a flight surgeon. The 324th Bomb Squadron flew as a unit from Prestwick to Kimbolton on 1 October, followed by the 322nd on 2 October and the 401st on 6 October. On 10 October, the remaining squadron, the 323rd, flew to Gander from Dow. It did not reach Prestwick until 14 October, by which time the 91st had changed bases. VIII Bomber Command had assigned the 91st to Kimbolton intending it to be its operational base. The installation was of war-time construction and had not yet been reconstructed to Class A airfield specifications. Intended as a light or medium bomber field, its runways were not suitable for the combat weights of B-17s fully loaded with bombs and fuel. Three practice missions in as many days indicated to the staff of the 91st that the runway would quickly deteriorate and Colonel Wray immediately consulted Col. Newton Longfellow, VIII BC commander, who suggested Wray inspect the RAF Bomber Command OTU base at RAF Bassingbourn, Cambridgeshire (), to see if it might be suitable. Wray traveled to RAF Bassingbourn, located four miles (6 km) north of Royston. Not only was the base more appealing from its closer proximity to London, but it had been constructed in 1938 and was considerably more comfortable, with permanent brick buildings, including barracks for enlisted personnel (in contrast to the Nissen huts at Kimbolton), landscaped grounds with curbed roadways (Kimbolton, like many war-time fields, was noted for muddy conditions); and had already been re-constructed to a Class A airfield. Wray contacted his staff and ordered them to prepare for immediate relocation. On 14 October, without prior approval, the 91st moved itself and all of its equipment to Bassingbourn in one day and took possession of the station. Combat operations and tactics The combat history of the 91st Bomb Group can be ordered into three phases. The first, from 4 November 1942 to 1 May 1943, saw the 91st develop operational experience as one of the four "pioneer" B-17 groups, creating doctrine and tactics. The second, from 1 May 1943 to 1 January 1944, had the 91st in a leadership role of the Eighth Air Force at a time when the expanding Bomber Command struggled to establish air superiority without adequate fighter support. The final phase, from 1 January 1944 to 27 May 1945, was as one part of a massive, systematic campaign supported by a large force of escort fighters that brought to fruition the strategic bombing concept. First phase of operations The 91st Bomb Group began combat operations on 4 November 1942, when it received a field order for a mission to bomb the submarine pens at Brest, France, later changed to an attack on the Luftwaffe airfield at Abbeville. Thirty minutes before takeoff the mission was cancelled ("scrubbed" in the parlance of that time) because of poor weather. These circumstances were typical of those encountered daily by all the heavy bomber groups in the autumn of 1942 as they pioneered the concept of strategic bombing by daylight. On 4 November the Eighth Air Force consisted of just nine groups. Four (91st, 97th, 301st and 303d) had been earmarked for the Twelfth Air Force in support of Operation Torch and were in England to acquire combat experience and stage for forward movement to North Africa. Two (97th and 301st) had already been withdrawn from operations to prepare for imminent transfer to Algeria and another (92nd) to act as an operational training unit (OTU) for replacement combat crews. Of the six remaining units only the 93rd Bomb Group (a B-24 unit) and the 306th Bomb Group were operational, and the 306th had flown only two missions. As late as 15 December the impending transfer of the 91st BG to Algeria was postponed because of logistics difficulties and a shortage of airdromes in North Africa. The group's first mission was to Brest, France, on 7 November. The target was the Kriegsmarine submarine base, and was the first of 28 missions against the U-boat force in the following eight months. In all, eight missions were flown in November 1942, seven of them against the sub pens. The last of these, on 23 November, resulted in the disastrous loss of two squadron commanders, the group navigator, the group bombardier, and three of the five airplanes attacking. In December 1942 VIII Bomber Command issued two-letter squadron identification codes to be painted on the fuselages of the bombers: 322nd BS – LG 323rd BS – OR 324th BS – DF 401st BS – LL The 91st was made a part of the 101st Provisional Bomb Wing on 3 January 1943. Its first mission to a target in Germany occurred 27 January, and it earned the first of two Distinguished Unit Citations on 4 March when it continued an attack against the marshalling yards at Hamm, Germany, after all the other groups had turned back because of poor weather conditions. On 17 April the group led the Eighth Air Force on its first mission against the German aircraft industry, attacking Bremen. German fighter reaction was intense and sustained, and the Eighth lost twice as many bombers as on any previous mission. The 91st had six B-17s shot down, all from the 401st Bomb Squadron. During this phase the group received a substantial number of aircraft to replace those lost or written off. However replacements for lost crewmen were few and made by transfer of individuals. The influx of replacement crews from the Combat Crew Replacement Center at Bovingdon did not begin until March 1943 when the personnel requirements of Operation Torch were largely fulfilled. As the 91st developed combat experience, it experienced a decrease in aircraft commanders, apart from missing aircraft and wounds, from moving pilots into command and staff positions. Without an adequate pool of replacements, many co-pilots were upgraded to aircraft commanders. Second phase of operations The second phase of combat operations, coinciding with the implementation of the Pointblank Directive to target German airpower, began in May 1943. The Eighth developed in the next three months into a force of sixteen B-17 groups and began attacking industrial targets deep inside Germany beginning at the end of July. Col. Wray left the 91st on 22 May to become commander of a new wing, the 103rd Provisional Combat Bomb Wing. He was replaced by the group deputy commander, Lt. Col. William Reid, formerly of the 92nd Bomb Group. Lt. Col. Baskin Lawrence, who had been the deputy commander of the 91st from its date of activation, had left the group 1 May to command the 92nd. On 25 June 1943, a wholesale shifting of command officers between the two groups occurred. Col. Lawrence departed the 92nd to become commander of a new "Pathfinder" group drawn from a squadron of the 92nd, and was replaced by Col. Reid, who left the 91st to command his old group. The 91st received its third commander, Lt. Col. Clemens Wurzbach, who had been Lawrence's deputy commander. During this transition period the 91st also had its first crews finish their required combat tours and return to the United States, including the crew of the Memphis Belle. Of the original roster of combat crews, 32% completed their tours, 15% were reassigned to other commands, and the rest became casualties. At the end of June it also acquired its most recognizable symbol, the "Triangle A" group tail marking often used in films about B-17s. On 17 August 1943, the 91st Bomb Group led a mission to bomb the ball-bearing factories at Schweinfurt, Germany, losing 10 aircraft. This was the first of several missions between then and 14 October 1943, in which the Eighth Air Force, flying beyond the range of its fighter escorts, suffered severe losses of aircraft and crews. The 91st had 28 aircraft shot down during this period, the most of any group in the Eighth. The remainder of the second phase of operations saw a suspension of deep penetration missions until long-range escort fighters became available. Until 22 September 1943, the 91st BG had been equipped entirely with B-17F aircraft that had not been modified for longer-range Tokyo tanks. On that date it received is first B-17G, which would become the standard bomber of the Eighth Air Force in 1944–1945. It continued to receive B-17F replacement aircraft, along with the B-17G's, until 24 December 1943. Col. Wurzbach completed his tour of duty on 12 December 1943, and was replaced by Col. Claude E. Putnam, a former commander of the 324th Bomb Squadron, who returned to his old group from duty as the commander of the 306th Bomb Group, where he had been pilot of the lead aircraft on the first mission to Germany nearly a year before. Wurzbach had commanded the group for 44 missions; Putnam would command it for 63. Final phase of operations The 91st Bomb Group won its second DUC as part of the six-group task force attacking the AGO Flugzeugwerke assembly factory (license-building the Focke-Wulf Fw 190A) at Oschersleben, Germany, on 11 January 1944. This attack marked the renewal of the heavy bomber offensive against targets in all areas of the German Reich. Although losses were heavy (34 from the Oschersleben task force and 60 overall), three targets were struck by over 600 bombers and a group of P-51 Mustangs was part of the escort force. From 20 to 25 February 1944, known as "Big Week", the United States Strategic Air Forces conducted Operation Argument, a campaign against the German aircraft industry with the goal of achieving air superiority over Europe by drawing the German fighter force into combat. 800 to 1000 bombers, escorted by 700 to 900 fighters, struck multiple targets daily from both England and Italy. The 91st flew all five days, losing ten aircraft, and on 24 February attacked Schweinfurt for the third time. The first attack by the 91st on Berlin came on 6 March, when it led the entire Eighth Air Force at a loss of 69 bombers (6 of them from the 91st), followed by half a dozen more to the German capital in the next two months. On 12 May the Eighth Air Force began a costly campaign against oil and synthetic oil production facilities that continued to the end of the war. On 17 May, Col. Putnam completed his tour as commanding officer of the 91st Bomb Group and Col. Henry W. Terry took command, which he would retain for 185 missions to the end of hostilities in Europe. Aided by the use of radar-equipped Pathfinder force bombers, the 91st BG averaged a mission every other day for the remainder of the war. In addition to bombing strategic targets, often at great loss in aircraft and crews, the 91st also made tactical strikes in support of the Allied landings in France, in the battles for Caen and Saint-Lô, during the German winter counteroffensive, and during the Allied offensive across the Rhine River. Beginning 16 March 1944, the 91st began receiving replacement B-17's that were by a change in USAAF policy no longer painted olive drab, and the bomber force became almost completely "natural metal finish" by July 1944. The 1st Combat Bomb Wing, of which the 91st was a part, adopted the use of a red empennage and wingtips in June 1944 to more easily identify its groups during assembly for missions. The 91st retained its "Triangle A" tail marking as well. The intensity of operations during this phase is reflected by the 100 B-17's lost by the 91st Bomb Group during 1944, compared to 84 in 1943, despite the diminution of the Luftwaffe during the spring and summer. Radar-directed flak became very proficient in defending critical targets and the fighter force hoarded its pilots and fuel for occasional mass interceptions of the bombers. The 91st BG experienced its worst loss of the war during this period on 2 November 1944, when it attacked the I.G. Farbenindustrie A.G. synthetic oil plant at Leuna, southeast of Merseburg, Germany. Suffering several losses to intense flak, for which this target was notorious, the 91st found itself isolated from the bomber stream at the division rally point, where it was attacked by large numbers of Fw 190A-R8 sturm fighters of IV./JG 3. In all, thirteen B-17s of the 91st were shot down out of 37 dispatched and half of the remainder suffered major battle damage. 49 of the 117 crewmen aboard the Fortresses were killed and the remainder captured. The 91st Bomb Group experienced its final aircraft loss on 17 April 1945, and flew its last mission, to Pilsen, Czechoslovakia, on 25 April. The 91st had been alerted for 500 combat missions, of which 160 were scrubbed or recalled and 340 completed. Immediately after VE Day, it flew three days of operations to rescue Allied POWs incarcerated at Stalag Luft I in Barth, Germany, as part of Operation Revival, bringing out 2,032 prisoners. Casualties The 91st Bomb Group had at least 392 B-17s assigned to it at some point of the war. Of these, 40 were transferred to other commands, 37 were retired as unsuitable for further operations, and 71 were on hand at the end of hostilities. The rest were lost: 197 in combat, 37 written off, and 10 in training crashes. Of the combat losses, the 401st and 323rd Squadrons each lost 55, the 322nd Squadron lost 49, and the 324th Squadron 38. Approximately 5,200 crewmen flew combat missions for the 91st from 1942 to 1945. 19% were killed or missing (887 KIA and 123 MIA) and 18% (959) became prisoners of war. 33 others were killed in flying accidents. Of the 35 original crews to arrive at Bassingbourn, 17 were lost in combat (47%). Daily records indicate that for the first six months of operations, 22 of 46 listed crews were lost (48%). The fatalities in the 91st Bomb Group, equivalent to an infantry regiment in numbers of combat personnel, exceeded the killed-in-action of more than half (47) of the Army's ground force divisions, and equalled or exceeded the rate of killed-in-action in the infantry regiments of 35 others. Only seven divisions (all infantry) had killed-in-action rates higher than the 91st BG. Aircraft losses from Havelaar, total from USAAF via Freeman. Personnel losses from both. Crew losses from 91st BG daily logs. Honors and campaigns Post-war and USAF history The air echelon left Bassingbourn on 27 May 1945, and moved to Drew AAB, Tampa, Florida. The ground echelon sailed on the to New York on 24 June. The group reunited on 2 July, to prepare for transfer to the Pacific Theater, but many members had been transferred to other units and no further training was conducted before the war ended. The group was inactivated on 7 November 1945. Following the war the group was redesignated the 91st Reconnaissance Group, assigned to the Strategic Air Command, and activated on 1 July 1947 at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. After the United States Air Force became a separate service, the 91st was redesignated the 91st Strategic Reconnaissance Group on 10 November 1948, and made a part of the 91st Strategic Reconnaissance Wing. It operated a variety of aircraft, including B-17's, RB-17's, B-29's and RB-29's, and B-50's. On 6 July 1950, it was redesignated the 91st Strategic Reconnaissance Group (Medium) and equipped with the jet RB-45C. The group was removed from operations on 10 February 1952, when its squadrons were assigned directly to the wing, and inactivated on 28 May 1952. The organization was redesignated as the 91st Operations Group on 29 August 1991, and activated at Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota. on 1 September 1991. Inactivated on 1 July 1994, it was again activated on 1 February 1996. The 91st OG is responsible for the operations of three missile squadrons maintaining a nuclear alert force of 150 LGM-30G Minuteman III ICBMs and 15 alert facilities spread across of territory. The squadrons of the 91st OG are: 740th Missile Squadron – "Vulgar Vultures" 741st Missile Squadron – "Gravelhaulers" 742d Missile Squadron – "Wolf Pack" 91st Operations Support Squadron – "Pathfinders" 54th Helicopter Squadron USAF group commanders Significant members of the 91st Bomb Group 1st Lt (later Maj Gen USAF) William J. Crumm, 324th Bomb Squadron Lt Crumm was an original member of the group and flew eleven of its first seventeen missions. He and his crew were the first to return from combat, assigned on 14 February 1942, to return to the United States to prepare a training manual for bomber crews. Promoted to lieutenant colonel, Crumm later commanded the 61st Bomb Squadron, 39th Bomb Group of the Twentieth Air Force, operating B-29s against Japan. He went on to become a major general in the United States Air Force and died in the mid-air collision of two B-52 bombers on 6 July 1967, returning from a mission to South Vietnam. MSgt Rollin L. Davis, 323rd Bomb Squadron MSgt Davis was a maintenance line chief in charge of B-17 42-31909, nicknamed Nine-O-Nine (pictured above), which completed 140 missions between 25 February 1944 and the end of the war, at least 126 in a row without turning back because of mechanical failure, for which MSgt Davis received the Bronze Star. Lt Col (later Col USAF) Immanuel J. Klette, 324th Bomb Squadron Colonel Klette flew 91 bomber missions as a co-pilot and pilot with the 306th Bomb Group, and as a command pilot with the 91st. Over 30 of his missions were as group, wing, division, or air force mission commander while serving with the 91st BG. His 91 sorties are the most by any Eighth Air Force pilot in World War II. Capt (later Col USAF) Robert K. Morgan, 324th Bomb Squadron Captain Morgan, an original member of the group, piloted the Memphis Belle in combat and returned it to the United States. 1st Lt Bert Stiles, 401st Bomb Squadron (author) 91st Bomb Group in film and literature Memphis Belle: A Story of a Flying Fortress, a 1944 documentary film Memphis Belle, a 1990 film Bert Stiles, Serenade to the Big Bird, a 1944 memoir John Hersey, The War Lover, a 1959 novel and film (the novel uses the fictional base "Pike Rilling" as its locale and an unnamed group, but all details of the novel are taken directly from 91st BG daily records) The tail markings of the 91st were used as those of the fictional 918th Bomb Group in the film and television series Twelve O'Clock High. At least one incident, a mission to Hamm on 4 March 1943 in which all the other groups except the 91st turned back for bad weather, was also portrayed in the film. Sam Halpert, A Real Good War, a semi-autobiographical account of a 35 mission tour with the 91st Bomb Group. Ray Bowden, Plane Names & Fancy Noses – 91st Bomb Group, nose art and named planes of the 91BG with brief histories. See www.usaaf-noseart.co.uk for fuller details. 91st Bomb Group B-17's on exhibit Two 91st B-17's survive, both currently at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Dayton, Ohio. B-17F serial 41-24485-10-BO, 324th BS, marked DF A, Memphis Belle, combat 7 November 1942 to 19 May 1943. Returned to United States to sell war bonds on 8 June 1943. First placed on outdoor display at National Guard in Memphis in 1949, where it slowly deteriorated from weather and vandalism. Moved to Mud Island in 1987, but was still exposed to the elements. Disassembled and taken to Naval Air Station Memphis in 2003 for restoration. Acquired by the National Museum of the United States Air Force in mid-October 2005. There it underwent full restoration and was unveiled at the museum on 17 May 2018. It appears as it did shortly after completing its 25th mission. B-17G serial 42-32076-35-BO, 401st BS, marked LL E, Shoo Shoo Baby, in combat 24 March 1944 to 29 May 1944, crash-landed Malmö Airport, Sweden. Repaired in Sweden, it had been used as a civilian transport and recovered in 1972, where it was dismantled, taken to Dover Air Force Base, Delaware, for restoration, and turned over to the museum on 13 October 1988. Due to the amount of skin work required to restore its wartime appearance, it is finished in olive drab and grey, instead of bare-metal as it was during its USAAF service, and has been restored to its original name, Shoo Shoo Baby. It was replaced by Memphis Belle in 2018, and is now in storage. References Notes Bibliography Bishop, Cliff T. Fortresses of the Big Triangle First. 1986. Bowman, Martin W. USAAF Handbook 1939–1945. Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth. (1993 edition). . Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth War Diary. 1990. . Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth War Manual. 1991. . Havelaar, Marion H. and William N. Hess. The Ragged Irregulars of Bassingbourn: The 91st Bombardment Group in World War II. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 1995. . Ravenstein, Charles A. Air Force Combat Wings, 1947–1977. Office of Air Force History, 1984. . External links Getz, Lowell L. "Mary Ruth" Memories of Mobile... We Still Remember: Stories from the 91st Bomb Group (2001). 91st Bomb Group Association website Holder, William G. "The Return of Shoo-Shoo Baby" Air University Review Heroes of Freedom – 91st Bomb Group 91st Bombardment Group (H) - Re-enactments in Flight Simulation - Website USAAF Nose Art Research Project website 401st Squadron/91st Bomb Group 091 Groups of the U.S. Army Air Forces which strategically bombed Germany Military units and formations established in 1942
5258045	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF%20Bassingbourn	RAF Bassingbourn	Royal Air Force Bassingbourn or more simply RAF Bassingbourn is a former Royal Air Force station located in Cambridgeshire approximately north of Royston, Hertfordshire and south west of Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England. During the Second World War it served first as an RAF station and then as a bomber airfield of the Eighth Air Force, of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF). It remains the home of the Tower Museum Bassingbourn. Origin and development Construction RAF Bassingbourn was constructed by John Laing & Son between 1937 and 1939 in the parishes of Wendy and Bassingbourn immediately to the west of the A14 (now the A1198) road. The site selected was low ground between several tributaries of the River Cam. The area had been long cleared of forest and tended to be swampy and unstable, and because the boggy ground produced a persistent mist over the large meadow the site was considered ideal for airfield camouflage. The project was begun in April 1937 under the direction of Sir Maurice Laing, with Reginald Silk as the site engineer and John Crowther the site surveyor. Four C Type hangars ( long by wide by high, with eleven roof gables and hipped ends) were erected by a sub-contractor in a semi-circle at the south edge of the airfield site approximately one mile north of the hamlet of Kneesworth. Laing then began work pouring concrete foundations for the technical site buildings, communal sites and barracks; the nature of the ground necessitated the rebuilding of several foundations that had sunk into the ground. Roadway cores were built of unusual thickness to prevent crumbling of the pavement. The technical site was built with permanent, kerbed streets and landscaped. Originally treeless, Bassingbourn was made one of the most attractive RAF stations by the planting of hundreds of plum trees as part of the project. The runways were originally grass. The Bristol Blenheim light bombers that first used the field were able to operate under the existing conditions, although landings often produced pronounced water splashes, but the weight of heavier bombers tore ruts in the grass surface and limited take-off speeds. The runways W & C French Ltd. constructed three concrete runways surfaced with asphalt during the winter of 1941–1942: a runway aligned southwest to northeast, one of crossing it north–south, and a runway connecting the northeast ends of the first two. The Class A airfield standard was promulgated by the Air Ministry in August 1942 and the runways at Bassingbourn were immediately extended. The main runway was lengthened to by extending it west, with the use of extensive tile drainage, across a moat off the Mill River. The north–south runway was extended south, and the third runway lengthened to the northwest. Additional perimeter track was added around the bomb store site, which was doubled in area, to reach the west end of the main runway. Ultimately seven miles of taxiway were paved. Four dispersal areas were also built. Dispersal A was placed in a large field between the technical site and the hamlet of Bassingbourn-North End. Dispersal B was located north and west of the bomb store. Dispersal C was next to the A14 north of the runways and Dispersal D was built in the grand avenue of Wimpole Park, the tree-lined entrance to Wimpole Hall across the A14 from the station. Bombers using this dispersal had to cross the road to marshal for take-off. Ultimately 35 "pan" hardstands and 16 loop hardstands were constructed, able to accommodate 67 bombers. Bassingbourn made extensive use of camouflage to disguise the location of its runways. Prior to the building of the concrete runways, the strips were painted to blend them into the surrounding pattern of fields, lanes and drainage areas. After conversion to Class A standards, which required extensive clearing and grading of the airfield area, the areas between the runways were camouflaged to resemble agricultural crops. Royal Air Force use (1938–42) The airfield was opened in March 1938, with the Hawker Hind light bombers of 104 and 108 Squadrons from RAF Hucknall and RAF Uxbridge moving in on 2 May 1938. In May–June 1938 the two squadrons re-equipped with Bristol Blenheim bombers. In May 1939, the two Bassingbourn-based squadrons were given the new task of converting aircrew from the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve onto the Blenheim, the two squadrons supplementing their Blenheims with Avro Anson trainers, and on 1 June 1939, both squadrons were designated Group Training Squadrons for 2 Group, RAF Bomber Command. The outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 saw the two squadrons transfer to 6 Group and move to RAF Bicester in mid-month, being replaced by 215 Squadron, the 3 Group training squadron, equipped with Vickers Wellington, by the end of the month. No. 35 Squadron, the 1 Group training squadron, equipped with Blenheims and Fairey Battles, was also based at Bassingbourn between December 1939 and February 1940. On 8 April 1940, No. 11 Operational Training Unit (OTU) was formed at Bassingbourn, absorbing the Station HQ and 215 Squadron. The new unit had an allocated strength of 54 Wellingtons and 11 Ansons, and used RAF Steeple Morden as a satellite airfield. From December 1941 to February 1942 the OTU operated from Steeple Morden and RAF Tempsford while runways were constructed at Bassingbourn. The station was attacked on 28 May 1940 by an isolated German raider that dropped 10 bombs, and from March to August 1941, as the easternmost bomber OTU, came under fairly regular attack by German night intruder aircraft. Five Wellingtons of the OTU were shot down by intruders, and on 13 August 1941, a German aircraft dropped four bombs on the airfield, one of which hit a barrack block, killing 10. On 31 May 1942 aircraft from Bassingbourn participated in the "Thousand Bomber" raid on Cologne. In order to raise this number, Bomber Command employed every aircraft capable of taking to the air, including 25 Wellington bombers from No. 11 OTU (12 of which flew from Bassingbourn, with the other 13 from Steeple Morden). Subsequently aircraft from Bassingbourn took part in several more large raids until the end of September, with 11 OTU moving to RAF Westcott between 28 September and 2 October 1942. United States Army Air Forces use Plans for locating United States Army Air Forces heavy bomber groups dated back to before America's entry into the war, when RAF Thurleigh was tentatively designated in November 1941. Initial concepts anticipated that 75 heavy bomb groups would eventually be based in East Anglia and the Huntingdon area in five bombardment wings (later termed air divisions), but the first plan on 24 March 1942, called for 45 groups, with four to be moved to the UK by June. This did not come to pass (of the four groups, only one eventually came to the UK, in 1944) but 75 fields were allocated by the Air Ministry on 10 August 1942 for VIII Bomber Command. From 19 August 1942 to 25 June 1945, Bassingbourn served as headquarters for the 1st Combat Bombardment Wing of the 1st Bomb Division. It was assigned USAAF designation Station 121. USAAF Station Units assigned to RAF Bassingbourn were: 441st Sub-Depot (VIII Air Force Service Command) 18th Weather Squadron 1st Station Complement Squadron Regular Army Station Units included: 831st Engineer Aviation Battalion 204th Quartermaster Company 1696th Ordnance Supply & Maintenance Company 863rd Chemical Company (Air Operations) 982nd Military Police Company 985th Military Police Company 2024th Engineer Fire Fighting Platoon 206th Finance Section 3rd Mobile Training Unit 556th Army Postal Unit 91st Bombardment Group (Heavy) The 91st Bomb Group, equipped with Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bombers, moved into Bassingbourn on 14 October 1942. The group had originally been assigned to RAF Kimbolton in Huntingdonshire, but Kimbolton's runways were not strong enough to support B-17 operations, so the 91st moved into Bassingbourn, which as a pre-war RAF station, was relatively well appointed compared to war-built airfields, gaining the nickname "the country club". The 91st BG was assigned to the 1st Combat Bombardment Wing, which was also based at Bassingbourn from September 1943. The group tail code (after June 1943) was a "Triangle A". Its operational squadrons and fuselage codes were: 322d Bombardment Squadron (LG) 323d Bombardment Squadron (OR) 324th Bombardment Squadron (DF) 401st Bombardment Squadron (LL) The airfield remained under RAF administration until 21 April 1943, becoming Army Air Force Station 121. The 91st began combat operations from Bassingbourn on 7 November 1942, as one of the four "pioneer" B-17 groups. The group operated primarily as a strategic bombardment organization throughout the war. The first eight months of operations concentrated against the German submarine campaign, attacking U-boat pens in French ports or construction yards in Germany in 28 of the first 48 missions flown. Secondary targets were Luftwaffe airfields, industrial targets, and marshalling yards. The 91st BG received a Distinguished Unit Citation for bombing marshalling yards at Hamm on 4 March 1943 in spite of adverse weather and heavy enemy opposition. From the middle of 1943 until the war ended, the Group engaged chiefly in attacks on aircraft factories, aerodromes, and oil facilities. Specific targets included airfields at Villacoublay and Oldenburg, aircraft factories in Oranienburg and Brussels, chemical industries in Leverkusen and Peenemünde, ball-bearing plants in Schweinfurt and other industries in Ludwigshafen, Berlin, Frankfurt, and Wilhelmshaven. On 11 January 1944 organisations of Eighth AF went into central Germany to attack vital aircraft factories. The 91st BG successfully bombed its targets in spite of bad weather, inadequate fighter cover and severe enemy attack, being awarded a second Distinguished Unit Citation for the performance. Expanding its operations to include interdictory and support missions, the group contributed to the Battle of Normandy by bombing gun emplacements and troop concentrations near the beachhead area in June 1944 and aided the Saint-Lô breakout by attacking enemy troop positions on 24 and 25 July 1944. The 91st flew tactical bombing missions on the front line near Caen in August 1944 and attacked communications near the battle area during the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944 and January 1945. In support of Operation Varsity, the group assisted the push across the Rhine by striking airfields, bridges and railways near the front line in the spring of 1945. The 91st Bomb Group continued combat operations until 25 April 1945, flying 340 missions. In terms of its casualties, 197 B-17s failed to return to Bassingbourn, the US Eighth Air Force's highest heavy bomber loss at any USAAF station in the UK. After V-E Day the group helped to evacuate prisoners of war (POW) from German camps. During June and July 1945, the 91st BG withdrew from Bassingbourn and returned to the United States. 94th Bombardment Group (Heavy) VIII Bomber Command quadrupled in size from May 1943 to August to implement the Pointblank Directive. As part of this expansion, RAF Bassingbourn temporarily hosted the flying echelon of the new 94th Bombardment Group from April to May 1943. The 94th flew a few missions from Bassingbourn while under the tutelage of the 91st Bomb Group until moving to RAF Earls Colne on 12 May 1943. At the same time, VIII Bomber Command proceeded with its plan to organise the groups into "combat wings" which in turn were organised into "bombardment wings" (later "divisions"). The first of these, the 101st Provisional Combat Bomb Wing, commanded by Brigadier General Frank A. Armstrong, Jr., set up its headquarters at Bassingbourn on 16 April 1943. In August Brig. Gen. Robert B. Williams succeeded to command of the 101st PCBW, followed by Brig. Gen. William M. Gross when the organisation was then redesignated 1st Combat Bombing Wing on 13 September 1943. Hollywood at Bassingbourn During 1943 RAF Bassingbourn was the focus of a number of media events. The station and its locality were featured in the documentary film Memphis Belle: A Story of a Flying Fortress. One of the Memphis Belle's propellers stands to greet you at the gatehouse on entering the Army Training Regiment. The airfield and group were also the subject of a series of newspaper articles written by John Steinbeck during the spring and summer of 1943. Captain Clark Gable had temporary duty at Bassingbourn while producing a gunnery film for the USAAF. It also served as the location for the fictional "28th Bomb Group" in the 1950 Humphrey Bogart film Chain Lightning. Away from Hollywood, but still in the movies, RAF Bassingbourn was also the setting for the Airfield-based shots in the 1955 film, The Dambusters, featuring Richard Todd and Michael Redgrave. In 1986/7 Stanley Kubrick used the barracks as a lot (Paris Island) in his film, Full Metal Jacket. The fake palm trees were there for a few years afterwards. Postwar Use RAF Transport Command The RAF resumed occupation of Bassingbourn on 26 June 1945, the airfield was officially returned on 10 July 1945. The station became one of the main airfields for long-range transport aircraft. In 1948 and 1949 Avro York, Avro Lancaster and Douglas Dakota aircraft from the base took part in the Berlin Airlift, a massive operation transporting essential commodities to the beleaguered city. United States Air Forces in Europe During the late 1940s, the United States Air Force began rotating deployments of Strategic Air Command (SAC) Boeing B-29 and Boeing B-50 Superfortresses squadrons to the United Kingdom as "Show of Force" deployments. With the Soviet blockade of Berlin in 1948 and the subsequent Berlin Airlift, these aircraft began regular deployments to the United Kingdom. These deployments were designed to send a message to the Soviet Union that despite the Berlin Airlift and Korean War, the United States was prepared to respond with atomic weapons to any Soviet aggression in Western Europe. Besides Bassingborn, SAC deployed squadrons of bombers to RAF Lakenheath and RAF Marham in Norfolk. Jurisdiction of Bassingbourn remained with the Royal Air Force. The United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) 7516th Air Support Squadron, 3909th Air Base Group stationed at RAF South Ruislip provided logistical support for these squadrons while in the UK. These deployments were of a brief nature, beginning in August 1950 and ending in May 1951. It is unknown if any United States atomic weapons were ever deployed to the United Kingdom. RAF Bomber Command In February 1952, RAF Bassingbourn received its first allocation of English Electric Canberra bombers and became the first jet bomber operational conversion unit (OCU) in the world. Canberras operated from Bassingbourn for 17 years and one of the aircraft is on static display in the Barracks. From 1963 to 1969 the Joint School of Photographic Interpretation was also located there. On 29 August 1969, the last RAF Commanding Officer, Sqn Ldr A.M. McGregor MBE, turned over the station to the British Army as Bassingbourn Barracks. Since approximately 1970 the site has retained its RAF links by being the home of 2484 (Bassingbourn) Squadron Air Training Corps. British Army use The former RAF Bassingbourn station was established as Bassingbourn Barracks in January 1970, as the new depot for the Queen's Division. The depot was responsible for training recruits undergoing their basic training before joining a regular battalion. In 1993 the Barracks were re-designated the home of the Army Training Regiment, Bassingbourn and remained as such for nearly 20 years. Bassingbourn Barracks closed as an army training location in August 2012, and re-opened in December 2018 as home to the Mission Training and Mobilisation Centre. Units Assigned Royal Air Force United States Army Air Forces 91st Bombardment Group (14 Oct 1942 – 23 Jun 1945) 94th Bombardment Group (Apr - 27 May 1943) United States Air Force 353d Bombardment Squadron, 301st Bombardment Group (25 Aug 1950 - Jan 1951) 341st Bombardment Squadron, 97th Bombardment Group (4 Dec 1950 - Feb 1951) 7516th Air Support Squadron (11 Dec 1950 – 16 May 1951) 38th Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron, 55th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing (Jan - May 1951) 96th Bombardment Squadron, 2d Bombardment Group USAF (May - Sep 1951) See also Strategic Air Command in the United Kingdom List of former Royal Air Force stations List of British Army Barracks References Citations Bibliography Andrade, John M. U.S. Military Aircraft designations and Serials since 1909. Earl Shilton, Leicester, UK: Midland Counties Publications, 1979. . Bishop, Cliff T. Fortresses of the Big Triangle First. 1986. . Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth. 1970. . Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth War Diary. 1990. . Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth War Manual. 1991 . Hamlin John F. and Simons, Graham M. Bassingbourn (Airfield Focus No 2). Bretton, Peterborough, UK: GMS Enterprises, 1992. . Havelaar, Marion H., and Hess, William N., The Ragged Irregulars of Bassingbourn: The 91st Bombardment Group in World War II. . Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947-1977. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. . Rogers, Brian (2005). United States Air Force Unit Designations Since 1978. Hinkley, England: Midland Publications. . External links Stories of the 91st BG 2484 Squadron Bassingbourn ATC USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers--1908 to present Tower Museum Bassingbourn - official site Royal Air Force stations in Cambridgeshire Airfields of the VIII Bomber Command in the United Kingdom Military aviation museums in England Museums in Cambridgeshire World War II museums in the United Kingdom
5258096	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleadon	Cleadon	Cleadon is a suburban village in South Tyneside in the North East of England. Prior to the creation of Tyne and Wear in 1974 by the Local Government Act 1972, the village was part of the historic County Durham. In the 2011 UK Census the population of the South Tyneside ward of Cleadon and East Boldon was 8,427. Nearby population centres include East Boldon, Whitburn, and Jarrow. The village is located approximately from the city of Sunderland and 5 miles from the town South Shields. It is situated on the south west of Cleadon Hills, an example of a Magnesian Limestone grassland home to a number of regionally and nationally rare species. For much of its history, the economy of Cleadon was based around agriculture. Now it is largely residential and has developed as a commuter town. The village has two churches, a primary school, and a commercial core with shops and pubs. History The earliest evidence of human occupation in the area around Cleadon dates back to the Mesolithic period (8,000-4,500BC). Although there is no direct evidence of Mesolithic habitation in Cleadon itself, flint scatters have been identified in surrounding sites including St Peter's Church, Monkwearmouth, suggesting hunting parties travelled through the area. It is likely that Neolithic (4,500-2,400BC) farmers were active in Cleadon, evidenced by further discoveries of flint, but the exact locations of any settlements remain unknown. Middle Ages Cleadon was first recorded as Clyuedon in the Boldon Book (1183), sharing an entry with Whiteberne, or modern-day Whitburn. The name Clyduedon roughly translates to hill (dun) of the cliffs (clifta). It is of Old English origin. It is likely this name refers to the surrounding landscape. The village is not close to any major rivers, so its water supply was fed by springs and wells. A village pond, which survives today, is likely to have facilitated human settlement for many centuries. Cleadon and Whitburn's entry in the Boldon Book refers to land ownership, dues, and services, suggesting that a complex administrative system had been in place a number of years before 1183. It also mentions a pound or pinfold which contained stray animals, the location of which today is marked by a plaque which reads: An estimation of the population of the township in the 12th century is around 172. Around 200 years after the Boldon Book, Thomas Hatfield - Bishop of Durham from 1345 to 1381, commissioned the Hatfield survey. This was a more comprehensive population survey which again combined Cleadon and Whitburn as a single parish. The survey reveals changes in land ownership, including the introduction of copyhold tenure and bondsmen. Between the 12th and 14th centuries, the region suffered from the plague which first broke out in 1230s and culminated in the Black Death. It also faced threats of invasion from Scotland during the Wars of Independence. For example, in 1312 Robert the Bruce travelled south from Scotland and raided Hartlepool. A radical change in the climate, the Little Ice Age, also occurred in the early 1300s which led to widespread famine. Early modern Cleadon The first representation of Cleadon on a map is in the Dunelmensis Episcopatus, published in 1576 by Christopher Saxton. The village, called Cleydon, is represented by a single building. In the late 16th century, a further survey was conducted of the area, this time distinguishing between Cleadon (listed as Clevedon) and Whitburn. In 1644 during the English Civil War, Cleadon was caught between the Royalist forces of Newcastle and the Parliamentarians of Sunderland, leading to the Battle of Boldon Hill. It was reported that Briar Cottage in Cleadon may have served as a hospital during the war. By the end of the 17th century, enclosure agreements grew throughout the Durham area, whereby copyhold tenants ensured properties were combined into more manageable fields. The Cleadon enclosure agreement is recorded as being in April 1676. Farms dominated the village centre, their development aided by the village pond and rich pastures. More detailed maps of Cleadon and the surrounding area were produced towards the end of the 18th century. Map of the County Palatine of Durham, published by Andrew Armstrong in 1754, depicts Cleadon Mill and features some of the key landowners of the village. It does not, however, include key features of the area at the time, such as Cleadon Farm and Boldon Lane. 18th and 19th centuries During the 18th and 19th centuries, large mansions with ornamental grounds were built within and on the fringes of the village which would have likely been significant local employers. A surviving example of one of these buildings is Cleadon House which was built by John Dagnia, an influential glass manufacturer, in 1738. It is a two-storey brick 'double pile' building – a relatively new building technique in the 1730s. A blue plaque outside the front of the house reads: A 15-acre pleasure garden was also constructed, featuring terraced lawns, a fruit wall, an ornamental lake and a grotto. Today, little of the 18th-century garden survives. Only a section of the original estate wall, evidence of water features, and the Grade II listed grotto remain in modern-day Coulthard Park. The grotto's design is typical of Picturesque architecture popular in the mid-18th century. The house and estate were bought by the Grey family of Howick; and by marriage passed to Sir James Pennyman, 6th Baronet. They were bought from the Pennyman family in 1813 by Bryan Abbs. The Abbs family were substantial local leaseholders of property in Monkwearmouth, and developers in Roker. Cleadon Old Hall was another large house constructed in Cleadon in the 18th century, most likely around the time John Dagnia was building Cleadon House. Similarly to Cleadon House, Cleadon Old Hall featured gardens and a pond. It was demolished in the 1960s, but earlier photographs show a grand building stylistic of the Georgian era. In the 1800s, Cleadon still remained part of the wider Whitburn Parish. The population of the parish grew throughout the 1800s from 675 in 1801 to 3,292 in 1901. In a contemporary survey publication, Cleadon was reported to have "a small Methodist chapel, four farmholds, two public houses, and a ladies' boarding school." Cleadon Parochial School opened in 1830 and was later reopened as Cleadon Church School in 1872. In 1891, Walter Scott wrote about Cleadon in The Monthly Chronicle of North-Country Lore and Legend. He describes Cleadon House as "a quaint, picturesque residence ... partly secluded by trees". As for the village itself, Scott remarks that "Cleadon does not materially differ from the ordinary country village." His account includes descriptions of Cleadon Towers (erected in 1890), the three pubs of the village, the village green, the pond, the parish church, and the village school. Although agriculture remained a key part of the local economy during the 19th century, brick production, tile production, and limestone quarrying became increasingly important industries in Cleadon. In 1855, there was one brickworks active in the village – The Cleadon Brick and Tile Works. By the end of the century there were four, demonstrating the widespread demand for brick during that time. Today, the former clay pits of Cleadon Brick and Tile Works have been flooded and form the Tilesheds Local Nature Reserve, which opened in 1997. Modern times The late 19th and early 20th century saw a migration of affluent citizens into Cleadon, which led to the development of the residential Cleadon Plantation. Cleadon was at this time an attractive distance from the poor living conditions of urban city centres. By the end of the 1800s, there were a variety of tradespeople in the village, including a nurse, a solicitor, a violin-string manufacturer, a hay dealer, a laundress, and numerous labourers. The first train station in the village area – Cleadon Lane Station – opened in the 1800s. It was renamed to East Boldon Station in 1898 and survives today as East Boldon Metro station. The most significant change to the layout of the village occurred with the development of the first housing estate in the 20th century – the Cleadon Plantation Housing Estate. It consisted of villa properties which extended across the three main roads to the west of Cleadon House, occupied by affluent citizens such as surgeons and managers. In 1903, the village school moved to a new premises which today is known as The Old Schoolroom. In 1908, the Cleadon National School for children aged 7 to 13 was opened. A new building was provided in 1909 on Cleadon Lane to accommodate the teaching of children under the care of the Local Authority. This school closed in 1962. Cleadon played an important part during the First World War. The village was well-positioned between Sunderland and the River Tyne to be a transitional training centre for troops. It also played a role in second line coastal defence. Cleadon Hill Farm served as a landing ground for the 36 Squadron Royal Flying Corp which was in use from April 1916 until December 1917. Cleadon did not suffer any enemy bomb damage during the First World War. However, there was a case of friendly fire when the Tynemouth Battery fired a shell which ricocheted off the water and landed in the garden of Briar Cottage. A 1918 War Office document shows that there were troop accommodation facilities in Cleadon, including in Cleadon Meadow, a Hutment Camp in Cottage Homes, and at Wesley Hall. Throughout Tyne and Wear there were several examples of practice trenches which display a zigzag pattern. Only those at Cleadon Hills are still visible on the ground today. The Cleadon War Memorial was unveiled in November 1920, commemorating the 22 men from Cleadon who died during the war. After the First World War, housing development grew in Cleadon consisting of more villas and smaller semi-detached buildings. Transport to the surrounding local areas also became easier with new bus services to South Shields. Cleadon was at risk of being a German target during the Second World War due to its proximity to both the River Tyne and River Wear. War defences were built along the east coast of England as early of 1938, which included pillboxes, gun emplacements, and minefields. A Heavy Anti-Aircraft Battery was located in Cleadon between February 1940 and January 1946. A searchlight battery was also recorded to be in Cleadon. The Ship Inn pub served as the headquarters of the local home guard. On 15 August 1940, 15 German bombers targeted the Tyneside shipyards. The bombs landed in Cleadon but nobody was killed or badly injured. Cleadon was caught up in a series of bombing raids which followed from 1940 to 1943, some of which resulted in fatalities. The village expanded quickly in the post-war period with construction on Laburnum Grove and south of Whitburn Road. Cleadon Park Estate also expanded with the grounds of Cleadon Park House purchased by the council and opened as Cleadon Park. Sand and gravel extraction in the grounds of Cleadon House destroyed much evidence of the earlier gardens. The pleasure grounds were purchased by the council, and survive today as Coulthard Park. The demolition of some cottages and other houses in the village in the 1960-70s gave rise to some controversy. Three of the large houses of the village – Cleadon Park, Cleadon Meadows and Cleadon Old Hall – were demolished. In order to accommodate the changes to Sunderland Road and Shields Road, the Ship Inn pub was destroyed and the village pond was reduced in size. In 1963, a new Junior School opened on Boldon Lane. In 1975, Cleadon Conservation Area was designated as consisting of the core of the village based on its probable medieval layout. The boundaries of the Conservation Area were extended in March 2004 to include the residential area Cleadon Plantation. Cleadon Hills { "type": "FeatureCollection", "generator": "overpass-ide", "copyright": "The data included in this document is from www.openstreetmap.org. The data is made available under ODbL.", "timestamp": "2021-12-28T13:14:24Z", "features": [ { "type": "Feature", "properties": { "@id": "relation/10283697", "boundary": "protected_area", "designation": "local_nature_reserve", "leisure": "nature_reserve", "name": "Cleadon Hills Local Nature Reserve", "protect_class": "7", "tourism": "yes", "type": "multipolygon" }, "geometry": { "type": "Polygon", "coordinates": [ [ [ -1.3968092, 54.9611475 ], [ -1.3967687, 54.96104 ], [ -1.3964576, 54.9612064 ], [ -1.3962844, 54.9612206 ], [ -1.3961486, 54.961215 ], [ -1.3948537, 54.9600697 ], [ -1.3935998, 54.9589608 ], [ -1.3910625, 54.9600832 ], [ -1.3910141, 54.9601054 ], [ -1.3909956, 54.9601138 ], [ -1.3907807, 54.9602057 ], [ -1.3906435, 54.960227 ], [ -1.3906497, 54.9602655 ], [ -1.3906591, 54.9602827 ], [ -1.3911063, 54.961152 ], [ -1.3925841, 54.9609256 ], [ -1.3929704, 54.9613414 ], [ -1.39348, 54.9621052 ], [ -1.3930362, 54.9623835 ], [ -1.3938218, 54.9625494 ], [ -1.3954265, 54.9635563 ], [ -1.3954764, 54.9635558 ], [ -1.3961801, 54.9635481 ], [ -1.3966021, 54.9635435 ], [ -1.3965883, 54.9631605 ], [ -1.3968945, 54.9631588 ], [ -1.3971562, 54.9631574 ], [ -1.3971655, 54.9629718 ], [ -1.3972093, 54.9622507 ], [ -1.3972119, 54.9622148 ], [ -1.3972317, 54.961937 ], [ -1.397154, 54.9617056 ], [ -1.3969171, 54.9614195 ], [ -1.3968496, 54.9612507 ], [ -1.3968232, 54.9611847 ], [ -1.3968092, 54.9611475 ] ] ] }, "id": "relation/10283697" } ] } Cleadon Hills Local Nature Reserve, located to the north-east of the village centre, is a nationally significant example of Magnesian limestone grassland and a Site of Special Scientific Interest. It is home to wildflowers such as cowslips, wild thyme and autumn gentian that can grow due to the shallow magnesian limestone soil. The limestone landscape was formed by sediments that accumulated on the floor of the Zechstein Sea during Permian times, 290 to 248 million years ago. The limestone is a fundamental aspect to the character of Cleadon Hills. It was quarried to build walls, including the boundary walls of Cleadon Hills and the adjacent farmland, and some of these smaller quarries and cliff exposures remain today. The village of Cleadon is located on the south west scarp of Cleadon Hills. Cleadon Windmill The ruined windmill on the Hills is a Grade II listed building. There has been a mill on the site since at least the 17th century, but the building seen today was first constructed in the 1820s and rebuilt following a storm in 1842. The mill is thought to have been originally built for the Reverend George Cooper Abbs of Cleadon Hall. In 1828, Parson and White's Trade Directory recorded Joseph Watson as the miller at Cleadon Mill. In 1844, Thomas Metcalfe was the miller and by the 1850s it was run by the Gibbons family. The mill ceased operation in the late 19th century. It was further damaged when it was used as a target for gunnery practice during the First World War. Although the mill no longer has its cap and sails, the stone shell remains intact along with a few floor joists. The mill is contained by a wall of limestone. In local mythology, the mill is said to be haunted by the ghost of the miller's daughter – Elizabeth Gibbons – who died of a broken heart. Cleadon Water Tower Also on Cleadon Hills is a former water pumping station, which once provided water to the South Shields area. The site is dominated by the landmark Cleadon Water Tower, which is a chimney (or campanile) for the former steam-powered pumps of Cleadon Pumping Station, which is visible for miles around. It is a Grade II listed building. Cleadon Pumping Station was built for the Sunderland and South Shields Water Company to a design by Thomas Hawksley from 1859 to 1862. It was one of a group of pumping stations owned by the Sunderland and South Shields Water Company with others situated in Humbledon and Fulwell. They were constructed to exploit the reserves of clean fresh water that lay trapped in the permeable limestone. By 1860, more than one million gallons of water a day were being pumped from the Cleadon's station, and by 1862 it was the largest of the Company's ventures with more than twice the capacity of Fulwell and Humbledon. The chimney has balcony which is above ground level and a spiral staircase of 141 steps winds around the central flue. The pumping station closed in the 1970s after the opening of the Derwent Reservoir. While the other buildings have since been converted into homes, the campanile remains. During the Second World War, the Water Tower was used as a navigation landmark along with other local landmarks such as Souter Lighthouse. Wartime Defences A possible example of a rare First World War pillbox can be found on Cleadon Hills built out of shuttered concrete. Two Second World War pillboxes were also constructed on Cleadon Hills to allow placement of machine gun positions overlooking the fields leading from Whitburn to Cleadon. Only one of these remains today, largely obstructed by overgrown foliage. Demography In the 2001 UK Census the population of Cleadon was recorded as 4,795. In the 2011 UK Census, the Cleadon and East Boldon Ward had 8,457 usual residents. The average age of the residents was 45.8, slightly above the average for South Tyneside. The vast majority (96%) of residents identified as white and 96.3% were born in the UK. 98.2% of people had English as a main language spoken in their household. The largest religious group was Christianity (75.8% of residents). The majority of residents (57.1%) were in employment with wholesale and retail trade and health and social work activities being the most common industries for the area. The most common occupation was 'Professional' (13.2%). Governance In the UK national parliament, Cleadon is part of the Jarrow constituency, represented by Labour MP Kate Osborne since 2019. In the 2019 UK general election, Labour won the seat with a 7,120 vote and 17.5% majority. In local government, Cleadon is part of the South Tyneside Council ward of Cleadon and East Boldon. This ward is represented by Conservative Councillors Ian Forster and Stan Wildhirt and Joan Atkinson of the Labour Party. Amenities Shops and pubs The shopping centre of Cleadon runs along Front Street from the A1018 junction to Cleadon House. There are a selection of gift, antique and fashion shops, hairdressers, a One Stop, a pharmacy, and cafes. There are three pubs in Cleadon: the Britannia Inn (part of the Toby Carvery chain), the Cottage Tavern, and The Stables. The Britannia Inn is located on Front Street. It was built in 1894 on the site of the house of the Matthews, a wealthy family who resided in Cleadon. Today, a stone fireplace from the old Matthew house, dated 1675, can be found in the side room of the pub. The car park of the Britannia Inn is the site of a former field between the pub and historic mansion house Cleadon Meadows. The Cottage Tavern is located on North Street. It was built in the latter half of the 19th century, most likely as a beerhouse. The Stables microbrewery was opened in April 2021 on Front Street. Coulthard Park Coulthard Park in central Cleadon was formerly the grounds of Cleadon House. Today it contains a bowling green, play area, tennis courts, and a pavilion. Some large trees, mostly chestnut, and the 18th century grotto survive from the earlier period of the gardens of Cleadon House. It is commemorated by a blue plaque which reads: School Cleadon Church of England Academy is the village primary school. It is the result of an amalgamation of the village Infant and Junior Schools in the early 2000s. A new school building was completed in 2007 to accommodate all pupils. The school gained academy status in 2014 and a nursery was added to the site in 2017. The latest Ofsted inspection in 2011 graded the school as 'outstanding'. In 2019, 74% of pupils at the end of Key Stage 2 met the expected standard in reading, writing and maths. This is above both the local authority average of 66% and the England average of 65%. 21% of pupils at the end of Key Stage 2 at Cleadon Academy achieved at a higher standard in reading, writing and math. This is higher than both the local authority average of 12% and the England average of 11%. Reading and maths progress was average and reading was well above average. Churches All Saints is a C of E church located on Sunderland Road. Until the 19th century, the closest church to Cleadon was in Whitburn. All Saints was built due to a desire from villagers to have a place of worship more close by. Permission was granted by the Bishop of Durham to build the church, and construction was completed in 1869. The design of the Church was by R. J. Johnson. The building contains three chancel windows completed in 1912 which depict the various miracles of Jesus. It also contains a War Memorial window unveiled in 1948, and a colourful window depicting the Good Shepherd. Cleadon Methodist Church is located on Sunderland Road. Before a specific church was constructed, Wesleyan Methodist services were held in Cleadon in a farm cottage owned by John Burdon. Burdon was a friend of John Wesley, who had visited Cleadon in 1743. However, in the 19th century residents of the village wanted a designated Methodist church and a foundation stone was laid in May 1899. Transport Cleadon is situated just on the A1018 road between South Shields and Sunderland. The village is close to the East Boldon Metro station. It is also served by the bus operators Go North East and Stagecoach North East. Notable people Don Revie, footballer and manager. Lived in Cleadon. Carlo Little, rock and roll drummer. Died in Cleadon. Paul Darling, commercial law barrister and current chair of the Horserace Betting Levy Board. Grew up in Cleadon. Bill Travers, actor and animal rights activist. Born in Cleadon. Simon Brown, cricketer. Born in Cleadon. References Notes Citations Bibliography Where an abbreviation is used in the references this is indicated below in (brackets) at the end of the source name. When a source is available online, a link has been included. (CCA) (CVAM) External links South Tyneside Council & Community website – Local council website Cleadon at A Vision of Britain through Time Villages in Tyne and Wear Water towers in the United Kingdom Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Tyne and Wear Metropolitan Borough of South Tyneside
5259161	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Host%20%282006%20film%29	The Host (2006 film)	The Host () is a 2006 South Korean epic monster film directed and co-written by Bong Joon-ho. Starring Song Kang-ho, Byun Hee-bong, Park Hae-il, Bae Doona and Go Ah-sung, it tells the story of a monster that kidnaps a man's daughter, and his attempts to rescue her. In 2000, Bong began conceptualizing a new monster movie inspired by a widely-reported scandal, in which an American commanded his Korean employees to dispose of formaldehyde down a drain, which ended up in the Han River. He proposed the film roughly two years later and started writing the script with Ha Joon-won in 2003; Baek Chul-hyun joined the pair to revise scripting for the film in December 2004. The film was shot on a budget of (), with most sequences filmed on location near the Han River. New Zealand company Wētā Workshop modeled the film's creature and the American studio The Orphanage handled its visual effects. The Host premiered on a record number of screens in its home country on July 27, 2006, and became the highest-grossing South Korean film in history upon its release. The film obtained critical acclaim, grossed US$90 million worldwide, and won several awards, including Best Film at the Asian Film Awards and the Blue Dragon Film Awards. Thus, a sequel and American remake put forward, but neither ultimately ever came to fruition. Plot In 2000, an American military pathologist orders his Korean assistant to dump 200 bottles of formaldehyde down a drain leading into the Han River. Over the next several years, there are sightings of a strange amphibious creature in the waterway, and the fish in the river die off. In 2006, a slow-witted man named Park Gang-du runs a small snack bar in a park near the river with his father, Hee-bong. Other family members are Gang-du's daughter, Hyun-seo; his sister Nam-joo, a national medalist archer; and his brother, Nam-il, an alcoholic college graduate and former political activist. A huge creature emerges from the Han River and begins attacking people leaving many of them dead. Gang-du tries to grab his daughter from the crowd and run, but he realizes he has grabbed the wrong person's hand and sees the creature snatching away Hyun-seo and diving back into the river. After a mass funeral for the victims, government representatives and the American military arrive and quarantine people who had contact with the creature, including Gang-du and his family. It is announced that the creature is the host of a deadly, unknown virus. Gang-du receives a phone call from Hyun-seo. She explains that she is trapped in the sewers with the creature, but her phone stops working. Gang-du and his family escape the hospital and purchase supplies from gangsters in order to search for Hyun-seo. Two homeless boys, Se-jin and Se-joo, after raiding Hee-bong's snack bar for food, are attacked and swallowed by the creature. It returns to its sleeping area in the sewer and regurgitates them, but only Se-joo is alive. Hyun-seo helps Se-joo hide inside a drain pipe where the creature cannot reach them. The Parks encounter the creature and shoot at it until they run out of ammunition. The creature kills Hee-bong due to Gang-du miscalculating the remaining shells in his shotgun when he gives it to Hee-bong. Gang-du is captured by the Army and Nam-il and Nam-joo become separated from each other. Nam-il meets an old friend, Fat Guevara, at an office building to ask for help and learns the government has placed a bounty on his family. Unbeknownst to Nam-il, Fat Guevara has contacted the government so he can claim the bounty, but Nam-il is able to escape after obtaining Hyun-seo's location. Gang-du overhears an American scientist say that there is no virus; it was made up to distract people from the creature's origin. They decided to lobotomize Gang-du to silence him. When she thinks the creature is sleeping, Hyun-seo tries to escape from its lair using a rope she has made from old clothes. The creature awakes and swallows Hyun-seo and Se-joo. Gang-du succeeds in escaping from where he is being held by taking a nurse hostage. Nam-il meets a homeless man who helps him. The government announces a plan to release a toxic chemical called Agent Yellow into the river to attempt to kill the creature. Gang-du finds the creature and sees Hyun-seo's arm dangling out of its mouth. He chases it to the location where Agent Yellow is to be released, coming across Nam-joo along the way. The creature attacks the large crowd that has assembled to protest the chemical dump. Agent Yellow is released, which stuns the creature. Gang-du pulls Hyun-seo out of its mouth, but she is dead, though she is still clutching Se-joo, who is unconscious, but alive. Gang-du, enraged at his daughter's death, attacks the creature, aided by Nam-il, Nam-joo, and the homeless man. They set it on fire and Gang-du impales it with a pole, finally killing it. As they mourn for Hyun-seo, Gang-du revives Se-joo. Some time later, it is seen that Gang-du has inherited his father's snack bar and adopted Se-joo. While watching the river, he hears a noise and picks up a bolt-action rifle to investigate, but finds nothing. He and Se-joo have a meal together, ignoring a news broadcast stating that the aftermath of the incident was due to misinformation. Cast Song Kang-ho as Park Gang-du, a clumsy misfit vendor in his father's shop, who often falls asleep. He is often berated by his family members, and his laziness was caused by lack of protein as a child. However despite being the weakest in his family in terms of wit, he is physically the strongest and easily resists pain. Byun Hee-bong as Park Hee-bong, the father of Gang-du, Nam-il, Nam-joo, and grandfather of Hyun-Seo. He runs the shop near the Han River with Gang-du. Park Hae-il as Park Nam-il, an unemployed university graduate and former political activist. Bae Doona as Park Nam-joo, a national medalist archer, who attempts to use her skills on the monster. Go Ah-sung as Park Hyun-seo, the teenage daughter of Gang-du who is embarrassed by her family, especially her father. According to her grandfather, her birth was an "accident," and her mother ran away afterwards. She is kidnapped by the Gwoemul, prompting the family to search for her. Oh Dal-su as the voice of the Gwoemul, a giant creature mutated by chemicals dumped into the Han River. The Gwoemul attacks any humans that come into its path. Lee Jae-eung as Se-jin, the older homeless brother who attempts to steal food from the Park snack shop. Lee Dong-ho as Se-joo, the younger homeless brother who follows Se-jin and later befriends Hyun-seo. Yoon Je-moon as the homeless man, who helps Nam-il create weapons to battle the monster. Yim Pil-sung as Nam-il's senior, "Fat Guevara" Kim Roi-ha as Yellow 1 (at the funeral) Park No-sik as the inquiry officer Go Soo-hee as the hostage nurse David Joseph Anselmo as Donald White, a U.S. sergeant residing in South Korea with his girlfriend, who helps Gang-du fight the monster when it first emerges from the Han River. Scott Wilson as a U.S. Military doctor, who orders his Korean assistant to dump chemicals into the Han River, creating the Gwoemul. Paul Lazar as an American doctor, who speaks with Gang-du about finding his daughter, and reveals a truth. Brian Lee as a young Korean doctor, assistant to a U.S. Military doctor, who is ordered to dump chemicals into the Han River, and is later seen translating for Gang-du. Production Development In 2000, filmmaker Bong Joon-ho got the idea of creating a monster movie, taking inspiration from a widely-reported scandal, in which an American named Albert McFarland ordered his Korean employees to dispose of formaldehyde down a drain, which ended up in the Han River. He was also reportedly inspired by a local article about a deformed fish with an S-shaped spine caught in the river. Bong proposed the film roughly two years later and started writing the script with Ha Joon-won in 2003; Baek Chul-hyun joined the pair to revise scripting for the film in December 2004. The film was the third feature-length film directed by Bong. Following the positive reaction to his directorial debut, Barking Dogs Never Bite, and the critical acclaim and box-office success of his preceding film, Memories of Murder, The Host was granted a generous production budget of around (just over ), huge by local industry standards. Due to his second film's success, The Host was highly anticipated. Filming Some of the filming took place in the real sewers near the Han River, rather than on a set. The stars and crew were inoculated against tetanus by the medical officer. During filming, the crew had to deal with the effects of changes in weather and ambient temperature. This including the sewage water freezing in cold temperatures, so that it had to be broken up and melted; and during hot and windy periods, the water evaporated and the silt turned to dust, which blew around in the breeze and into the faces of the crew. Special effects The director had to work around the budget-imposed restrictions, especially when it came to special effects. The creature was designed by Chin Wei-chen, the modeling was done by New Zealand-based Weta Workshop and the animatronics were by John Cox's creature Workshop. The CGI for the film was done by The Orphanage, which also did some of the visual effects in The Day After Tomorrow. The monster was designed with some specific characteristics in mind. According to the director himself, the inspiration came from a local article about a deformed fish with an S-shaped spine caught in the Han River. Therefore, the director's wishes were for it to look like an actual mutated fish-like creature, rather than having a more fantastical design. In the opening scenes of the film, two fishermen presumably encounter the creature whilst it is still small enough to fit in one of their cups; suggestive of its humble, more realistic origins. The monster also exhibits frontal limbs similar to amphibians' legs. This element of its design seems to have been more a choice of functionality on the designers' part as the monster needed to be able to run and perform certain acrobatic movements during the film. For a genre film monster, the creature's size is rather small, only about the size of a truck. Also unlike in many other monster-themed films, the creature is fully visible from early on in the film, sometimes for large stretches of time and even in broad daylight, which earned the film critical praise. Political background The film was in part inspired by an incident in 2000, in which a Korean mortician working for the U.S. military in Seoul reported that he was ordered to dump a large amount of formaldehyde down the drain. In addition to environmental concerns, this caused some antagonism toward the United States. In the film, the American military stationed in South Korea is portrayed as uncaring about the effects their activities have on the locals. The chemical agent used by the American military to combat the monster in the end, named "Agent Yellow" in a thinly-veiled reference to Agent Orange, was also used to satirical effect. Director Bong Joon-ho commented on the issue: "It's a stretch to simplify The Host as an anti-American film, but there is certainly a metaphor and political commentary about the U.S." Because of its themes, which can be seen as critical of the United States, the film was lauded by North Korean authorities, a rarity for a South Korean blockbuster film. The film features a satirical portrayal of the South Korean government as bureaucratic, inept, and essentially uncaring. Korean youth protesters are featured satirically in the film, in a mixed way, partially heroic and partially self-righteous and oblivious. According to Bong Joon-ho, the Park Nam-il character is a deliberate anachronism, a reference to South Korea's troubled political history, which involved violent protest. "When you look in terms of this character, it's sort of like the feeling of time going backwards. [...] You could say that he is the image of the college protester back ten years ago; it doesn't exist in the present day." Release The film was released theatrically in Australia on August 17, 2006. During the first half of September 2006, it premiered in Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand and Hong Kong. It received a theatrical release in the United Kingdom on November 10, 2006. This was its first official release outside of film festivals, and outside Asia and Australia. Its American release was March 9, 2007. It was also released in France, Ireland, Sweden, Germany, and Spain, amongst other countries. The Host received screenings on several film festivals. In addition to its opening in Cannes, among the most prominent were the Toronto, Tokyo and New York film festivals. The film swept Korea's Blue Dragon Awards : The Host received five awards, Go Ah-sung took Best New Actress and Byun Hee-bong was awarded Best Supporting Actor. Home media The region-2 UK edition of the film was released on March 5, 2007, while the region-1 US DVD was released on July 24, 2007, in both single-disc and a two-disc collector's edition in DVD, HD-DVD and Blu-ray Disc formats. Reception Box office The Host premiered at the Cannes Film Festival on May 21, 2006 and was released nationally in South Korea on July 27, 2006. Having been heavily promoted and featuring one of the most popular leading actors in the country, Song Kang-ho, the film was released on a record number of screens and made the South Korean record books with its box office performance during its opening weekend. The 2.63 million admissions and box office revenue easily beat the previous records set by Typhoon. The film reached six million viewers on August 6, 2006. In early September, the film became South Korea's all-time box office leader, selling more than 12.3 million tickets in just over a month in a country of 48.5 million. By the end of its run on November 8, the viewing figures came in at 13,019,740. Critical reception The Host received widespread critical acclaim. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 93% based on 155 reviews, with an average rating of 7.7/10. The website's critical consensus states, "As populace pleasing as it is intellectually satisfying, The Host combines scares, laughs, and satire into a riveting, monster movie." In addition, it was ranked one of the top films of 2007 on Metacritic, with a score of 85 out of 100 based on 35 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". The French film magazine Cahiers du cinéma ranked the film as 3rd place in its list of best films of the year 2006 and 4th for the 2000–2009 decade. The Japanese film magazine Kinema Junpo selected it as one of the top 10 best foreign films of the year 2006. (Flags of Our Fathers won the best foreign film of the year 2006.) Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote "The Host is a loopy, feverishly imaginative genre hybrid about the demons that haunt us from without and within." In 2009, filmmaker Quentin Tarantino included it in his list of top 20 films released since 1992 (the year he became a director). The film was also listed at #81 on Empires list of The 100 Best Films of World Cinema. Top ten lists The film appeared on several critics' top ten lists of the best films of 2007. 2nd - Ella Taylor, LA Weekly (tied with Manufactured Landscapes) 2nd - V.A. Musetto, New York Post 4th - Dana Stevens, Slate 5th - Marc Mohan, The Oregonian 5th - Mike Russell, The Oregonian 7th - Desson Thomson, The Washington Post 9th - Wesley Morris, The Boston Globe Accolades Legacy Unproduced sequel In June 2007, it was announced that a follow-up to the film, entitled The Host 2 (), was in progress, with a different director. The following year, the budget for The Host 2 was announced at close to , and would be based on a script by webcomic artist Kang Full. Test footage for The Host 2, featuring famed actor Kwak Do-won, debuted at the Tokyo International Film Festival in 2010 and the projected release date of summer 2012 was announced. At this time, The Hollywood Reporter stated that the screenplay was "currently under last-minute revision". In November 2014, OBS reported that casting for The Host 2 had recently begun and principal photography was expected to begin in 2015 under the direction of Park Myung-Chun as a Chinese-Korean co-production, with it intended to be released in 2016. In 2019, South Korean film magazine Cine21 declared that The Host 2 was "completely canceled". Proposed remake In November 2008, it was announced that Universal Studios would be remaking The Host with Gore Verbinski producing, Mark Poirier writing the script, and first-time director Fredrik Bond directing the film. The film was set for a 2011 release. However, the production has remained in so-called "development hell". Proposed video game Twitch Film announced on November 3, 2009 that a video game was planned, to be released as a multi-platform first-person shooter. As of April 2021, no game had been released and it is assumed to be vaporware. References Further reading - master's degree thesis External links The Host: Creepie Korean Creatures at Animation World Network The Language Barrier and the Beast at The Culturatti Podcast: Bong Joon-Ho Discusses The Host with The Korea Society 2006 films 2006 horror films 2000s monster movies 2006 science fiction films South Korean horror films South Korean science fiction horror films Japanese horror films Japanese science fiction horror films 2000s science fiction horror films Giant monster films Films set in Seoul Films shot in Seoul Films directed by Bong Joon-ho Films with screenplays by Bong Joon-ho Kaiju films Asian Film Award for Best Film winners Best Picture Blue Dragon Film Award winners Chungeorahm Films films Showbox films 2000s Korean-language films 2000s English-language films Films set in 2000 Films set in 2002 Films set in 2006 Films about dysfunctional families 2006 multilingual films South Korean multilingual films Japanese multilingual films English-language South Korean films English-language Japanese films 2000s Japanese films 2000s South Korean films
5259279	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children%27s%20geographies	Children's geographies	Children's geographies is an area of study within human geography and childhood studies which involves researching the places and spaces of children's lives. Context Children's geographies is the branch of human geography which deals with the study of places and spaces of children's lives, characterised experientially, politically and ethically. Ever since the cultural turn in geography, there has been recognition that society is not homogenous but heterogeneous. It is characterized by diversity, differences and subjectivities. While feminist geographers had been able to strengthen the need for examination of gender, class and race as issues affecting women, 'children' as an umbrella term encompassing children, teenagers, youths and young people, which are still relatively missing a 'frame of reference' in the complexities of 'geographies'. In the act of theorizing children and their geographies, the ways of doing research and the assumed ontological realities often "frame 'children' and 'adults' in ways that impose a bi-polar, hierarchical, and developmental model". This reproduces and enforces the hegemony of adult-centered discourses of children within knowledge production. Children's geographies has developed in academic human geography since the beginning of the 1990s, although there were notable studies in the area before that date. The earliest work done on children's geographies largely can be traced to William Bunge's work on spatial oppression of children in Detroit and Toronto where children are deemed as the ones who suffer the most under an oppressing adult framework of social, cultural and political forces controlling the urban built environment. This development emerged from the realisation that previously human geography had largely ignored the everyday lives of children, who (obviously) form a significant section of society, and who have specific needs and capacities, and who may experience the world in very different ways. Thus children's geographies can in part be seen in parallel to an interest in gender in geography and feminist geography in so much as their starting points were the gender blindness of mainstream academic geography. Children's geographies also shares many of the underpinning principles of Childhood Studies (and the so-called New Social Studies of Childhood) and Sociology of the family - namely, that childhood is a social construction and that scholars should pay greater attention to children's voices and agency, although recent 'new wave' scholarship has challenged these principles (Kraftl, 2013) Children's geographies rests on the idea that children as a social group share certain characteristics which are experientially, politically and ethically significant and which are worthy of study. The pluralisation in the title is intended to imply that children's lives will be markedly different in differing times and places and in differing circumstances such as gender, family, and class. The current developments in children's geographies are attempting to link the frame of analysing children's geographies to one that requires multiple perspectives and the willingness to acknowledge the 'multiplicity' of their geographies. Children's geographies is sometimes coupled with, and yet distinguished from the geographies of childhood. The former has an interest in the everyday lives of children; the latter has an interest in how (adult) society conceives of the very idea of childhood and how this impinges on children's lives in many ways. This includes imaginations about the nature of children and the related (spatial) implications. In an early article, Holloway and Valentine termed these 'spatial discourses' Children's geographies can be observed through the various lenses provided by foci, thus the plurality inspired by post-modern and post-structural social geographers (Panelli, 2009). These foci include, but are not limited to: the history of its emergence (key authors and texts), the nature of the child (geographical concepts, family contexts, society contexts, gender variation, aged-based variation, cultural variation), children in the environment (home, school, play, neighbourhood, street, city, country, landscapes of consumption, cyberspace), designing environments for children (children as planners, utopian visions), environmental hazards (traffic, health and environment, accidents), indirect experience of place (not medium specific, literature, T.V. and cyberspace), social issues (children's fears, parent's fears for their children, poverty and deprivation, work, migration, social hazards, crime and deviance), citizenship and agency (environmental action, local politics, interest in the environment), and children's geographical knowledge (environmental cognition, understanding the physical environment) (McKendrick, 2000). Also, the methodologies of researching children's worlds and the ethics of doing so has been distinguished by the otherness of childhood. There is now a journal dedicated to work in the subdiscipline: Children's Geographies which will give readers a good idea of the growing range of issues, theories and methodologies of this developing and vibrant sub-discipline. Another relevant journal is Children, Youth and Environments, published as an interdisciplinary tri-annual with a worldwide readership. Theoretical trends in children's geographies For some years, critics argued that scholarship in children's geographies was characterised by a lack of theoretical diversity and 'block politics'. However, since the mid-2000s, the subdiscipline has seen a proliferation and diversification of theoretical work away from the social constructivist principles of childhood studies and the New Social Studies of Childhood. A major, influential trend has been the development of Non-representational theory by children's geographers, and especially scholars such as Peter Kraftl, John Horton, Matej Blazek, Veronica Pacini-Ketchabaw, Affrica Taylor, Pauliina Rautio and Kim Kullman. This work shares many theoretical influences with a so-called 'new wave' of childhood studies, and especially the influence of poststructural, new materialist and feminist theorists such as Gilles Deleuze, Rosi Braidotti, Donna Haraway and Jane Bennett (political theorist). For instance, in a series of articles, John Horton and Peter Kraftl have challenged a sense of 'what matters' in scholarship with children - from the material objects, emotions and affects that characterise 'participation' to the ways in which our embodied engagements with place in childhood are carried forward into adulthood, thereby scrambling any neat notion of 'transition' from childhood to adulthood. Elsewhere, Veronica Pacini-Ketchabaw and Affrica Taylor have developed innovative approaches to understanding the 'common worlds' of children and a range of nonhuman species, including both domestic and 'wild' animals. Their vibrant 'common worlds' research collective brings together a range of scholars who seek to explore how children's lives are entangled with those of nonhumans in ways that challenge oppressive, colonial and/or neoliberal views of the human as an individuated subject somehow distanced from 'nature'. Recently, there has been vibrant debate about the political value of nonrepresentational approaches to childhood. Some scholars argue that nonrepresentational theories encourage a focus upon the banal, everyday, ephemeral and small-scale at the expense of understanding and critically interrogating wider-scaled and longer-standing processes of marginalisation. Others argue that, whilst valid, nonrepresentational and 'new wave' approaches extend beyond the small-scale, offering useful and in some cases fundamental ways to critically and creatively re-think the ways that we do research with children and their 'common worlds'. A second key conceptual trend has been in work on Subjectivity, children's Political geography and emotion. For instance, Louise Holt (2013) uses the work of Judith Butler to critically examine the emergence of the infant as a 'subject' through power relations that are often gendered, as well as infanthood is a stage in the lifecourse that is subject to particular kinds of social construction. Elsewhere, there has been a surge in interest in children's political geographies, which has to some extent been informed both by developments in nonrepresentational theory and in theories of subjectivity. Central to this scholarship (especially in the work of Tracey Skelton, Kirsi Pauliina Kallio and Jouni Hakli) has been a move beyond a traditional concern with children's participation in decision-making processes to highlight the range of ways in which they may be 'political' - from 'micropolitical' engagements with ethnic or social in the school or the street to critical considerations of major policy documents such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Louise Holt's work on subjectivity also connects with a wider, ongoing interest in the Emotional geography of childhood and youth (Bartos, 2012, Blazek, 2013), which, although overlapping with interests in nonrepresentational children's geographies, also has its roots in feminist theory. Notably, such approaches informed seminal texts that were important to the early development of children's geographies, particularly in Sarah Holloway's work on parenting and local childcare cultures. More recently, there has been a reinvigoration of interest in parenting, some of which has driven theorisations of the emotions that characterise the intimacy of parent/carer-child relationships - especially where these are cut across by policies designed to intervene into the spaces of parenting. This work has therefore been crucial in linking together the apparently small-scale concerns of intimate family life with 'bigger' concerns such as Government policy-making and school-based interventions. Children in the environment Since the age range assumed to constitute as childhood is quite vague within the cumulative research of children's geographies it is evident the multitude of environments they experience will be quite broad. The array of spaces and places experienced by children includes, but are not restricted to, homes, schools, playgrounds, neighbourhoods, streets, cities, countries, landscapes of consumption, and cyberspace. As environment has been noted by a multitude of social geographers to entail a socio-spatial aspect, it is important to note that over time the recognition of the multiplicity of the term “environment” has both diverged and converged as social geography has evolved (Valentine, 2001; Bowlby, 2001). Children at school Although schools are such a relatively large institution in society, it has been noted that this environment has received little recognition in comparison to institutions of health (Collins and Coleman, 2008). Collins and Coleman also note the centrality of schools in everyday life as they are “found in almost every urban and suburban neighbourhood” and most children experience a considerable time within this environment in their day-to-day lives. The role of this environment in a child's life is pivotal to their development, especially in respects to the inclusionary and exclusionary processes of society experienced firsthand in schools (MacCrae, Maguire and Milbourne, 2002). The manifestation of social exclusion as bullying is an inter-personal socio-spatial aspect whose implications have been extensively researched both within school boundaries and how it is enabled by technology (Olweus and Limber, 2010; Black, Washington, Trent, Harner and Pollock, 2009). School, therefore, is not only a place where children learn quantifiable subjects, but also a learning ground of life interaction skills needed later on. Research in children's geographies has been central to the development of scholarship on 'geographies of education'. For many commentators, this work - which spans Social geography, Cultural geography, Political geography and Urban geography - does not (yet) constitute an identifiable subdiscipline of human geography. However, geographers have held an enduring concern with education spaces, extending to and beyond school, as Collins and Coleman identify. This work has burgeoned in recent years, with a number of special issues dedicated to education and emotion, embodiment and the cultural geographies of education. Yet, as Holloway et al. (2010) argue, the role and significance of children, young people and families has been underplayed in debate on geographies of education. As they argue, children's geographers have not only undertaken a huge range of research in schools, but that work has been central in developing geographers' understandings of both education spaces more widely, and schools in particular. As an institution Although schools are a relatively large institution in society, it has been noted that this environment has received little recognition in comparison to institutions of health (Collins and Coleman, 2008). Collins and Coleman also note the centrality of schools in everyday life as they are “found in almost every urban and suburban neighbourhood” and most children experience a considerable time within this environment in their day-to-day lives. The implications of home schooling have largely been a field of assumptions, taking after common myths (Romanowki, 2010), although later work by geographers has examined in considerable detail the significance of space, place, emotion and materiality to the experiences of homeschoolers. The variance between public and private sector institutions and the implications of social status of children within the school community has also been a contentious field (Nissan and Carter, 2010). Whilst the majority of research by children's and youth geographers on education has focussed on institutions like schools and universities, that work has been challenged in a number of ways by scholarship on the geographies of alternative education. Examining a diverse range of non-State-funded, explicitly 'alternative' education spaces in the UK (like Homeschooling, Waldorf education, Montessori education, Forest school (learning style) and Care farming), Peter Kraftl examines the connections and disconnections between 'mainstream' and 'alternative' education sectors. Drawing on nonrepresentational children's geographies, Peter Kraftl explores how alternative educators work to intervene into children's bodily habits, how they create spaces in which mess and disorder are valorised, and how they work with conceptions of 'nature' that both resonate with and, critically, counter mainstream assumptions about children's disengagement with 'nature' in Western societies (see Nature deficit disorder). In doing so, alternative educators are attempting to create 'alter-childhoods' - alternative constructions, imaginations and ways of treating childhood that are knowingly different from a perceived mainstream. Relevance to social interactions As children grow they look to the influential adults in their lives for guidance (parents, caregivers and teachers). Most researchers and adults alike agree that communication is key to healthy child development across all modal environments, especially within schools (Lasky, 2000; Hargreaves, 2000; Hargreaves and Fullan, 1998; Hargreaves and Lasky, 2004). Lasky's focus remains on the cultural and emotional dynamic between teachers and the parents of their students. Where as Hargreaves continuously exemplifies through his data the significant improvement in child performance at school because of an equal power-play communication between teachers and parents/caregivers. Where there may be a lack of influential adults, children may look to older age groups within the school environment to observe acceptable behaviours and attention seeking behaviours. Research has begun to display the components of the “high quality experience” provided by controlled school-based mentoring relationships (Ahrens et al. 2011). However, other research disputes that the experience is as helpful as it claims to be, suggesting child-mentoring situations often fall short or are only temporarily beneficial (Spencer, 2007; Pryce, 2012). Pryce's research highlights the attunement of the mentor to the other's needs highly dictates the beneficial nature of the mentor relationship. Relevance of technology The introduction of technology into children's lives has provided a new platform upon which the school environment is no longer contained within a space. The place's previous temporal and geographical constrictions have been mobilized by the used of the Internet. The outcomes of this mobilization have both been constructive and destructive in the availability of material to learning children (Sancho, 2004) and more extrapersonal interactions among children. The educational benefit of I.C.T. (Interactive Computer Technology) in the classroom has been a subject supported by various researchers (Aviram and Talmi, 2004). Relevance to the creation of social identities The school is an institution in which children observe one another and experiment continuously with their self-image (Hernandez, 2004). Hernandez's research recognized a need to recognize children as individuals, and to incorporate their “personal maps” into the educational process, so the gap between the school environment and external environment does not elevate dangerously. The centrality of schools to social geography is pivotal. Public institutions in Canada and the USA were defined as “nation-building institutions, which sought to create common citizens from ethnically, linguistically and religiously diverse populations” (Moore, 2000; Sweet, 1997). The connection between nation-building and public education has held the view that schools shape the knowledge and identities of children (Collins and Coleman, 2008). Whether the connection is seen to create negative, destructive social norms or positive, construction of progressive values is dependent “on one’s broader political/moral compass” (Collins, 2006; Hunter 1991). See also Children's culture Children's street culture Cultural geography Feminist geography Home zone Student transport References Childhood Human geography
5259694	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stetson%20University%20College%20of%20Law	Stetson University College of Law	Stetson University College of Law (Stetson Law), founded in 1900 and part of Stetson University, is Florida's first law school. Originally located near the university's main campus in DeLand, Florida, the law school moved in 1954 to Gulfport, Florida. The law school occupies a historic 1920s resort hotel, the Rolyat Hotel, designed by Richard Kiehnel. The College of Law is accredited by the American Bar Association and has been a member of the Association of American Law Schools since 1931. The college also has a campus in Tampa, Florida that shares space with a working court, Florida's Second District Court of Appeal. Academics Stetson Law currently employs more than 40 full-time faculty members and has more than 900 students enrolled in its Juris Doctor (J.D.) program. The J.D. program offers six concentrations: Advocacy, Business Law, Elder Law, Environmental Law, International Law, and Social Justice Advocacy. Stetson also offers advanced legal degrees, including a Master of Laws (LL.M.) with three concentrations: Advocacy, Elder Law and International Law. The law school also offers a Master of Jurisprudence (M.Jur.) with three concentrations: Aging, Law and Policy; Healthcare Compliance; and International and Comparative Business Law. The J.D. degree may be combined with an LL.M or a Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.) with the Stetson University School of Business Administration. The J.D. degree may also be combined with an exchange program: an LL.M. in Exchange in Ireland/England with the University College Dublin Sutherland School of Law, a Master in International Economic Law (MINTEC) with Toulouse University or a Master in International and European Business Law (M.I.E.B.L.) with Comillas Pontifical University. The school is home to several institutes, centers, programs, and initiatives, including the National Clearinghouse for Science, Technology and the Law; Centers for Excellence in Advocacy, Elder Law and Higher Education Law and Policy; and Institutes for Caribbean Law and Policy and Biodiversity Law and Policy. Clinics Stetson Law is one of few U.S. law schools that guarantees a clinic or externship for every student. More than 300 clinic and externship opportunities are available to students each year. Publications The Stetson Law Review was the headquarters for the National Conference of Law Reviews from 2003 to 2008. The Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy and the Journal of International Aging Law and Policy are produced in conjunction with the school. Rankings Stetson University is nationally ranked 84th among law schools by U.S. News & World Report. Among specialty rankings, the school ranked first in trial advocacy and third in legal writing. Stetson had a 74.4 percent first-time Bar passage rate for takers of the October 2020 Florida Bar Examination. 77.6 percent passed the July 2019 exam, 67.2 percent passed the July 2018 exam and 76.8 percent passed the July 2017 exam. Competitions Since 1980, Stetson Law has won five world championships, 79 national championships, 97 regional championships, 53 state championships, 61 brief awards, 176 brief oralist/advocate awards and six professionalism awards. As of 2021, Stetson Law has won The Florida Bar Trial Lawyers Section of the Chester Bedell Mock Trial Competition 25 times in 38 years. Stetson Law was the first-ever American Bar Association (ABA) Competitions Champion in 2018 and earned the title for a second time in 2021. Stetson Law won The Florida Bar Foundation 2021 Florida Pro Bono Law School Challenge. Law libraries In order to obtain, and maintain, accreditation through the American Bar Association (ABA), law schools must meet certain standards set by the ABA. The Council and Accreditation Committee of the American Bar Association (ABA) Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar is the accrediting agency for law schools. Among the standards evaluated is the requirement that law schools have a law library. The standards also establish the requirements relative to the administration of the law library, the law library director, personnel, services, and the collection the library shall hold. As such, Stetson University College of Law maintains a main library on the Gulfport campus—the Dolly and Homer Hand Law Library—and a satellite library at the Tampa Law Center. History of Stetson's law libraries As the Board of Trustees authorized the establishment of the Stetson University College of Law in 1899, creating a law library immediately became a concern. To create a core collection for the law library, book and monetary donations were sought and obtained from Florida attorneys. By its opening in October 1900, the College of Law had a law library and the 1901 annual report indicated that the library donation goals had been met. Upon the law school's move from DeLand to Gulfport in 1954, the library collection also had to be moved. The new house for the law library consisted of "several small cubicles" and at the time "all the law books 'fit into one moving van.'" The collection contained less than 18,000 books. In 1955, an anonymous donor pledged $250,000 to assist in paying for the creation of a new law library and classroom building. Within one year, the law school was able to raise the money to match the anonymous donation and met its $750,000 goal. It became known that the anonymous donor was Charles A. Dana and the Charles A. Dana Foundation. Construction on the new Charles A. Dana Library began in 1957. Students and staff transferred the small law library collection from the original location on the Gulfport campus to the new library in less than thirty minutes. This new library included space to expand the collection (housing for 70,000 volumes) and study space for 100 students. In 1958, the Charles A. Dana Law Library opened. The dedication of the library, made in the presence of Charles A. Dana, included a convocation by Florida's Governor, LeRoy Collins. The Charles A. Dana Foundation provided a gift in 1971 for the purpose of doubling the law library's size. The school completed the expansion in 1973 and provided space for 275 students and 160,000 volumes. During this time, the Charles A. Dana Library also became "the first law library in Florida to be a depositary for Federal Government documents." By 1981, the library's collection contained more than 165,182 volumes. By the mid-1990s, Stetson University College of Law "had been put on notice years earlier that its library was on shaky grounds regarding ABA requirements, and that the problems were of such magnitude that a new structure might have to be built." Some individuals did not believe a new library was warranted as they doubted the future of libraries, but Dean Moody proceeded with the planning stated by her predecessor Dean Bruce Jacob, Emeritus Law Librarian Lamar Woodard, and architect Canerday. In 1998, the new facility, named Stetson Law Library and Information Center, was completed. The new facility provided 58,000 square feet and had ample accommodation for the current collection (350,000 volumes), as well as "government documents, and other traditional resource materials." United States Supreme Court Associate Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg spoke at the new library's dedication on September 5, 1998. C-Span provided video coverage of Justice Ginsburg's speech. In 2004, Stetson University College of Law opened its Tampa Law Center with a satellite library. In 2010, Stetson University College of Law renamed the Stetson Law Library and Information Center for philanthropists Frances R. "Dolly" and Homer Hand. The renaming occurred as part of the College of Law's celebration of its 110 years in existence. Dolly Hand spoke at the naming ceremony, which was captured on video. Dolly and Homer Hand Law Library The Dolly and Homer Hand Law Library is situated on the Gulfport campus. When constructed in the late 1990s, the new library was built in the Mediterranean Revival design style to maintain consistency with the style of the buildings comprising the Gulfport campus, which were originally the Rolyat Hotel. Located across the street from the original campus buildings, the Dolly and Homer Hand Law Library contains a collection of approximately 400,000 volumes. The current collection "is above the median size of academic law libraries in the United States." The three-story building offers Internet access, 35 study rooms (ranging in size), and more than 600 seats at individual carrels, tables, and lounge areas. The library provides services for students, faculty, staff, alumni, attorneys, and the public. Students have 24/7 access to the Dolly and Homer Hand Law Library through use of their swipe cards. The law library employs six professional librarians and seven additional staff members, including the Systems Administrator and members of the Access Management & Services Team. In addition to its traditional collection of statutes, case reporters, journals, and treatises (both physical and electronic access), the Dolly and Homer Hand Law Library and its librarians also provide LibGuides on a variety of topics, tutorials on researching a variety of sources and using electronic databases, and digital archives including the Harold L. Sebring Collection, the Florida Military Academy Collection and the Hotel Rolyat Collection. Housed within the Dolly and Homer Hand Law Library is a physical archive with artifacts relevant to both university and property history. This collection includes the physical copies of the Harold L. Sebring collection including his personal papers and records as a medical case judge in the Nuremberg War Trials. Tampa Law Center Satellite Library Situated near downtown Tampa, the satellite library has two floors consisting of approximately 200 seats and 15 study rooms. The satellite library provides a core collection of materials and Internet access. The satellite library also provides services to students, faculty, staff, alumni, attorneys, and the public; however, such services are available subject to more limited hours of operation. Employment The 2020 ABA employment summary report shows the employment status of 2020 graduates. Costs The estimated total cost of attendance (including tuition, fees, and living expenses) at Stetson University College of Law for the 2020–2021 academic year is $70,592. Diversity and inclusion Stetson Law received the 2020 Higher Education Excellence in Diversity (HEED) Award from INSIGHT Into Diversity magazine, the largest magazine centered on diversity in higher education. The HEED Award recognizes U.S. colleges and universities for outstanding commitment to diversity and inclusion. As of 2020, Stetson Law and the 11 other Florida law schools formed the Florida Law Schools’ Consortium for Racial Justice (FLSCRJ). This collective will leverage each school's strengths and educational roles to assist community organizations fighting for racial justice and policy reform throughout Florida. Stetson Law is one of the four co-founding higher education institutions of the St. Petersburg Higher Education Consortium for Racial Justice. The other three consortium institutions are Eckerd College, St. Petersburg College and the University of South Florida St. Petersburg. The consortium serves 36,000 students in St. Petersburg, Florida, and focuses on dismantling racial hierarchies. Recognized for their efforts, the consortium and 78 institutions nationwide were invited to the 2021 American Association of Colleges and Universities Institute on Truth, Racial Healing and Transformation (TRHT) to learn about the TRHT framework and develop an action plan. In 2021, Stetson Law launched a youth civic education program aimed at teaching underrepresented teens in Pinellas County how to be advocates for themselves and others. Notable faculty Bruce Jacob (see alumni) Cary D. Landis – 25th Florida Attorney General, (1931–1938) Ellen Podgor – expert on white-collar crime Harold Sebring – former chief justice of the Florida Supreme Court; a judge at the Nuremberg War Trials; Dean of Stetson Law (1955–1968) Bradford Stone, commercial law maven, and theorist, Stetson University College of Law Charles A. Dana Professor of Law Emeritus, author of several editions of Uniform Commercial Code in a Nutshell and coauthor of Commercial Transactions Under the Uniform Commercial Code. Michèle Alexandre – first Black female dean of Stetson Law Ciara Torres-Spelliscy – nationally recognized expert and author on election law and politics Louis J. Virelli III – nationally recognized expert and author in constitutional law Rebecca C. Morgan – nationally recognized expert in elder law Peter F. Lake – nationally recognized expert on higher education Luz Estella Nagle – internationally recognized expert in international law, first tenured Hispanic law professor at Stetson Law Dorothea Beane – professor emeritus, first tenured African-American female professor of law at Stetson Law, co-founder of the Institute for Caribbean Law and Policy, founder of Stetson Law’s study abroad program at The Hague Notable alumni John Cosgrove – Florida House of Representatives (198?-199?) Gus Bilirakis (1989) – Florida House of Representatives (1998); United States House of Representatives (2006) Pam Bondi (1990) – Attorney General of Florida Susan C. Bucklew (1977) – District Judge for the US District Court for the Middle District of Florida Edward Cowart (1952) – Dade County circuit court judge who presided over the Ted Bundy case Craig Crawford (1981) – television political commentator, writer, and columnist for the Congressional Quarterly Richard E. Doran (1981) – Attorney General of Florida while Jeb Bush was Governor David W. Dyer (1933) – United States District Judge for the Southern District of Florida; Judge for the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit; Judge for the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit Roy Geiger (1907) – United States Marine Corps General; during World War II, became the first Marine to lead an army Bob Gualtieri (2002) – sheriff of Pinellas County, Florida Joe Hendricks (1934) – United States House of Representatives (1937-1949) Carol W. Hunstein (1976) – Chief Justice of the Georgia Supreme Court Bruce Jacob (1959) – Florida Assistant Attorney General during the early 1960s and argued the case for the respondent, Louis Wainwright, the losing party in the landmark case Gideon v. Wainwright Craig T. James (1967) – United States House of Representatives (1989-1993) Frederick B. Karl (1949) – Florida Supreme Court Justice Elizabeth A. Kovachevich (1961) – District Judge for the US District Court for the Middle District of Florida Carl M. Kuttler Jr. (1965) – President of St. Petersburg College, 1978–2009 Michael William Lebron – Radio broadcaster, "Lionel" Kenneth Marra (1977) – Federal judge, United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida Rich McKay (1984) – President and general manager of the Atlanta Falcons (2004) E. Clay Shaw Jr. (1966) – represented South Florida in the U.S. House of Representatives (1981-2007) David Sholtz (1914) – twenty-sixth Governor of Florida (1933-1937) James C. Smith (1967) – Attorney General of Florida Roy Speer – co-founder of the Home Shopping Network Louie Willard Strum (1912) – Florida Supreme Court Justice Elwyn Thomas (1915) – Florida Supreme Court Justice Matt Towery (1987) – national political analyst and pollster, television commentator, syndicated columnist, author, publisher, and attorney James D. Whittemore (1977) – District Judge for the US District Court for the Middle District of Florida Ashley Moody (2003) – Attorney General of Florida Emmett Wilson (1904) – United States House of Representatives (1913-1917) Chris Sprowls (2009) – Speaker of the Florida House of Representatives (2020-2022) Dean Trantalis (1979) – mayor of Ft. Lauderdale, Florida (2018–present) Vacharaesorn Vivacharawongse, member of Thai Royal Family References Further reading Florida's First Law School: History of Stetson University College of Law (2006) by Michael I. Swygert provides a detailed history of the school covering its founding, development, and growth. . External links ABA-accredited law schools in Florida Education in Pinellas County, Florida Stetson University Universities and colleges established in 1900 Buildings and structures in Pinellas County, Florida 1900 establishments in Florida
5259813	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clint%20Lowery	Clint Lowery	Clint Lowery (born December 15, 1971) is an American musician, songwriter and producer, best known as the lead guitarist and backing vocalist of the rock band Sevendust. He has also played in Dark New Day and Still Rain, and served as the touring guitarist for Korn and Seether through most of 2007 and 2017, respectively. In 2008, he decided to work on new music as a solo artist, and the name of the project was titled Hello Demons Meet Skeletons. Lowery wrote and recorded a six-song EP while off the road with Sevendust, just for a week. He played every instrument on the CD, which was produced by his brother Corey Lowery. The EP, Chills, was released in October, followed by a tour at the same month. He would also later release two more EPs with HDMS. Also his fourth and last EP, Choices, was released in 2013. In summer of 2012, Lowery went on to form a band, Call Me No One, as lead vocalist and guitarist alongside Sevendust bandmate Morgan Rose. Their first album was released in June 2012, titled Last Parade. He unveiled a signature guitar for Paul Reed Smith, the PRS SE Clint Lowery in June 2013. Career Still Rain In 1989, Lowery alongside vocalist Donnie Hamby, guitarist Troy McLawhorn, bassist Corey Lowery and drummer Bevan Davies started a new band called Still Rain. Lowery with the band played everywhere from Daytona to Atlanta to Louisville, Kentucky. Even as far north as Grand Rapids, Michigan, at Club Eastbrook. The band averaged 300 shows per year. Mixing multiple sets of covers with their own original music. Doing this, they built up quite a big following. After doing this for a few years, they decided to go all original, producing their first album (they had done tapes before, which sold out quickly) called Still Rain. A second album, Bitter Black Water, soon followed. Sevendust After Still Rain, Lowery joined American heavy metal band Sevendust as a lead guitarist, quite different from previous band's style and sound. They released their first studio album titled Sevendust, On April 15, 1997. In 1998, they released a compilation called Live and Loud, which featured live footage of the band's September 16, 1998 performance at Chicago's Metro. In 1999, they released their second studio album Home, which had four singles and had good chart performance in mainstream and modern rock charts which were better than first album's singles chart. He performed with the band at Woodstock '99, and also they gained European exposure by opening for Skunk Anansie at various shows in Germany. They opened with Kid Rock and Ted Nugent for Metallica on New Year's Eve in 1999 at the Pontiac Silverdome near Detroit, Michigan. They also joined Slipknot, Coal Chamber and other bands on the Tattoo the Earth Tour in June 2000. In 2001, Sevendust released new album Animosity. In 2003, Sevendust returned with their fourth album, Seasons. This was one of the band's best received albums and to-date features their highest-charting single (tied with "Driven"), "Enemy", which peaked at #10 on the Mainstream Rock Chart. "Enemy", was also used as the official theme song for "Unforgiven (2003)". In 2004, for the first time in the band's career, they released a live album on a CD–DVD double-disk package titled Southside Double-Wide: Acoustic Live, includes a tribute cover of "Hurt" by Nine Inch Nails. Lowery left Sevendust to join the post-grunge band Dark New Day. However, Lowery returned to Sevendust in the spring of 2008 and recorded 8th album titled Cold Day Memory. "I didn't want to come back and have people say, 'Oh, it's not as good as it was,' " Lowery said. "There was definitely a need to go up another notch, and I hope we did." In September 2012, it was announced that Sevendust would go to studio to record its ninth album for an early 2013 release. The band most recent studio album Blood & Stone, was released on October 23, 2020. Dark New Day On December 11, 2004, after playing a Sevendust show in Columbus, Ohio, it was announced that Lowery had left the band mid-tour, because he wanted to play with his brother Corey Lowery in his new band Dark New Day, who had reportedly just signed with Warner Bros. records. Guitarist J3, formerly of Tommy Lee, was hired temporarily to fill in for the rest of the dates, and was eventually replaced by Sonny Mayo (from Snot and Amen). On June 14, 2005, the band released their first album, Twelve Year Silence through Warner Bros. Records. The first single from the effort, "Brother", was a surprise hit on active and alternative stations, although the follow-up, "Pieces", did not fare nearly as well. On September 5, 2006, Dark New Day released an EP through iTunes called Black Porch (Acoustic Sessions), which features new tracks "Breakdown" and "Storm" as well as acoustic versions of some of the songs from Twelve Year Silence. The only single that was released, was the acoustic version of "Follow The Sun Down". In September 2007, Lowery posted on Dark New Day's MySpace page saying that the band returned to the studio to record their next album with producer Dave Bendeth. On February 7, 2009, after months of no word on the album, he posted a blog entry stating the likely possibility that the second album will never be released. He did say that there was a chance of it getting released on iTunes but no word of when. However, on September 1, via Twitter he posted, "Cool, 2 new complete dnd records will be available on iTunes and other digital stores soon. Some real cool unreleased material. Stay tuned!." This was followed by another message by Lowery a day later stating "FYI- Dark new day "hail Mary" and "B-sides" albums should be available next week on iTunes etc. if all goes well. Was a long time coming." Dark New Day albums 'Hail Mary' and 'B-Sides' are now available on iTunes. Also, the band rerecorded some of the material and released "New Tradition" in 2012. Regarding the future of the band, Lowery stated that he didn't know what shape the band was in but that it was most likely on permanent hiatus. Korn In 2007, Lowery toured with Korn as their live guitarist for 8 months until he left in October 2007. Lowery made his debut with the band on March 1, 2007, when the band made its first appearance ever on NBC's "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno". Following his arrest due to damaging his hotel room, Lowery was forced to leave Korn one month earlier than anticipated. He was replaced by Shane Gibson. On March 26, 2008, he announced that he had rejoined Sevendust. In a blog stated on the band's MySpace, Will Hunt announced that he would be happy to have Lowery join Dark New Day for any shows in the near future during time off. Solo works In September 2008, Lowery wrote and recorded a six-song EP while off the road with Sevendust for a week. He played every instrument on the CD, which was produced by Corey Lowery, at Exocet Studios, under name of "Hello Demons Meet Skeletons". According to Lowery's personal website, Hello Demons Meet Skeletons was a phrase used to described what happened to a life when all the demons in someone's life came head to head with the skeletons one can accumulate in life. This project was created to unload the demons and skeletons in Lowery's life. A way to lyrically touch on subjects that needed to be touched on in order to move forward with his life and leave the past behind without completely forgetting it. He wanted to play everything himself and sing everything himself because it's a very personal project. He had time off between tours with Sevendust and thought he would take that time to get this out of his system. The EP Chills has 6 songs. His brother Corey Lowery produced, engineered and mixed it for him. It was released over iTunes on October 12, 2008. As of 2009, Lowrey's side project remained on hiatus. However, in May 2010, he released a solo track titled "The Drive" to iTunes. Lowery also released another new solo song titled "Kicking Tree" to iTunes. On May 23, 2010, he released an old song titled "Bitter" to iTunes. Lowery's new EP titled "Words That Sing Well", which was mixed at Architekt Music in Butler, NJ, was released on April 19, 2011, to iTunes and other digital outlets. In June 2011, he tweeted about working on a new EP which subsequently would be released as "Uncomfortable Silence", on August 22, 2011. He said this will be the last HDMS for a while. On June 30, 2013, Lowery wrote on his website about entering studio to record 6 acoustic songs. On June 6, he said that this will be the last record under name of Hello Demons Meet Skeletons and he wants to end this musical project. The EP is recorded at Architekt Music studios in Butler, New Jersey. and ended up as the EP "Choices" released on October 22, 2013. Recently, he decided to bring back the project and announced it in an interview that he is currently working on new EP. Lowery released debut single "Kings" off of his first full-length studio album God Bless the Renegades, on November 1, 2019. Back in June, he was in the studio working on his official first solo album under his name with producer Michael "Elvis" Baskette, which was released on January 31, 2020, under label Rise. Grief & Distance, Lowery's most recent effort was released on June 12, 2020. Call Me No One In 2012, Lowery and Morgan Rose launched a new project called Call Me No One. They started recording their debut album in the middle of January for a late spring release. The single "Biggest Fan" came out in April and later in June their debut album Last Parade was released. Last Parade was recorded and mixed at Architekt Music in Butler, NJ. The band announced a tour for the summer. and released Thunderbird as second single of Last Parade. Lowery was asked about future of the band, he stated "it's time to put CMNO on a small hold to do the new Sevendust record after a much needed break of course." However he later mentioned on his Instagram page that there will be no more Call Me No One and added that it was a one time deal. Seether In February 2017, it was announced that Lowery would be augmenting the band Seether as a touring guitarist during 2017, then helped out making the album Poison the Parish. Upon completing the tour in 2017, Lowery returned to Sevendust. His brother, Corey, has since taken over duties as Seether's lead guitarist. Other works Angel's Son "Angel's Son" is a song written by Lajon Witherspoon and Lowery, and performed by Witherspoon, Lowery, Sevendust drummer Morgan Rose and ex-Snot band member (now ex-Sevendust guitarist) Sonny Mayo, for the post-mortem compilation CD, in honor of James Lynn Strait, known as Strait Up. This was the only single track from the tribute album. Subsequently, a studio version of the song was produced by Sevendust for the closing track to their 2001 album, Animosity. Strait Up The Strait Up version features the band with ex-Snot bandmates playing on a beach around a camp fire. Footage of James Lynn Strait from the band Snot, who died with his dog Dobbs in a car accident, is superimposed during a vigil around the campfire, growing in attendance with appearances of fellow musicians, including System of a Down, Coal Chamber, Sugar Ray, Kittie, Incubus, Korn and others to say goodbye to their friend as a memorium title is revealed at the last few moments of the song. A Song for Chi An all-star lineup included Lowery, as well as Korn bassist Reginald "Fieldy" Arvizu, drummer Ray Luzier, former guitarist Brian "Head" Welch, Slipknot guitarist Jim Root, have banded together and recorded an instrumental song to benefit Deftones bassist, Chi Cheng, who was left in a coma due too a car accident in November 2008, and died on April 13, 2013, when his heart stopped. Yahweh In 2014, Stryper vocalist/guitarist Michael Sweet met Lowery on a plane. According to Stryper's Facebook page, Sweet said, "I reached out to Clint and asked him if he would like to co-write a track or two for the new Stryper album. Clint agreed and sent me a few riff ideas. I was instantly drawn to the riff that he sent which eventually became 'Yahweh'. I took his original idea and somehow created this 6:30 minute song, which is quite epic and honestly may be one of the most powerful songs we've done in a long time." Lowery responded, "The tune is amazing man. It's got that old school spirit with this modern take. That choir vibe on chorus is beautiful. Vibe change for the solo. Epic my man. Solos are stellar. I don't remember sending anything near this cool". According to the page, Lowery mentioned how Stryper was "an influence on [him] we he was younger." Guitar lessons Lowery planned to offer online guitar lessons via Skype. The lessons go over scales, improvisation, songwriting, and soloing. In January 2015, he released an instructional DVD as part of Fret12's "The Sound And The Story" series. Producing In 2012 and 2013, Lowery produced releases for the bands Dead Fish Handshake, Novus Dae, Statik Silence, Annandale, The Farthest Edge, and Digital Collapse, all at Architekt Music in Butler, New Jersey. Lowery featured co-songwriter on four songs on sophomore album from the Massachusetts-based band Half Past My Sin. Lowery was also recruited for recording the new 3 Years Hollow album. Personal life Lowery has two brothers, Corey Lowery and Dustin Lowery, who have played in different bands over the years. All went to Douglas Byrd High School in Fayetteville, North Carolina. Lowery married Tara Jenkins in St. Louis, Missouri in September 2010. They have a son, Harper, in December 2010 and a daughter, Evie, in March 2013. Lowery's father Willie Lowery was a musician and an advocate for the Lumbee tribe. He died in 2012. In an interview with MusicRadar, Lowery mentioned that his first guitar was an Aria Pro II and he was twelve years old when he bought it. Lowery then added that he was a drummer first, and then he started playing acoustic guitar. Legal issues Lowery was arrested on July 5, 2007, at the Hodokvas Festival in Piestany, Slovakia during a Korn tour after a "wild, drunken night" at the event, after which he trashed his room. Lowery was released the following afternoon from police custody after apologizing and paying for the damages. Equipment Lowery's current live setup: PRS SE Clint Lowery PRS Custom 22 guitars (has a black PRS nicknamed "Bruce Lee") PRS Singlecuts (Has a custom seven string Singlecut made for him while performing with Korn) PRS S2 Starla (Used with Seether) Yamaha LJX6C acoustic L Series Handcrafted Guitar Kemper Profiling Amp 2x EVH 5150III Heads (white) 2x EVH 5150III Cabs (white) Diamond Phantom 100watt amplifier heads (x2) (No longer used live) Diamond 4x12 cabinets (No longer used live) Mesa Boogie Mark IV Hughes & Ketner (during Dark New Day) GCX Ground Control and Audio Switcher MXR Phase 90 TC Electronic ND-1 Nova Delay pedal Dunlop Wah pedal Electro Harmonix Effects TC Electronic G-Force Furman AC Line Regulator Digitech Whammy Dimarzio Clip Lock Strap (black) PRS SE Clint Lowery In September 2012, PRS said that the new SE Clint Lowery guitar is designed for heavy metal and hard rock players with attitude. It features a beveled mahogany body with white binding on the body, neck, and headstock, 24-fret, 25½" scale length mahogany neck with rosewood fretboard and Lowery designed inlays, PRS Designed SE adjustable stoptail bridge and tuners, black nickel hardware, and string gauges 11, 18, 22p, 32, 44, 56 tuned to C♯/drop "B" (C♯-G♯-E-B-F♯-B). The guitar has a wide fat neck profile and comes equipped with SE HFS treble and Vintage bass pickups with one volume and push/pull tone control with 3-way toggle switch. Discography Solo God Bless the Renegades (January 31, 2020) Grief & Distance (EP) (June 12, 2020) Ghostwriter (EP) (February 17, 2023) Still Rain Still Rain Bitter Black Water Sevendust Sevendust (April 15, 1997) Home (August 24, 1999) Animosity (November 13, 2001) Seasons (October 7, 2003) Cold Day Memory (April 20, 2010) Black Out the Sun (March 26, 2013) Time Travelers & Bonfires (April 15, 2014) Kill the Flaw (October 2, 2015) All I See Is War (May 11, 2018) Blood & Stone (October 23, 2020) Truth Killer (July 28, 2023) Dark New Day Twelve Year Silence (June 14, 2005) Black Porch (Acoustic Sessions) (September 5, 2006) New Tradition (February 28, 2012) Hail Mary (February 19, 2013) Hello Demons..meet skeletons Chills EP (October 12, 2008) Words That Sing Well EP (April 19, 2011) Uncomfortable Silence EP (August 22, 2011) Choices EP (October 22, 2013) Call Me No One Last Parade (June 5, 2012) Guest appearances Digital Summer - Breaking Point - guitar on "Forget You" Brookroyal - Jump - guitar on "Jump" 3 Years Hollow - The Cracks - guitar on "The Cracks" Statik Silence - "Killer Instinct" - acoustic guitar on "Killer Instinct" References External links Official website callmenoone.com sevendust.com 1971 births Living people American heavy metal guitarists Seven-string guitarists Lead guitarists American heavy metal singers American rock guitarists American male guitarists American rock singers American rock songwriters Nu metal singers American male singer-songwriters Musicians from Atlanta Record producers from Florida Korn members Lumbee people Guitarists from Georgia (U.S. state) Dark New Day members Sevendust members 21st-century American singer-songwriters
5259845	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu%20peoples%20of%20South%20Africa	Bantu peoples of South Africa	South African Bantu-speaking peoples represent the overwhelming majority ethno-racial group of South Africans. Occasionally grouped as Bantu, the term itself is derived from the English word "people", common to many of the Bantu languages. The Oxford Dictionary of South African English describes "Bantu", when used in a contemporary usage and or racial context as "obsolescent and offensive", because of its strong association with the "white minority rule" with their apartheid system, however, Bantu is used without pejorative connotations in other parts of Africa and is still used in South Africa as the group term for the language family. History The history of the Bantu-speaking peoples from South Africa has in the past been misunderstood due to the deliberate spreading of false narratives such as The Empty Land Myth. First published by W.A. Holden in the 1860s, this doctrine claims that South Africa had mostly been an unsettled region and that Bantu-speaking peoples had begun to migrate southwards from present day Zimbabwe at the same time as the Europeans had begun to move northwards from the Cape settlement, despite there being no historical or archaeological evidence to support this theory. This theory originated in Southern Africa during the period of Colonisation of Africa, historians have noted that this theory had already gained currency among Europeans by the mid-1840s. Its later alternative form of note were conformed around the "1830s concept of Mfecane", trying to hide and ignore the intrusion of Europeans on Bantu lands, by implying that the territory they colonized was devoid of human habitation (as a result of the Mfecane). Modern research has disputed this historiographical narrative. By the 1860s, when Holden was propagating his theory, this turbulent period had resulted in large swathes of South African land falling under the control of either the Boer Republics or British colonials, there was denaturalization accompanied with forced displacement and population transfer of these indigenous peoples from their land, the myth being used as the justification for the capture and settlement of Bantu-speaking peoples's land. The Union of South Africa established rural reserves in 1913 and 1936, by legislating the reduction and voiding of South African Bantu-speaking peoples's land heritage holistically, thereby land relating to Bantu-speaking peoples of South Africa legislatively became reduced into being those reserves. In this context, the Natives Land Act, 1913, limited Black South Africans to 7% of the land in the country. In 1936, through the Native Trust and Land Act, 1936, Union of South Africa's government planned to raise this to 13.6% but subsequently would not. The National Party (South Africa) government, the Apartheid government became the profundity action from the pre-1948 Union of South Africa's government rule, it introduced a series of measures that reshaped the South African society such that Europeans would take themselves as the demographic majority while being a minority group. The creation of false homelands or Bantustans (based on dividing South African Bantu language speaking peoples by ethnicity) was a central element of this strategy, the Bantustans were eventually made nominally independent, in order to limit South African Bantu language speaking peoples citizenship to those Bantustans. The Bantustans were meant to reflect an analogy of the various ethnic "-stans" of Western and Central Asia such as the Kafiristan, Pakistan, etc. But in South Africa, the association with Apartheid discredited the term, and the Apartheid government shifted to the politically appealing but historically deceptive term "ethnic homelands". Meanwhile, the Anti-Apartheid Movement persisted in calling the areas Bantustans, to actively protest the Apartheid governments' political illegitimacy. The fallacy of The Empty Land Myth also completely omits the existence of the indigenous ways of life of the Saan (hunter-gatherers) and the Khoikhoi (pastoralists), southern Africans who roamed much of the southwestern region of Africa for a millennia before the arrival of European settlers or the Bantu expansion. Particularly right-wing nationalists of European descent maintain that the theory still holds true, despite there being even more historical and archaeological evidence contrary to the myth, for example the Lydenburg heads, the Bantu-speaking peoples' Kingdom of Mapungubwe (c.1075–c.1220) and Leo Africanus's account of Bantu-speaking peoples of the region. Archaeological evidence suggests that Homo sapiens inhabited the region for over 100,000 years, with sedentary agriculture occurring since at least 100 CE. In the early 16th century, explorer Leo Africanus described the Cafri (Kafir's variant) as negroes, and one of five principal population groups in Africa. He identified their geographical heartland as being located in remote Southern Africa, an area which he designated as Cafraria. European cartographers in their 16th and 17th centuries versions of southern African maps, likewise called the southern African region Cafreria. In the late 16th century, Richard Hakluyt, an English writer, in his words describes Cafars and Gawars, translate to infidels and illiterates (not to be confused with slaves called Cafari, the Malagasy people called Cafres and certain inhabitants of Ethiopia known as Cafars), as Bantu-speaking peoples of southern Africa in his work. Historically past names of South Africa in records largely relied upon how European explorers to Africa referred to the indigenous people, in the 16th century the whole coastal region was known in Portuguese cartography as Cafreria, and in French cartography as Coste Des Caffres, which translates to the Coast of Caffres of the south Limpopo River in 1688, "Cafres or Caffres" being a word derived from an Arabic word "Kafir" (meaning "non-believer"). It was also known as the Bantu-speaking peoples' Kingdom of Mutapa (1430–1760) at its peak. During the establishment and the time throughout the 18th century Cape Colony, South Africa was referred to as The Country of the Hottentots and Caffria, (Hottentot is a deprecated reference to the Khoisan people of Western Cape, South Africa, while Caffria stemming from Kafir/Kaffir which is now an offensive racial slur to South African Bantu language speaking peoples). Other than Portuguese cartographers calling present-day South Africa's coast Cafreria in the 16th century, another Cafraria dub directly related to the present-day South African region covered the landscape as presented by a Dutch cartographer Willem Blaeu's work, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (1635). The later derivative Kaffraria (obsolete name) became a reference to only the present day Eastern Cape. Based on prehistorical archaeological evidence of pastoralism and farming in southern Africa, settlements forming part of countless ancient settlements remains related to Bantu language speaking peoples of Africa, specifically those from sites located in the southernmost region inside the borders of what is now Mozambique take importance to this article for being the closest, oldest archaeological evidence by distance to the South African border thus far related to South African Bantu–speaking peoples and dated . Ancient settlements remains found thus far similarly based on pastoralism and farming within South Africa were dated . When the early Portuguese sailors Vasco Da Gama and Bartholomew Dias reached the Cape of Good Hope in the late , a number of Khoe language speakers were found living there and the indigenous population around the Cape primarily consisted of Khoisan groups. Following the establishment of the Dutch Cape Colony, European settlers began arriving in Southern Africa in substantial numbers. Around the 1770s, Trekboers from the Cape encountered more Bantu language speakers towards the Great Fish River and frictions eventually arose between the two groups. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, there were two major areas of frictional contact between the white colonialists and the Bantu language speakers in Southern Africa. Firstly, as the Boers moved north inland from the Cape they encountered Xhosa, Basotho, and Tswana peoples. Secondly attempts at coastal settlement was made by the British in two regions now known as the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. Brief South African colonial-era history through Polities Xhosa Wars The longest running military action from the period of colonialism in Africa, which saw a series of nine wars during 1779 till 1879. Involving the Xhosa Kingdom and the British Empire, mainly in the present day South African region of Eastern Cape. (1779–1803): After European invasion of the present day Western Cape, South Africa region, colonialist's frontiersmen in the 18th century started encroaching the land farther inland present-day South African region, encountering more of the indigenous population, conflict of land and cattle grew sparking the first war that set to drive Xhosa people out of Zuurveld by 1781. The second war involved a larger Xhosa territory between the Great Fish River and the Sundays River, the Gqunukhwebe clans of the Xhosa started to penetrate back into the Zuurveld and colonists under Barend Lindeque, allied themselves with Ndlambe, a regent of the Western Xhosas, to repel the Gqunukhwebe. The second war concluded when farms were abandoned due to panic in 1793. In 1799 the third war began with the Xhosa rebellion – discontented Khoekhoe revolted and joined with the Xhosa in the Zuurveld, and started retaking land through farms occupied by colonialist, reaching Oudtshoorn by July 1799. The colonial officials made peace with the Xhosa and Khoe in Zuurveld. In 1801, Graaff-Reinet rebellion started forcing more Khoekhoe desertions and farm abandonment. The commandos could not achieve any result, so in February 1803 a peace was arranged with the Xhosas and Khoekhoes. (1811–1819): Zuurveld became a buffer zone between the Cape Colony and Xhosa territory, empty of the Boers, the British to the west and the Xhosa to the east. In 1811 the fourth war began when the Xhosa took back the rest of their territory of Zuurveld, conflicts with the settlers followed. Forces under Colonel John Graham drove the Xhosa back beyond the Fish River. The fifth war, the war of Nxele, started after the Battle of Amalinde. This happened after a civil war broke out within the Xhosa Nation when the British-allied chief Ngqika of the Right Hand House allegedly tried to overthrow the Government and become the king of the Xhosas but was defeated. Then Ngqika appealed to the British who seized 23,000 head of cattle from a Xhosa chief. The Xhosa prophet, Nxele (Makhanda) emerged, under the command of Mdushane, Ndlambe's son, led 6,000 Xhosa force attack on 22 April 1819 to Grahamstown, which was held by 350 troops repulsed Nxele. Nxele was captured and imprisoned on Robben Island. The British pushed the Xhosa further east beyond the Fish River to the Keiskamma River. The resulting empty territory was designated as a buffer zone for loyal Africans' settlements. It came to be known as the "Ceded Territories". (1834–1879): The Xhosa remained expelled from their territory dubbed "Ceded Territories", that was then settled by Europeans and other African peoples. They were also subjected to territorial expansions from other Africans that were themselves under pressure from the expanding Zulu Kingdom. Nevertheless, the frontier region was seeing increasing amounts of multi-racial issues because Africans and Europeans living and trading throughout the frontier region. The indecision by the Cape Government's policy towards the return of the Xhosa territories did not dissipate Xhosa frustration toward the inability to provide for themselves, hence the Xhosa resorted to frontier cattle-raiding. In response on 11 December 1834, a Cape government commando party killed a chief of high rank, incensing the Xhosa army of 10,000 led by Maqoma, that swept across the frontier into the Cape Colony. A string of defeats by Sir Benjamin d'Urban combining forces under Colonel Sir Harry Smith stopped the Xhosa, most Xhosa chiefs surrendered but the primary leadership Maqoma and Tyali retreated, a treaty was imposed and hostilities finally died down on 17 September 1836. Aftermath the sixth war, a chief believed to be actually the paramount chief or the King of the Gcaleka Xhosa by the Cape Colony, Chief Hintsa ka Khawuta, was shot and killed by George Southey, brother of Richard Southey. The era also saw the rise and fall of Stockenström's treaty system. The seventh war became a war between the imperial British troops collaborating with the mixed-race "Burgher forces", which were mainly Khoi, Fengu, British settlers and Boer commandos, against the Ngcika assisted by the Ndlambe and Thembu. Tension had been simmering between colonialist farmers and Xhosa raiders, on both sides of the frontier since the dismantlement of Stockenstrom's treaty system. This began when Governor Maitland imposed a new system of treaties on the chiefs without consulting them, while a severe drought forced desperate Xhosa to engage in cattle raids across the frontier to survive. In addition, politician Robert Godlonton continued to use his newspaper the Graham's Town Journal to agitate for 1820 Settlers to annex and settle the land that had been returned to the Xhosa after the previous war. The war concluded after the announcement of the annexation of the country between the Keiskamma and the Kei rivers to the British crown by order of Lord Glenelg. It was not, however, incorporated with the Cape Colony, but made a crown dependency under the name of British Kaffraria Colony with King William's Town as its capital. Large numbers of Xhosa were displaced across the Keiskamma by Governor Harry Smith, and these refugees supplemented the original inhabitants there, causing overpopulation and hardship. Those Xhosa who remained in the colony were moved to towns and encouraged to adopt European lifestyles. In June 1850 there followed an unusually cold winter, together with an extreme drought. It was at this time that Smith ordered the displacement of large numbers of Xhosa squatters from the Kat River region. The war became known as "Mlanjeni's War", the eighth war, after the prophet Mlanjeni who arose among the homeless Xhosa and preached mobilization, large numbers of Xhosa began leaving the colony's towns and mobilizing in the tribal areas. In February 1852, the British Government decided that Sir Harry Smith's inept rule had been responsible for much of the violence, and ordered him replaced by George Cathcart, who took charge in March. In February 1853 Xhosa chiefs surrendered, the 8th frontier war was the most bitter and brutal in the series of Xhosa wars. It lasted over two years and ended in subjugation of the Ciskei Xhosa. The cattle-killing movement that began in 1856 to 1858, led Xhosa people to destroy their own means of subsistence in the belief that it would bring about salvation from colonialism through supernatural spirits. First declared by a prophetess Nongqawuse no one believed in the prophecy and it was considered absurdity, but more and more people started believing Nongqawuse. The cult grew and built up momentum, sweeping across the eastern Cape. The return of the ancestors was predicted to occur on 18 February 1857, when the day came, the Xhosa nation waited en masse for the momentous events to occur, only to be bitterly disappointed. Famine set in and disease was also spread from the cattle killings, this forced the remainder of the Xhosa nation to seek relief from colonialists. In 1877 the ninth of the Cape frontier war happened, known as the "Fengu-Gcaleka War", and also the "Ngcayechibi's War" — the name stemming from a headman whose feast was where the initial fight occurred that traces from the conflicts of this war. Creation of the Zulu Kingdom Before the early 19th century the indigenous population composition in KwaZulu-Natal region was primarily by many different, largely Nguni-speaking clans and influenced by the two powers of the Mthethwa and the Ndwandwe. In 1816, Shaka acceded to the Zulu throne (at that stage the Zulu was merely one of the many clans). Within a relatively short period of time he had conquered his neighbouring clans and had forged the Zulu into the most important ally of the large Mthethwa clan, which was in competition with the Ndwandwe clan for domination of the northern part of modern-day KwaZulu-Natal. After the death of the Mthethwa king Dingiswayo around 1818, at the hands of Zwide, the king of the Ndwandwe, Shaka assumed leadership of the entire Mthethwa alliance. The alliance under his leadership survived Zwide's first assault at the Battle of Gqokli Hill. Within two years he had defeated Zwide at the Battle of Mhlatuze River and broken up the Ndwandwe alliance, some of whom in turn began a murderous campaign against other Nguni communities, resulting in a mass migration of communities fleeing those who are regarded now as Zulu people too. Historians have postulated this as the cause of the Mfecane, a period of mass migration and war in the Southern African interior in the 19th, however this hypothesis is no longer accepted by most historians, and the idea itself of Mfecane/Difaqane has been thoroughly disputed by many scholars, notably by Julian Cobbing. Pedi Kingdom The Pedi polity under King Thulare (c. 1780–1820) was made up of land that stretched from present-day Rustenburg to the lowveld in the west and as far south as the Vaal River. Pedi power was undermined during the Mfecane, by the Ndwandwe. A period of dislocation followed, after which the polity was re-stabilized under Thulare's son Sekwati. Sekwati succeeded King Thulare as paramount chief of the Bapedi in the northern Transvaal (Limpopo). He engaged in maintaining his domain from other indigenous polities, mostly in frequent conflict with Mzilikazi's army who then had established and residing in Mhlahlandlela (present day Centurion, Gauteng) after retreating King Sigidi kaSenzagakhona's forces, before they moved on to found the Kingdom of Mthwakazi, the Northern Ndebele Kingdom. Sekwati was also engaged in struggles over land and labour with the invading colonialists. These disputes over land started in 1845 after the arrival of Boers and their declaring of Ohrigstad in King Sekwati's domain, in 1857 the town was incorporated into the Transvaal Republic and the Republic of Lydenburg was formed, an agreement was reached that the Steelpoort River was the border between the Pedi and the Republic. The Pedi were well equipped for waging war though, as Sekwati and his heir, Sekhukhune I were able to procure firearms, mostly through migrant labour from the Kimberley diamond fields and as far as Port Elizabeth. On 16 May 1876, Thomas François Burgers, president of the South African Republic (ZAR), not to be confused with the modern-day Republic of South Africa, caused the First of the Sekhukhune Wars when he declared war against the Bapedi Kingdom, the Burgers' army was defeated on 1 August 1876. The Burgers' government later hired the Lydenburg Volunteer Corps commanded by a German mercenary Conrad von Schlickmann, they were repelled and Conrad was killed in later battles. On 16 February 1877, the two parties, mediated by Alexander Merensky, signed a peace treaty at Botshabelo. This led to the British annexation of the South African Republic (ZAR) on 12 April 1877 by Sir Theophilus Shepstone, a secretary for native affairs of Natal at that time. The Second of Sekhukhune Wars commenced in 1878 and 1879 with three British attacks that were successfully repelled but Sekhukhune was defeated in November 1879 by Sir Garnet Wolseley's army of twelve thousand, made up of the 2,000 British, Boers and 10,000 Swazis, Swazis joined the war in support of Mampuru II's claim to the Bopedi (Pedi Kingdom) throne. This brought about the Pretoria Convention of 3 August 1881, which stipulated Sekhukhune's release on reasons that his capital was already burned to the ground. Sekhukhune I was murdered by assassination on alleged orders from his half brother Mampuru II due to the existing dispute to the throne, as Mampuru II had been ousted by Sekhukhune before being reinstalled as King of Bopedi by the British after the British invasion of Bopedi. King Mampuru II was then arrested and executed by the treaty restored Boer South African Republic (ZAR) on charges of public violence, revolt and the murder of his half brother. The arrest was also well claimed by others to be because of Mampuru's opposition to the hut tax imposed on black people by the South African Republic (ZAR) in the area. Mampuru II has been described as one of South Africa's first liberation icons. Potgieter Street in Pretoria and the prison where he was killed was renamed in his honour, in February 2018 a statue of Mampuru was proposed to be erected in Church Square, Pretoria where it will stand opposite one of Paul Kruger who was President of the British's South African Republic (ZAR) at the time of Mampuru's execution. The Pedi paramountcy's power was also cemented by the fact that chiefs of subordinate villages, or kgoro, take their principal wives from the ruling house. This system of cousin marriage resulted in the perpetuation of marriage links between the ruling house and the subordinate groups, and involved the payment of inflated bohadi or bride wealth, mostly in the form of cattle, to the Maroteng house. Inception of apartheid The Apartheid government retained and continued on from 1948 with even more officiation and policing on racial oppression of Bantu-speaking peoples of South Africa for 48 years. Decades before the inception of Apartheid there was a Rand Rebellion uprising in 1922 which eventually became an open rebellion against the state, it was against mining companies whose efforts at the time, due to economic situations, were nullifying irrational oppression of natives in the work place. The pogroms and slogans used in the uprising against blacks by whites articulated that irrationally oppressing Bantu-speaking peoples of South Africa was much more a social movement in European communities in the 20th century South Africa, before ever becoming government in 1948 which happened through a discriminatory vote by only white, minority people in South Africa, that formed a racist, well resourced and a police state of an illegitimate government for nearly 50 years. In the 1930s, this irrational oppression/discrimination was already well supported by propaganda, e.g. the Carnegie Commission of Investigation on the Poor White Question in South Africa, it served as the blueprint of Apartheid. Democratic dispensation A non-racial system franchise known as Cape Qualified Franchise was adhered to from year 1853 in the Cape Colony and the early years of the Cape Province which was later gradually restricted, and eventually abolished, under various National Party and United Party governments. It qualified practice of a local system of multi-racial suffrage. The early Cape constitution which later became known as the Cape Liberal tradition. When the Cape's political system was severely weakened, the movement survived as an increasingly liberal, local opposition against the Apartheid government of the National Party. In the fight against Apartheid, African majority took the lead in the struggle, as effective allies the remaining Cape liberals against the growing National Party, engaged to a degree in collaboration and exchange of ideas with the growing African liberation movements, especially in the early years of the struggle. This is seen through the non-racial values that were successfully propagated by the political ancestors of the African National Congress, and that came to reside at the centre of South Africa's post-Apartheid Constitution. The year 1994 saw the first democratic election in South Africa, the majority of the population, Black South Africans, participating in political national elections for the first time in what ceremonially ended the Apartheid era and also being the first time a political party in South Africa getting legitimately elected as government. The day was ideally hailed as Freedom day and the beginning of progress to the conclusion of Black South Africans existential struggle that began with European colonization in the South African region. As a consequence of Apartheid policies, black Africans are regarded as a race group in South Africa. These groups (blacks, whites, Coloureds and Indians) still tend to have a strong racial identities, and to classify themselves, and others, as members of these race groups and the classification continues to persist in government policy, to an extent, as a result of attempts at redress such as Black Economic Empowerment and Employment Equity. Ethnic partitioning African – ethnic or racial reference in South Africa is a synonym to Black South Africans. It is also used to refer to expatriate Black people from other African countries who are in South Africa. South Africa's Bantu language speaking communities are roughly classified into four main groups: Nguni, Sotho–Tswana, Vhavenda and Shangana–Tsonga, with the Nguni and Basotho-Tswana being the largest groups, as follows: Nguni people(Alphabetical): Hlubi people Southern Ndebele people Swati people Xhosa people Korana people Zulu people Shangana–Tsonga people Sotho–Tswana people: Southern sotho Basotho Northern Sotho BaPedi people Batswana Venda people: Vhavenda Culture Black people in South Africa were group-related and their conception of borders based on sufficient land and natural features such as rivers or mountains, which were not by any means fixed. Common among the two powerful divisions, the Nguni and the Sotho–Tswana, are patrilineal societies, in which the leaders formed the socio-political units. Similarly, food acquisition was by pastoralism, agriculture, and hunting. The most important differences are the strongly deviating languages, although both are Southern Bantu languages, and the different settlement types and relationships. In the Nguni settlements villages were usually widely scattered, whereas the Sotho–Tswana often settled in towns. Language and communication The majority of Bantu languages spoken in South Africa are classified as belonging to one of two groups. The Nguni languages (such as Xhosa, Zulu, Ndebele, and Swazi), whose speakers historically occupied mainly the eastern coastal plains, and the Sotho–Tswana languages (such as the Southern Sotho, Tswana, Northern Sotho) and whose speakers historically lived on the interior plateau. The two language groups differ in certain key aspects (especially in the sound systems), with the rest of South African Bantu languages (Venda and Tsonga) showing even more unique aspects. Significant number of Black South Africans are native multilingual, speaking two or more languages as their first language, mainly from languages of South Africa. Ditema syllabary A constructed script of featural writing system and syllabary, whose developments in 2010 was inspired by ancient ideographic traditions of the Southern African region, and its parent systems being Amabheqe ideographs and Litema. It was developed for siNtu. The origins of Litema ornamental and mural art of Southern Africa stretches centuries back in time, while excavations at Sotho-Tswana archaeological sites have revealed hut floors that have survived the elements for 1500 years, the earliest intact evidence of this art stretches back from the c. 1400s. Southern Ndebele paintings Southern Ndebele prior and during the 18th century primarily used their expressive symbols for communication, it is believed that these paintings are a synthesis of historical Nguni design traditions and Northern Sotho ditema or litema tradition(s). They also began to stand for their continuity and cultural resistance to their circumstances during the colonization in the 19th century. These wall paintings done by the women was their secret code to their people, disguised to anyone but the Southern Ndebele. The vibrant symbols and expressions portray communications of personal prayers, self-identification, values, emotions, and marriage, sometimes the male initiation but the ritual was not expressed. Religions have never been a part of the Southern Ndebele's house paintings. The women of the Southern Ndebele are often the tradition carriers and the main developer of the wall art of their home. The tradition and style of house painting is passed down in the families from generation to generation by the mothers. A well-painted home shows the female of the household is a good wife and mother. She is responsible for the painting of the outside gates, front walls, side walls, and usually the interior of her home. One thing that has changed since the beginning of the paintings and the present-day wall art is their styles. In the late 1960s, the new style was evident, what was once a finger-painted creation was now created using bundled twigs with feathers as brushes. The walls are still originally whitewashed, but the outlines and colours have significantly changed. The patterns and symbols can be seen today with a rich black outline and a vivid colour inside. There are five main colours represented: red and dark red, yellow to gold, a sky blue, green, and sometimes pink, white is always used as the background because it makes the bright patterns stand out more. The geometric patterns and shape are first drawn with the black outline and later filled in with colour. The patterns are grouped together throughout the walls in terms of their basic design structure. Creating the right tools to allow accuracy and freedom becomes a difficult task. The tools can't restrict the painter from creating her art. They have to have tools for the large geometric shapes of flat colour and small brushes for the very small areas, outlines, and sacks. The advancement of tools has allowed faster and more complex designs throughout the Southern Ndebele's homes. Every generation passes it down and little changes become apparent. Traditional sports and martial arts The most popular sporting code in South Africa and among Black South Africans is Association football with the most notable event having been hosted being the 2010 FIFA World Cup, but before such advent there are historical sports that were popular to the indigenous. Nguni stick-fighting It is a martial art historically practiced by teenage Nguni herdboys in South Africa. Each combatant is armed with two long, hard sticks, one of which is used for defense and the other for offense with little or no armor used. Although Xhosa styles of fighting may use only two sticks, variations of Nguni stick-fighting throughout Southern Africa incorporate shields as part of the stick-fighting weaponry. Zulu stick-fighting uses an isikhwili, an attacking stick, and ubhoko, a defending stick or an ihawu, a defending shield. The objective is for two opposing warriors to fight each other to establish which of them is the strongest or the "Bull" (Inkunzi). An "induna" or War Captain becomes a referee for each group of warriors, keeps his crew in check and keeps order between fighters. Warriors of similar affiliation did this when engaging in combat with one another. In modern times this usually occurs as a friendly symbolic practice part of the wedding ceremony, where warriors (participants) from the bridegroom's household welcome warriors from the bride's household. Other groups of participants may also be welcomed to join in. Musangwe A traditional, bare-knuckle, combat sport of Venda people. It resembles bare-knuckle boxing. Chiefdom It is well documented in the Apartheid legislation, that the white minority, government regime – recreated and used the "traditional" Chiefdom-ships system to be the National Party's power reach, and even increased the Chiefdom-ships' powers over the Bantu-speaking peoples of South Africa for the Apartheid government's interests. This was after colonial regimes and subsequent South African governments before formal Apartheid, had initiated the taking of most of South African land from the indigenous peoples. Most of South African land began being made an exclusive possession of only white minority Europeans in South Africa legislatively by 1913. Until very recently, South African Bantu-speaking communities were often divided into different clans, not around national federations, but independent groups from some hundreds to thousands of individuals. The smallest unit of the political organizational structure was the household, or kraal, consisting of a man, woman or women, and their children, as well as other relatives living in the same household. The man was the head of the household and often had many wives, and was the family's primary representative. The household and close relations generally played an important role. Households which lived in the same valley or on the same hill in a village were also an organizational unit, managed by a sub-chief. Chiefdom-ship was largely hereditary, although chiefs were often replaced when not effective. In most clans the eldest son inherited the office of his father. In some clans the office was left to the oldest brother of the deceased chief, and after his death again the next oldest brother. This repeated until the last brother died. Next was the eldest son of the original chieftain; then the oldest one of the brothers as the leader. The chief was surrounded with a number of trusted friends or advisors, usually relatives like uncles and brothers, rather than influential headmen or personal friends. The degree of the democracy depended on the strength of the chieftain. The more powerful and more influential a chieftain was, the less the influence of his people. Although the leader had much power, he was not above the law. He could be criticized both by advisors as well as by his people, and compensation could be demanded. The people were divided into different clans or tribes which had their own functions, laws, and language. Time-reliant traditions Xhosa calendar Xhosa people historically and traditionally based their agricultural time on reliable star systems. When these traditions are aligned with the Gregorian calendar system the Xhosa year begins in June and ends in May when the Canopus star (in ) becomes visible in the Southern hemisphere, this signaled their time for harvesting. Sotho calendar Sesotho months (in ) indicate special natural and agricultural events of Southern Africa. Traditionally and historically, being cattle breeders who lived in the semi-arid regions of Southern Africa, a deep understanding of agriculture and the natural world was essential for their survival. Sesotho speaking people generally recognise only two seasons called Dihla. However, names do exist aligned to all four of the traditional Western seasons. The Sotho year begins approximately in August or September, a time when their crops were planted. Traditional holidays First Fruits A ceremony of giving the first fruits in a harvest to God, or the gods who are believed to be responsible for the abundance of food in Southern Africa. Traditionally it marked a time of prosperity, in the good harvests experienced after the seasonal agricultural period. It also brought people together, unifying them at a time of merry making and quashing fears of famine. In South Africa the tradition is practiced by Zulu people of KwaZulu-Natal as Umkhosi Wokweshwama. Umkhosi womHlanga Umhlanga is an annual event that originates from Eswatini in the 1940s from the rule of King Sobhuza II, it is an adaptation of a much older ceremony of Umchwasho. In South Africa it was introduced by the Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu in 1991 to be later known as Umkhosi womHlanga, as a means to encourage young Zulu girls to delay sexual activity until marriage. All girls are required to undergo a virginity test before they are allowed to participate in a royal dance, they wear a traditional attire, including beadwork, and izigege, izinculuba and imintsha, with anklets, bracelets, necklaces, and colourful sashes. Each sash has appendages of a different colour, which denote whether or not the girl is betrothed. These young women then participate in a traditional dance bare-breasted, while each maiden carries a long reed – the girls take care to choose only the longest and strongest reeds – and then carry them towering above their heads in a slow procession up the hill to the royal Enyokeni Palace. The procession is led by the chief Zulu princess. Historical food acquisition Food acquisition was primarily limited to types of subsistence agriculture (slash and burn and Intensive subsistence farming), pastoral farming and engaging in hunting. Generally women were responsible for Crop agriculture and men went to herd and hunt except for the Tsonga (and partially the Mpondo). Fishing was relatively of little importance. All Bantu-speaking communities commonly had clear separation between women's and men's tasks. Essentially they consumed meat (primarily from Nguni cattle, Nguni sheep (Zulu sheep, Pedi sheep, Swazi sheep), pigs/boars and wild game hunts), vegetables, fruits, cattle and sheep milk, water, and grain beer on occasion. They began to eat the staple product of maize mid-18th century (introduced from the Americas by Portuguese in the late 17th century via the East African coast), it became favoured for its productiveness which was more than the grains of South African native grasses. There were a number of taboos regarding the consumption of meat. The well known, no meat of dogs, apes, crocodiles or snakes could be eaten. Likewise taboo was the meat of some birds, like owls, crows and vultures, as well as the flesh of certain totem animals. The mopane worms are traditionally popular amongst the Tswana, Venda, Southern Ndebele, Northern Sotho and Tsonga people, though they have been successfully commercialized. South African Bantu language speaking peoples' modern diet is largely still similar to that of their ancestors, but significant difference being in the systems of production and consumption of their food. They do take interest to innovations in foods that come their way while still practicing their very own unique food cuisine popular amongst themselves and those curious alike. Pre-colonial and traditional house types Historically, communities lived in two different types of houses before this tradition was dominated by one, the Rondavel. The Nguni people usually used the beehive house, a circular structure made of long poles covered with grass. The huts of the Sotho–Tswana people, Venda people and Shangana–Tsonga people, used the cone and cylinder house type. A cylindrical wall is formed out of vertical posts, which is sealed with mud and cow dung. The roof built from poles tied-together, covered with grass. The floor of both types is compressed earth. The Rondavel itself developed from the general, grass domed African-style hut nearly 3 000 years ago, its first variety, the veranda Rondavel, emerged about 1 000 years ago in southern Africa. Colonial housing styles inspired the rectangular shaping of the Rondavel from the 1870s, this is regarded as the beginning of the Rondavel's westernization that sees this African indigenous invention even today being popularly known as the Rondavel, (a derivative of ), instead of its indigenous name(s). Constraints caused by urbanisation produced a highveld type of style housing, shack-like, structures coalesced with corrugated metal sheeting (introduced during the British colonization), this marked a significant visible change in the southern African region, it attested to the contemporary pressures of South African Bantu-speaking peoples's realities, especially that of resources. Ideologies Umvelinqangi Umvelinqangi according to mainly Xhosa and Zulu people's culture is the Most High or Divine Consciousness, is the source of all that has been, that is and all that ever will be. It's the inner light of creation. Ukukhothama (similar to meditation) prior to Colonization/Westernization was a widespread practice in South Africa noticeably by those considered Zulu people now, it was seen as a way of attaining oneness (in ), with the divine conscious. King Shaka's philosophy King Shaka is well known for the many military, social, cultural and political reforms he used to create his highly organized and centralized Zulu state. The most important of these were the transformation of the army, thanks to innovative tactics and weapons he conceived, and a showdown with the spiritual leadership, limiting the power of traditional healers, and effectively ensuring the subservience of the Zulu church to the state. King Shaka integrated defeated Zulu-speaking tribes into the newly formed Zulu ethnic group, on a basis of full equality, with promotions in the army and civil service being a matter of merit rather than circumstance of birth. Black Consciousness Movement An anti-Apartheid movement that emerged in South Africa in the mid-1960s. BCM attacked what they saw as traditional white values, especially the "condescending" values of white people of liberal opinion and emphasised the rejection of white monopoly on truth as a central tenet of their movement. The BCM's policy of perpetually challenging the dialectic of Apartheid South Africa as a means of transforming Black thought into rejecting prevailing opinion or mythology to attain a larger comprehension brought it into direct conflict with the full force of the security apparatus of the Apartheid regime. Ubuntu philosophy A concept that began to be popularised in the 1950s and became propagated by political thinkers specifically in Southern Africa during the 1960s. Ubuntu asserts that society, not a transcendent being, gives human beings their humanity. An "extroverted communities" aspect is the most visible part of this ideology. There is sincere warmth with which people treat both strangers and members of the community. This overt display of warmth is not merely aesthetic but enables formation of spontaneous communities. The resultant collaborative work within these spontaneous communities transcends the aesthetic and gives functional significance to the value of warmth. It is also implied that Ubuntu is in the ideal of that everyone has different skills and strengths; people are not isolated, and through mutual support they can help each other to complete themselves. South African Bantu-speaking people Notation of notable people from Black South African hosts renowned, contributors, scholars and professionals from a range of diverse and broad fields, also those who are laureates of national and international recognition and certain individuals from South African monarchs. See also Demographics of South Africa Khoi—San peoples Coloureds Asian South African White South African Diaspora Northern Ndebele people Ngoni people Kololo people Makololo Chiefs (Malawi) (Their modern descendants have little connection with the Kololo people apart from their name.) Relating South African diaspora References Further reading Vail, Leroy, editor. The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. London Berkeley: Currey University of California Press, 1989. B. Khoza (PHD), Makhosi, author. Uzalo Isizulu Grammar Textbook. Cambridge University Press, 2017. Bantu-speaking peoples of South Africa Bantu peoples Indigenous peoples of Southern Africa South African people of African descent Ethnic groups in South Africa Society of South Africa
5259899	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ari%20Ben-Menashe	Ari Ben-Menashe	Ari Ben-Menashe (; born 4 December 1951) is an Israeli-Canadian businessman, security consultant, and author. He was previously an employee of Israel's Military Intelligence Directorate from 1977 to 1987, and an arms dealer. He lives in Montreal, Quebec, Canada and runs an international commodity exporting firm, Traeger Resources and Logistics Inc. In 1989, Ben-Menashe was charged with attempting to sell three military aircraft to Iran in contravention of the U.S. Arms Export Control Act. After nearly a year in jail, he was acquitted. Biography Ari Ben-Menashe was born in Tehran, Iran and immigrated to Israel as a teenager. His parents were Iraqi Jews who settled in Tehran in 1945. He served in the Israel Defense Forces in signals intelligence from 1974 to 1977. Intelligence career In 1977, Ben-Menashe joined Israel's Military Intelligence Directorate. He later said, "I happened to be the right guy at the right time. I spoke Persian, Arabic, English. I knew the United States." In his book Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network Ben-Menashe said that following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, his Iranian background provided useful connections, with some of his school friends playing roles in the new government. These connections, Ben-Menashe said, led to his playing an intermediary role in the Israeli effort to sell arms to Iran and were close to the Israeli government decision to back the Reagan campaign's "October Surprise" efforts to ensure American hostages held by Iran and its allies were released on a timetable that strengthened Ronald Reagan and not the incumbent US President, Jimmy Carter. Ben-Menashe served in the Military Intelligence Directorate until 1987, once under Moshe Hebroni, the deputy to the Directorate's Director, General Yehoshua Sagi. Hebroni told Craig Unger in 1992, "Ben-Menashe served directly under me.... He had access to very, very sensitive material." In September 1986, Ben-Menashe gave information to Time correspondent Raji Samghabadi about the weapons shipments to Iran organised by Richard Secord, Oliver North and Albert Hakim, which later became known as the Iran–Contra affair. Time was unwilling to publish the allegations, and Ben-Menashe later passed the information to the Lebanese Ash-Shiraa, which published them on 3 November 1986, and soon led to congressional investigations. Samghabadi later said, "The information he gave me was earthshaking, and it was later corroborated by Congress." According to Ben-Menashe, the leaking was done on the orders of Likud's Yitzhak Shamir to embarrass his Labour Party rival, Shimon Peres, whose Labour party had criticized Shamir and Likud for secret activities such as arms operation to Iran. 1989 arrest In November 1989, he was arrested in the United States for violating the Arms Export Control Act for trying to sell three Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport aircraft to Iran using false end-user certificates. Ben-Menashe claimed that the Israeli government offered him a plea bargain. After realizing that Israel was not going to support him, Ben-Menashe began to give interviews to journalists from prison on matters including his role in the October Surprise and its links with the Iran–Contra affair. Then, Israel sought to discredit him, with efforts including an "authoritative source" telling The Jerusalem Post (27 March 1990) that "the Defence establishment 'never had any contacts with Ari Ben-Menashe and his activities.'" The claims were dropped after Ben-Menashe provided Newsweeks Robert Parry with employment references from Israeli intelligence sources. After almost a year in prison, he was acquitted on 28 November 1990, with a jury accepting that he had acted on behalf of Israel. During his trial, Ben-Menashe's passport was presented as another piece of evidence that he was more than just a low-level Persian translator for the Israeli Defense Forces. The passport documented travel all over the world including Peru, Chile, Guatemala, and multiple points in Asia and Europe. Ben-Menashe's lawyer asked the jury rhetorically, "They need a Persian translator in Chile?" He then stated, "That doesn't make any sense." Former Time correspondent Raji Samghabadi, to whom Ben-Menashe had given details on the Iran–Contra affair before they became public, proved a key defense witness. Samghabadi testified that Ben-Menashe had told him about the US and Israeli arms deals, which would become the foundation of the Iran–Contra Affair, several months before the story broke in the Lebanese newspaper Ash-Shiraa, which indicated that he had high-level inside knowledge of Israeli affairs. With Ben-Menashe's claims remaining in the public eye, in early 1991 The New Republics Steven Emerson traveled to Israel and, on his return, described Ben-Menashe as merely a "low-level translator" even though the references described Ben-Menashe as working in "key positions" and handling "complex and sensitive assignments." Parry later wrote that other documents confirmed Ben-Menashe's travels: "Ben-Menashe's passports and other documents revealed that he had traveled extensively with frequent trips to Latin America, Eastern Europe, the United States and elsewhere, not exactly the record of the stay-at-home, low-level translator that Israel was trying to sell to me and other journalists." Emerson also published his claims in other outlets, and Newsweek (which Parry had left in June 1990) also attacked Ben-Menashe. In 1992, however, Moshe Hebroni, the deputy director of the Military Intelligence Directorate, told Craig Unger that Ben-Menashe had worked directly with him and had access to sensitive material. Public claims In 1990 and 1991, Ben-Menashe said that he had been personally involved in Iran in order to assist the Reagan's presidential campaign with its October surprise of preventing the American hostages from being released before the 1980 election. He also gave Seymour Hersh information about Israel's nuclear program, which was published in Hersh's book The Samson Option. Ben-Menashe then fled to Australia and, in his application for refugee status, declared himself a victim of persecution of the Israeli and US governments. For his return to the US in May 1991 to testify to Congress, the journalist Robert Parry received a tip from an intelligence source that the US was planning to divert Ben-Menashe to Israel, where Ben-Menashe feared that he would be charged for revealing official secrets. With a delay to Ben-Menashe's flight, congressional investigators were able to extract assurances from the US government. In December 1991, Ben-Menashe's appeal against a refusal by Australia to grant him refugee status failed. He left Australia and eventually settled in Canada. 1993 he married a Canadian woman and moved to Montreal; three years later he gained Canadian citizenship. In 1992, Ben-Menashe published a book about his involvement in the Iran–Contra Affair and intelligence operations on behalf of Israeli intelligence in Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.–Israeli Arms Network. Rafi Eitan, Israeli spy and Begin's counter-terrorism advisor, told author Gordon Thomas, who wrote Gideon's Spies, that Eitan had worked with Ben-Menashe on setting up the US–Israeli network for covertly supplying arms to Iran and had collaborated with Ben-Menashe on using Prosecutor's Management Information System (PROMIS) for espionage. Sent a copy of Ben-Menashe's book, Eitan said he had no criticism of it and added that Ben-Menashe "is telling the truth.... That's why they squashed it." When Robert McFarlane, President Reagan's national security adviser, sued the book's publisher Sheridan Square Press (founded by William Schaap and Ellen Ray in New York), for libeling him, Sheridan Square lost its financial backers and was forced to shut down. Robert Maxwell Ben-Menashe claimed that Robert Maxwell, the owner of Mirror Group newspapers in the United Kingdom, was a Mossad agent and that Maxwell had tipped off the Israeli embassy in 1986 about the Israeli nuclear technician Mordechai Vanunu after Vanunu and a friend approached the Sunday Mirror and The Sunday Times in London with a story about Israel's nuclear capability. Vanunu was subsequently lured by Mossad from London to Rome, kidnapped, returned to Israel, and sentenced to 18 years in jail. According to Ben-Menashe, the Daily Mirrors foreign editor, Nicholas Davies, worked for the Mossad and was involved in the Vanunu affair. No British newspaper would publish the Maxwell allegations because of his litigiousness reputation. However, Ben-Menashe was used as a key source by Pulitzer Prize-winning The New York Times journalist Seymour Hersh for his book about Israel's nuclear weapons, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy, published in Britain in 1991 by Faber and Faber. Hersh included the allegations about Maxwell, Davies, and Vanunu in the book. Davies's former wife, Janet Fielding, also confirmed in the book that she knew Ben-Menashe was an Israeli intelligence operative and that Menashe and Davies were business partners in an arms company, which was involved in the sale of arms for Israel to Iran during the Iran–Iraq War. When Hersh asked Fielding whether she knew Ben-Menashe was an Israeli intelligence operative, she responded, "It wasn't difficult to put two and two together. Do you think I'm bloody stupid? I shut my ears and walked [out of the marriage with Davies]." On October 21, 1991, two Members of Parliament, Labour MP George Galloway and Conservative MP Rupert Allason (who writes spy novels under the pseudonym Nigel West) agreed to raise the issue in the House of Commons, which enabled newspapers to claim parliamentary privilege and to report the allegations. Davies was subsequently fired from the Daily Mirror for gross misconduct. Maxwell issued a writ for libel against Faber and Faber as well as Hersh and allegedly told Davies that the Mirror editor had threatened to resign if Davies was not fired but that he would get his job back when the dust settled. Two weeks later, on November 5, 1991, Maxwell fell from his yacht, the Lady Ghislaine. Ben-Menashe claimed that Maxwell had been assassinated by Mossad for trying to blackmail it. On November 12, Matthew Evans, the chairman of Faber and Faber, called a press conference in London to say he had evidence that Ben-Menashe was telling the truth about Davies. Evans read out a statement from Hersh, who said he had documentation showing meetings between Davies, unnamed Mossad officers, and "Cindy" (Cheryl Bentov), the woman who lured Vanunu to Rome. Evans and Hersh were later shown to have themselves been the subject of a sting operation by Joe Flynn, Fleet Street's most celebrated con man. Evans had met Flynn in Amsterdam and paid him £1,200 for the forged documents. October Surprise Ben-Menashe testified in 1991 that he had personally witnessed George HW Bush attend a meeting with members of the Iranian government in Paris in October 1980, as part of a covert Republican Party operation to have the 52 U.S hostages held in Iran remain there until President Jimmy Carter, who was negotiating their release, had lost the 1980 presidential election to Ronald Reagan. Time called him a "spinner of tangled yarns," and ABC News claimed he failed a lie-detector test: on a scale of reliability from zero to minus eight, he scored minus eight or minus seven on major questions. In 1992, the American journalist Craig Unger of The Village Voice wrote: "Ari has put five or six dozen journalists from all over the world through roughly the same paces. His seduction begins with a display of his mastery of the trade craft of the legendary Israeli intelligence services. A roll of quarters handy for furtive phone calls, he navigates the back channels that tie the spooks at Langley to their counterparts in Tel Aviv. His astute analysis and mind-boggling revelations can stir even the most jaded old hand of the Middle East.... Listen to him, trust him, print his story verbatim—then sit round and watch your career go up in flames." In its report published January 3, 1993, the House October Surprise Task Force investigating the "October surprise" allegations stated, "Ben-Menashe's testimony is impeached by documents and is riddled with inconsistencies and factual misstatements which undermine his credibility. Based on the documentary evidence available, the Task Force has determined that Ben-Menashe's account of the October meetings, like his other October Surprise allegations, is a total fabrication." Business career Personal and business controversies Ben-Menashe moved to Sydney, Australia, in 1992, then to Montreal, Quebec, Canada, where he married a Canadian woman and became a citizen. He was arrested in 2002 during acrimonious divorce proceedings and charged with assault, following complaints by his wife and mother-in-law, but he was subsequently acquitted. He set up Carlington Sales Canada Corporation, which was accused of taking payments for shipments of grain that allegedly never materialized, according to Canada's National Post (July 25, 2005). Ben-Menashe's American business partner, Alexander Legault, was arrested in October 2008 while he was being deported back into the United States after a failed refugee claim in Canada. He had been wanted on $10,000,000 bond by the FBI since 1986 on charges of racketeering, conspiracy, organized fraud, mail fraud, and unregulated security in Florida and Louisiana. Documents obtained in 2002 by Canadian journalists under Canada's freedom of information legislation show that Ben-Menashe had a relationship with the Canadian government: "over 400 pages showing Ben-Menashe was regularly de-briefed by Canadian intelligence officers, plumbed about what he knew of the inner workings of the governments he was involved with." Zimbabwe Ben-Menashe again came to the attention of the international media in 2002, when he alleged that Morgan Tsvangirai, the leader of Zimbabwe's opposition party, the Movement for Democratic Change, had asked him to help "eliminate" President Robert Mugabe. Ben-Menashe produced a videotape of conversations between himself and Tsvangirai in London, England, and Montreal, where the latter appeared to ask for Ben-Menashe's help as a political consultant. Unknown to Tsvangirai, Ben-Menashe's Montreal consultancy firm at the time, Dickens and Madson, was working for Mugabe, and tapes of the ambiguous conversation were passed to the Zimbabwean authorities, which charged Tsvangirai with treason, which is punishable by death in that country. Tsvangirai was put on trial for treason before the Harare High Court but was exonerated in October 2004 after the judge accepted he had not used the word "eliminate" to mean that he wanted Mugabe to be assassinated. Judge Paddington Garwe described Ben-Menashe, who was the prosecution's star witness, as "rude, unreliable, and contemptuous." Ben-Menashe was hired by Paul Le Roux, an international drug lord and DEA informant born in the former Rhodesia to lobby the Zimbabwe government to grant leases to Zimbabwean farmlands. The lands would then be subleased to white farmers dislodged by previous land reform in Zimbabwe. Ben-Menashe received more than US$14 million from Le-Roux. Soybeans In June 2005, Alexander Vassiliev of Sonox International, a Florida-based food export company, told the National Post that he had wired a deposit of US$336,000 to Ben-Menashe's former company, Albury Grain Sales, which undertook to ship 12,000 tonnes of soybeans from North America to a Sonox agent in Uzbekistan. Vassiliev alleged that the soybeans did not arrive. The case went to court and was dismissed and then referred to arbitration, where it was again dismissed. Alexander Vassiliev said that he simply ran out of money for lawyers. Firebombing In December 2012, Ben-Menashe's lavish home in Montreal was badly damaged by a firebomb. According to the National Post, Ben-Menashe suggested, "Someone had been out to get him." Sudan Ben-Menashe's Montreal based lobbying firm was hired by Sudanese General Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo in a $6 million deal. The firm, Dickens & Madson Inc, signed a deal offering to seek government recognition, funding, and "striving to obtain funding and equipment for the Sudanese military" with General Dagalo. Dagalo's forces carried out the Khartoum massacre in which more than 100 protesters were killed. Myanmar He was also hired by Tatmadaw the military junta ruling Myanmar following the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état pushing unverified claims that the goal of the coup was to move Myanmar out of China's orbit in an attempt to rebrand the globally condemned regime. Publications Ari Ben-Menashe: Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network, New York, Sheridan Square Press 1992 (USA) . (First published 23 October 1992 by Allen & Unwin Australia Pty Ltd) References Further reading "Journalist defends Tsvangirai tape", CNN, February 26, 2002. "Harry Martin and Propaganda Techniques", Political Research Associates, undated. Ben-Menashe strikes again, The Review, Australia/Israel and Jewish Affairs Council, March 2002. Joint report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980 ("October Surprise Task Force"), US GPO, 1993, pp 97–99 Cohen, Julie: "Who Will Unwrap the October Surprise?", Columbia Journalism Review, September 1991. Danby, Michael: "Of Liars and Lives", The Review, Australia/Israel and Jewish Affairs Council, April 2003 Davies, Nick: The Unknown Maxwell - his astonishing secret lives revealed by his aide and close companion. Sidgwick & Jackson, 1992. Harris, Paul; Burke, Jason: "Mugabe men's blood gems", The Observer, March 3, 2002. Hersh, Seymour: The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy, 1991. Hutchinson, Brian; Hamilton, Graeme: "Montreal's 'man of infamy'", National Post, June 25, 2005. Mallo, Sean: Fact or fiction? The claims of Ari Ben-Menashe, The Green Left Weekly, February 5, 1992. Unger, Craig: "The trouble with Ari," The Village Voice, July 1992. Unger, Craig: Saving the Saudis, Vanity Fair, October 1, 2003. Weinberg, Steve : , Columbia Journalism Review, March 1992. Living people Businesspeople from Tehran 1951 births Iranian Jews Iranian emigrants to Israel Israeli Jews Historians of espionage Israeli non-fiction writers Israeli emigrants to Canada Naturalized citizens of Canada Jewish Canadian writers Canadian businesspeople
5260104	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahom%20kingdom	Ahom kingdom	The Ahom kingdom (, 1228–1826) was a late medieval kingdom in the Brahmaputra Valley (present-day Assam) that retained its independence for nearly 600 years despite encountering Mughal expansion in Northeast India. Established by Sukaphaa, a Tai prince from Mong Mao (present-day Yunnan Province, China), it began as a mong in the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra based on wet rice agriculture. It expanded suddenly under Suhungmung in the 16th century and became multi-ethnic in character, casting a profound effect on the political and social life of the entire Brahmaputra valley. The kingdom became weaker with the rise of the Moamoria rebellion, and subsequently fell to repeated Burmese invasions of Assam. With the defeat of the Burmese after the First Anglo-Burmese War and the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, control of the kingdom passed into East India Company hands. Though it came to be called the Ahom kingdom in the colonial and subsequent times, it was largely multi-ethnic, with the ethnic Tai-Ahom people constituting less than 10% of the population toward the end. People from different ethnic groups became a part of the Ahom population due to the process known as Ahomisation. The identity of the Ahom people in this kingdom was fluid, with the king controlling who belonged to it and who did not. The Ahoms initially called their kingdom Mong Dun Shun Kham till 1401 (; ), but adopted Assam in later times. The British-controlled province after 1838 and later the Indian state of Assam came to be known by this name. The kingdom maintained close political ties with other Tai-states especially with Mong Kwang (Nara) till the end of its rule in the 19th century. History The Ahom kingdom was established in 1228 when Sukaphaa, a Tai prince, entered the Brahmaputra valley having crossed the rugged Patkai mountain range from Mong Mao. Sukaphaa probably started his journey from his homeland with a small number, but he was supported and joined by other Tai chiefs and common followers along the way and entered Assam with approximately 9,000 persons. His destiny was Upper Assam, earlier the domain of the Kamarupa kingdom but which had since lapsed into retarded conditions, and his intention was not to conquer and raid but to permanently settle in fallow land and practice agriculture—and the Ahoms were primarily responsible for converting the undulating alluvial forest and marshy plains in upper Assam to flat rice fields able to hold plain water for rice cultivation via a network of embankments. The Tai-Shans had with them the basic political structures for state-building, surplus producing technologies such as sedentary wet-rice cultivation and hydrology, a patriarchal social organisation based on chiefs, and a literary form of their language. Whereas the earlier state formations (Kamarupa) borrowed political structures from North India that led to Indo-Aryan domination, the Ahom state formation provided an alternate model built on Southeast Asian political structures, and which provided the space for the development of a distinct political, social and cultural identity. Though Brahminical myth-making was a common feature that all ancient and medieval kingdoms in Assam utilised for legitimacy to various degrees, for example in the other medieval kingdoms such as the Chutia and Kachari kingdoms, the Ahoms were able to use their alternate Lengdon-based legitimacy to effectively negotiate with the indigenous people; but the Tungkhungia kings veered towards Saktism and the persecution of the shudra Mahantas and their laity that began during the reign of Siva Singha ultimately led to the Moamoria rebellion and ultimately the eclipse of the kingdom. Mong Dun Shun Kham (1228–1401) Sukaphaa (1228–1268) spent a couple of decades moving from place to place establishing colonies and finally settled down in Charaideo in 1253. He established the offices of the Dangarias— the Burhagohain (Chao-Frongmung) and the Borgohain (Chao-Thaonmung). In the 1280s, these two offices were given independent regions of control; partly hereditary and partly elected, the king and the two counsellors held each other in check and balance. These institutions of checks and balances thus seeded held fast for six hundred years—in the 18th century John Peter Wade, a British officer, observed these unique institutions and novel system of government. Sukaphaa had instructed that events during his rule be chronicled, a practice sustained by his successors; and there emerged the institution of Buranji writing, a practice of historiography rare in India. In the late medieval era, the Ahom kingdom was known to be a kaghazi raj (a kingdom with records) just as the Mughal Empire was. At the time of their advent, the Ahoms came with advanced technologies of rice cultivation, and it was their belief that they were divinely ordained to turn fallow land to agriculture and also to absorb stateless and shifting agriculturists to their own ways. The shifting people were called kha and many such kha people were ceremonially adopted into different Ahom clans, a process called Ahomisation. Sukaphaa befriended those among the Morans and Barahi who were amenable to join him and put to the sword those who opposed him, and in due course, many others were incorporated into Ahom clans. The Ahoms were acutely aware of their smaller numbers, and adroitly avoided confrontations with larger groups. The additions via Ahomisation enhanced the Ahom numbers significantly. This process of Ahomization was particularly significant till the 16th century when under Suhungmung, the kingdom made large territorial expansions at the cost of the Chutiya and the Kachari kingdoms. At this initial stage the kingdom was still not fully sovereign. Sukaphaa sent his word of allegiance and tributes to Mong Mao, a practice that was continued by some of his successors till about the early 14th century when the power of Mong Mao faded to be replaced the power of Mong Kwang, at which point the Ahoms stopped the tributes. The Ahoms began to call their domain Mong Dun Sun Kham ("a country of golden gardens"). Though Sukaphaa had avoided the Namdang region mindful of the numerically small Ahom contingent, but his son Suteuphaa made the Kacharis withdraw on their own via a stratagem and the Ahoms expanded into it; but no further expansions of the Ahom domain occurred for the next two hundred years. The Ahom kingdom, for most of its history, had been closed and population movement closely monitored—nevertheless, there were two significant contacts. One was a friendly encounter with Chutia kingdom that turned into a conflict, and the other was a marriage alliance with the Kamata kingdom. At the end of the 14th century, the nascent Ahom polity faced crises of succession, two regicides, and three quick interregnum periods when the kingdom was without a king. Assam (1401–1510) Sudangphaa Bamuni Konwar (), born and raised in a Brahmin household in Habung, was identified as a descendant of a past king and installed on the throne by the Burhaohain and Borgohain to end the period of crisis. He established Brahmin officers, advisors and communities near the capital and the Brahmin influence, though negligible, was felt for the first time. A number of rebellions erupted purportedly against this influence but Sudangphaa was able to suppress them and solidify his rule. One of the rebels invited a military expedition from Mong Kwang (called Nara in the Buranjis, the successor state of Mong Mao to which the early Ahom kings used to send tribute) resulting in a clash in 1401—but Sudangphaa defeated the expedition and concluded the conflict with a treaty that fixed the boundary between the two polities at Patkai. This event was significant since it moved the Ahom polity from implicit subordination to explicit sovereignty, and this was accompanied by the transition of the name of the polity from Mong-Dun-Sun-Kham to "Assam", a derivative from Shan/Shyam. Sudangphaa established a new capital at Charagua, broke the clan allegiances that held the Ahom polity together earlier replacing it with political authority of the king, and introduced the tradition of the singarigharutha ceremony, the state coronation of the Ahom kings that symbolised royal Ahom sovereignty, authority and legitimacy. Sudangphaa brought the Ahom kingdom very close to a full-fledged state. The next hundred years saw the kingdom mostly suppressing rebellious Naga groups, but a conflict with the Dimasa kingdom in 1490 saw the Ahoms, not strong enough to take them on frontally, suing for peace. The Ahom royalty continuously improved their relationship with the Brahmans which enabled them to gain goodwill with the Indo-Aryanized tribal groups and consolidate power. Full state and expansion (1510–1609) The Ahom kingdom transitioned into a full state rather dramatically in a short period during the reign of Suhungmung Dihingia Raja (). It began first with a consolidation of the militia in 1510, followed by an expansion into the Bhuyan region at Habung in 1512 (probably with the help of the descendants of the Habungia Brahmans settled during Sudangpha's time). The Indo-Aryan Bhuyans were relocated to the capital and absorbed into the lower echelons of the growing state as scribes and warriors. They in turn helped in the elimination of the royalty of the advanced Chutia kingdom in 1523; and that kingdom's nobility, commanders, professional classes, warriors and technologies were absorbed into the Ahom kingdom. It was this formation of the Ahom kingdom that met the aggression from Bengal under Turbak in 1532 and it was able to eliminate the aggressive leadership (with significant loss to itself) and pursue the retreating invaders to the Karatoya river. In 1536, after the series of contacts with the Kachari kingdom, the Ahom rule extended up to the Kolong river in Nagaon; and by the end of Suhungmung's reign, the size of the kingdom had effectively doubled. These expansions created significant changes in the kingdom—the Assamese speaking Hindu subjects outnumbered the Ahoms themselves; and the absorption of the Chutia kingdom meant a wide range of artisan skills became available to it increasing the scope for division of labour. To provide legitimacy to the rule of the Ahom kings among the new subjects Suhungmung assumed the title Swarganarayana (Swargadeo), though nothing like the Rajputisation process occurred with the Ahoms. The nature of the kings institutional relationship to the ministers changed with the creation of a new position, the Borpatrogohain, named after a Chutia office; and the creation of the offices of Sadiyakhowa Gohain (territories acquired from the Chutia kingdom) and the Marangikhowa Gohain (territories acquired from the Kachari kingdom), both of which were reserved for the Borgohain and Burhagohain lineages. The traditional nobles (Chao) now aligned with the Brahmin literati and an expanded ruling class developed. And when the Ahoms under Ton Kham Borgohain pursued the invaders and reached the Karatoya river they began to see themselves as the rightful heir of the erstwhile Kamarupa kingdom. Maturing state (1609–1682) The Ahom kingdom became more broad-based and took many features of its mature form under Pratap Singha (), primarily to meet the sustained attacks from the Mughals. The Paik system was reorganized in 1609 under the professional khel system, replacing the kinship-based system; and paiks could be permanently alienated to non-royal institutions via royal grants. Under the same king, the offices of the Borphukan (viceroy of territories acquired from the Koches and the Mughals), and the Borbarua (the "secretary" of the royal government) were established to increase the number of Patra Mantris to five, along with other smaller offices. The practices of using Brahmins solely for diplomatic missions, the Ahom kings adopting a Hindu name in addition to their Ahom names, and patronising Hindu establishments began with Pratap Singha, though formal initiation of the Ahom kings into Hinduism did not occur till 1648. The Assamese language entered the Ahoms court for the first time and briefly coexisted and eventually replaced the Ahom language. No more major restructuring of the state structure was attempted until the end of the kingdom. After the division of the Koch kingdom between two branches of the Koch dynasty in 1581, the Ahoms allied with their immediate western neighbor, the Koch Hajo branch, from 1603 to prop them as a buffer against the Mughals who had extended their rule to Bengal by 1576. The collapse of the Koch Hajo power in 1614 resulted in the Mughals coming to power up to the Barnadi river. The Mughals attempted further ingress to the east in 1616 with the Battle of Samdhara which marked the beginning of the Ahom–Mughal conflicts which lasted the till 1682 in the Battle of Itakhuli, when the Ahoms were able to push the Mughals back to the west of the Manas river permanently. In 1657, owing to the 'War of succession' among the sons of Shah Jahan. Ahom king Jayadhwaj Singha extended his authority, occupied Kamrup, preventing the other rebellious Koch king Pran Narayan from securing his footing. He speedily extended his authority over whole of western Assam. He brought under his domain the whole Brahmaputra Valley, from Sadiya in the east and Sherpur on the south. Thus, the Ahom state attained the greatest territorial zenith. In 1662, Aurangzeb to bring the lost tracts and to punish the rebels elements in that quarter, launched an invasion under his chief lieutenant Mir Jumla II, in this invasion the Ahoms could not resist up well, and the Mughals occupied the capital, Garhgaon. Unable to keep it, and in at the end of the Battle of Saraighat, the Ahoms not only fended off a major Mughal invasion but extended their boundaries west, up to the Manas river. The western border was fixed at Manas river after the Battle of Itakhuli, which remained the same till the annexation by the British. Following the Battle of Saraighat, the kingdom fell straight under ten years of political disorder. During this period the nobles exercised immense power, and seven kings were put on the throne and deposed. In the meantime, Kamrup went back in the hands of Mughals for a few years. Tungkhungia regime (1682–1826) Gadadhar Singha () established the 'Tungkhungia rule' in Assam, which continued to remain in power till the end of the kingdom. In 1682, the Mughals were defeated in the Battle of Itakhul, and Manas river was fixed as the western boundary. Gadadhar Singha came in conflict with the Vaisnava Satras who began commencing immense power and influence over the state and people, and started a wide–spread persecution of the Vaisnavites. The rule of Tungkhungia Ahom kings was marked by achievements in the Arts and engineering constructions, the Tungkhungia reigme witnessed a relative time of peace and stability till the Moamoria rebellion, also festering internal conflicts that tore the kingdom asunder. According to Guha (1986) Ahom Assam continued to flourish till 1770. The Tungkhungia regime witnessed a relative time of peace till first half of the 18th century, where the population increased, trade expanded, Coinage and monetization made headway. New arts and crafts, new crops and even new style of dress were introduced. Rudra Singha alias Sukhrungphaa (), under whom the Kingdom attained its zeinth. He subdued the kingdoms of Dimasa and Jaintia. He had made extensive preparations to extend the boundary west–towards, attempted to make a confederacy of Hindu kings of eastern India against Mughals. But he died right before he could execute his plans in 1714. Rudra Singha had re–instated the Vaisnava Satras, he himself had taken initiation of the Auniati Gosain (the most influential Brahmana Sattradhikar) but later in his life he got inclined towards Shaktism, considering it to be more suitable for a monarch, he invited a famous Sakta Brahmana from Bengal–Krishnaram Bhattacharya alias Pravatiya Gosain. From his death bed he expressed his will that, all his five sons to be kings in a executive manner and advised them to take initiation of Parvatiya Gosain Siva Singha alias Sutanphaa (), he dropped his father's plan to invade Benagal. He took the initiation of Parvatiya Gosain and established him 'Nilachal mountain' with extensive land grants and paiks. Siva Singha was very much under the influence of Brahmanas and astrologers, 1722 it was predicted by the astrologers that his reign would soon come to a end owing to the evil influence of Chatra–bhanga–yoga. Therefore, he transferred the royal umbrella and throne to his wife Phuleshwari who was given the title of 'Bar–Raja' on the advice of Pravatiya Gosain. Phuleswari melded too much with the religious affairs, she had caused the insult of the Shudra–Mahantas. After the death of Phuleswari, two other wives of Siva Singha were set on the position of 'Bar–Raja', namely Ambika and Sarbeswari. Siva Singha reign was peaceful, except an expedition sent against the Daflas, he had caused the erection of many temples and made numerous grants to the religious sites and brahmanas. He died in 1744, and his younger brother Pramatta Singha was set up on the throne setting aside the claims of Siva Singha's son. Pramatta Singha alias Sunenphaa (), nothing of importance is recorded during his reign. He had erected the Rang Ghar with mansory and built the Sukreswar and Rudreswar temples in Noth–Guwahati. During his reign, Kirti Chandra Borbarua gained much of his political influence. In 1744, he received an ambassador from the king of Twipra. He died in 1751. Rajeswar Singha alias Supremphaa (), he was put on the throne by Kirti Chandra Borbarua by setting aside the claims of seniority of his elder brother Barjana Gohain. Rajeswar Singha had erected the most number of temples among the Ahom Kings, he was an orthodox Hindu and took initiation of Nati–Gosian (a relative of Pravatiya Gosain). In 1765, he sent an expedition to Manipur whose king Jay Singha made an appeal to the Ahom king to recover his country from the Burmese occupation. The first expeditionary force had to be routed off, which was sent through 'Naga Hills', in 1767 another force was despatched through the old Raha route. The second expedition was successful and achieved its objective in recovering Manipur. Kirti Chandra Borbarua who was the most influential noble in the Ahom court, had caused the burning of Buranjis. Rajeswar Singha's reign marked the end of Ahom supremacy and glory, the signs were decay was already visible during his reign. He was succeeded by his younger brother Lakshmi Singha alias Sunyeophaa (). Downfall The Ahom kingdom by the mid-18th century was indeed an over-burdened hierarchical structure, supported by a weak institutional base and meagre economic surplus. The Paik system which in the 17th century had helped the kingdom to repulse the repeated Mughal invasions, had become extremely outdated. The later phase of the rule was also marked by increasing social conflicts, leading to the Moamoria rebellion were able to capture and maintain power at the capital Rangpur for some years but were finally removed with the help of the British under Captain Welsh. The following repression led to a large depopulation due to emigration as well as execution, but the conflicts were never resolved. A much-weakened kingdom fell to repeated Burmese attacks and finally after the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, the control of the kingdom passed into British hands. Ahom economic system The Ahom kingdom was based on the Paik system, a type of corvee labor that is neither feudal nor Asiatic. The first coins were introduced by Jayadhwaj Singha in the 17th century, though the system of personal service under the Paik system persisted. In the 17th century when the Ahom kingdom expanded to include erstwhile Koch and Mughal areas, it came into contact with their revenue systems and adapted accordingly. Trade Trade was carried on usually through barter and use of circulation of money was limited. According to Shihabududdin Tailash, currency in the Ahom kingdom consisted of cawries, rupees and gold coins. With the increase of external trade since the reign of Rudra Singha, there was a corresponding increase in the circuation of money. Inscriptions dating from the reign of Siva Singha, gives the price of number of commodities like rice, ghee, oil, pulses, goat, pegion in connection with worship in different temples of the kingdom. This concludes that the barter economey was in the process of being replaced by the money economy, which was the outcome of Assam's developing economic ties both with feudal India and the neighbouring countries of the north east. Trade with Tibet Due to trade with Tibet, a coin of Jayadhwaj Singha carries a single Chinese character on each side reading Zang Bao. This had been translated as 'treasury of your honour'. Nicholas Rodhes read the inscription as 'Currency of Tibet', Also these two characters were used by the Chinese in Lhasa between 1792 and 1836 with the meaning 'Tibetan currency. Furthermore, there was a significant contact between China and tibet in the mid-seventeen century, so it is not unlikely that the Assamese would have thought have thought that a Chinese character was an appropriate for Assamese-Tibetan trade coin. This piece evidently was an attempt by Jayadhwaj Singha to facilitate trade with Chinese knowing person coming from the direction of Tibet. Rudra Singha is also said to have established an extensive trade with Tibet and to have encouraged intercourse with other nations although he strictly limited the extent to which foreigners were allowed into the country. Presumably, some of the coins of his reign were struck with the silver earned from these trading activities. Another point by which we can understand the trade relation of Ahoms with other nations is through the use of Silver coins. It is to be noted that there are no silver mines in the northeast or in the rest of India, so the metal entered as a result of trade. Extent In extent the kingdom's length was about 500 miles (800 km) and with an average breadth of 60 miles (96 km). The kingdom can be divided into three major regions: the north bank (Uttarkul), the south bank (Dakhinkul), and the island of Majuli. The north bank (Uttarkul) was more populated and fertile but the Ahom kings set up their capital on the south bank (Dakinkul) because it had more inaccessible strongholds and defensible central places. Demographics Population From 1500 to 1770 A.D., one comes across definite signs of demographic growth in the region. There was terrible depopulation In course of the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805) when more than half of the population fell off. Again, during the Burmese regime, the Burmese depredations (1817-1825) further reduced the population by 1/3. It shows that only 7/8 lakh people remained, at the time of British annexation. King Pratap Singha is who, systematised the population distribution and settlement of villages. The census of adult male population of the state was taken very strictly so that every working man would be registered for the state service. The census were properly recorded in registers called paikar piyalar kakat. The following table estimates the population composition of classes, during the reign of king Rajeswar Singha (1751-1769). According to the population estimates computed by Gunabhiram Barua. Urbanization There were towns, but only a small percentage of the population lived in such towns. Some important towns of Ahom time were Rangpur, Garhgoan, Guwahati and Hajo. The capital city of Rangpur, was found to be 20 miles (32.18 km) in extent and thickly populated by Capt. Welsh in 1794. The population, however, never exceeded 10 thousand souls. Ahom administration Swargadeo and Patra Mantris The Ahom kingdom was ruled by a king, called Swargadeo (Ahom language: Chao-Pha), who had to be a descendant of the first king Sukaphaa. Succession was generally by primogeniture but occasionally the great Gohains (Dangarias) could elect another descendant of Sukaphaa from a different line or even depose an enthroned one. Dangarias: Sukaphaa had two great Gohains to aid him in administration: Burhagohain and the Borgohain. In the 1280s, they were given independent territories, they were veritable sovereigns in their given territories called bilat or rajya. The Burhagohain's territory was between Sadiya and Gerelua river in the north bank of the Brahmaputra river and the Borgohain's territory was to the west up to the Burai river. They were given total command over the paiks that they controlled. These positions were generally filled from specific families. Princes who were eligible for the position of Swargadeo were not considered for these positions and vice versa. In the 1527, Suhungmung added a third Gohain, Borpatrogohain. The Borpatrogohain's territory was located between the territories of the other two Gohains. Royal officers: Pratap Singha added two offices, Borbarua and Borphukan, that were directly under the king. The Borbarua, who acted as the military as well as the judicial head, was in command of the region east of Kaliabor not under the command of the Dangarias. He could use only a section of the paiks at his command for his personal use (as opposed to the Dangariyas), the rest rendering service to the Ahom state. The Borphukan was in military and civil command over the region west of Kaliabor, and acted as the Swargadeo's viceroy in the west. Borbaruas were mostly from different Moran, Kachari, Chiring and Khamti communities, while Borphukans were from the Chutia community. The Borbarua and Borphukan offices were not hereditary and thus could be chosen from any families. Patra Mantris: The five positions constituted the Patra Mantris (Council of Ministers). From the time of Supimphaa (1492–1497), one of the Patra Mantris was made the Rajmantri (Prime Minister, also Borpatro; Ahom language: Shenglung) who enjoyed additional powers and the service of a thousand additional paiks from the Jakaichuk village. Other officials The Borbarua and the Borphukan had military and judicial responsibilities, and they were aided by two separate councils (sora) of Phukans. The Borphukan's sora sat at Guwahati and the Borbarua's sora at the capital. Six of them formed the council of the Borbarua with each having his separate duties. The Naubaicha Phukan, who had an allotment of thousand men managed the royal boats, the Bhitarual Phukan, the Na Phukan, the Dihingia Phukan, the Deka Phukan, and the Neog Phukan formed the council of Phukan. The Borphukan also had a similar council of six subordinate Phukans whom he was bound to consult in all matters of importance. This council included Pani Phukan, who commanded six thousand paiks, Deka Phukan who commanded four thousand paiks, the Dihingia Phukan, Nek Phukan and two Chutiya Phukans. The superintending officers were called Baruas. The Baruas of whom there were twenty or more included Bhandari Barua or treasurer; the Duliya Barua, who was in charge of the royal palanquins; the Chaudang Barua who superintended executions; Khanikar Barua was the chief artificer; Sonadar Barua was the mint master and chief jeweler; the Bez Barua was the physician to the Royal family, Hati Barua, Ghora Barua, etc. Other officials included twelve Rajkhowas, and a number of Katakis, Kakatis, and Dolais. The Rajkhowas were governors of given territories and commanders of three thousand paiks. They were the arbitrator who settled local disputes and supervised public works. The Katakis were envoys who dealt with foreign countries and hill tribes. The Kakatis were writers of official documents. The Dolais expounded astrology and determined auspicious time and dates for any important event and undertaking. Governors Members of the royal families ruled certain areas, and they were called Raja. Charing Raja, the heir apparent to the Swargadeo, administered the tracts around Joypur on the right bank of the Burhidihing river. Tipam Raja is the second in line. Namrup Raja is the third in line Members of the royal families who occupy lower positions are given regions called mels, and were called meldangia or raja. Meldangia Gohains were princes of an even lesser grade, of which there were two: Majumelia Gohain and Sarumelia Gohain. Royal ladies were given individual mels, and by the time of Rajeshwar Singha, there were twelve of them. The most important of these was the Raidangia mel given to the chief queen. Forward governors, who were military commanders, ruled and administered forward territories. The officers were usually filled from the families that were eligible for the three great Gohains. Sadiya Khowa Gohain based in Sadiya, administered the Sadiya region that was acquired after the conquest of the Chutia kingdom in 1524. Marangi khowa Gohain administered the region that was contiguous to the Naga groups west of the Dhansiri; acquired from the Kachari kingdom in 1526. Solal Gohain administered a great part of Nagaon and a portion of Chariduar after the headquarters of the Borphukan was transferred to Gauhati. Kajalimukhiya Gohain served under the Borphukan, administered Kajalimukh and maintained relations with Jaintia and Dimarua. Khamjangia Gohain administered the region of Khamjang (part of Naga hills). Banrukia Gohain administered the region of Banruk (part of Sibsagar district). Tungkhungia Gohain administered the region of Tingkhong. Banlungia Gohain administered the region of Banlung (Dhemaji) that was acquired after the conquest of the Chutia kingdom in 1524. Bhatialia Gohain administered the region of Habung acquired from the Chutia kingdom in 1524. Later Borpatrogohain was created in its place. Dihingia Gohain administered the region of Mungklang (Dihing) that was acquired after the conquest of the Chutiya kingdom in 1524. Kaliaboria Gohain administered the region of Kaliabor. Jagiyal Gohain served under Borbarua, administered Jagi at Nagoan and maintained relations with seven tribal chiefs, called Sat Raja. Mohongia Gohain and Mohongor Gohain based in the salt mines of Sadiya and Mohong (Naga hills) conquered from Chutia kingdom and Nagas. Lesser governors were called Rajkhowas, and some of them were: Bacha Darrang Solaguri Abhaypur Tapakuchi Vassals The dependent kings or vassals were also called Raja. Except for the Raja of Rani, all paid an annual tribute. These Rajas were required to meet the needs for resources and paiks when the need arose, as during the time of war. There were in total 15 vassal states. Darrang Raja ruled the later-day Darrang district and were the descendants of Sundar Narayan, a great-grandson of Chilarai of the Koch dynasty. Rani Beltola ruled the tracts southwest of Guwahati and were the descendants of Gaj Narayan, a grandson of Chilarai of the Koch dynasty Luki Barduar Dimarua Gobha Neli The other hill states which acknowledged the overlordship and nominal sovereignty of the Ahoms were the states of: Jaintia Kingdom Dimasa Kingdom Manipur Kingdom Khyrim The states of Jaintia and Dimasa paid annual tributes to the Ahom king, acknowledging the overlordship and the vassalage of Ahoms. In this connection, mention be made of the term thapita sanchita (established and preserved) which determined their relationship with the Ahoms. Paik officials The Ahom kingdom was dependent on the Paik system, a form of corvee labor, reorganized in 1608 by Momai Tamuli Barbarua. Every common subject was a paik, and four paiks formed a got. At any time of the year, one of the paiks in the got rendered direct service to the king, as the others in his got tended to his fields. The Paik system was administered by the Paik officials: A Bora was in charge of 20 paiks, a Saikia of 100 and a Hazarika of 1000. A Rajkhowa commanded three thousand and a Phukan commanded six thousand paiks. Land survey Supatphaa became acquainted with the land measurement system of Mughals during the time he was hiding in Kamrup before he succeeded to the throne. As soon as the wars with Mughals were over he issued orders for the introduction of a similar system throughout his dominions. Surveyors were imported from Koch Behar and Bengal for the work. It was commenced in Sibsagar and was pushed on vigorously, but it was not completed until after his death. Nagaon was next surveyed, and the settlement which followed was supervised by Rudra Singha himself. According to historians, the method of survey included measuring the four sides of each field with a nal, or bamboo pole of length and calculating the area, the unit was the "lucha" or and . is one "Bigha". Four 'bigha' makes one 'Pura'. A similar land measurement system is still being followed in modern Assam. The measurement system helped in the equal distribution of land among the paiks as well as among the nobles and officers. Records of land were maintained under an officer called Darabdhara Barua. Thus all cultivable and occupied land, except homesteads and jungles, were surveyed and recorded. The paper on which this was recorded is called perakagaz or perakakat meaning (paper carefully preserved inside of wooden boxes called pera). As the perakagaz were not durable, copper plates called as tamrapatraor phali were issued for important records, particularly of revenue-free lands gifted to religious sites or to Brahamanas. Military The Ahom military forces included infantry, cavalry, Elephantry, Artillery, Spies and Navy. Land was given to Martial Paiks or peasants in exchange for service. They were organised under various head. Bora was the leader of twenty paiks, Saikia was the leader of a hundred or more, and Hazarika was the leader of a thousand, a Barua was leader of 2000 soldiers, a Rajkowa a leader of 3000 soldiers and a Phukan of 6000 soldiers. The army's commander-in-chief was known as Borphukan. Swords, spears, bows, and arrows, guns, matchlocks, cannons were the primary weapons of the war. The soldiers had been trained to stand firm in battle. The cavalry commander was Ghora Barua, and the elephant commander was Hati Barua. The people of mediaeval Assam were aware of the use of incendiary weapons. However, firearms were first introduced in the early 16th century. The Ahom troops quickly became experts in the manufacture of various types of guns, small and large, matchlocks, artillery, and large cannon. Kharghariya Phukan was the officer in charge of the manufacture of gunpowder. The navy was the most important and powerful division of the Ahom forces. The main warships were known as bacharis. This shape was similar to Bengali kosahs, and each could carry 70 to 80 men. They were tough and powerful, and by the end of the period, many of them were armed with guns. The Fathiya-i-ibriya mentions 32,000 ships belonging to the king of Assam at the time of Mir Jumla's invasion. These were primarily made of chambal wood and were thus light and fast and so difficult to sink. The navy was led by the Naobaicha Phukan and Naosaniya Phukan. Forts were built in strategic locations to provide armed resistance. The Ahom soldiers were skilled at attacking the enemy at night. On the battlefield, a small group of Ahom soldiers could often outnumber thousands of enemy soldiers. Aside from their numerical strength, the Ahom paiks' physical strength, courage, and endurance were the most important factors in the Ahom military's invincibility. Strength The numerical strength of Pratap Singha army consisted of 100,000 foot soldiers, 1,000 war elephants and a large fleet, estimated by the author of Badshahnama. The same king army at a different time was estimated by the author of Baharistan-i-Ghaibi at 300,000 foot soldiers, 180 war elephants and 4,000 war-boats. In 1669, the combined strength of the Infantry and cavalry under the command of the Ahoms was estimated at 1 lakh. Rudra Singha had raised a huge army of 4,00,000 to invade Bengal in November of 1714. Judicial administration In civil matters, Hindu laws were generally followed, while the criminal law was characterized by sternness and comparative harshness, where the general principle was that of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth, and the culprit was punished with precisely the same injury as that inflicted by him on the complainant. The Barbarua and the Barphukan were the chief judicial authorities in their respective provinces, and trials were conducted before them. The punishments for crimes were generally harsh, with offenders punished by impaling, grinding between two cylinders, starving to death, slicing of the body into pieces, hoeing from head to foot, etc. Common punishments included the extraction of eyes and kneecaps, the slicing off of noses, beating with sticks, etc. Classes of people Subinphaa (1281–1293), the third Ahom king, delineated the Satgharia Ahom ("Ahom of the seven houses") aristocracy: the Chaophaa, the Burhagohain and the Borgohain families, and four priestly lineages—the Deodhai, the Mohan, the Bailung and the Chiring Phukan . These lines maintained exogamous marital relationships. The number of lineages increased in later times as either other lineages were incorporated, or existing lineages divided. The king could belong to only the first family whereas the Burhagohain and the Borgohain only to the second and the third families. Most of the Borphukans belonged to the Chutia ethnic group, whereas the Borbaruas belonged to the Morans, Chiring and Khamti groups. Later on Naga, Mising and Nara (Mongkawng) oracles became a part of the Bailung group. The extended nobility consisted of the landed aristocracy and the spiritual class that did not pay any form of tax. The was the gentry that was freed from the khels and paid only money-tax. The paikan chamua consisted of artisans, the literati and skilled people that did non-manual work and rendered service as a tax. The kanri paik rendered manual labor. The lowest were the licchous, bandi-beti and other serfs and bondsmen. There was some degree of movement between the classes. Momai Tamuli Borbarua rose from a bondsman through the ranks to become the first Borbarua under Prataap Singha. Culture Music and dance The culture of dance and music was widespread and the most popular manifestation of it was Bihu. Different styles of dances were performed Queen Phuleshwari was originally attached to Siva temple at Dergaon. Many types of musical instruments were used. Mughal music performances like Nageras under the Royal patronage were introduced. Rudra Singha had right regards for Mughal music and sent Assamese musicians to Delhi to learn the playing of the instruments like Pakhuaj. The king also appointed certain officers like Gyan barua, for the promotion of music and art. The Assamese monarchs Rudra Singha and his son Siva Singha were both writers of songs. Rajeswar Singha was the author of a drama entitled Kichak Bandh. To celebrate the visit of the Rajas of Manipur and Cachar, a Bhaona entitled as Ravan-Badh, was performed at the Ahom capital Rangpur, Assam and the master of the performance was the Deka-Barbarua, son of Kirti Chandra Barbarua, in this Bhaona 700 men took part. Architecture The metropolis at Rangpur contains the famous Talatal Ghar, Rang Ghar and in Garhgoan, Kareng Ghar. Temples The first temple thought to be constructed by Ahoms was in the banks of Karatoya by Suhungmung Dihingia Roja, after defeating and chasing the musalman invaders till Karatoya. The most notable temples of the Ahom period are the Sivasagar group of temples constructed between 1731 and 1734 these temples are dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, and Devi. The Siva temple was built of stone and bricks and is one of the high-altitude Siva temples in India and is a place of great sanctity. Gaurisagar group of temples were constructed between 1715 and 1715 of which the Devi dol is the main temple, beside there is the other two temples dedicated to Siva and Vishnu. The Devi dol was built of stone and bricks, its stone artwork is best among the other Ahom temples, next to Joy dol. The Shiva dol of Gaurisagar is very much similar to that of Shiva dol of Sivasagar. The Joysagar group of temples are standing on the bank of Joysagar tank. The temples were constructed in 1698 by Rudra Singha, the main tempe is the Joy dol or the Kesavaraya Vishnu dol, this is the biggest temple based on Nilachal architecture after the Kamakhya Temple. The stone work of Joy dol is the finest among all the Ahom temples, beside Joy dol there are more temples dedicated to Shiva, Ganesha, Devi, and, Surya. Negheriting Shiva Dol constructed in 1765 by Rajeswar Singha.This temple is constructed of brick and stone and is built in Panchayatana style with the main temple in the middle and the subsidiary temple surrounding it, it is one of the most unique temples constructed by Ahoms. The other temples of the Ahoms are the Surya Mandir, the Ranganath Dol, the Fakua Dol and the Ganesa Mandir at Joysagar, the Visnu Dol on the bank of the Rudrasagar Tank near Bhatiapar, the Visnu Dol and the Jagatdhatri Dol at Kalogoan, the Visnu Dol and the Devi Dol on the bank of the Namti tank. The Mahesvara Ghar (Garakhia Dol) on the southern bank of the Dikhow river at Nazira, the Thowra Dol on the north-east of Sibsagar city, the Siva Dol on the bank of the Brahmaputra at Dergaon, the Piyali Phukanar Dol at Galeky, the Bezar Dol at Demow, Hara Gauri dol, Gauri Ballabh dol, and multiple temples at Lower Assam built through the Borphukan, etc. Apart from these there are a number of other temples which exist today only in ruins like the Bogi Dol near Joysagar, the Borpatra Dol at Kenduguri, the Keri Rajmao Dol at Mathichiga, the Ikhneswar Dol at Rangpur, the Govindra Dol at Gargaon, the Langkuri Dol, the Gota Dol at Charaideo, the Naphuki Rajmao Dol at Naphuk, the Sam Rajmao Dol at Nazira etc. Tanks The excavations of tanks was one of the notable works system under Ahoms. There grandeur was enhanced by construction of temples in their bank. Among the largest of tank there is the Joysagar tank excavated by Rudra Singha in 1698, this tank covers a total area of 318 acres of which 155 acres in underwater, many notable temples were constructed on its bank. Phuleswari Devi had excavated the Gaurisagar or Namdangar puskarni in the chronicles, this tank was excavated on (17 Feb, 1724) and the excavation was completed in (30 June 1724). In includes a total area of 293 acre of which 150 acre is underwater, on its bank three temples are built dedicated to Devi, Shiva and Vishnu. Queen Ambika devi had excavated the Sivasagar Tank in 1733, it has a total area of 257 acre of which 127 acre is underwater. Besides this, there are some more great Tanks, like- Lakshmi Sagar, Vishu Sagar or Rajmao Pukhuri, and Rudra Sagar. The number of other tanks excavated by the Ahom rulers is estimated to be approximately, 200. Painting See also Ahom Dynasty Ahom–Mughal conflicts Treaty of Ghilajharighat Ramani Gabharu Koch–Ahom conflicts Mueang Möng Mao Paik system Singarigharutha ceremony Hengdang Notes References Kingdoms of Assam Tai history Former monarchies of Asia States and territories established in 1228 Medieval India 1228 establishments in Asia 1826 disestablishments in India 13th-century establishments in India History of India
5260180	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hevajra	Hevajra	Hevajra (Tibetan: ཀྱེའི་རྡོ་རྗེ་ kye'i rdo rje / kye rdo rje; Chinese: 喜金剛 Xǐ jīngāng / 呼金剛 Hū jīngāng;) is one of the main yidams (enlightened beings) in Tantric, or Vajrayana Buddhism. Hevajra's consort is Nairātmyā (Tibetan: bdag med ma). History India The Hevajra Tantra, a yoginītantra of the anuttarayogatantra class, is believed to have originated between the late 8th (Snellgrove), and the late 9th or early 10th centuries (Davidson), in Eastern India, possibly Kamarupa. Tāranātha lists Saroruha and Kampala (also known as "Lva-va-pā", "Kambhalī", and "Śrī-prabhada") as its "bringers": .. the foremost yogi Virupa meditated on the path of Yamāri and attained siddhi under the blessings of Vajravārāhi,...His disciple Dombi Heruka..understood the essence of the Hevajra Tantra, and composed many śāstras like the Nairātmā-devi-sādhana and the Sahaja-siddhi. He also conferred abhiṣeka on his own disciples. After this, two ācāryas Lva-va-pā and Saroruha brought the Hevajra Tantra. ... Siddha Saroruha was the first to bring the Hevajra-pitṛ-sādhana Another lineage, mentioned by Jamgon Kongtrul, goes from Vilāśyavajra to Anangavajra to Saroruha and thence to Indrabhuti. Jamgon Amyeshab, the 28th throne holder of Sakya, considers the Hevajra Tantra to have been revealed to Virupa by the Nirmanakaya Vajranairatma. This tantra is also considered by him to have been revealed to Dombhi Heruka, Virupa's senior disciple, by Nirmanakaya Vajranairatma, from whom the main Sakya exegetical lineage of the Hevajra tantra descends. The Yogaratnamālā, arguably the most important of the commentaries on the Hevajratantra, was written by one Kṛṣṇa or Kāṇha, who taught Bhadrapada, another commentator, who in turn taught Tilopa, the teacher of Nāropa, who himself wrote a commentary. He, in turn, passed on his knowledge of this tantra to Marpa (1012-1097 AD), who also taught in Tibet. Marpa also received instruction in the Hevajratantra from Maitrīpa, alias Advayavajra, who was banished from Vikramashila for practicing with a yoginī during the time of Atīśa's abbothood. Kanha was one of the authors of Charyapada. Tibet Some time in the early 11th century, Drogmi Lotsawa Shākya Yeshe ('brog mi lo ts'a ba sh'akya ye shes) (993-1077 AD) journeyed from Drompa-gyang in Lhatsé to Nepal and India, including Vikramashila, where he received instruction in the Hevajratantra from Śānti-pa (Ratnākaraśānti) and later to Bengal, where he encountered Prajñedraruci (Vīravajra) who instructed him in the "rootless Margapala" (Tib. Lamdré) that is particularly concerned with the Hevajra tantra and its commentaries. Drakpa Gyeltsen writes in his Chronicle of the Indic Masters: Now Lachen [Drokmi] first went to Nepal and entered into the door of mantra through [the teacher] Bhāro Ham-thung. Then he went to India itself and, realizing that the Āchārya Ratnākaraśānti was both greatly renowned and learned, he heard extensively the Vinaya, Prajñapāramitā, and mantra. Then having gone to the eastern part of India, he encountered Bhikṣu Vīravajra, who was the greatest direct disciple of Durjayachandra, who himself had held the lineage of Āchārya Virūpa's own disciple, Ḍombiheruka. From Bhikṣu Vīravajra he heard extensively the mantra material of the three tantras of Hevajra, complete in all their branches. He also requested the many instruction manuals of Acintyakrama and so forth, so that he heard the "Lamdré without the fundamental text" (rtsa med lam 'bras) as well. In this way, Drokmi lived in India for twelve years and became a great translator. After twelve years he returned to central Tibet, probably by 1030, translated the Hevajratantra into Tibetan, and taught, among others, Dkon mchog ryal po (1034-1102 AD), the founder of the Sa-skya Monastery in 1073 AD. This was the beginning of the close relationship between the Sakya Order and the Hevajratantra. In the Blue Annals, Gos lotsawa suggests that both the Hevajra and the Kalachakra Tantras are commentaries on, or introductions to, the Guhyasamāja. Elsewhere China The Chinese version of the Hevajra Tantra (Taishō XVIII 892, p. 587-601) was translated by Fa-hu (Dharmapalā) at the Institute for Canonical Translations (Yi jing yuan) in the capital of the Northern Sung (960-1128 AD), Bian liang, present day Kaifeng in Henan province. The five-volume translation was presented to Emperor Jen-tsung at the end of Zhi he 1 (11 February 1054- 30 January 1055 AD) . However, the Hevajra Tantra did not become popular in China. The title of the Chinese version reads "The Scriptural Text of the Ritual of The Great King of the Teaching The Adamantine One with Great Compassion and Knowledge of the Void explained by the Buddha." The preface reads: From among the 32 sections of the general tantra of Mahāmāyā one has taken 2 rituals with Nairātmyā. Dharmapāla, Great Master who transmits Sanskrit (texts), thoroughly illuminated and enlightened with Compassion, Probationary Senior Lord of Imperial Banquets, Grandee of Imperial Banquets with the Honour of Silver and Blue, Tripiṭaka from India in the West during the Sung, received the honour of translating it by Imperial Mandate. Cambodia Surviving images indicate that the Hevajra Tantra was present in Cambodia during the Khmer Empire and its practice thrived in Cambodia from the 10th to 13th centuries. Mongolia In 1244 the grandson of Genghis Khan, Prince Godan, invited Sakya Pandita to Mongolia and was initiated by him into the Hevajra teachings. In 1253 Kublai Khan invited Sakya Pandita's Nephew Chogyal Phagpa to court. As a result, Buddhism was declared the state religion and Phagpa was given authority over three of Tibet's provinces. The West The Hevajra Tantra became the first major Buddhist Tantra to be translated in its entirety into a Western language when David Snellgrove published his The Hevajra Tantra: A Critical Study in 1959. This work is in two volumes, the first volume containing his introduction including an "apology" explaining why such a text is worthy of study (apparently because of the unsavory reputation the tantras had acquired in the West early in the 20th century. Writing in 1959 he was able to say, "There is still a tendency to regard them as something corrupt, as belonging to the twilight of Buddhism." The second volume contains his editions of the Sanskrit and Tibetan texts (the Tibetan text being taken from the snar thang Kengyur) as well as a Sanskrit text of the Yogaratnamālā. Another translation appeared in 1992 as The Concealed Essence of the Hevajra-tantra. by G.W. Farrow and I. Menon. This version contains the Sanskrit text and English translation of the tantra as well as a complete English translation of the Yogaratnamālā. An English translation from Fa-hu's Chinese version was made by Charles Willemen in 1983 and published as "The Chinese Hevajratantra". In 2008 the German scholar Jan-Ulrich Sobisch published a detailed literary history of Indian and Tibetan writings on Hevajra as it was seen through the eyes of A-mes-zhabs, a 17th-century master of the Sa-skya-pa tradition (Sobisch 2008). Text Originally written in mixed quality Sanskrit (with some verses in Apabhraṃśa), the present 750 verse text is reported to be but an excerpt or summary of a much larger, original text of up to 500,000 ślokas (verses) in 32 sections. Many Buddhist texts claim to be condensations of much larger missing originals, with most of the alleged originals either never having been found, or perhaps conceived of as "virtual" texts that exist permanently in some disembodied way. However, the existence of the 100,000 verse Prajnaparamita Sutra shows that works of such proportions were actually produced. The Hevajra Tantra has some material in common with other sources: II iii 29 of the Hevajratantra is the same as XVI 59c-60b of the Guhyasamajatantra, and an Apabhraṃśa couplet at II v 67 of the Hevajratantra appears in one of Saraha's songs. In the case of the Guhyasamaja, it is safe to assume that the Hevajra version is later, but the case is not as clear cut with the Saraha quote, since the relative dates are harder to establish with any certainty. Root Tantra Dvātriṃśatkalpoddhṛtaḥ kalpadvayātmako śrīhevajraḍākinījālasamvaramahātantrarājā Manuscripts in the National Archives, Kathmandu, Nepal No. 3-303. No. 3-238. No. 4-6. No. 4-71. Manuscript in the Cambridge University Library, Add. 1340 Manuscript belonging to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, no. 11317 Manuscripts in the Tōkyō University Library: Nos 509-512 Editions: Snellgrove Farrow and Menon Tibetan: - Narthang Kangyur, snar thang 369, vol. 80, rgyud (ka) 306b-351b colophon: Edition: Snellgrove (Hevajratantrarājanāma) Tōh. 417, sDe-dge Kangyur rgyud 'bum vol. nga, 1b-13b colophon: Urga Kangyur, urga 418, vol.79, rgyud (nga), 1r-30r colophon: Stog Palace Kangyur, stog 379, Volume 94, rgyud bum (ga), 107r-148v colophon: Lhasa Kangyur, lhasa 380, volume 79, rgyud (ka), 672-761 colophon: CommentariesYogaratnamālā by KāṇhaŚrīhevajravyākhyākhyāvivaraṇa by BhadrapādaNetravibhanga by DharmakīrtīSmṛtiniṣpatti (?) by KāṇhaVajrapādasārasaṃgraha by NāroMuktāvalī by Ratnākaraśānti Sanskrit edition from five manuscripts by Ram Shankar Tripathi and Thakur Sain Negi in the series Bibliotheca Indo-Tibetica Series XLVIII, Central Institute for Higher Tibetan Studies, Sarnath, 2001.Padminī by SaroruhaSuviśuddhasaṃpuṭa by ṬankadāsaṢaṭsāhasrikā-Hevajra-Ṭīkā by Daśabhūmīśvara Vajragharba Sanskrit edition from two incomplete mss, Tibetan edition, with English translation of Sanskrit portion and summary of remaining part, in Shendge, Malati J., 2004. Ṣaṭsāhasrikā-Hevajra-Ṭīkā: A Critical Edition. Pratibha Prakashan, Delhi. "On this shorter tantra of 750 verses containing many vajrapadas which is selected from abother big tantra of five lakhs (500,000) of verses, is revealed this commentary, which owes its inspiration to Hevajra and which is known to contain 6000 verses and following mulatantra, by the illustrious Vajragarbha." (1.4-6) Explanatory Tantras Ḍākinīvajrapañjaratantra SaṃpuṭatantraIconography Hevajra has four forms described in the Hevajra Tantra and four forms described the Samputa Tantra: Hevajra Tantra Kaya Hevajra The two armed Body (Kaya) Hevajra described in the Hevajra Tantra stands in an advancing posture on a multi-coloured lotus, corpse, and sun disk. He is dark blue in colour. His right hand holds a vajra club, and his left hand holds a vajra-marked skull cup. He embraces his consort Vajranairatma (rDo-rje bDag-med-ma). A khatvanga staff rests on his left shoulder and he is adorned with the six symbolic ornaments. In the Sadhanamala this form of Hevajra is single (ekavira) - without a consort. Vak Hevajra The four armed Speech (Vak) Hevajra described in the Hevajra Tantra stands in an advancing posture on a multi-coloured lotus, corpse, and sun disk. He is dark blue in colour. One right hand holds a vajra and one left hand a skull full of blood, the other pair of arms embrace his consort Vajravarahi (rDo-rje phag-mo). Citta Hevajra The six armed Mind (Citta) Hevajra described in the Hevajra Tantra stands in an advancing posture with right leg extended and left bent on a multi-coloured lotus, corpse, and sun disk. He is dark blue in colour with three faces - C. blue, R. white and L. red. Each face has three blood shot eyes and four bared fangs, and frowns with knotted brows. His tawny hair streams up surmounted with a crossed vajra. Two right hands hold a vajra and a knife, two left a trident and a bell; the remaining pair of arms embrace his consort Vajrasrinkhala. Hevajra is imbued with the nine dramatic sentiments and adorned with a diadem of five dry skulls, a necklace of fifty fresh heads and the six symbolic ornaments or 'seals'. Hrdaya Hevajra The sixteen-armed, four-legged eight-faced Heart (Hrdaya) Hevajra described in the Hevajra Tantra stands with two legs in ardha-paryanka and the other two in alidha posture (left bent, right extended) on a multi-coloured eight petalled lotus, the four Maras in the forms of yellow Brahma, black Vishnu, white Shiva (Mahesvara) and yellow Indra and a sun disc resting on their hearts. Sri Hevajra is 16 years old, black in color, naked, with eight faces, sixteen arms and four legs. His central face is black, the first right white, the first left red, the upper face smoke-coloured and ugly; the outer two faces on each side, black. All have three round blood shot eyes, four bared fangs, a vibrating tongue, and frowning with knotted brows. His lustrous tawny hair streams upward crowned with a crossed vajra. He is adorned with a diadem of five dry skulls. The sixteen hands hold sixteen skull cups. The central pair of arms skull contain a white elephant and the yellow earth-goddess Prithvi, and embrace his consort Vajranairatma (rDo-rje bDag-med-ma) whose two legs encircle his body. Her right hands holds a curved knife (kartika), while the left is wrapped around the neck of her lord and holds a skullcup (kapala). In the other seven skull cups held in Hevajra's outer right hands are: a blue horse, a white-nosed ass, a red ox, an ashen camel, a red human, a blue sarabha deer, and an owl or cat. In the skull cups in the outer seven left hands are the white water-god Varuna, the green wind-god Vayu, the red fire-god Agni / Tejas, the white moon god Chandra, the red sun god Surya or Aditya, blue Yama lord of death and yellow Kubera or Dhanada lord of wealth. Hevajra is adorned with the six symbolic ornaments: circlet, earrings, necklace, bracelets, girdle armlets and anklets and smeared with the ashes of the charnel ground. He wears a necklace of fifty freshly severed human heads. Samputa Tantra The four forms of Hevajra described in the Samputa Tantra all dance on a lotus, corpse, blood-filled skull cup and sun disk throne. Kaya Hevajra The two armed Kaya-Hevajra (sku kyE rdo rje) - "Shaker of all the Three Worlds" ('jig-rten gsum kun-tu bskyod-pa) - stands in dancing posture on a multi-coloured lotus, corpse, blood-filled skull cup and sun disk. He is black in colour, with one face, three round red eyes, and two arms. His right hand wields a five pronged vajra club and the left hand holds a skull cup brimming with blood. He embraces his consort Vajranairatma (rdo-rje bdag-med-ma), blue in colour, with one face and two arms, holding curved knife and skull cup. Vak Hevajra The four armed Vak-Hevajra (sung kyE rdo rje), stands in dancing posture on a multi-coloured lotus, corpse, blood-filled skull cup and sun disk. He is black in colour with one face, three round red eyes two legs and four arms. The outer right hand wields a five pronged vajra club, the outer left hand holds a blood-filled skull-cup; the other pair of arms embrace his consort Vajravarahi (rDo-rje phag-mo), who is similar to him. Citta Hevajra The six armed Citta-Hevajra (thugs kyE rdo rje) stands in dancing posture (ardha paryanka) with his right toenails pressed against his left thigh on an eight-petaled multi-coloured lotus, corpse, skull-cup brimming with blood, and sun disc. He is black, with three faces: black, white and red - each face having three round blood shot eyes. His light yellowish hair streams upwards crested with a crossed vajra, and he wears a diadem of five dry skulls. He is adorned with a necklace of fifty freshly severed human heads, the six symbolic ornaments and clad in a tiger skin skirt. The first pair of hands hold a vajra and bell embracing is consort Vajrasrnkhala, who is similar to him. The other right hands hold an arrow and a trident. The other left hands hold a bow and a skull cup. Hrdaya Hevajra The sixteen-armed, four-legged Hrdaya Hevajra (snying po kyE rdo rje) stands with two legs in dancing posture (ardha paryanka) and two in aleedha posture (right leg extended) on an eight-petalled multicoloured lotus are, the four Maras (Skanda Mara in the form of yellow Brahma, Klesa Mara as black Vishnu, Mrtyu Mara as white Shiva, Devaputra Mara as pale yellow Śakra), a blood filled skull-cup and sun disc. He is black in colour with eight faces, sixteen arms and four legs. The central face is black and laughing loudly, the right is white and the left is red, and the upper face black and bears its fangs; the other eight faces are black. Each face has three blod-shot eyes. His tawny hair flows upwards crested with a double vajra and he wears a diadem of five dry skulls. He is adorned with a necklace of fifty freshly severed human heads, the six symbolic ornaments and clad in a tiger skin skirt. His first pair of hands hold a vajra and bell, embracing his consort Nairatma blue in colour with two hands holding a curved knife (gri gug) and skull cup. Hevajra's remaining right hands hold a sword, arrow, wheel, skull cup, club, trident and hook; the remaining left hands hold a lotus, bow, trident, skull, jewel, threatening forefinger and noose. See also Cakrasamvara and Vajravārāhī Hayagriva Hevajra at the Rubin Museum of Art Notes References Chattopadhyana, Debiprasad, ed. 1970 Taranatha's History of Buddhism in India. Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Simla Chandra, Lokesh. 2002. Dictionary of Buddhist Iconography. Delhi: Aditya Prakashan. Davidson, Ronald M. 2002. "Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement." Columbia University Press, NY. 2005. "Tibetan Renaissance: Tantric Buddhism in the Rebirth of Tibetan Culture." Columbia University Press, NY. Farrow, G.W. & Menon I. 1992. The Concealed Essence of the hevajra-tantra. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas. Finot, Louis. 1934. "Manuscrits sanscrits de sādhana retrouvés en Chine (Hevajrasekaprakriyā)." Journal Asiatique, 1-85. Matsunami, S. 1965. "A Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Tōkyō University Library." Tōkyō. Pott, P.H. 1969. The Mandala of Heruka. in CIBA Journal No. 50 Roerich, George N., 1949 The Blue Annals. Royal Asiatic Society of Calcutta, Calcutta Shashibala, Dr., 2008 "Hevajra in Buddhist Literature, Imperial Ceremonies and Art" in Ardussi, John A. & Topgay, Sonam (eds.) Written Treasures of Bhutan: Mirror of the Past and Bridge to the Future (Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Scriptural Heritage of Bhutan). vol 1 pp 357–380. Thimphu: National Library of Bhutan. Shendge, Malati J., 2004. Ṣaṭsāhasrikā-Hevajra-Ṭīkā: A Critical Edition. Pratibha Prakashan, Delhi Snellgrove, D.L. 1959. The Hevajra Tantra: A Critical Study. (London Oriental Series, Vol. 6) London: Oxford University Press. Sobisch, Jan-Ulrich, 2008, Hevajra and Lam ‘bras Literature of India and Tibet as Seen Through the Eyes of A-mes-zhabs,'' (Contributions to Tibetan Studies 6), Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 249 pp. Willemen, Ch. 1983. "The Chinese Hevajratantra." Orientalia Gandensia III, Uitgeverij Peeters, België. External links Hevajra Tantra and Related Subjects (Himalayanart.org) Herukas Buddhist tantras Tibetan Buddhist practices Vajrayana
5260228	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprostocetus	Aprostocetus	Aprostocetus is a genus of hymenopteran insects of the family Eulophidae. The genus was erected by John O. Westwood in 1833. This very large group (about 800 described species) of parasitoid wasps has a global distribution. Species Widespread species A. antiguensis – Caribbean, Florida A parasitoid recorded on the coccid scale insect Ceroplastes floridensis and the tischeriid moth Tischeria heliopsisella A. asthenogmus – Palaearctic, North Africa, Indomalaya, Seychelles, Caribbean A parasitoid of blattid cockroaches of the genus Periplaneta A. beatus – Australia (Queensland), Oceania, southern Africa A parasitoid of various bugs – members of the families Cicadellidae, Delphacidae and Tropiduchidae are recorded as hosts A. bruzzonis – Holarctic A parasitoid of tortoise beetles of the genus Cassida A. ceroplastae -Holarctic, Near East and also introduced into parts of Africa and Australia for biocontrol purposes A parasitoid of various coccid scale insects A. crino – Holarctic, Indomalaya A parasitoid of crickets of the genus Oecanthus A. diplosidis – Cosmopolitan A parasitoid on various gall midges A. dubius – Indonesia, New Guinea A parasitoid of katydids in the Sexavaini A. fasciatus – Northern South America, Caribbean, India A parasitoid of various gall midges A. fidius – Central and southern United States, Caribbean A parasitoid of various gall midges A. formosanus – Hawaii, South East Asia, Madagascar A parasitoid on various delphacid bugs A. gala – Caribbean, Florida, Australia, India A parasitoid recorded on various gall midges and curculionid weevils A. hagenowii – Cosmopolitan, used in North America for biocontrol of cockroaches A parasitoid of various cockroaches, also recorded from bark beetles and evaniid wasps A. leucone – Holarctic A. longicauda – Holarctic A. marylandensis – Central and eastern United States, Caribbean A parasitoid recorded on a wide range of hosts including gall midges, curculionid weevils, aphidid aphids, gelechiid and tortricid moths and fellow eulophids A. megameli – Philippines, Hawaii A parasitoid on the delphacid bug Megamelus proserpina A. microcosmus – Holarctic, Neotropical and Afrotropical regions, Indomalaya and Australia Host unknown but associated with Hyparrhenia hirta A. microscopicus – Holarctic A parasitoid on various gall midges A. minutus – Holarctic, Neotropical, North Africa A parasitoid recorded on a huge range of hosts including many Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera and Neuroptera A. neglectus – Holarctic, North Africa, Near East and Indomalaya A parasitoid on various lady beetles, also recorded on the aphidid aphid Myzus cerasi A. niger – Indomalaya, Australia A parasitoid on the triozid bug Trioza fletcheri A. pallipes – Holarctic A parasitoid on various gall midges, also recorded on the eriocraniid moth Eriocrania semipurpurella A. pausiris – Holarctic A parasitoid recorded on the gall midge Dasineura leguminicola and chloropid flies of the genus Lipara A. percaudatus – Europe, India A parasitoid of crickets of the genus Oecanthus A. pygmaeus – Holarctic A parasitoid on various gall midges and apid bees A. sicarius – Former Yugoslavia, Africa, Near East A parasitoid recorded on various coccid scale insects and the buprestid beetle Agrilus sinuatus A. sobrius – Nearctic, Russia A parasitoid of gall midges of the genus Asphondylia, also recorded on a fellow chalcidoid, the eurytomid Bruchophagus gibbus A. strobilanae – Holarctic A parasitoid recorded on various gall midges and tortricid moths, also recorded on a fellow chalcidoid, the torymid Torymus azureus A. terebrans – Holarctic A. toddaliae – Near East, Madagascar A parasitoid of coccid scale insects of the genus Ceroplastes A. venustus – Holarctic A parasitoid recorded on various gall midges and eurytomid wasps of the genus Bruchophagus A. zosimus – Holarctic, North Africa and New Zealand A parasitoid recorded on a very wide range of insects including Diptera, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera. Parasitized in turn by the eupelmid Eupelmus allynii Palaearctic species A. aartseni – Greece A. acron – Czech Republic A. aega – Palaearctic A parasitoid of the gall midge Dasineura glechomae A. aethiops – Palaearctic Recorded as a parasitoid on a variety of insects including bean weevils, gall midges, gall wasps and other chalcidoids (family Eurytomidae) A. agevilleae – Italy, Slovakia A parasitoid of the gall midge Agevillea abietis A. agrus – Palaearctic A. albae – China (Shaanxi province) A parasitoid of the bark beetle Cryphalus exiguus A. alveatus – Palaearctic, North Africa A parasitoid recorded on the gall midge Massalongia rubra and the gall wasp Rhodites mayri A. amenon – Palaearctic A parasitoid of the gall midge Dasineura ulmariae A. andalusicus – Spain A parasitoid of gall wasps of the genus Plagiotrochus A. annulatus – Central Europe A parasitoid recorded on the gall midge Asphondylia sarothamni and some coccid scale insects A. anodaphus – Palaearctic A parasitoid of the gall midge Rhopalomyia ptarmicae A. apama – Palaearctic A parasitoid of various gall midges A. apiculatus – Palaearctic A. aquaticus – Palaearctic Host unknown but associated with Phragmites australis A. aquilus – Britain A parasitoid of the gall midge Dasineura trifolii A. arathis – Britain A. arenarius – Europe A. aristaeus – Palaearctic A. arrabonicus – Palaearctic Host unknown but associated with Alopecurus pratensis A. arsenjevi – Far eastern Russia A. artemisiae – Palaearctic A parasitoid of gall midges of the genus Rhopalomyia A. artemisicola – Palaearctic A parasitoid of the gall midge Contarinia artemisiae A. askewi – France Host unknown but associated with Daucus carota A. atticus – Greece A parasitoid of gall midges of the genus Cystiphora A. aurantiacus – Palaearctic A parasitoid of gall wasps of the genus Diplolepsis A. avetjanae – Armenia A parasitoid of the gall wasp Diplolepsis fructuum A. azoricus – Azores A. bakkendorfi – Denmark A parasitoid associated with gall producing insects on Astragalus glycyphyllos A. balasi – Central Europe A parasitoid of moths – recorded on gracillariids of the genus Phyllocnistis and the tortricid Pseudargyrotoza conwagana A. beringi – Far eastern Russia A. beroe – Britain A. beyazus – Iran A. biorrhizae – Palaearctic A parasitoid of the gall wasp Biorhiza pallida (which causes oak apples) A. blandus – Far eastern Russia A. blastophagusi – China (Heilongjiang) A parasitoid of the bark beetles Ips subelongatus and Tomicus pilifer A. boreus – Europe A parasitoid of the tephritid fruit flies Euleia heraclei and Philophylla heraclei A. bouceki – Spain A. brachycerus – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges, also recorded on the nepticulid moth Nepticula argyropeza A. brevipennis – Czech Republic, Slovakia A. bucculentus – Armenia, Turkey, Israel A parasitoid on a fellow chalcidoid – the eurytomid Eurytoma amygdali A. calamarius – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges A. calvus – Palaearctic A parasitoid recorded on the cockroach Loboptera decipiens and the evaniid wasp Zeuxevania splendidula A. capitigenae – Palaearctic A parasitoid on the gall midge Bayeria capitigena A. capnopterus – Southern Europe A. catius – Palaearctic A. caudatus – Palaearctic A parasitoid on the gall midge Dasineura alopecuri A. cebennicus – France A. cecidomyiarum – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges, also recorded on the gall wasp Biorhiza pallida (which causes oak apples) A. celtidis – Europe A parasitoid on leaf beetles of the genus Pyrrhalta, also recorded on the gracillariid moth Lithocolletis lantanella A. cerricola – Palaearctic A parasitoid on the gall midge Macrodiplosis dryobia A. chakassicus – Russia A parasitoid on the gall midge Dasineura rozhkovi A. ciliatus – Palaearctic A parasitoid on the gall midge Rabdophaga heterobia A. citrinus – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges, also recorded on the gall wasp Aylax rogenhoferi A. citripes – Europe A parasitoid on various dytiscid beetles, also recorded on the lasiocampid moth Dendrolimus pini A. clavicornis – Palaearctic A parasitoid recorded on various gall midges, aphids and scale insects A. claviger – Palaearctic A. coccidiphagus – Britain A parasitoid on kermesid scale insects of the genus Kermes A. collega – Europe A parasitoid on various gall midges A. constrictus – Palaearctic A parasitoid recorded on brentid beetles of the genus Apion and gall midges of the genus Oligotrophus A. cracens – Southern Europe, Turkey A parasitoid on the buprestid beetle Coraebus rubi A. craneiobiae – Northern Europe A parasitoid on various gall midges A. crassiceps – Central Europe A. crypturgus – China (Shaanxi province) A parasitoid on various bark beetles A. csokakoensis – Palaearctic A. culminis – France A. cultratus – Britain A. curtivena – France A. cycladum – Greece Host unknown but associated with Thymelaea hirsuta A. cyniphidum – Central Europe A parasitoid on various gall wasps A. dauci – - Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges A. debilitatus – France A. deceptor – France A. dendroctoni – China (Guizhou province) A parasitoid on various bark and longhorn beetles A. deobensis – Palaearctic A parasitoid on the tenthredinid sawfly Pontania viminalis A. dezhnevi – Far eastern Russia A. distichus – Central Europe A. diversus – Palaearctic A parasitoid recorded on a wide range of insects including curculionid weevils, gall midges and gracillariid and lyonetiid moths A. doksyensis – Czech Republic A. domenichinii – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges and gall wasps A. dotus – Britain A parasitoid of the gall midge Dasineura ulmariae A. dryocoetae – Sweden A. dryocosmi – China (Zhejiang province) A parasitoid on the gall wasp Dryocosmus kuriphilus A. durmitorensis – former Yugoslavia A. elegantulus – France A. eleuchia – Western Europe A parasitoid of the gall midge Cystiphora sonchi A. elongatus – Europe, Near East A parasitoid of variouschalcidoids and gall midges A. emesa – Palaearctic A parasitoid on the gall midge Dasineura alopecuri A. epicharmus – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges A. epilobiellus – Netherlands A parasitoid on the gall midge Dasineura epilobii A. epilobii – Central Europe A parasitoid on the gall midge Dasineura epilobii A. eratus – Britain A. ericae – France A parasitoid on the gall midge Cecidomyia ericoscopariae A. eriophyes – Europe, Near East A parasitoid on various eriophyid mites A. ermaki – Far eastern Russia A. escherichi – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges A. esherensis – Britain A. euagoras – Britain A. eupatorii – Palaearctic A. eupolis – Britain A. eurystoma – Palaearctic A. eurytomae – Palaearctic, Near East A parasitoid on various gall wasps – also recorded on the eurytomid Eurytomus rosae A. eurytus – Europe A parasitoid recorded on a wide range of insects including apionid beetles, ledrid bugs, gall wasps and eurytomid chalcidoids A. extensus – France A. fabicola – Palaearctic A parasitoid on the gall midge Lasioptera fabae A. facetus – Russia (Adygea) A. femoralis – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various weevils (family Curculionidae) and moths (families Gracillariidae and Lyonetiidae) A. flavicapitus – Far eastern Russia A. flavifrons – Italy, Madeira A parasitoid on the agromyzid fly Cerodontha pygmaea A. flavovarius – Europe A parasitoid on various gall midges, also recorded on the gracillariid moth Lithocolletis platani A. flumenius – Far eastern Russia A. fonscolombei – Palaearctic A. foraminifer – France A. forsteri – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall wasps A. fukutai – China (Hebei), Taiwan A parasitoid on various longhorn beetles A. fulvipes – Palaearctic A. fusificola – France A parasitoid on the gall wasp Plagiotrochus fusifex A. garganensis – Greece, Italy A. gaus – Europe A parasitoid on the gall midge Dasineura leguminicola A. glandicola – France A parasitoid on the gall wasp Callirhytis glandium A. gnomus – Palaearctic A. graciliclava – Greece A. grahami – Moldova A parasitoid on curculionid weevils of the genus Lignyodes A. grandicauda – Far eastern Russia A. grandii – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges A. gratus – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges A. grylli – Palaearctic A. habarovi – Far eastern Russia A. hanka – Far eastern Russia A. hedqvisti – Palaearctic A parasitoid on the bark beetle Tomicus minor A. hians – Madeira A. holomelas – Hungary Host unknown but associated with Quercus cerris A. holoxanthus – Eastern Palaearctic A. humilis – Western Europe A parasitoid of gall midges of the genus Mayetiola A. hyperfuniculus – Far eastern Russia A. ibericus – Spain A. ilexi – China (Jiangxi) A parasitoid on various gall midges A. impurus – Switzerland A. incrassatus – Britain Host unknown but associated with Carex spp A. invidus – Southern Europe, Near East A parasitoid on various gall midges A. ione – Britain A. krusenschterni – Far eastern Russia A. lacaena – Britain A. lachares – Europe A. lacunatus – Britain A. larzacensis – Palaearctic A. laticeps – France A. leptocerus – Palaearctic A. leptoneuros – Palaearctic A parasitoid recorded on various kermesid scale insects and also on the tortricid moth Carpocapsa pomonella and the fellow eulophid Tetrastichus pachyneurus A. levadiensis – Greece A. ligus – Britain A. lituratus – Poland A. longiclava – Far eastern Russia A. longipectus – Southern Russia (Astrakhan Oblast) A. longiscapus – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges A. longispinus – Far eastern Russia A. longistigma – Far eastern Russia A. longulus – Europe A. lutescens – Spain A parasitoid on the fellow chalcidoid Blascoa ephedrae (Pteromalidae) A. luteus – Europe A parasitoid on various gall midges and fellow eulophids (including Aprostocetus elongatus) A. lycidas – Europe, North Africa A parasitoid on various gall midges A. lycidoides – Greece A. lysippe – Palaearctic A parasitoid on the gall midge Dasineura crataegi A. malagensis – Spain A. mandanis – Europe A parasitoid on various delphacid bugs A. masculinus – France A. massonianae – China (Guizhou) A parasitoid on the bark beetle Cryphalus massonianus A. maurus – Hungary A. mazaeus – Britain A. menius – Palaearctic A. meridionalis – Southern Europe A. meroe – Western Europe A. metra – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges A. micantulus – Palaearctic A parasitoid on the gall midge Dasineura abietiperda A. microocellus – Far eastern Russia A. mimulus – Greece A. minimus – Palaearctic A parasitoid of gall midges of the genus Rabdophaga A. miridivorus – France, Italy A parasitoid of various mirid bugs A. moldavicus – Moldova A parasitoid on the gall midge Dasineura mali A. morairensis – Spain A. muiri – China (Guangdong) A. mycerinus – Palaearctic Host unknown but associated with Salix spp A. myrsus – Britain A parasitoid on the gall midge Contarinia rumicis A. natans – Central Russia, Ukraine A parasitoid on various dytiscid beetles A. nigriventris – Far eastern Russia A. novatus – Europe A parasitoid on the gall midge Agevillea abietis A. nubigenus – Palaearctic A. nymphis – Britain A. obliquus – Palaearctic A. occidentalis – Southern Europe, Canary Islands, Madeira A. oculisetatus – Far eastern Russia A. oreophilus – Europe A parasitoid recorded on the leaf beetle Cryptocephalus pini and the gall wasp Cynips caputmedusae A. orestes – Central Europe A. orithyia – Palaearctic A parasitoid of various flies (gall midges and the chloropid Lipara lucens) A. oropus – Britain A. ovivorax – Europe A parasitoid of the cricket Oecanthus pellucens A. pachyneuros – Europe A parasitoid on various kermesid scale insects and fellow chalcidoids A. pallidipedes – Far eastern Russia A. pallidipes – Japan A. palustris – Northern Europe A. pantshenkoi – Southern Russia A. paralus – Britain A. peischula – Far eastern Russia A. perfulvescens – Greece A. perone – Northern Europe A. phillyreae – Palaearctic Host unknown but associated with Phillyrea spp A. phineus – Europe A. phloeophthori – Palaearctic A parasitoid on the bark beetle Phloeophthorus rhododactylus A. phragmiticola – Palaearctic A parasitoid on the gall midge Giraudiella inclusa A. phragmitinus – Europe Host unknown but associated with Phragmites spp A. ping – Spain A. plagioderae – Moldova A parasitoid on the leaf beetle Plagiodera versicolora A. plangon – Britain A. planiusculus – Palaearctic A parasitoid on sesiid moths of the genus Chamaesphecia A. polygoni – Central Europe Host unknown but associated with Polygonum persicaria A. popovi – Far eastern Russia A. problematicus – Hungary A parasitoid recorded on the gall wasp Chilaspis nitida and gracillariid moths of the genus Lithocolletis A. productus – Palaearctic A. prolidice – Palaearctic A. prolixus – China (Hebei), Taiwan A parasitoid on the longhorn beetle Apriona germarii A. prosymna – Britain A. pseudopodiellus – Europe A parasitoid on lestid damselflies of the genus Lestes A. ptarmicae – Europe A parasitoid of gall midges of the genus Rhopalomyia A. rhacius – Palaearctic A parasitoid of the gall midge Dasineura trifolii A. rhipheus – Europe A. rhode – Britain A. rimskykorsakovi – Central Russia A. roesellae – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges, also recorded on fellow chalcidoids and the yponomeutid moth Argyresthia conjugella A. rubi – Palaearctic A parasitoid of the gall midge Lasioptera rubi A. rubicola – Palaearctic A parasitoid of the gall midge Lasioptera rubi A. rufescens – Western Europe A parasitoid of the gall wasp Neuroterus quercusbaccarum A. rufiscapus – Britain A. rufus – Europe A parasitoid on dytiscid beetles of the genus Dytiscus A. rumicis – Northern Europe A parasitoid on brentid weevils of the genus Apion A. salictorum – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges A. schambala – Far eastern Russia A. scoticus – Britain A parasitoid of the gall midge Jaapiella veronicae A. sensuna – Switzerland A. serratularum – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various tephritid flies, also on gelechiid moths of the genus Metzneria A. setosulus – Central Europe A. sibiricus – Far eastern Russia A parasitoid of the coccid scale insect Eulecanium secretum A. silaceus – Greece A. silvestris – Far eastern Russia A. spassk – Far eastern Russia A. specularis – France A. stenus – Europe A. stigmaticalis – Britain Host unknown but associated with Betula pubescens A. subanellatus – Palaearctic Host unknown but associated with Agrostis spp. A. subcylindricus – Czech Republic A. subplanus – Central Europe A. subterraneus – Hungary A parasitoid of the gall midge Planetella frireni A. suevius – Europe A parasitoid on various leaf beetles A. taiga – Far eastern Russia A. tanaceticola – Northern Europe A parasitoid of the gall midge Rhopalomyia tanaceticola A. taxi – Europe Host unknown but associated with Taxus baccata A. tenuiradialis – Europe A. tiliaceae – Czech Republic A parasitoid of the gall midge Didymomyia tiliacea A. tilicola – Palaearctic A parasitoid of the gall midge Contarinia tiliarum A. tompanus – Palaearctic A parasitoid on apionid beetles of the genus Apion A. torquentis – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges A. totis – Britain A. trjapitzini – Palaearctic, Near East A parasitoid on various coccid scale insects, also recorded on a fellow chalcidoid, the encyrtid Microterys hortulanus A. truncatulus – France A. tymber – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various gall midges A. vaccus – Britain A. vassolensis – Central Europe A. veronicae – Britain A parasitoid of the gall midge Jaapiella veronicae A. verticalis – Britain A. verutus – Palaearctic Host unknown but associated with various grasses A. viatorum – Madeira A. vicinus – Far eastern Russia A. viridescens – Central Europe A parasitoid of the gall midge Cecidomyia baeri A. viridinitens – Palaearctic A. volgodonicus – Southern Russia A. voranus – Britain A. westwoodii – Central and Southern Europe A parasitoid of gall midges of the genus Asphondylia A. wrangeli – Far eastern Russia A. xanthomelas – Central Europe A. xanthopus – Palaearctic A parasitoid on various moths, also recorded on the bark beetle Carphoborus minimus A. xeuxes – Britain A. zerovae – Ukraine, Central Russia A. zoilus – Palaearctic Host unknown but associated with Alopecurus pratensis Indomalayan species A. ajmerensis – India (Rajasthan) A parasitoid on the mealybug Coccidohystrix insolita A. annulicornis – India (Rajasthan) A parasitoid on the mealybug Coccidohystrix insolita A. asphondyliae – India (Karnataka) A parasitoid on the gall midge Asphondylia pongamiae A. bangaloricus – India (Karnataka) A parasitoid on the kerriid scale insect Kerria lacca A. basalis – Indonesia (South Moluccas) A. coimbatorensis – India (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu) A parasitoid on various gall midges A. distinguendus – Indonesia (South Moluccas) A parasitoid on the delphacid bug Perkinsiella saccharicida A. flavidus – India (Andhra Pradesh) A. holochlorus – Indonesia (South Moluccas) A. homochromus – Indonesia (South Moluccas) A parasitoid on the delphacid bug Perkinsiella vastatrix A. java – Indonesia (Java, Bali) A. kuriani – India (Orissa) A parasitoid on various pyralid moths A. lasallei – India (Uttarakhand) A parasitoid on various coccid scale insects A. lecanii – Indonesia (Java, Bali) A parasitoid on various coccid scale insects A. maculatus – India (Uttar Pradesh) A parasitoid on the mealybug Ferrisia virgata A. metallicus – Indonesia (South Moluccas) A. nainitalensis – India (Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh) A parasitoid on the kerriid bug Kerria lacca A. nigricornis – India (Uttar Pradesh) A parasitoid on the mealybug Nipaecoccus vastator A. plesispae – Indonesia (Java, Bali) A parasitoid on the leaf beetle Plesispa reichei A. psyllidis – India (Uttar Pradesh) Host unknown but associated with Grewia asiatica A. purpureus – Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Malaysia A parasitoid on a wide range of scale insects, also recorded on some fellow chalcidoids A. sankarani – India A parasitoid on various gall midges A. santalinus – India (Karnataka) A parasitoid on the coccid scale insect Ceroplastes actiniformis A. tarsalis – Indonesia (South Moluccas) A parasitoid on delphacid bugs of the genus Perkinsiella A. versicolor – Sri Lanka A parasitoid recorded on various hymenopterans and moths A. yoshimotoi – India (Uttar Pradesh) Host unknown but associated with Mangifera indica Afrotropical species A. aeruginosus – Seychelles A. agnatus – Seychelles A. ambilobei – Madagascar A. ankaratrae – Madagascar A. aphloiae – Madagascar A. aspidomorphae – Kenya, Uganda A parasitoid on tortoise beetles of the genera Aspidomorpha and Conchyloctenia A. brevistylus – Central Africa A parasitoid on the diopsid fly Diopsis thoracica A. camerounensis – Cameroon A. cassidocida – Senegal A parasitoid on tortoise beetles of the genus Aspidomorpha A. dineuri – Republic of Congo A parasitoid recorded on the pyralid moth Sylepta derogata and the braconid wasp Apanteles sagax A. dolichocerus – Seychelles A. ghananensis – Ghana A. gowdeyi – Uganda A parasitoid on the coccid scale insect Pulvinaria jacksoni A. gravans – Eritrea, Tanzania A parasitoid on the coccid scale insect Coccus viridis and the mealybug Ferrisiana chrysophyllae A. hanangensis – Tanzania A. harongae – Madagascar A. hofferi – Algeria A. lamiicidus – Ghana, Nigeria A parasitoid on longhorn beetles of the genus Tragocephala A. leroyi – Democratic Republic of the Congo A. leucopterae – Tanzania A parasitoid on various lyonetiid moths of the genus Leucoptera, also recorded on fellow eulophids of the genus Eulophus A. longiscutulum – Tanzania A. marinikius – Algeria A. melichlorus – Ghana A. microfuniculus – Algeria A. negetae – Senegal A parasitoid on the noctuid moth Negeta luminosa A. nigriceps – Seychelles A. pauliani – Madagascar A parasitoid on gall-producing insects on Plectronia spp A. phytolymae – Côte d'Ivoire A parasitoid of the psyllid bug Phytolyma lata A. procerae – West Africa A parasitoid on various gall midges, also recorded on the pyralid moth Chilo phaeosema A. regnieri – Congo, Kenya A. roseveari – Central Africa A parasitoid on the psyllid bug Phytolyma lata A. salebrosus – Central Africa A parasitoid on the psyllid bug Phytolyma lata A. scutellaris – Tanzania A. senegalensis – Senegal A. spinicornis – Rwanda A. stictococci – West Africa A parasitoid on stictococcid scale insects of the genus Stictococcus A. theioneurus – Kenya, Madagascar, Seychelles A parasitoid recorded on the pyralid moth Chilo partellus and the braconid wasp Cotesia sesamiae A. trichionotus – Central Africa A parasitoid on the psyllid bug Phytolyma lata A. ugandaensis – Uganda A parasitoid on the stictococcid scale insect Stictococcus gowdeyi Nearctic species A. ajax – Northern United States A. americanus A. animus – Mexico, New Mexico A. anthophilus – South eastern Canada, north eastern United States A parasitoid recorded on the gall midge Rhopalomyia anthophila and the totricid moth Zeiraphera ratzeburgiana A. anthracinus – Western North America A parasitoid on the buprestid beetle Agrilus angelicus A. banksii – Eastern United States A parasitoid on a fellow eulophid, Horismenus nitans A. blastophagi – Eastern United States A parasitoid on the gall wasp Callirhytis blastophaga A. blattae – Eastern United States A parasitoid on cockroaches of the genus Parcoblatta A. burksi – California A parasitoid on various gall wasps A. cassidis – Eastern United States A parasitoid on various leaf beetles A. cincinnatus A. esurus – Canada, United States A parasitoid recorded on a very wide range of insects – mainly Lepidoptera (Arctiidae, Lasiocampidae, Lymantriidae, Noctuidae, Oecophoridae, Pyralidae, Tortricidae) but also Coleophoridae (Coccinellidae), Diptera (Tephritidae) and Hymenoptera (Encyrtidae) A. faustus – Central and western United States A parasitoid on tephritid flies of the genus Rhagoletis A. florida – Florida A. garryana – Western Canada and United States A parasitoid of various gall wasps A. gelastus – Florida A parasitoid on various psyllid and triozid bugs A. gibboni – Central United States A parasitoid on the languriid beetle Languria mozardi A. granulatus A. hesperius – Illinois A parasitoid on the gall wasp Diplolepis ignota A. hibus – California A parasitoid on various gall midges A. hillmeadia – Maryland A. homeri – Western United States A parasitoid on various gall midges A. impexus – Virginia A parasitoid on the gall wasp Disholcaspis quercusglobulus A. irvingi – New Mexico A. ischnopterae – Central and eastern United States A parasitoid on various ectobiid cockroaches A. juniperi – Canada, northern United States A parasitoid recorded on various hosts including the eriophyid mite Trisetacus quadrisetus, the curculionid weevil Anthonomus juniperinus and various gall midges A. kansasia – Kansas A. lasius – Central United States A parasitoid on the gall midge Asteromyia agrostis A. longicorpus – New Mexico A parasitoid on the tortricid moth Rhyacionia frustrana A. marcovitchi – United States A parasitoid recorded on various hosts including gall midges, fellow chalcidoids and the curculionid weevil Anthonomus juniperinus A. marilandia – Maryland A. meltoftei – Greenland A. milleri – California A parasitoid on the gelechiid moth Recurvaria milleri A. mymaridis – Illinois A parasitoid on lestid damselflies of the genus Lestes A. nebraskensis – Eastern Canada, United States A parasitoid on various gall midges, also recorded on the curculionid weevil Hypera nigrirostris A. neuroteri – Central and eastern United States A parasitoid on gall wasps of the genus Neuroterus A. novus – Central and eastern United States A. Oklahoma – Central United States A parasitoid on fellow chalcidoids (family Eurytomidae) A. oncideridis – West Virginia A parasitoid on the longhorn beetle Oncideres cingulata A. orbitalis – Mexico, California A. oviductus – Maryland A. pandora – Oregon A parasitoid on the saturniid moth Coloradia pandora A. pattersonae – United States A parasitoid on various gall wasps A. politi – Eastern and southern United States A parasitoid on the gall wasp Xanthoteras politum A. polynemae – Central and eastern United States A parasitoid on various Odonata and the fairyfly Polynema needhami A. psyllaephagus – Arizona A parasitoid on the triozid bug Trioza collaris A. punctatifrons – Arizona A parasitoid on the lyonetiid moth Paraleucoptera albella A. rosae – North America A parasitoid on gall wasps of the genus Diplolepis A. semiauraticeps – United States A parasitoid on various gall midges A. silvaticus – North America A parasitoid on various moths, also recorded on the diprionid sawfly Neodiprion swainei A. smilax - Florida gall inducer on Smilax havanensis A. strobilus – North America A parasitoid on various gall midges, also recorded on the tortricid moth Barbara colfaxiana and the ichneumon wasp Glypta evetriae A. tesserus – Northern United States A parasitoid on various gall midges A. varicornis – Northeastern United States A parasitoid on various tortricid moths A. verrucarii – United States A parasitoid on gall wasps of the genus Neuroterus Neotropical species A. acutipennis – Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines A. arachnophagus – Argentina, Uruguay A parasitoid on various araneid and theridiid spiders. A. ashmeadi – Grenada A. baccharidis – Chile A. bahiensis – Brazil (Bahia) Host unknown but associated with Ocotea opoifera A. basilaris – Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines A. basimaculata – Nicaragua A. bondari – Brazil (Bahia) A parasitoid on the pauliniid grasshopper Paulinia elegans A. brasiliensis – Brazil (Mato Grosso) A. cacus – Brazil (Bahia) A. chapadae – South America A parasitoid recorded on a wide range of insects including weevils, gall midges, coccid scale insects, gelechiid moths and braconid wasps A. cleonica – Brazil (Bahia) A. colliguayae – Chile Phytophagous, causing galls on Colliguaja odorifera A. coxalis – Grenada A. cupreus – Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines A. daimachus – Brazil (Bahia) A. elevatus – Grenada A. februus – Brazil (Bahia) A. femoratus – Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines A. hyalinipennis – Paraguay A. ignigenus – Argentina A. infulatus – Argentina A. longicornis – Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines A. melleus – Brazil (Pará) A. narcaeus – Chile A. naucles – Chile Host unknown but associated with Prosopis tamarugo A. norax – Chile A parasitoid on the lasiocampid moth Macromphalia dedecora A. phryno – Brazil (Bahia) A. polypaea – Chile A. punctifrons – Saint Vincent and the Grenadines A. riverai – South America A parasitoid of theridiid spiders of the genus Latrodectus A. similis – Grenada A. socialis – Chile A. thomasi – Chile A. vaquitarum – South America, Caribbean A parasitoid recorded on the curculionid weevil Lachnopus coffeae and the elachistid moth Donacivola saccharella A. viridis – Grenada A. vulgaris – Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines A. xenocles – Chile A parasitoid of coccid scale insects of the genus Ceroplastes A. zemani – South America A parasitoid of various coccid scale insects Australasian species A. acomatus – Queensland A. acuminativentris – Queensland A. acuminatus – Queensland A. acutiventris – Queensland A. aeneithorax – Queensland A. aeneoculex – Queensland A parasitoid of leaf beetles of the genus Galeruca A. aeneon – Queensland A. aenosus – Queensland A. aeneus – Queensland A. affinis – Queensland A. anna – Queensland A. arses – Tasmania A. atrellus – Queensland A. atristigma – Queensland A. atriventris – Queensland A. aura – Queensland A. auriflavus – Queensland A parasitoid associated with gall producing insects on Eucalyptus A. aurios – Queensland A. auriscutellum – Queensland A. auriventris – Queensland A. australicus – Queensland A. baucis – Western Australia A. bicolor – Queensland A. bilongifasciatus – Queensland A. boswelli – Queensland A. boussingaulti – Queensland A. brevis – Queensland A. brevistigma – South Australia A. brunneiventris – Queensland A. brunneus – Queensland A. burmeisteri – Northern Territory A. cinctiventer – Queensland A. cinctiventris – New South Wales A. cobdeni – Queensland A. consimilis – Queensland A. consobrinus – Queensland A parasitoid associated with gall producing insects on Eucalyptus A. cressoni – Queensland A. culex – Queensland A. darwini – Queensland A. darwinianus – Queensland A. decii – Queensland A. dei – Queensland A. dymas – Tasmania A. eucalypti – South Australia A parasitoid on fellow chalcidoids: recorded on Rhicnopletella spp. (Eulophidae) and Neomegastigmus ater (Torymidae) A. fannius – Tasmania A. fasciativenter – Tasmania A. fasciativentris – New South Wales A. fasciativentrosus – Queensland A. filiformis – New South Wales A. flavellinus – Queensland A. flavellus – Queensland A. flavicaput – Queensland A. flavicollis – Queensland A. flavicornis – Queensland A. flavios – Queensland A. flavipostscutellum – Queensland A. flaviscapus – Queensland A. flaviscutellum – Queensland A. flavobasalis – Queensland A. flavus – Queensland A. froggatti – New South Wales A. fulgens – Queensland A. fulvipostscutellum – Queensland A. fuscipennatus – South Australia A. fuscipennis – Queensland A. fuscitibiae – Tasmania A. fuscosus – Queensland A. fuscus – Queensland A. gloriosus – Queensland A. glycon – Tasmania A. gobius – Queensland A. gregi – Queensland A. grotiusi – Queensland A. guttatus – Queensland A. haeckeli – Queensland A. handeli – Queensland A. hetaericos – Queensland A. hexguttativentris – Queensland A. hyalinus – Queensland A. imago – New South Wales A. imperialis – Queensland A. indigenus – Queensland A. inghamensis – Queensland A. intentatus – Queensland A. io – Queensland A. ion – Queensland A. kelloggi – Queensland A. latithorax – Queensland A. lelaps – Western Australia A. lenini – Queensland A. limbus – Tasmania A. lineatus – Queensland A. longiclavus – Queensland A. longipennis – Queensland A. longiventris – Queensland A. lustris – Queensland A. mahometi – Queensland A. marginatus – Queensland A. margiscutellum – Queensland A. margiscutum – Queensland A parasitoid associated with gall producing insects on Eucalyptus A. margiventris – Queensland A. margiventrosus – Queensland A. maximus – Queensland A. meridialis – Queensland A. meridianus – Victoria A. mesmeri – Queensland A. minutissimus – Queensland A. mirus – Queensland A. misericordia – Queensland A. montanus – Queensland A. monticola – Queensland A. morum – Queensland A. multifasciatus – Queensland A. necopinatus – Queensland A. neis – Tasmania A. nelsonensis – Queensland A. nigriclava – Queensland A. nigrithorax – Queensland A. nomadis – Queensland A. novifasciatus – Queensland A. nubilipennis – Queensland A. nugatorius – Queensland A. nympha – Queensland A. obscurus – Queensland A. occultus – Queensland A. octoguttatus – New South Wales A. pallidicaput – Queensland A. pallidiventris – Queensland A. parvulus – Queensland A. pax – Queensland A. perkinsi – Queensland A. perobscurus – South Australia A. perpulcher – Queensland A. platoni – Queensland A. polychromus – Northern Territory A. pomosus – Queensland A. pontiac – South Australia A. postscutellatus – Queensland A. proto – Tasmania A. pulcher – Queensland A. pulchrinotatus – Queensland A. pullus – Queensland A. purpureicorpus – Queensland A. purpureithorax – Queensland A. purpureivarius – Queensland A. quadrifasciatus – Queensland A. quadriguttativentris – Queensland A. quadrimaculae – Queensland A. quadrimaculatus – Queensland A. queenslandensis – Queensland A. quinqnigrimaculae – Victoria A parasitoid associated with gall producing insects on Eucalyptus A. rieki – Queensland A. rotundiventris – Queensland A. rufiscutellum – Queensland A. saintpierrei – Queensland A parasitoid on various gall midges A. saltensis – Queensland A. salto – Queensland A. saltus – Queensland A. sannio – Queensland A. sannion – Queensland A. schilleri – Queensland A. secus – Queensland A parasitoid associated with gall producing insects on Eucalyptus A. semiflaviceps – Queensland A. septemguttatus – Queensland A. sexguttatus – Queensland A. seymourensis – Queensland A. silvarum – Queensland A. silvensis – Queensland A. speciosissimus – Queensland A. speciosus – Queensland A. spissigradus – Queensland A. subfasciativentris – Queensland A. sublustris – Queensland A. sulcatus – Queensland A. sulfureiventris – Queensland A parasitoid on various gall midges A. susurrus – Queensland A. tarsatus – Queensland A. teiae – Queensland A parasitoid on lymantriid moths of the genus Teia, also recorded on the leaf beetle Galeruca semipullata A. tenuis – Queensland A. thalesi – Queensland A. transversifasciatus – New South Wales A. tricolor – Queensland A parasitoid associated with gall producing insects on Eucalyptus A. trifasciatus – Queensland A. trimaculosus – Queensland A. unfasciativentris – Queensland A. valens – Tasmania A. varicolor – Queensland A. variegatus – Queensland A. verus – Victoria A. victoriensis – Victoria A parasitoid on various gall wasps A. viridicyaneus – Queensland A. viridiflavus – Queensland A. viridiscapus – Queensland A. viridithorax – Queensland A. vivatus – Queensland A. wallacei – Queensland A. walsinghami – Victoria A. xanther – Northern Territory, Queensland A. xanthicolor – Queensland A. xenares – New South Wales, Tasmania A. zaleucus – Tasmania References External links Fauna Europaea Nomina Insecta Nearctica Universal Chalcidoidea Database Eulophidae Cosmopolitan insects
5260571	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doncaster%20Rovers%20Belles%20L.F.C.	Doncaster Rovers Belles L.F.C.	Doncaster Rovers Belles Ladies Football Club, previously Doncaster Belles, is an English women's football club that currently plays in the , the fourth tier of women's football in England. The club's administration is based at the Eco Power Stadium (formerly Keepmoat Stadium) in Doncaster, South Yorkshire, while home matches are played at nearby Thorne Colliery F.C. They are one of English women's football's most famous and successful clubs, being one of only three non-London teams to have won the FA Women's Premier League National Division, in 1992 and 1994. Founded in 1969 by lottery ticket sellers at Belle Vue, home of Doncaster Rovers Football Club, they have also won the FA Women's Cup six times and reached the final on a further seven occasions. They are currently managed by Nick Buxton. History Early years The club was founded as the Belle Vue Belles in 1969, by Sheila Stocks and other women who sold 'Golden Goals' lottery tickets during Doncaster Rovers home games at Belle Vue. After finding success in informal local competition, the club became Doncaster Belles in 1971 and joined the Sheffield League in 1972. With the demise of the Sheffield League after three seasons, the Belles joined the Nottinghamshire League setup and dominated for over a decade. Following a reorganisation in 1989, the club won the new North East League in both seasons of its existence, before being invited to join the inaugural eight-team National Division in 1991. Sheila Stocks played for the club for 25 years, retiring aged 41 after the victorious 1994 FA Women's Cup Final. She later served as physiotherapist and club welfare officer. A teacher by trade, she married future Belles manager Paul Edmunds who worked at the same school. In 2008 she was awarded the FA Special Achievement Award, and received the Doctor of Business of Administration from BPP University following her services to women in sport. She currently serves as the club's president and General Manager. National dominance The club reached the Women's FA Cup final for the first time in 1983, defeating St Helens 3–2 at Sincil Bank in Lincoln. The Belles then lost the next three successive finals; to Howbury Grange (2–4), Friends of Fulham (0–2) and Norwich (3–4). In May 1987 the club recaptured the trophy, beating St Helens 2–0 at the City Ground in Nottingham. Doncaster Belles retained the Cup in 1987–88 by defeating Merseyside team Leasowe Pacific 3–1. But they missed out on the following year's final, as a resurgent Leasowe inflicted a 3–2 defeat on Friends of Fulham at Old Trafford, in front of Channel 4 television cameras. In 1990 the Belles were back in the final, Gillian Coultard scoring the only goal as Friends of Fulham were beaten at the Baseball Ground in Derby. 1991's final saw the club lose out 1–0 to Millwall Lionesses at Prenton Park. That summer the Women's Football Association invited the club to affiliate to a new, eight-team National Premier Division. England strikers Karen Walker and Gail Borman scored a combined total of more than 50 goals as the Belles won the inaugural 1991–92 championship with a 100% record. Red Star Southampton were vanquished 4–0 in the WFA Cup final as the club won a League and Cup double. Walker set a record in scoring a hat-trick in every round of the Cup, including the final. The following season's League was expanded to 10 teams, and in March 1993 newly promoted Arsenal inflicted only the Belles' second league defeat in 15 years, 2–1, before a crowd of 18,196 at Highbury. The dropped points, coupled with a shock defeat to Wimbledon, meant that Arsenal captured the National Premier Division title. The following month Arsenal confirmed their dominance by beating Doncaster Belles 3–0 in the WFA Cup final. In 1993–94 another costly defeat to Arsenal left the Belles needing three wins from their last four games to win the League. This was achieved and the club regained the Premier Division title by four points from second-placed Arsenal. The Belles also relieved Arsenal of the Cup after reaching their 11th Cup final in 12 years—the first to be played under the direct control of The Football Association. Karen Walker's header from a Joanne Broadhurst corner defeated Knowsley United 1–0 at Glanford Park in Scunthorpe. The club was denied the chance of an historic treble, when the season overran and the Premier League Cup final against Arsenal was held over until the following campaign. Later years After the Belles' second double in three years, long-serving manager Paul Edmunds considered retirement. He was persuaded to stay when three of the club's top players left for Knowsley United, who had reconstituted as Liverpool Ladies. Edmunds drafted in youngsters Claire Utley from the youth team and Vicky Exley from Sheffield Wednesday, but injuries to key players saw the team limp to a third-place finish in the Premier Division. In summer 1995 Edmunds stood down to be replaced by Mel Woodhall. A fixture backlog at the end of season 1995–96 saw Croydon playing five games in ten days, winning four and drawing one to erode the Belles' 13-point lead and win the National Premier Division on goal difference. In March 1996 the Belles played Wembley in the Premier League Cup final. They conceded an injury-time penalty kick to draw 2–2 and then lost the penalty shootout. In 1997 manager Julie Chipchase ascribed the loss of the Belles' pre-eminent status to a rise in the standards of other teams. In 1996–97 the club had been knocked out of both Cups by eventual winners Millwall Lionesses, and finished second in the League to Arsenal. The next two seasons saw third-placed finishes for the Belles, while 1999–2000 resulted in another FA Women's Cup final appearance when holders Arsenal were beaten in the semi-final. The final at Bramall Lane ended in a controversial 2–1 loss to Croydon, after Karen Walker had a penalty saved by Pauline Cope and Croydon scored a disputed winning goal. Five days later Croydon became the first club to retain the National Premier Division title. A 6–0 win over Aston Villa ensured a finish one point ahead of the second-placed Belles. The next season began with an extensive recruitment drive; as England internationals Becky Easton and Karen Burke arrived from Everton and former stalwart Joanne Broadhurst rejoined the club from Croydon. When Croydon were taken over by Charlton Athletic, their veteran player-manager Debbie Bampton resigned and moved to the Belles in a playing capacity. Although they had finished as runners-up to Croydon in both league and cup, the club were overlooked for a place in the inaugural Charity Shield match. An article in The Guardian described the selection of Charlton Athletic and Arsenal as curious and related to unspecified "commercial reasons". The 2000–01 National Premier Division campaign saw the Belles return to top form, maintaining a 100% record until April, when a 1–0 home defeat to Arsenal handed the initiative to their southern rivals. Arsenal also knocked the Belles out of both cup competitions on their way to a domestic treble. In May 2001 a presentation marked the retirement of club captain Gillian Coultard. Doncaster Belles did receive an invitation to the 2001–02 Charity Shield, where they were beaten 5–2 by Arsenal at Kingsmeadow. Goalkeeper Leanne Hall conceded a penalty, after her challenge on Clare Wheatley left the Arsenal player with a career-ending knee injury. Two weeks later at the teams' next meeting both sides lined up in tribute and Hall presented Wheatley with a bouquet of flowers. The match finished in a 4–1 defeat for the Belles. In the 2001–02 National Division Doncaster Belles finished as runners-up for the third season in succession, although in April 2002 they had "stunningly" inflicted a 4–0 defeat on Arsenal, the eventual champions' first league defeat in over two and a half years. In the Premier League Cup they suffered a shock semi final defeat to Birmingham City, collapsing from 3–1 ahead to lose 4–3 to the Northern Division leaders. The Belles knocked holders Arsenal out of the Women's FA Cup in the quarter finals, ending a run of six successive defeats—stretching back almost two years—against their old rivals. The BBC reported that the final whistle was "joyously celebrated" by the Doncaster Belles players. In the 2002 FA Women's Cup Final Doncaster Belles lost 2–1 to full-time professional Fulham before a crowd of 10,000 at Selhurst Park and a live television audience of two and a half million. During the 2002 summer break Doncaster Belles turned semi–professional after securing a major sponsorship deal with Green Flag. In February 2016, eight players signed as full-time players for the first time in the club's history: Emily Simpkins, Rhiannon Roberts, Courtney Sweetman-Kirk, Natasha Dowie, Becky Easton, Katrin Omarsdottir, Kasia Lipka and Carla Humphrey. Merger with Doncaster Rovers The Football Association had promised to create a professional women's league in 2003 and wanted clubs to merge with professional male counterparts as part of that strategy. In order to keep up with rivals who were already backed by men's clubs, the Belles were increasingly keen on finding their own link-up. A merger with Doncaster Rovers was considered at a meeting between representatives of both clubs on 3 April 2002, followed by EGMs five days later. In January 2003, Belles chairman John Gomersall met with the FA women's committee to discuss the merger. Rovers' existing women's team rejected the proposal by 77 votes to one at their AGM in March 2003. Nevertheless, in July 2003 the Doncaster Belles website announced the merger's completion. Under the terms of the agreement, the Belles would retain their financial and strategic independence. They also secured agreements to play a portion of home games at Belle Vue, to use the male club's Cantley Park training facility and to sell merchandise in Rovers' club shop. As a result, the Doncaster Belles, often described as "the most recognisable team name in the women's game", became Doncaster Rovers Belles. In 2011 Doncaster Rovers Belles was reconstituted as a Community Interest Company and today is run independently of Doncaster Rovers. John Buckley era In the 2008–09 season, they finished fourth in the league. On 26 February 2009, the team played in the final of the Women's FA Premier League Cup but lost 5–0 to Arsenal Ladies. The club was one of eight founding teams in the FA WSL in April 2011. In May 2012 the Belles agreed a three-year, six-figure sponsorship deal with Innovation Financial Services, a Bawtry–based company owned by ex-footballer Hugh McAuley & Doncaster businessman Stewart Groves. John Buckley explained that the sponsorship, the largest in the club's history, would allow the club to compete on a more equal footing with their WSL rivals. That deal collapsed in 2013 with Innovation Financial Services ceasing to trade. Buckley left the club at the end of the 2013 season. Demotion In April 2013 the Football Association announced that, as part of an FA WSL restructure and expansion, Manchester City would replace Doncaster Rovers Belles in the top tier in 2014. The Belles were placed in a new ten team FA WSL 2. Buckley described the situation as "the most farcical thing I've ever heard," while vice-chairman Alan Smart publicly ridiculed the FA for relegating the club after one league match, rendering the 2013 season meaningless. The club appealed the decision and had the support of rival clubs. Arsenal Ladies' Vic Akers described the governing body's actions as "morally scandalous." At the televised 2013 FA Women's Cup final between Arsenal and Bristol Academy at Keepmoat Stadium, stewards disrupted a protest outside the ground, seizing a banner, flyers, petition and bells on the orders of the FA. In 2015 the new management of the Doncaster Rovers Belles described the FA's decision as having saved the club in retrospect, as the club faced administration due to mounting debts, reduced income from the FA and was saved by a group of local business people. Gordon Staniforth era In November 2013 Gordon Staniforth was appointed Head Coach of the Belles under a new 10-year strategy aiming to take the Belles back to the top of the women's game. In season 2014 the Belles narrowly missed out on immediate promotion to the first tier of the FAWSL and Staniforth resigned at the end of the season. Staniforth cited budget restrictions as the reason why he could not continue in the role. Glen Harris era In December 2014, former Lincoln Ladies manager, Glen Harris, was appointed Head Coach of the Doncaster Rovers Belles. In 2015 the team finished as runners-up again, the time behind Reading, but promotion was secured due to expansion of the top division. The club announced investment plans in October 2015, code named "Project Phoenix", which encompassed a switch to full-time professionalism and the building of a new training ground in Bawtry. Emily Simpkins signed a contract to become the club's first ever full-time player in November 2015. Harris was later released from his role as Head Coach and Emma Coates took over the managerial reins becoming the youngest manager in FA WSL 1 at the age of 25. Neil Redfearn era Under Emma Coates' management, the Belles came second in the FA WSL Spring Series, a competition devised to bridge the gap between the 2016 summer season and the switch back to a winter season for 2017–18. Coates left the club in October 2017 to take a position working with England's youth side, and after a spell under Kate Rowson, the club appointed Neil Redfearn as head coach in December 2017. On 13 May 2018, the Belles won FA WSL 2, the Belles' first trophy since 1994. However, the club played in the third tier English women's football for the 2018–19 season, having decided not to apply for the restructured top two tiers for financial reasons. Andy Butler era Doncaster-born ex-Doncaster Rovers captain Andy Butler was appointed manager on 16 January 2020. Andy Butler ended his term on 20 September after the game with Long Eaton Nick Buxton era Following the resignation of Andy Butler Nick Buxton (previously Assistant Manager) was appointed as Manager. In his first two games of the 2022–23 season he lost his two games in charge. After taking the team to its second-place finish in the 2022–23 season (for the second consecutive year) Nick Buxton resigned on 5 June 2023 citing "I have recently found it hard personally and mentally". Sam Winch was appointed as the new manager on 6 July. Colours and crest The club's traditional colours are yellow and blue. This was originally chosen in homage to the legendary Brazilian national team that won the 1970 FIFA World Cup. Following the link-up with Doncaster Rovers in 2003, the team wore Rovers' red and white hooped shirts with black shorts. They reverted to yellow and blue in 2014. In 2019 the Belles renewed their links with Rovers under the auspices of 'Club Doncaster' and reinstated a red and white home kit. President Sheila Edmunds recalled that the club's first-ever kit had been red and white, and stated: "My passion has always been the yellow and blue because there’s history behind that but as long as we have both colours in our home and away kit then I’m happy with that." Rivalries Doncaster Rovers Belles enjoy a longstanding rivalry with Arsenal Ladies who eventually overtook the Belles as the leading club in English women's football. In 1994, the Belles' manager Paul Edmunds contrasted the northern, working class background of his players with the contrasting identity of the Arsenal team: "These soft Cockneys never done a hard day's work in their life. Never been down the pit, this lot [...]", despite women rarely, if ever, working down pits. Stressing the relative loyalty of Doncaster Belles' players, in comparison to those of other leading clubs, long-serving Karen Walker said in May 2003: "There's a feeling here that we are representing the north." During the 2000s Doncaster Rovers Belles contested regular local derby fixtures with Leeds United Ladies. The rivalry was increased by several former Belles players defecting to Leeds. However, the 2010 failure of Leeds' WSL bid left Doncaster Rovers Belles as the only Yorkshire club playing at the top level. After being relegated to the FAWNL National Division One Midlands, Lincoln City F.C. Women became the closest rivals for that division. Stadium After withdrawing their application for the FA Women's Championship, Doncaster Rovers Belles announced in August 2022 that they would play their home 2022–23 FA Women's National League matches at Iqbal Poultry Stadium Thorne Colliery F.C. Moorends. Between 2007 and 2018 the home of Doncaster Rovers Belles was the Keepmoat Stadium, although the majority of the team's matches prior to 2011 were played at the 500-capacity athletics track beside the stadium. In January 2007 the club's first match in the 15,000-capacity main stadium resulted in a 5–2 defeat to Leeds United, before a crowd of 1,797. Doncaster Rovers Belles played all their home fixtures in the FA Women's Super League inside the main arena. When the English women's football setup was nationalised in 1991, the Belles became the first team to play their home games in a professional Football League ground at Belle Vue. However, they were often barred from doing so by Doncaster Rovers F.C. and had to find local non-League grounds in order to fulfil their fixtures. In November 1997 long-serving secretary Alan Burton told The Times that after their spell at Belle Vue, the Belles had "left suddenly, under a bit of a cloud." At that stage, there was no connection at all between the Belles and Doncaster Rovers. The women's club were annoyed that Rovers had kept postponing Belles matches at short notice, ostensibly in order to save the Belle Vue pitch. According to Burton this caused the Belles a substantial loss of fan support. For many years the team played at the Welfare Ground home of Armthorpe Welfare F.C., and in 2002 were playing at Brodsworth Welfare Ground home of Brodsworth Welfare F.C. The 1999–2000 season was spent playing at Hatfield Main F.C.'s Broadway ground. In 1999 the club announced proposals for a purpose-built stadium at Toll Bar. The following year Doncaster Council granted the club a lease of some land in the area. The £1.6 million project was intended for the FA's launch of a professional women's League in 2003. In popular culture A BBC television documentary screened in January 1995, called The Belles, featured the squad winning and then celebrating their double win the previous Spring. However, the 'work hard, play hard' ethos revealed in the film did not find universal favour and the club was censured by the FA. Team captain Gillian Coultard felt the film led to her being controversially stripped of the England captaincy in the run-up to the 1995 FIFA Women's World Cup. The following year a book entitled I Lost My Heart To The Belles told the story of the club's 1994–95 campaign through the eyes of journalist and author Pete Davies. In April 2000 the Doncaster Rovers Belles squad released the first ever FA Women's Cup final song, entitled "Northern Pride". In 1998 the BBC television drama series Playing the Field began. Directly inspired by Doncaster Rovers Belles, it was written by Kay Mellor, starred James Nesbitt and Ricky Tomlinson, and ran for five series' until 2002. Players . Former players English Football Hall of Fame The following have played for Doncaster Rovers Belles and have been inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame : Managers In June 2003 former Celtic, Leeds United and Doncaster Rovers footballer John Buckley took over as manager. On 6 November 2013 Gordon Staniforth was announced as the club's new head coach. He was to work under director of football and former manager Julie Chipchase, who led "a rigorous interview and practical coaching" application process. Enraged at cuts to the club's playing budget, headstrong Staniforth quit after only one season. Mild-mannered former Lincoln Ladies boss Glen Harris was unveiled as his replacement in December 2014. Current board and coaching staff Honours Doncaster Rovers Belles won two of the first three National Division titles in 1992 and 1994. They have also finished as runners-up on seven further occasions; in 1993, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2003. The FA Women's Cup has been won six times, during a period of dominance which saw the Belles reach eleven out of twelve Cup finals from 1983 to 1994. Doncaster Rovers Belles also reached the finals in 2000 and 2002, but lost out to Croydon and Fulham, respectively. Their record in the competition is behind that of Arsenal Ladies, who have 13 wins in total, and Southampton, who were victorious eight times in the early years of the competition. The club has been less successful in the FA Women's Premier League Cup, reaching the final three times. A loss on penalties to Wembley in 1996 came between two heavy defeats to Arsenal in 1994 and 2009. Doncaster Rovers Belles also competed for the FA Women's Community Shield in 2001 and 2003, but were beaten by Arsenal and then Fulham. Domestic League FA Women's Premier League National Division (National Tier 1): 2 1991–92, 1993–94 FA WSL 2 (National Tier 2): 1 2017–18 North East Regional League: 2 1989–90, 1990–91 Nottinghamshire League: 11 1976–77, 1977–78, 1978–79, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1984–85, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1987–88, 1988–89 Cups FA Women's Cup: 6 1982–83, 1986–87, 1987–88, 1989–90, 1991–92, 1993–94 Doubles League and FA Women's Cup: 2 1991–92, 1993–94 See also List of women's association football clubs in England and Wales Women's football in England List of women's association football clubs Notes References Bibliography External links Doncaster Rovers Belles website old Doncaster Rovers Belles website Twitter @donnybelles Belles Women's football clubs in England Association football clubs established in 1969 Sport in Doncaster Football clubs in South Yorkshire 1969 establishments in England FA WSL 1 teams Women's Championship (England) teams FA Women's National League teams Sheffield & Hallamshire County FA members de:Doncaster Rovers
5260658	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compassion%20fatigue	Compassion fatigue	Compassion fatigue is an evolving concept in the field of traumatology. The term has been used interchangeably with secondary traumatic stress (STS), which is sometimes simply described as the negative cost of caring. Secondary traumatic stress is the term commonly employed in academic literature, although recent assessments have identified certain distinctions between compassion fatigue and secondary traumatic stress (STS). Compassion fatigue is a form of traumatic stress resulting from repeated exposure to traumatized individuals or aversive details of traumatic events while working in a helping or protecting profession. This indirect form of trauma exposure differs from experiencing trauma oneself. Compassion fatigue is considered to be the result of working directly with victims of disasters, trauma, or illness, especially in the health care industry. Individuals working in other helping professions are also at risk for experiencing compassion fatigue. These include child protection workers, veterinarians, clergy, teachers, social workers, palliative care workers, journalists, police officers, firefighters, paramedics, animal welfare workers, public librarians, health unit coordinators, and student affairs professionals. Non-professionals, such as family members and other informal caregivers of people who have a chronic illness, may also experience compassion fatigue. The term was first coined in 1992 by Carla Joinson to describe the negative impact hospital nurses were experiencing as a result of their repeated, daily exposure to patient emergencies. Symptoms People who experience compassion fatigue may exhibit a variety of symptoms including, but not limited to, lowered concentration, numbness or feelings of helplessness, irritability, lack of self-satisfaction, withdrawal, aches and pains, exhaustion, anger, or a reduced ability to feel empathy. Those affected may experience an increase in negative coping behaviors such as alcohol and drug usage. Professionals who work in trauma-exposed roles may begin requesting more time off and consider leaving their profession. Significant symptom overlap exists between compassion fatigue and other manifestations, such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). One distinguishing factor lies in the origin of these conditions, with PTSD stemming from primary or direct trauma, while compassion fatigue arises from secondary or indirect trauma. History Compassion fatigue has been studied by the field of traumatology, with Charles Figley playing a pivotal role by characterizing it as the "cost of caring" experienced by individuals in helping professions. The term was first coined in 1992 by Carla Joinson to describe the negative impact hospital nurses were experiencing as a result of their repeated, daily exposure to patient emergencies. To a certain extent, the term "compassion fatigue" is considered somewhat euphemistic and is used as a substitute for its academic counterpart, secondary traumatic stress. Compassion fatigue has also been called secondary victimization, secondary traumatic stress, vicarious traumatization, and secondary survivor. Other related conditions are rape-related family crisis and "proximity" effects on female partners of war veterans. Measuring and Assessments Some of the earliest and most commonly used assessment are Compassion Fatigue Self Test (CFST), Compassion Satisfaction and Fatigue Test (CSFT) and Compassion Fatigue Scale—Revised. The self-assessment ProQOL (or Professional Quality of Life Scale) contains three sub-scales: compassion satisfaction, burnout, compassion fatigue / secondary traumatic stress. The Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale (STSS) assess the frequency of intrusion, avoidance, and arousal symptoms associated with indirect exposure to traumatic events through clinical work with traumatized populations. Risk factors Many organizational attributes in the fields where STS is most common contribute to compassion fatigue among the workers, such as in healthcare where a “culture of silence” is normalized by not discussing stressful events, such as deaths in an intensive-care unit, after the event increase rates of CF. Additional contributing organizational factors can result from conditions such as long work hours, short-staffing, workplace incivility, and feelings of dismissal or invalidation by their managers. Lack of awareness of symptoms and poor training in the risks associated with their trauma-exposed profession results in higher rates of STS. Traumatization symptom levels usually depend on three criteria: proximity, intensity, and duration. Proximity refers to how close the provider is to the traumatic event, intensity is defined by how extensive and extreme the traumatic event is, and duration refers to how long the provider is involved with the traumatic event. Compassion fatigue increases in intensity with increased interactions among the needy. Because of this, people living in urban cities are more likely to experience compassion fatigue. People in large cities interact with more people in general, and because of this, they become desensitized towards people's problems. Homeless people often make their way to larger cities. Ordinary people often become indifferent to homelessness when they see it regularly. Family Recent studies reveal that the "overall compassion fatigue and compassion satisfaction levels were moderate, thus highlighting the potential risk of compassion fatigue for family caregivers", indicating that primary family caregivers of patients could also experience compassion fatigue or STS. In healthcare professionals Between 16% and 85% of health care workers in various fields develop compassion fatigue. In one study, 86% of emergency room nurses met the criteria for compassion fatigue. In another study, more than 25% of ambulance paramedics were identified as having severe ranges of post-traumatic symptoms. In addition, 34% of hospice nurses in another study met the criteria for secondary traumatic stress/compassion fatigue. There is a strong relationship between work-related stress and compassion fatigue which include factors such as: attitude to life, work-related stress, how one works, amount of time working at a single occupation, type of work, and gender all play a role Compassion fatigue is the emotional and physical distress caused by treating and helping patients that are deeply in need. This can desensitize healthcare professionals to others' needs, causing them to develop a lack of empathy for future patients. There are three important components of Compassion Fatigue: Compassion satisfaction, secondary stress, and burnout. It is important to note that burnout is not the same as Compassion Fatigue; Burnout is the stress and mental exhaustion caused by the inability to cope with the environment and continuous physical and mental demands. Healthcare professionals experiencing compassion fatigue may find it difficult to continue doing their jobs. While many believe that these diagnoses affect workers who have been practicing in the field the longest, the opposite proves true. Young physicians and nurses are at an increased risk for both burnout and compassion fatigue. A study published in the Western Journal of Emergency Medicine revealed that medical residents who work overnight shifts or work more than eighty hours a week are at higher risk of developing Compassion Fatigue. Burnout was another major contributor to these professionals who had a higher risk of suffering from Compassion Fatigue. Burnout is a prevalent and critical contemporary problem that can be categorized as suffering from emotional exhaustion, de-personalization, and a low sense of personal accomplishment. They can be exposed to trauma while trying to deal with compassion fatigue, potentially pushing them out of their career field. If they decide to stay, it can negatively affect the therapeutic relationship they have with patients because it depends on forming an empathetic, trusting relationship that could be difficult to make amid compassion fatigue. Because of this, healthcare institutions are placing increased importance on supporting their employee's emotional needs so they can better care for patients. Studies compiled in 2018 by Zang et al. indicate that the level of education one obtains in the field of healthcare has an effect on levels of burnout, compassion satisfaction, and compassion fatigue. Studies show, it is indicated that those with higher levels of education in their respective field will experience lower rates of burnout and compassion fatigue, while also having increased levels of compassion satisfaction. Another name and concept directly tied to compassion fatigue is moral injury. Moral injury in the context of healthcare was directly named in the Stat News article by Drs. Wendy Dean and Simon Talbot, entitled "Physicians aren’t ‘burning out.’ They're suffering from moral injury." The article and concept go on to explain that physicians (in the United States) are caught in double and triple and quadruple binds between their obligations of electronic health records, their student loans, the requirements for patient load through the hospital, and procedures performed – all while working towards the goal of trying to provide the best care and healing to patients possible. However, the systemic issues facing physicians often cause deep distress because the patients are suffering despite the physician's best efforts. This concept of moral injury in healthcare is the expansion of the discussion around compassion fatigue and burnout. C.N.A.s/Caregivers Caregivers for dependent people can also experience compassion fatigue, which can become a cause of abusive behavior in caring professions. It results from the taxing nature of showing compassion for someone whose suffering is continuous and unresolvable. One may still care for the person as required by policy, however, the natural human desire to help them is significantly diminished, causing desensitization and lack of enthusiasm for patient care. This phenomenon also occurs among professionals involved in long-term health care, and for those who have institutionalized family members. These people may develop symptoms of depression, stress, and trauma. Those who are primary care providers for patients with terminal illnesses are at a higher risk of developing these symptoms. In the medical profession, this is often described as "burnout": the more specific terms secondary traumatic stress and vicarious trauma are also used. Mental health professionals Many that work in fields that require great amounts of empathy and compassion are exposed to these stressful experiences in their day-today work activities. These fields mentioned include: social workers, psychologists, oncologists, pediatrics, HIV/AIDs workers, EMS, law enforcement, and of course, and general healthcare workers like nurses, etc. Social workers are one group that can experience compassion fatigue or STS from experiencing a singular trauma or it can be from traumatic experiences building up over the years. This can also occur because of a connection with a client and a shared similar traumatic experience. Overall, healthcare professionals in general are finding that they are burnt out with the price of empathy and compassion, otherwise known as, Compassion Fatigue. Most often describe feelings of “running on empty”. The importance of the contribution of education and recognition cannot be negated in its import of counter of compassion fatigue. Other evidences support theories that meditation and reflection techniques such as Mindful-Based Stress Reduction Training and Compassion Cultivation Training, along with the support of administrators helps to fight and reduce STS Critical care personnel Critical care personnel have the highest reported rates of burnout, a syndrome associated with progression to compassion fatigue. These providers witness high rates of patient disease and death, leaving them to question whether their work is truly meaningful. Additionally, top-tier providers are expected to know an increasing amount of medical information along with experienced high ethical dilemmas/medical demands. This has created a workload-reward imbalance—or decreased compassion satisfaction. Compassion satisfaction relates to the “positive payment” that comes from caring. With little compassion satisfaction, both critical care physicians and nurses have reported the above examples as leading factors for developing burnout and compassion fatigue. Those caring for people who have experienced trauma can experience a change in how they view the world; they see it more negatively. It can negatively affect the worker's sense of self, safety, and control. In ICU personnel, burnout and compassion fatigue has been associated with decreased quality of care and patient satisfaction, as well as increased medical errors, infection rates, and death rates, making this issue one of concern not only for providers but patients. These outcomes also impact organization finances. According to the Institute of Medicine, preventable adverse drug events or harmful medication errors (associated with compassion fatigue/burnout) occur in 1% to 10% of hospital admissions and account for a $3.5 billion cost. There are a total of four factors that are used to describe the underlying reasons for burnout, STS, and compassion fatigue: depressive mood, primary traumatic stress symptoms, responses to their patients' trauma, and sleep disturbances. Those with a better ability to empathize and be compassionate are at a higher risk of developing compassion fatigue. Because of that, healthcare professionals—especially those who work in critical care—who are regularly exposed to death, trauma, high stress environments, long work days, difficult patients, pressure from a patient's family, and conflicts with other staff members- are at higher risk. These exposures increase the risk for developing compassion fatigue and burnout, which often makes it hard for professionals to stay in the healthcare career field. Those who stay in the healthcare field after developing compassion fatigue or burnout are likely to experience a lack of energy, difficulty concentrating, unwanted images or thoughts, insomnia, stress, desensitization and irritability. As a result, these healthcare professionals may later develop substance abuse, depression, or commit suicide. A 2018 study that examined differences in compassion fatigue in nurses based on their substance use found significant increases for those who used cigarettes, sleeping pills, energy drinks, antidepressants, and anti-anxiety drugs. Unfortunately, despite recent, targeted efforts being made to reduce burnout, it appears that the problem is increasing. In 2011, a study conducted by the Department of Medicine Program on Physician Well-Being at Mayo Clinic reported that 45% of physicians in the United States had one or more symptoms of burnout. In 2014, that number had increased to 54%. In student affairs professionals In response to the changing landscape of post-secondary institutions, sometimes as a result of having a more diverse and marginalized student population, both campus services and the roles of student affairs professionals have evolved. These changes are efforts to manage the increases in traumatic events and crises. Due to the exposure to student crises and traumatic events, student affairs professionals, as front line workers, are at risk for developing compassion fatigue. Such crises may include sexual violence, suicidal ideation, severe mental health episodes, and hate crimes/discrimination. Some research shows that almost half of all university staff named psychological distress as a factor contributing to overall occupational stress. This group also demonstrated emotional exhaustion, job dissatisfaction, and intention to quit their jobs within the next year, symptoms associated with compassion fatigue. Factors contributing to compassion fatigue in student affairs professionals Student affairs professionals who are more emotionally connected to the students with whom they work and who display an internal locus of control are found to be more likely to develop compassion fatigue as compared to individuals who have an external locus of control and are able to maintain boundaries between themselves and those with whom they work. In lawyers Burnout and compassion fatigue can occur in the profession of law; it may occur because of "a discrepancy between expectations and outcomes," or thinking one may have a larger task to achieve than provided resources and support. Recent research shows that a growing number of attorneys who work with victims of trauma are exhibiting a high rate of compassion fatigue symptoms. In fact, lawyers are four times more likely to suffer from depression than the general public. They also have a higher rate of suicide and substance abuse. Most attorneys, when asked, stated that their formal education lacked adequate training in dealing with trauma. Besides working directly with trauma victims, one of the main reasons attorneys can develop compassion fatigue is because of the demanding case loads, and long hours that are typical to this profession. In Media and Journalism Compassion fatigue also carries sociological connotations, especially when used to analyze behavior in response to media coverage of disasters. Journalism analysts argue that news media have caused widespread compassion fatigue in society by saturating newspapers and news shows with decontextualized images and stories of tragedy and suffering, which would more accurately be described as compassion fade. This, they claim, has caused the public to become desensitized or resistant to helping people who are suffering. Prevention and Mitigation In an effort to prepare and combat compassion fatigue, many organizations have been implementing compassion fatigue and secondary traumatic stress prevention training which educate workers on the occupational risk in helping and protecting professions, raise awareness about symptoms, and teach skills such as coping tools to apply before and after stressful situations, working with integrity, and creating a support system that includes individuals and resources that can provide understanding and are sensitive to the risks of compassion fatigue. Workers also learn how to decompress and destress, utilizing self-care, and traumatic stress reduction tools. Staff education and training Significant improvements in awareness of compassion fatigue and identification of strategies to handle the different stressors are associated with a reduction in symptoms such as feeling significantly less tense, jittery, or overwhelmed, while having increased feelings of being calm and peaceful. Leadership and supervisory training Leaders, managers, and supervisors who possess skills in leading teams exposed to trauma, can mitigate the impact of indirect trauma exposure through such strategies as awareness training, peer support training, applying psychologically safe debriefing methods after potentially traumatizing events, monitoring employee exposure levels, developing incentives, and providing flexibility. Peer support training One-on-one peer support can be applied formally or informally after emotionally challenging or stressful events to lessen the risk of developing compassion fatigue and secondary traumatic stress in team members. Peer support groups Peer support groups have led to participants feeling "less alone" and demonstrating increased interest in learning how to support each other. Participating peers reported feeling more supported, performing better, being healthier, and having a greater likelihood of enjoying extended professional careers. Workplace culture Having a work culture that supports the physical and emotional health of professionals in trauma-exposed roles is critical. Some cited effective workplace changes include encouraging professionals to take some time off, ensuring that professionals eat during their shift, and promoting self achievements to minimize the likelihood of developing compassion fatigue. Social support Social support and emotional support can help practitioners maintain a balance in their worldview. Maintaining a diverse network of social support, from colleagues to pets, promotes a positive psychological state and can protect against STS. Some problems with compassion fatigue stem from a lack of fundamental communication skills; counseling and additional support can be beneficial to practitioners struggling with STS. Therapeutic Interventions Various therapeutic interventions are available to address and alleviate symptoms of compassion fatigue including various forms of psychotherapy such as Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) which is commonly used to treat trauma, Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy (EMDR), Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), somatic or body-based therapy and group support programs. Self-care Stress reduction and anxiety management practices have been shown to be effective in preventing and treating STS. Taking a break from work, participating in breathing exercises, exercising, and other recreational activities all help reduce the stress associated with STS. There is evidence that journaling and meditation can also mediate the effects of STS. Conceptualizing one's own ability with self-integration from a theoretical and practice perspective helps to combat criticized or devalued phase of STS. In addition, establishing clear professional boundaries and accepting the fact that successful outcomes are not always achievable can limit the effects of STS. Self-compassion In order to be the best benefit for clients, practitioners must maintain a state of psychological well-being. Unaddressed compassion fatigue may decrease a practitioners ability to effectively help their clients. Some counselors who use self-compassion as part of their self-care regime have had higher instances of psychological functioning. The counselors use of self-compassion may lessen experiences of vicarious trauma that the counselor might experience through hearing clients stories. Self-compassion as a self-care method is beneficial for both clients and counselors. Mindfulness Self-awareness as a method of self-care might help to alleviate the impact of vicarious trauma (compassion fatigue). Students who took a 15-week course that emphasized stress reduction techniques and the use of mindfulness in clinical practice had significant improvements in therapeutic relationships and counseling skills. Compassion fade Compassion fatigue is defined as “the physical and mental exhaustion and emotional withdrawal experienced by those who care for sick or traumatized people over an extended period of time”. Compassion fatigue usually occurs with those whom we know; whether that is because of a personal relationship or professional relationship. Compassion fade is defined as terminology to describe the way in which an individual's compassion and empathy are reduced due to the amount or intricacy of the issue. This also includes when the need and tragedy in of the world goes up and the amount of desire to help goes down (similar to a see-saw). For example, an individual is more likely to donate more money, time, or other types of assistance to a single person suffering, than to disaster aid or when the population suffering is larger. It is a type of cognitive bias that helps people make their decision to help. See also References Further reading Barnes, M. F (1997). "Understanding the secondary traumatic stress of parents". In C. R. Figley (Ed). Burnout in Families: The Systemic Costs of Caring, pp., 75–90. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Beaton, R. D. and Murphy, S. A. (1995). "Working with people in crisis: Research implications". In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Compassion fatigue: Coping with secondary traumatic stress disorder in those who treat the traumatized, 51–81. NY: Brunner/Mazel. Kottler, J. A. (1992). Compassionate Therapy: Working with Difficult Clients. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Phillips, B. (2009). Social Psychological Recovery, Disaster Recovery. (p. 302). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press - Taylor & Francis Group. External links Compassion Fatigue Awareness Project ProQOL.org, Professional Quality of Life Organization Mirrored emotion by Jean Decety from the University of Chicago. Compassion Fatigue: Being an Ethical Social Worker by Tracy C. Wharton, from The New Social Worker, Winter 2008. The Signs Symptoms and Treatment of Compassion Fatigue 1992 neologisms Social psychology Giving Occupational stress Interpersonal relationships Emotion Moral psychology
5260820	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test%20probe	Test probe	A test probe is a physical device used to connect electronic test equipment to a device under test (DUT). Test probes range from very simple, robust devices to complex probes that are sophisticated, expensive, and fragile. Specific types include test prods, oscilloscope probes and current probes. A test probe is often supplied as a test lead, which includes the probe, cable and terminating connector. Voltage Voltage probes are used to measure voltages present on the DUT. To achieve high accuracy, the test instrument and its probe must not significantly affect the voltage being measured. This is accomplished by ensuring that the combination of instrument and probe exhibit a sufficiently high impedance that will not load the DUT. For AC measurements, the reactive component of impedance may be more important than the resistive. Simple test leads A typical voltmeter probe consists of a single wire test lead that has on one end a connector that fits the voltmeter and on the other end a rigid, tubular plastic section that comprises both a handle and probe body. The handle allows a person to hold and guide the probe without influencing the measurement (by becoming part of the electric circuit) or being exposed to dangerous voltages that might cause electric shock. Within the probe body, the wire is connected to a rigid, pointed metal tip that contacts the DUT. Some probes allow an alligator clip to be attached to the tip, thus enabling the probe to be attached to the DUT so that it need not be held in place. Test leads are usually made with finely stranded wire to keep them flexible, of wire gauges sufficient to conduct a few amperes of electric current. The insulation is chosen to be both flexible and have a breakdown voltage higher than the voltmeter's maximum input voltage. The many fine strands and the thick insulation make the wire thicker than ordinary hookup wire. Two probes are used together to measure voltage, current, and two-terminal components such as resistors and capacitors. When making DC measurements it is necessary to know which probe is positive and which is negative, so by convention the probes are colored red for positive and black for negative. Depending upon the accuracy required, they can be used with signal frequencies ranging from DC to a few kilohertz. When sensitive measurements must be made (e.g., very low voltages, or very low or very high resistances) shields, guards, and techniques such as four-terminal Kelvin sensing (using separate leads to carry the measuring current and to sense the voltage) are used. Tweezer probes Tweezer probes are a pair of simple probes fixed to a tweezer mechanism, operated with one hand, for measuring voltages or other electronic circuit parameters between closely spaced pins. Pogo pins Spring probes (a.k.a. "pogo pins") are spring-loaded pins used in electrical test fixtures to contact test points, component leads, and other conductive features of the DUT (Device Under Test). These probes are usually press-fit into probe sockets, to allow their easy replacement on test fixtures which may remain in service for decades, testing many thousands of DUTs in automatic test equipment. Oscilloscope probes Oscilloscopes display the instantaneous waveform of varying electrical quantities, unlike other instruments which give numerical values of relatively stable quantities. Scope probes fall into two main categories: passive and active. Passive scope probes contain no active electronic parts, such as transistors, so they require no external power. Because of the high frequencies often involved, oscilloscopes do not normally use simple wires ("flying leads") to connect to the DUT. Flying leads are likely to pick up interference, so they are not suitable for low-level signals. Furthermore, the inductance of flying leads make them unsuitable for high frequency signals. Instead, a specific scope probe is used, which uses a coaxial cable to transmit the signal from the tip of the probe to the oscilloscope. This cable has two main benefits: it protects the signal from external electromagnetic interference, improving accuracy for low-level signals; and it has a lower inductance than flying leads, making the probe more accurate for high-frequency signals. Although coaxial cable has lower inductance than flying leads, it has higher capacitance: a typical 50 ohm cable has about 90 pF per meter. Consequently, a one-meter high-impedance direct (1×) coaxial probe may load the circuit with a capacitance of about 110 pF and a resistance of 1 megohm. Oscilloscope probes are characterised by their frequency limit, where the amplitude response has fallen by 3 dB, and/or by their rise time . These are related as (in round figures) Thus a 50 MHz probe has a rise time of 7 ns. The response of the combination of an oscilloscope and a probe is given by For example, a 50 MHz probe feeding a 50 MHz scope will give a 35 MHz system. It is therefore advantageous to use a probe with a higher frequency limit to minimize the effect on the overall system response. Passive probes To minimize loading, attenuator probes (e.g., 10× probes) are used. A typical probe uses a 9 megohm series resistor shunted by a low-value capacitor to make an RC compensated divider with the cable capacitance and scope input. The RC time constants are adjusted to match. For example, the 9 megohm series resistor is shunted by a 12.2 pF capacitor for a time constant of 110 microseconds. The cable capacitance of 90 pF in parallel with the scope input of 20 pF (total capacitance 110 pF) and 1 megohm also gives a time constant of 110 microseconds. In practice, there will be an adjustment so the operator can precisely match the low frequency time constant (called compensating the probe). Matching the time constants makes the attenuation independent of frequency. At low frequencies (where the resistance of R is much less than the reactance of C), the circuit looks like a resistive divider; at higher frequencies (resistance much greater than reactance), the circuit looks like a capacitive divider. The result is a frequency compensated probe for modest frequencies that presents a load of about 10 megohms shunted by 12 pF. Although such a probe is an improvement, it does not work when the time scale shrinks to several cable transit times (transit time is typically 5 ns). In that time frame, the cable looks like its characteristic impedance, and there will be reflections from the transmission line mismatch at the scope input and the probe that causes ringing. The modern scope probe uses lossy low capacitance transmission lines and sophisticated frequency shaping networks to make the 10× probe perform well at several hundred megahertz. Consequently, there are other adjustments for completing the compensation. A directly connected test probe (so called 1× probe) puts the unwanted lead capacitance across the circuit under test. For a typical coaxial cable, loading is of the order of 100pF per meter (the length of a typical test lead). Attenuator probes minimize capacitive loading with an attenuator, but reduce the magnitude of the signal delivered to the instrument. A 10× attenuator will reduce the capacitive load by a factor of about 10. The attenuator must have an accurate ratio over the whole range of frequencies of interest; the input impedance of the instrument becomes part of the attenuator. A DC attenuator with resistive divider is supplemented with capacitors, so that the frequency response is predictable over the range of interest. The RC time constant matching method works as long as the transit time of the shielded cable is much less than the time scale of interest. That means that the shielded cable can be viewed as a lumped capacitor rather than an inductor. Transit time on a 1-meter cable is about 5 ns. Consequently, these probes will work to a few megahertz, but after that transmission line effects cause trouble. At high frequencies, the probe impedance will be low. The most common design inserts a 9 megohm resistor in series with the probe tip. The signal is then transmitted from the probe head to the oscilloscope over a special lossy coaxial cable that is designed to minimize capacitance and ringing. The invention of this cable has been traced to John Kobbe, an engineer working for Tektronix. The resistor serves to minimize the loading that the cable capacitance would impose on the DUT. In series with the normal 1 megohm input impedance of the oscilloscope, the 9 megohm resistor creates a 10× voltage divider so such probes are normally known as either low cap(acitance) probes or 10× probes, often printed with the letter X or x instead of the multiplication sign, and usually spoken of as "a times-ten probe". Because the oscilloscope input has some parasitic capacitance in parallel with the 1 megohm resistance, the 9 megohm resistor must also be bypassed by a capacitor to prevent it from forming a severe RC low-pass filter with the 'scope's parasitic capacitance. The amount of bypass capacitance must be carefully matched with the input capacitance of the oscilloscope so that the capacitors also form a 10× voltage divider. In this way, the probe provides a uniform 10× attenuation from DC (with the attenuation provided by the resistors) to very high AC frequencies (with the attenuation provided by the capacitors). In the past, the bypass capacitor in the probe head was adjustable (to achieve this 10× attenuation). More modern probe designs use a laser-trimmed thick-film electronic circuit in the head that combines the 9 megohm resistor with a fixed-value bypass capacitor; they then place a small adjustable capacitor in parallel with the oscilloscope's input capacitance. Either way, the probe must be adjusted so that it provides uniform attenuation at all frequencies. This is referred to as compensating the probe. Compensation is usually accomplished by probing a 1 kHz square wave and adjusting the compensating capacitor until the oscilloscope displays the most square waveshape. Most oscilloscopes have a 1 kHz calibration source on their front panels since probe compensation must be done every time a 10:1 probe is attached to an oscilloscope input. Newer, faster probes have more complex compensation arrangements and may occasionally require further adjustments. 100× passive probes are also available, as are some designs specialized for use at very high voltages (up to 25 kV). Passive probes usually connect to the oscilloscope using a BNC connector. Most 10× probes are equivalent to a load of about 10-15 pF and 10 megohms on the DUT, while 100× probes typically present a 100 megohm load and a smaller capacitance, and therefore load the circuit less. Lo Z probes Z0 probes are a specialized type of low-capacitance passive probe used in low-impedance, very-high-frequency circuits. They are similar in design to 10× passive probes but at much lower impedance levels. The probe cables usually have a characteristic impedance of 50 ohms and connect to oscilloscopes with a matched 50 ohm (rather than a 1 megohm) input impedance). High-impedance scope probes are designed for the conventional 1 megohm oscilloscope, but the 1 megohm input impedance is only at low frequency; the input impedance is not a constant 1 megohm across the probe's bandwidth but rather decreases with frequency. For example, a Tektronix P6139A input impedance starts falling above 10 kHz and is about 100 ohms at 100 MHz. A different probe technique is needed for high frequency signals. A high frequency oscilloscope presents a matched load (usually 50 ohms) at its input, which minimizes reflections at the scope. Probing with a matching 50-ohm transmission line would offer high frequency performance, but it would unduly load most circuits. An attenuator (resistive divider) can be used to minimize loading. At the tip, these probes use a 450 ohm (for 10× attenuation) or 950 ohm (for 20× attenuation) series resistor. Tektronix sells a 10× divider probe with a 9 GHz bandwidth with a 450 ohm series resistor. These probes are also called resistive divider probes, since a 50 ohm transmission line presents a purely resistive load. The Z0 name refers to the characteristic impedance of the oscilloscope and cable. The matched impedances provide better high-frequency performance than an unmatched passive probe can achieve, but at the expense of the low 500-ohm load offered by the probe tip to the DUT. Parasitic capacitance at the probe tip is very low so, for very high-frequency signals, the Z0 probe can offer lower loading than any hi-Z probe and even many active probes. In principle this type of probe can be used at any frequency, but at DC and lower frequencies circuits often have high impedances that would be unacceptably loaded by the probe's low 500 or 1000 ohm probe impedance. Parasitic impedances limit very-high-frequency circuits to operating at low impedance, so the probe impedance is less of a problem. Active scope probes Active scope probes use a high-impedance high-frequency amplifier mounted in the probe head, and a screened lead. The purpose of the amplifier is not gain, but isolation (buffering) between the circuit under test and the oscilloscope and cable, loading the circuit with only a low capacitance and high DC resistance, and matching the oscilloscope input. Active probes are commonly seen by the circuit under test as a capacitance of 1 picofarad or less in parallel with 1 megohm resistance. Probes are connected to the oscilloscope with a cable matching the characteristic impedance of the oscilloscope input. Tube based active probes were used before the advent of high-frequency solid-state electronics, using a small vacuum tube as cathode follower amplifier. Active probes have several disadvantages which have kept them from replacing passive probes for all applications: They are several times more expensive than passive probes. They require power (but this is usually supplied by the oscilloscope). Their dynamic range is limited, sometimes as low as 3 to 5 volts, and they can be damaged by overvoltage, either from the signal or electrostatic discharge. Many active probes allow the user to introduce an offset voltage to allow measurement of voltages with excessive DC level. The total dynamic range is still limited, but the user may be able to adjust its centerpoint so that voltages in the range of, for example, zero to five volts may be measured rather than -2.5 to +2.5. Because of their inherent low voltage rating, there is little need to provide high-voltage insulation for operator safety. This allows the heads of active probes to be extremely small, making them very convenient for use with modern high-density electronic circuits. Passive probes and a modest active probe design is discussed in an application note by Williams. The Tektronix P6201 is an early DC to 900 MHz active FET probe. At extreme high frequencies a modern digital scope requires that the user solder a preamp to the DUT to get 50GS/s, 20 GHz performance. Differential probes Differential probes are optimized for acquiring differential signals. To maximize the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), differential probes must provide two signal paths that are as nearly identical as possible, matched in overall attenuation, frequency response, and time delay. In the past, this was done by designing passive probes with two signal paths, requiring a differential amplifier stage at or near the oscilloscope. (A very few early probes fitted the differential amplifier into a rather-bulky probe head using vacuum tubes.) With advances in solid-state electronics, it has become practical to put the differential amplifier directly within the probe head, greatly easing the requirements on the rest of the signal path (since it now becomes single-ended rather than differential and the need to match parameters on the signal path is removed). A modern differential probe usually has two metal extensions which can be adjusted by the operator to simultaneously touch the appropriate two points on the DUT. Very high CMRRs are thereby made possible. Additional probe features All scope probes contain some facility for grounding (earthing) the probe to the circuit's reference voltage. This is usually accomplished by connecting a very short pigtail wire from the probe head to ground. Inductance in the ground wire can lead to distortion in the observed signal, so this wire is kept as short as possible. Some probes use a small ground foot instead of any wire, allowing the ground link to be as short as 10 mm. Most probes allow a variety of "tips" to be installed. A pointed tip is the most common, but a seizer probe or "test hook" with a hooked tip that can secure to the test point, is also commonly used. Tips that have a small plastic insulating foot with indentations into it can make it easier to probe very-fine-pitch integrated circuits; the indentations mate with the pitch of the IC leads, stabilizing the probe against the shaking of the user's hand and thereby help to maintain contact on the desired pin. Various styles of feet accommodate various pitches of the IC leads. Different types of tips can also be used for probes for other instruments. Some probes contain a push button. Pressing the button will either disconnect the signal (and send a ground signal to the 'scope) or cause the 'scope to identify the trace in some other way. This feature is very useful when simultaneously using more than one probe as it lets the user correlate probes and traces on the 'scope screen. Some probe designs have additional pins surrounding the BNC or use a more complex connector than a BNC. These extra connections allow the probe to inform the oscilloscope of its attenuation factor (10×, 100×, other). The oscilloscope can then adjust its user displays to automatically take into account the attenuation and other factors caused by the probe. These extra pins can also be used to supply power to active probes. Some ×10 probes have a "×1/×10" switch. The "×1" position bypasses the attenuator and compensating network, and can be used when working with very small signals that would be below the scope's sensitivity limit if attenuated by ×10. Interchangeability Because of their standardized design, passive probes (including Z0 probes) from any manufacturer can usually be used with any oscilloscope (although specialized features such as the automatic readout adjustment may not work). Passive probes with voltage dividers may not be compatible with a particular scope. The compensation adjustment capacitor only allows for compensation over a small range of oscilloscope input capacitance values. The probe compensation range must be compatible with the oscilloscope input capacitance. On the other hand, active probes are almost always vendor-specific due to their power requirements, offset voltage controls, etc. Probe manufacturers sometimes offer external amplifiers or plug-in AC power adapters that allow their probes to be used with any oscilloscope. High-voltage probes A high voltage probe allows an ordinary voltmeter to measure voltages that would otherwise be too high to measure or even destructive. It does this by reducing the input voltage to a safe, measurable level with a precision voltage divider circuit within the probe body. Probes intended for up to 100 kV typically employ a resistor voltage divider, with an input resistance of hundreds or thousands of megohms to minimize circuit loading. High linearity and accuracy is achieved by using resistors with extremely low voltage coefficients, in matched sets that maintain a consistent, precise divider ratio across the probe's operating temperature. Voltmeters have input resistance that effectively alters the probe's divider ratio, and parasitic capacitance that combines with the probe's resistance to form an RC circuit; these can easily reduce DC and AC accuracy, respectively, if left uncompensated. To mitigate these effects, voltage divider probes usually include additional components that improve frequency response and allow them to be calibrated for different meter loads. Even higher voltages can be measured with capacitor divider probes, though the larger physical size and other mechanical features (e.g., corona rings) of these devices often preclude their use as handheld probes. Current probes A current probe generates a voltage proportional to a current in the circuit being measured; as the proportionality constant is known, instruments that respond to voltage can be calibrated to indicate current. Current probes can be used both by measuring instruments and oscilloscopes. Sampling resistor The classic current probe is a low valued resistor (a "sampling resistor" or "current shunt") inserted in the current's path. The current is determined by measuring the voltage drop across the resistor and using Ohm's law. The sampling resistance needs to be small enough not to affect circuit operation significantly, but large enough to provide a good reading. The method is valid for both AC and DC measurements. A disadvantage of this method is the need to break the circuit to introduce the shunt. Another problem is measuring the voltage across the shunt when common-mode voltages are present; a differential voltage measurement is needed. Alternating current probes Alternating currents are relatively easy to measure as transformers can be used. A current transformer is commonly used to measure alternating currents. The current to be measured is forced through the primary winding (often a single turn) and the current through the secondary winding is found by measuring the voltage across a current-sense resistor (or "burden resistor"). The secondary winding has a burden resistor to set the current scale. The properties of a transformer offer many advantages. The current transformer rejects common mode voltages, so an accurate single-ended voltage measurement can be made on a grounded secondary. The effective series resistance of the primary winding is set by the burden resistor on the secondary winding and the transformer turns ratio , where: . The core of some current transformers is split and hinged; it is opened and clipped around the wire to be sensed, then closed, making it unnecessary to free one end of the conductor and thread it through the core. Another clip-on design is the Rogowski coil. It is a magnetically balanced coil that measures current by electronically evaluating the line integral around a current. High-frequency, small-signal, passive current probes typically have a frequency range of several kilohertz to over 100 MHz. The Tektronix P6022 has a range from 935 Hz to 200 MHz. Direct-current probes Transformers cannot be used to probe direct currents (DC). Some DC probe designs use the nonlinear properties of a magnetic material to measure DC. Other current probes use Hall effect sensors to measure the magnetic field around a wire produced by an electric current through the wire without the need to interrupt the circuit to fit the probe. They are available for both voltmeters and oscilloscopes. Most current probes are self-contained, drawing power from a battery or the instrument, but a few require the use of an external amplifier unit. (See also: Clamp meter) Hybrid AC/DC current probes More advanced current probes combine a Hall effect sensor with a current transformer. The Hall effect sensor measures the DC and low frequency components of the signal and the current transformer measures the high frequency components. These signals are combined in the amplifier circuit to yield a wide band signal extending from DC to over 50 MHz. The Tektronix A6302 current probe and AM503 amplifier combination is an example of such a system. Near-field probes Near-field probes allow the measurement of an electromagnetic field. They are commonly used to measure electrical noise and other undesirable electromagnetic radiation from the DUT, although they can also be used to spy on the workings of the DUT without introducing much loading into the circuitry. They are commonly connected to spectrum analyzers. Temperature probes Temperature probes are used to make contact measurements of surface temperatures. They employ a temperature sensor such as a thermistor, thermocouple, or RTD, to produce a voltage that varies with temperature. In the case of thermistor and RTD probes, the sensor must be electrically stimulated to produce a voltage, whereas thermocouple probes do not require stimulation because a thermocouple will independently produce an output voltage. Voltmeters can sometimes be used to measure temperature probes, but this task is usually delegated to specialized instruments that will stimulate the probe's sensor (if necessary), measure the probe's output voltage, and convert the voltage to temperature units. Demodulator probes To measure or display the modulating waveform of a modulated high-frequency signal—for example, an amplitude-modulated radio signal—a probe fitted with a simple diode demodulator can be used. The probe will output the modulating waveform without the high-frequency carrier. See also Langmuir probe, used to measure electric potential and electron temperature and density of a plasma Logic probes A logic probe is used for observing digital signals. References External links ABCs of Probes Primer \| Tektronix Oscilloscope Probes and Accessories (PDF, 6.69 MB), from Keysight Measuring instruments Electronic test equipment it:Oscilloscopio#Sonde di misura
5261533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Leon%20County%2C%20Florida	History of Leon County, Florida	The history of Leon County, Florida, much like the History of Tallahassee, dates back to the settlement of the Americas. Beginning in the 16th century, the region was colonized by Europeans, becoming part of Spanish Florida. In 1819, the Adams–Onís Treaty ceded Spanish Florida, including modern-day Leon County, to the United States. Named for Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León, Leon County became an official U.S. county in 1824; the American takeover led to the county's rapid expansion as growing numbers of cotton plantations began to spring up nearby, increasing Leon County's population significantly. Prehistoric Leon County, like most of North America, supported a variety of ancient and now extinct animals as far back as 33 million years ago. There are no fossils of dinosaurs in Florida. Prior to the Miocene, Florida was a submerged carbonate platform essentially cut off from the continent by the Gulf Trough. When this trough filled with sediments during the Eocene—Miocene, the carbonate Florida Platform collected sediments and became exposed allowing flora and fauna to take hold. Proto dogs and bear-dogs, along with large cats and other carnivores migrated to the peninsula following their prey of ancient ruminants and deer-like mammals. See: Leon County, Florida paleontological sites. Early human habitation Florida's human occupation, as with that of America, are divided into Paleoindian, Archaic, Woodland, Mississippian, and Protohistoric periods. Exceptions are the Protohistoric period, the others are often divided into Early, Middle and Late subperiods and further divided by the term "culture" within the subperiods. What is now Leon County was occupied by Paleoindians or Clovis culture 12,000 years ago (Upper Paleolithic period). These hunter-gatherer tribes lived in what is now Leon County near water sources where water was shared with animals which outlived many of the aforementioned predators. Animals such as Ancient bison, Mastodon, Ice Age camel, Giant ground sloth, Saber-toothed Tiger, Columbian Mammoth, Equus, Short-faced bear, and American lion would frequent these areas. Archaic period The Archaic cultures (10,000-2500 BCE), are divided into Early, Middle, and Late for the southeastern North America and can be described as having a more humid climate. Sea level rose rapidly and water tables and ecosystems looked much like that of today. Population increased and people began settling in smaller territorial areas. People began using forms of triangular-shaped projectile points and it is thought that Indians switched from hand held spears to spear throwers to more easily bring down game, which for the most part, were the same species as contemporary animals. The cumulative effects of these changes led to increased regionalization as native peoples began adapting to specific local resources. In the Apalachee region this period is also known as the Norwood culture. Woodland period The Woodland period (2500 BCE-900 CE) is divided up fundamentally into the Deptford culture (2500 BCE-100 CE), Swift Creek culture (100-300 CE), Santa Rosa-Swift Creek culture (100-300 CE), and Weeden Island culture (300-900 CE) cultures. It is characterized by and widespread use of pottery (and tempering agents) which began in the late Archaic period. Also, the increasing sophistication of pottery forms and decoration began. The increasing use of agriculture also meant that the nomadic nature of many of the tribes was supplanted by permanently occupied villages, although agricultural development did not really advance until the Mississippian period. Burial of the deceased in mounds with elaborate grave goods also began. Also see: Woodland period Deptford culture The Deptford culture (2500—1900 BCE) was the first existence of the Woodland tradition in Florida. Mainly a coastal occupation though some people located inland. Ceramics were decorated and stamped. Pottery no longer tempered with plant fibers is used in favor of clay or sand pastes. East of the Aucilla River, the Deptford culture people transition directly into the Fort Walton Culture. The 2001 Letchworth Auger Survey shows no activity at the Letchworth site in Jefferson County, Florida. Sites along the coastal areas are low in numbers where many more recent sites are inland which may be in part related to the rise in sea level that probably inundated many sites. It is estimated that sea level on the Gulf of Mexico coast of northern Florida had risen 2 m (6.5 ft) over the last 2000 years. Swift Creek culture The Swift Creek culture first appeared in south Georgia about 100 BCE where it developed out of the Deptford culture and flourished at 200-400 CE. Villages were first established in significant numbers in the interior forest and river valleys of the eastern Panhandle, although Swift Creek sites can also be found along the coast. Ceramics were characterized by complicated stamped pottery and are commonly found in the Red Hills Region, as delineated by Cooke. These sites are especially prevalent in the river valley forest and other fertile locales. Gardening probably played a role in the Swift Creek economic system, although evidence supporting cultivation remains sparse. Bone and stone tools appear in greater numbers in their tool kits than during the previous Deptford period. Weeden Island culture The Weeden Island culture 400–1000. The Weeden Island culture is believed to have emerged from the Hopewell culture-based Swift Creek cultural tradition of northwest Florida during the Middle Woodland Period (c. 200 - 500) in the lower Chattahoochee-Apalachicola river drainage, persisting in some areas until the end of the Woodland period c. 1200 CE. Weeden Island sites have been found from Mobile Bay to south of Tampa Bay, extending as far north as lower-central Georgia. Concentrated around lakes Lake Miccosukee and Lake Iamonia. Adoption of maize agriculture. Pottery was Weeden Island plain ware and Swift Creek Complicated Stamped. Mississippian From 1100 to 1500, the Mississippian culture thrived. The Lake Jackson Mounds site, a Mississippian mound-building complex, was extremely active. It is more accurately a site of the Leon-Jefferson Culture, an advanced society of the Fort Walton Culture. Lake Jackson Mounds are located on the southwest edge of Lake Jackson in Tallahassee now the Lake Jackson Mounds Archaeological State Park and had a large village and plaza. This site was one of the most magnificent ceremonial centers in the southeastern United States. The region's red hills with extremely fertile red clay soils enabled these inhabitants to grow bountiful crops. 16th and 17th centuries First period of Spanish rule Pánfilo de Narváez and his followers first passed south of Leon County in 1528. In 1539, Hernando de Soto stayed 5 months at the Apalachee Indian capitol of Anhaica bringing priests with him. The first Christmas in the New World was celebrated in the woods near the present capitol building. As more Spanish colonists arrived, they brought disease and fighting. This reduced the population of the Apalachee tribe who left the area for points west. In February 1647, the Apalachee revolted against the Spanish near a mission named San Antonio de Bacuqua in present-day Leon County. The revolt changed the relationship between Spanish authorities and the Apalachee. Following the revolt, Apalachee men were forced to work on public projects in St. Augustine or on Spanish-owned ranches. In 1656, a Spanish deputy governor and his crew settled in the Apalachee town that they called Mission San Luis de Apalachee, in the west of modern Tallahassee. With a population of more than 1,400, the Spanish established one of several Franciscan missions in the vicinity. While there, the Spaniards lived off the generosity of the Apalachee. At the same time, they tried to convert the Apalachee to the Catholic faith. Beginning in the late 17th century, English colonists in the neighboring Province of Carolina began to formulate plans to raid Spanish Florida. During Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), Governor James Moore launched several raids into Florida, including the territory of modern-day Leon County, against Spanish missions in the region in conjunction with Indian allies. However, an attempt by Moore to capture St. Augustine ended in disgrace, forcing him to resign his post in 1703. 18th and 19th centuries Second period of Spanish rule In 1795 what is now Leon County along with the rest of Florida fell back under the rule of Spain. Over the years there were attacks on Indian towns in Florida by settlers in Georgia and in return Indians attacked settlers in Georgia prompting the 1817-1818 campaign by the United States Army and Andrew Jackson known as the First Seminole War. In 1818, Jackson burned Tallahassee, then invaded the small village of Miccosukee in what is now northeastern Leon County. Territorial Florida See also History of Tallahassee, Florida In 1821, Florida became a territory of the United States. Both St. Augustine and Pensacola competed to become the capital city. Legislators alternated sessions. Travel was hazardous and took almost twenty days. General Andrew Jackson served as military governor of the newly acquired territory and appointed two commissioners to find a suitable new location for the state capitol. One rode on horseback from St. Augustine and the other sailed by boat from Pensacola. They met at the port of St. Marks, Florida, about south of present-day Tallahassee, halfway between St. Augustine and Pensacola. They discovered a place north of St. Marks. They reported, “A more beautiful country can scarcely be managed;Imagined? it is high, rolling, and well watered, the richness of the soil renders it perfectly adapted to farming." On March 30, 1822, the United States merged East Florida and part of West Florida into the Florida Territory. Originally part of Escambia and later Gadsden County, Leon County was created in 1824. It was named for the Juan Ponce de León, Spanish explorer who was the first European to reach Florida. Territorial Governors from Leon County Richard Keith Call served from 1836 to 1839 and 1841 to 1844. Though not a native, Call came to Florida in 1814 and was a land owner in Leon County as early as the 1820s. He established Orchard Pond Plantation and The Grove Plantation. John Branch served from 1844 to 1845. Also not a native, Branch moved to Leon County in the 1830s purchasing land on which he would establish Live Oak Plantation. See also List of governors of Florida The Plantations of Leon County Leon County in the 1820s and 1830s was the destination of a number of northern planters. Besides the aforementioned R.K. Call and John Branch, names such as Francis W. Eppes, William Bailey, the Chaires brothers, the Bradford brothers, George Taliaferro Ward, and many others began large cotton plantations in Leon County. At the center of what was then called Middle Florida, there was much less population than in East Florida and West Florida, and no problem with the memories of the more lenient treatment of slaves under Spain. Building a plantation, slave-based economy in Middle Florida was much easier. Second Seminole War The Second Seminole War of 1835-1842 touched Leon County as it would most of Florida when family members and slaves of Green A. Chaires were massacred on his first plantation on Lake Lafayette. In 1837, the Tallahassee Railroad was completed linking Tallahassee to the Gulf port of St. Marks to the south. Forts of Leon County During the Seminole Wars, 5 forts were constructed for the protection of settlers. 1839-1842 - Ft. Braden was named after the commander's wife who died of yellow fever. Fort Braden was located on the Ochlockonee River. 1840 - Fort Harriet near the head of the Sopchoppy River, northwest of St. Marks. 1839-1842 - Fort Macomb or Fort Number One M was located north of St. Marks. 1839 - Fort Number Two (M) was located on the St. Marks River just south of the unincorporated area of Rose, Florida. 1839 - Fort St. Augustine was located northeast of Fort Macomb. Early Statehood On March 3, 1845, Florida joined the Union as the 27th state and Leon County became the capital county of Florida. Antebellum From 1850 to 1865, Leon County was the wealthiest county in Florida, a "cotton kingdom"; it ranked 5th out of all of Florida and Georgia counties in the production of cotton from the 20 major plantations growing 200 bales or more. Another source states that Leon County led the state in cotton production. In the 1840, 1850, and 1860 censuses, Leon County had the highest population in Florida, followed by adjacent Gadsden, Jefferson, and Madison counties; this was documented slightly earlier, in the Florida Constitution of 1838, which gave Leon County 6 electors, more than any other county. (Adjacent Gadsden County was second, with 4.) Leon County's population in 1860 was 73% African American, almost all of them slaves. (Starting in 1861, all free blacks had to register with the county and pay $1 for a permit; each required a local white sponsor, who could be sued for actions of the negro, as negroes could not be sued.) As was true elsewhere in the South, the value of those slaves far exceeded the value of all the land in the county. Leon County had more slaves than any other county in Florida, and therefore it was the wealthiest county in Florida. Leon County was the center of the slave trade in Florida. 1860s The Civil War Florida seceded from the Union January 10, 1861, and sided with the Confederacy. A vast number of men from Leon County served as officers and enlisted men in companies that served as far north as Gettysburg. Officers included George Taliaferro Ward, George Washington Scott, Patrick Houston, and Frederick L. Villepigue. Houston and Villepigue headed the Kilcrease Light Artillery. The only battle of the Civil War within Leon County took place on March 6, 1865, at the Battle of Natural Bridge with the small Confederate forces of around 1,000 men, including students from the West Florida Seminary, under Sam Jones going up against John Newton and his 2nd and 99th U.S. Colored Infantry units. Leon County supported the effort with three military encampments. These were Camp Leon, Camp Lay, and Camp Mary Davis, all established around 1861. Reconstruction The Southern Homestead Act of 1866 allowed the opening of government lands in Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, and Florida for homesteading and with help from the Freedmen's Bureau, freedmen could secure land. Thus they flocked to Florida, mainly from Georgia and the Carolinas, to take advantage of the offer of farmland in Leon County. The 1880s and 1890s Leon County resident and cotton plantation owner William D. Bloxham served as governor from 1881 to 1885 and took office again from 1897 to 1901. The Carrabelle, Tallahassee and Georgia Railroad The Carrabelle, Tallahassee and Georgia Railroad began service during the 1880s with service from the Gulf coast to southern Georgia. 20th century 1900 through 1920 Cattle & dairy Around 1900, dairying had developed from a sideline way of making money in the previous 35–40 years to a large business concern making Leon County the leading county and first in milk production by 1900. Butter was a primary product while the skim milk was fed to hogs. By 1916, Jacksonville was receiving milk for ice cream via the Seaboard Railway and by 1918 approximately 1000 gallons of milk left Leon County for production plants in Jacksonville. The dairy industry became a $100,000 a year agribusiness. The Leon County Dairy Association was organized in 1918. The 1920 census showed Leon County as having 7885 dairy cows with milk production at 589,350 gallons. Tallahassee's first milk plant was opened by 1923 and there were 25 operational dairies in Leon. Just prior to World War II, milk production was 745,901 gallons a day. By 1964, dairies had decreased to 11 with only 1 dairy in production and home delivery of dairy products. Production of milk was now worth $1,284,536. In the 1880s, Robert F. Bradford, grandson of Richard Bradford of Water Oak Plantation, had given up on cotton and had devoted to livestock and dairying. By 1911 Robert F. Bradford, Jr. joined the business with 100 Jersey cattle which fed along the shores of Lake Iamonia. The farm was one of the first in the county to have silos. Dairying halted in 1935 when the farm was sold to Lloyd Griscom of Luna Plantation. Bradford continued with 75 cows and continued milk operations west of Tallahassee as the Leon County Milk Company. 1940 through 1960 Beef cattle The 1940s through 1960s saw an increase in the raising of beef cattle in Leon County. Some of the increase can be attributed to St. Joe Paper Company as well as some game plantation owners. Among some of Leon County's beef producers were Payne H. Midyette, Sr. and Payne H. Midyette, Jr. who had on Miccosukee Road. In 1939, Payne Sr. introduced the first purebred Hereford herd into the county. Tallahassee City Manager Arvah Hopkins and brother William Hopkins, a State Attorney, had 300 to 500 head on . Both were grandsons of Goodwood Plantation owner Arvah Hopkins. Bull Headley of Bull Run Plantation ran 500 head of cattle. See also History of Tallahassee, Florida References
5261821	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Wace	Alan Wace	Alan John Bayard Wace (13 July 1879 – 9 November 1957) was an English archaeologist, most known for his excavations at the Bronze Age site of Mycenae in Greece. He served as director of the British School at Athens between 1914 and 1923, and excavated widely in Thessaly, in Laconia and in Egypt. He was also an authority on Greek textiles and a prolific collector of Greek embroidery. Educated at Shrewsbury School and Pembroke College, Cambridge, Wace's initial scholarly interests focused on Ancient Greek sculpture and modern Greek anthropology. He first attended the BSA in 1902, before moving to the British School at Rome, where he participated in the BSA's excavations at Sparta and in the region of Laconia in southern Greece. Between 1907 and 1912, he surveyed widely in the northern Greek region of Thessaly, before taking a post at the Scottish University of St Andrews in 1912. In 1914, Wace returned to the BSA as its director, though his archaeological work was soon interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War. He worked for the British intelligence services during the war, and excavated with his long-term collaborator Carl Blegen at the prehistoric site of Korakou. This project generated Wace and Blegen's theory of the long-term continuity of mainland Greek ("Helladic") culture, which contradicted the established scholarly view that Minoan Crete had been the dominant culture of the Aegean Bronze Age, and became known as the "Helladic Heresy". Wace excavated at Mycenae in the early 1920s, and established a chronological schema for the site's tombs which largely proved the "Helladic Heresy" correct. He lost his position at the BSA in 1923, and spent ten years as a curator of textiles at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. In 1934, he returned to Cambridge as the Laurence Professor of Classical Archaeology, and resumed his covert work during the Second World War, serving as a section head for the British intelligence agency MI6 in Athens, Alexandria and Cairo. Wace retired from his Cambridge professorship in 1944 and was appointed to a post at Alexandria's Farouk I University. During his time in Egypt, he continued to excavate at Mycenae and unsuccessfully attempted to locate the tomb of Alexander the Great. He was sacked after the 1952 Egyptian Revolution, but continued to excavate, publish and study until his death in 1957. His daughter, Lisa French, accompanied him on several campaigns at Mycenae and later led her own excavations there. Early life and education Alan John Bayard Wace was born on 13 July 1879, at 4 Camden Place in Cambridge. He was the second son of Frederic Charles Wace, a mathematician at St John's College; his mother, Fanny ( Bayard), was descended from a family prominent in New York. Frederic Wace served as mayor of Cambridge in 1889–1891, the first university academic to hold the post. He died in 1893, whereupon the family moved to Shrewsbury, and Wace (along with his elder brother Emeric) attended Shrewsbury School, a public school in the town, where he was head boy in 1898. He went up to Cambridge on a scholarship in the same year, matriculating in classics at Pembroke College. Emeric died shortly before the end of Wace's second year, in which Wace obtained a First in part one of tripos. Wace's tutor, R. A. Neil, suggested that he study classical archaeology for part two, his final year: Wace subsequently achieved a First with distinction in the examinations of 1901. Wace acquired a particular interest in Ancient Greek sculpture from his teacher Charles Waldstein; he also gained an interest in the Aegean Bronze Age from William Ridgeway, the university's Disney Professor of Archaeology. Among his Cambridge contemporaries was the future folklorist and archaeologist R. M. Dawkins. In 1902, he attended the British School at Athens (BSA), one of Greece's foreign archaeological institutes, as a student. While there, he completed a research project on Hellenistic sculpture, part of which he published in the school's journal, Annual of the British School at Athens, in 1902. He also developed an interest in Greek textiles, perhaps from the embroiderer Louisa Pesel, who became an associate of the BSA in the same year as Wace joined, or perhaps from the school's director, Robert Carr Bosanquet, who collected them. Early academic career Wace moved to the British School at Rome (BSR) in 1903 on a Craven studentship. He was elected as a fellow of Pembroke College in 1904. Wace worked briefly as a librarian at the BSR between 1905 and 1906, following a government grant to allow the BSR to catalogue its sculpture collections. During this period, Wace acted as assistant to Thomas Ashby, who was himself acting as director in the place of Henry Stuart Jones, who had been incapacitated by malaria-related ill health. In the spring of 1906, the directorship was formally declared vacant; both Wace and Ashby applied, Ashby was appointed, and Wace was offered the assistant directorship, which he refused. He remained at the BSR; in 1909, he was considered as a possible successor to Ashby, though was not appointed. From 1904 onwards, the BSA was engaged in an extended campaign in the Laconia region of southern Greece. Wace took part in his first excavation in 1905, under the leadership of the BSA's Frederick William Hasluck at Geraki in Laconia. Over the following years, he generally spent autumns in Rome and summers on archaeological fieldwork in Greece. Alongside the archaeologist Marcus Tod, he reviewed the artefacts stored in the Sparta museum; Tod specialised in the inscriptions while Wace catalogued the sculptures and other finds. He excavated the Menelaion sanctuary in 1909 alongside Maurice S. Thompson and John Percival Droop; his publication of the lead votive objects deposited there was described by the archaeologist Hector Catling in 1998 as "definitive and of permanent value". He also excavated with the BSA at Sparta, and was given charge of the work on a Roman bathhouse known as the "Arapissa", as well as for that on the city's circuit wall. His other work in Laconia included the excavation of a number of tombs and a small-scale excavation of a shrine at Epidauros Limera. Outside Laconia, he worked with Ernest Gardner, who organised archaeological tours of Athens, contributed to a survey of Athens's Byzantine churches, and collaborated on studies of the church of Hagia Irene and of the base of the Obelisk of Theodosius, both in Istanbul. Bosanquet left the BSA in 1906; Wace was one of three candidates shortlisted for the position, and noted in a meeting of the school's Council as "a competent and keen worker and capable of extracting work from others", but was ultimately rejected in favour of Dawkins. After his appointment, Dawkins toured with Wace through the Dodecanese in the summer of 1906 and in 1907, collecting embroidered artwork and pursuing Dawkins's interest in modern Greek dialects. Wace organised an exhibition of Greek embroidery at Cambridge's Fitzwilliam Museum in 1906, almost exclusively composed of pieces he had collected with Dawkins and studied with Pesel and John Myers, another alumnus of the BSA. Wace wrote articles for The Burlington Magazine, an academic journal covering fine art, throughout the early 1900s, and continued to exhibit his collection along with Dawkins, including at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1914. In June 1907, Wace and Droop travelled to Thessaly in northern Greece. They excavated Bronze Age tombs at Theotokou, where Wace had previously visited in 1905, and then proceeded to conduct field survey in search of prehistoric mounds, known as . They discovered the mound of Zerelia in 1907, then returned with Thompson and funding from Cambridge University in June 1908. Wace and Thompson continued to visit Thessaly until 1912, recovering numerous artefacts which they donated to the Fitzwilliam Museum; the results of the work were published as Prehistoric Thessaly. The archaeologist Helen Waterhouse attributes Wace's later specialism in prehistory to the enthusiasm for Neolithic pottery he developed in Thessaly. Between 1911 and 1912, Wace conducted research at Samarina in the Pindus mountains: on the outbreak of the First Balkan War in October 1912, he wrote that "the annual disturbance" in the region had begun "earlier than usual". The outbreak of war halted his research, the results of which he published alongside Thompson in 1914. Also in 1912, he took a post at the University of St Andrews in Scotland, as a lecturer in ancient history and archaeology. He left his fellowship at Pembroke in 1913. Director of the British School at Athens Wace succeeded Dawkins as director of the BSA in 1914, before the outbreak of the First World War in August of that year. His students at the BSA included the classical archaeologists , Vincent Desborough, Vronwy Hankey and Helen Waterhouse. First World War The First World War limited the opportunities for archaeological work in Greece and all but removed the usual influx of academic visitors to the BSA. During 1915–1916, Wace was posted to the chancery of the British legation to Greece, where he worked in cryptography and cryptanalysis. His work including organising support for British subjects fleeing the Ottoman Empire, as well as gathering military intelligence from them. Late in 1915, after the Gallipoli landings, Wace devised and established the British "passport control office" in Athens, in truth a front for British intelligence, in which he identified people suspected of attempting to travel to British-controlled Egypt as spies. He spent his free time during the war tending to the BSA's garden, organising its library, and working on Mycenaean pottery in the National Archaeological Museum. Although the BSA was forbidden to excavate from 1914, the American School of Classical Studies (ASCSA) was not subject to such restrictions, and Wace joined its secretary, Carl Blegen, in the ASCSA's excavations of the early Bronze Age site of Korakou in the Corinthia during 1915 and 1916. Their excavations led to a joint publication in which they argued that Greek culture had existed continuously since the early Bronze Age, and that "archaic and, consequently, classical Greek art was a renaissance ... of the same artistic spirit that inspired Knossos and Phaestos, Tiryns and Mycenae". Their argument that the culture of Bronze Age Greece was primarily "Mycenaean as opposed to Cretan" ran contrary to the prevailing opinion of the time, by which Minoan Crete was considered the dominant influence on mainland Greece. John Percival Droop later called Wace and Blegen's ideas the "Helladic Heresy". On 1 1916, British and French forces invaded Piraeus, the harbour of Athens, in an attempt to overturn Greece's neutrality in the war. Wace and other British officials were evacuated onto the troop carrier HMT Abbassieh, which remained outside Athens until the following year. Post-war archaeology and the "Helladic Heresy" In November 1919, Wace's contract as director of the BSA was renewed for another three years, and he left the British legation. His biographer David Gill credits Wace's reputation with attracting several non-British students to the BSA, including the Swedish Etruscologist Axel Boëthius and the papyrologist Jacob Hondius. He also assisted in the foundation of the Museum of Greek Handicrafts. Wace suggested expanding the BSA's archaeological remit to include the study of geology and botany, but his proposals were not enacted. In the early 1920s, Wace led the excavations of the BSA at the site of Mycenae in southern Greece. The project was encouraged by Arthur Evans, who had excavated at Knossos on Crete from 1900 and introduced the concept of "Minoan Civilisation" to scholarship. Mycenae had previously been established, after the 1876–1877 excavations at Grave Circle A there, as the type site for the "Mycenaean" civilisation of the mainland. Evans hoped that further excavations at Mycenae would provide evidence for his theory that Knossos was the centre of the dominant power of the Bronze Age Aegean, in line with the Classical myths of a Cretan thalassocracy under King Minos. Evans assisted the BSA in persuading both the Greek government and the archaeologist Christos Tsountas, who held the necessary permit, to permit them to excavate with Wace as field director. He also donated towards the project, to be used for the excavation of the monument known as the Tomb of Aegisthus. The main priority of the excavations was to establish the chronological relationship between the shaft graves of Grave Circle A and the much larger tombs at the site. Evans believed that the two sets of tombs were broadly contemporary, and that both represented the burials of Cretan-based rulers of Mycenae. This ran contrary to the view proposed by Wace and Blegen in 1918, by which the culture of mainland Greece ("Helladic" culture) had maintained fundamentally autochthonous through the Shaft Graves period until the end of the Bronze Age. Under Wace and Blegen's model, the were correctly dated considerably later than both Grave Circle A ( 1600–1450 BCE) and the apogee of Neopalatial Minoan civilisation on Crete, which ended around 1500 BCE. This would represent a "crescendo" of monumentality and elaboration in Mycenae's tombs, whereas Evans had argued that Mycenae had become subjected and subordinated to Crete, and that this produced a "diminuendo" in the site's wealth and ostentation. Wace intended to fully excavate all seven of the thus-far unexcavated between 1920 and 1923. In 1920 and 1921, he made small-scale excavations in the tomb known as the Treasury of Atreus, which failed to find conclusive evidence for its date. Between 15 June and 8 July 1922, the Tomb of Aegisthus was excavated under Winifred Lamb, who was serving as Wace's second-in-charge. This would be the only tomb fully excavated during the 1920–1923 campaigns, though Wace had all of the re-examined and their first architectural plans drawn up by the Anglo-Dutch draughtsman Piet de Jong. Planned excavations of the Treasury of Atreus in 1923 had to be abandoned due to safety concerns about the tomb's roof, which had partially collapsed. By May 1923, Wace and Lamb had constructed the outline of a three-phase chronological model for the at Mycenae, in which they argued for a progressive increase in the scale and monumentality of the tombs. They were able to date the Tomb of Aegisthus to early LH IIA ( 1510–1480 BCE), and to show that it was earlier than the larger Treasury of Atreus, thereby providing strong evidence for Wace and Blegen's chronological model. During this period, Wace also assisted Blegen in the ASCSA's excavations at Zygouries, a site between Mycenae and Corinth. Victoria and Albert Museum Wace remained at the BSA until later in 1923, when the School's committee declined to renew his appointment. Waterhouse suggests that this was due to Wace's disagreements with influential members of the Committee, who had disagreed with his decision to excavate at Mycenae, preferring the School to focus on sites of the classical period. He was succeeded by Arthur Woodward, who had been his deputy director. Wace subsequently lectured at Princeton University in 1923 and at the Archaeological Institute of America in 1923–1924. He was offered a post at the University of Pennsylvania Museum in 1924, but needed to remain in Britain following the death of his brother-in-law; he also declined in 1925 an invitation to excavate at Beth She'an in Mandatory Palestine on the museum's behalf. Evans continued to write critically of Wace in the press, including in The Times in April 1924. Wace, meanwhile, was selected to write the chapters on the Aegean Bronze Age for the Cambridge Ancient History. Wace spent ten years between 1924 and 1934 as deputy keeper of textiles at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. The Greek embroideries he collected with Dawkins formed the basis of the V&A's collection of these objects. While at the V&A, he published widely on embroidery from various periods, including a preface for Louisa Pesel's 1929 handbook for embroiderers based on seventeenth-century samplers and an exhibition catalogue co-written with his wife in the same year. In 1929, he organised the Exhibition of English Decorative Art, held at Lansdowne House, described in one of Wace's obituaries as his greatest achievement in the field of textiles. Wace did not return to archaeology in Greece during this period, though he joined Blegen at the latter's excavations of Troy in 1933. In 1926, Wace was asked by Sydney Cockerell, director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, to authenticate a marble statuette (later known as the "Fitzwilliam Goddess") being offered for sale to the museum by Charles Seltman, a lecturer in classics at Queen's College, Cambridge. The statue was claimed to be Minoan in date: Wace considered it authentic, as subsequently did Evans. Wace wrote about the statuette in The Times, declaring it "the earliest piece of true sculpture found on Greek soil"; in a letter to Cockerell on 12 February, he called it "ravishingly beautiful". By the end of the year, the statue was widely suspected to be a forgery: Wace published a monograph on it in May 1927, titled A Cretan Statuette in the Fitzwilliam Museum: A Study in Minoan Costume, but reviews of the book in 1928 largely doubted the piece's authenticity. The museum recategorised it as "of uncertain date or authenticity" in 1961 and removed it from display in 1991; by this point, it was generally considered a forgery dating from the 1920s. Laurence Professorship at Cambridge Wace became the second holder of the Laurence Professorship of Classical Archaeology, succeeding Arthur Bernard Cook on the latter's retirement in 1934. He maintained his interest in Greek textiles, writing a 1935 catalogue for an exhibition entitled Mediterranean and Near Eastern Embroideries, based on the collection of Beatrice Lindell Cook, whose husband had collected them in Egypt; the book was still considered a standard work in the twenty-first century. Wace returned to Mycenae in July 1939, following a visiting appointment at the University of Toronto. His excavations discovered the "Prehistoric Cemetery", predominantly consisting of chamber tombs, to the west of the citadel. He also made new excavations of the Treasury of Atreus, which proved that the tomb had been constructed no later than the LHIIIA1 period (). When the Second World War broke out in September, Wace moved back into the BSA with his family. He worked as a section head for the British military intelligence agency MI6, resuming his previous cover as a passport control officer, monitoring international communications and the activities of Axis intelligence agencies. In March 1940, he gave a public lecture on Mycenae, which was attended by King Georgios of Greece. In April 1941, shortly before the fall of Greece to Axis forces the following month, Wace and other British intelligence officers relocated to Alexandria in Egypt, where he debriefed British troops evacuated there from Greece. He subsequently worked for MI6 in Cairo. His duties included editing and publishing intelligence reports, and he ran the department providing false passports and documentation to agents of the British Special Operations Executive operating in the Aegean. He was evacuated briefly to Jerusalem in 1942, shortly before the First Battle of El Alamein. He also conducted undercover work based at the British Embassy. To assist with the latter, he called on the archaeologist and BSA alumnus Martin Robertson, who joined him in Cairo in late 1942. Wace developed a cooperative relationship with Rodney Young, an American archaeologist turned intelligence officer, who established the "Greek Desk" of the Office of Strategic Services in the city from 1943: their acquaintance allowed British and American intelligence to cooperate more effectively in Cairo than had been the case elsewhere, particularly in İzmir. Wace retired from his Cambridge professorship in 1944, having reached the age limit of sixty-five for normal service and realising that he would be unable to return to Cambridge during the war. He was subsequently appointed, on the encouragement of the British Council, as professor of classics and classical archaeology in Alexandria's Farouk I University. Professorship at Alexandria and retirement Alongside the French Egyptologist Étienne Drioton, Wace organised a 1944 exhibition of Coptic art in Cairo. Shortly after the Second World War, he loaned his extensive collection of Greek embroideries to the Liverpool Museum, which later purchased them. In 1947, he attempted to find the Tomb of Alexander the Great in Alexandria, unsuccessfully excavating at a hill known as Kom al-Dikka, then widely believed to be the tomb's location. He also excavated a Hellenistic temple at Hermopolis Magna in central Egypt, dedicated to the Ptolemaic ruler Ptolemy III; the results of this project were published posthumously in 1959. He was a member of the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton University in 1948: there, he completed his archaeological guide to Mycenae, published in 1949. He made further excavations at Mycenae between 1950 and 1955, following the end of the Greek Civil War in October 1949. His excavations in 1952 discovered the first Linear B tablets known from the site. In 1952, violence in the British-administered Suez Canal Zone, including the killing of fifty Egyptian police officers in January, led to a military coup which overthrew King Farouk and imposed a nationalist government led by Mohamed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser. The new government sacked Wace, who moved to Cyprus. During this period, he visited Princeton each year: he also undertook study seasons at Mycenae in 1956 and 1957. Wace experienced poor cardiovascular health over a period of several years. He suffered a heart attack in the spring of 1957, and died of another on 9 November 1957, at his home in Athens. He was buried in the Protestant section of the First Cemetery of Athens. Personal life, character and honours The Scottish writer Compton Mackenzie, who met Wace during the latter's work with British refugees from Turkey during 1915–1916, wrote of him as: The historian Arnold Toynbee, who visited the BSA in the 1911–1912 academic year, described Wace and Thompson thus: Wace was married to the American archaeologist Helen Wace ( Pence), a former student of the BSR who had worked on the Roman port of Ostia. The couple met at Mycenae in June 1922 and became engaged on a yacht cruise in May 1923, which was also attended by Blegen and his fellow American archaeologists Bert Hodge Hill and Leicester Holland, as well as all three of their future wives, Elizabeth Pierce, Ida Thallon, and Louise Adams. Wace and Pence married in St Albans on 20 June 1925; the archaeologist Elizabeth (Lisa) Bayard French, born in 1931, was their daughter. In 1964, Helen Wace privately published a series of Alan's fictional writings as Greece Untrodden. Wace was made a doctor of the University of Amsterdam in 1932, of the University of Liverpool in 1935, of the University of Pennsylvania in 1940, and of the University of Cambridge in 1951. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1945, as a Fellow of the British Academy in 1947, and as a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. He was made an honorary fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1951, and was also the honorand of a special edition of the Annual of the British School at Athens to commemorate his fifty years in archaeology. In 1952, he was made an officer of the Patriarchal Order of St. Mark the Evangelist, Alexandria. He was also an honorary member of the Archaeological Society of Athens, the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, and of the Royal Society of Archaeology of Alexandria. In 1953, he received the Petrie Medal, awarded by the University of London for distinguished contributions to archaeology. Selected works As sole author As co-author Footnotes Explanatory notes References Bibliography Further reading External links British archaeologists English classical scholars People educated at Shrewsbury School Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge 1879 births 1957 deaths Scholars of Mycenaean Greek People from Cambridge Laurence Professors of Classical Archaeology Directors of the British School at Athens People associated with the Victoria and Albert Museum Archaeologists of the Bronze Age Aegean Members of the American Philosophical Society
5261893	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Winter%20King%20%28novel%29	The Winter King (novel)	The Winter King: A Novel of Arthur is the first novel of the Warlord Chronicles trilogy by Bernard Cornwell, originally published in the UK in 1995 by Penguin Group. The book is based on characters and plot elements from Arthurian myth, but considerably changed and re-worked. The novel is divided into five parts narrated by the protagonist, Derfel Cadarn. A former warrior sworn to Arthur and now an elderly monk, Derfel tells the story of how Arthur became a warlord in Dark Age Britain despite illegitimacy to the throne. After being banished to Armorica by his father, the High King Uther Pendragon, Arthur returns to protect the new king, his infant nephew Mordred. However, on the cusp of a united peaceful Britain, Arthur's decision to marry Guinevere plunges the island into war again. Plot The story is narrated by its main protagonist, Derfel Cadarn, an elderly monk who has converted to Christianity late in life after spending many years as a warrior in the service of Arthur, a renowned warlord who long ago fought to protect the kingdom of Dumnonia. In the monastery at Dinnewrac, the young Queen Igraine begs Derfel to record his tales of how he met the many famous heroes of Arthurian legend. Knowing that his unsympathetic master Bishop Sansum cannot read, Derfel pretends to write a Christian gospel. Most of the narrative is recounted in a series of flashbacks to his life as a young man, with regular intermissions in the present-day monastery. Part One: The Winter King The kingdom of Dumnonia is in chaos. Its forces, led by the Edling (crown prince) Mordred and Arthur (the king's bastard) have defeated the Saxons at a battle beneath White Horse Hill, but at a terrible price: Prince Mordred has been slain, leaving the kingdom without an heir. High King Uther Pendragon blames his son's death on Arthur and exiles him to Armorica. Dumnonia's only hope is for Mordred's pregnant wife, Norwenna, to give birth to a son. Norwenna is in labor, and there are fears that she and the child may die. Uther, a pagan, finally loses patience with Norwenna's Christian midwives and summons Merlin's priestess Morgan to deliver the child. The pagan magic seems to work and a male child is born, but with a crippled leg, which is seen as a very bad omen. The High King dismisses the sign and declares that the son will be named after his father: Mordred. The infant Mordred and his mother are brought to Merlin's hall at Ynys Wydryn, where she and the child are placed under the care of Merlin's priestesses, Morgan (Arthur's sister) and Nimue (Merlin's lover). Merlin himself has not been seen in Britain for many months. The narrator, Derfel, is a young foundling at Ynys Wydryn who had been adopted by Merlin. Born of a Saxon woman named Erce, Derfel and his mother were once captured in a raid by Britons and enslaved. Their British captors were later raided in turn by Gundleus, King of Siluria, and his druid Tanaburs. Derfel was to be one of the sacrifices to the gods as a tribute from the victorious raiders, but survived being thrown into the "death-pit" and is henceforth considered by Merlin to be favoured by the gods. Having survived the failed sacrifice, he is also entitled to take the life of Tanaburs. Derfel is in love with Nimue, who binds him to her by scarring both of their hands and making Derfel swear that he must always obey her. High King Uther summons a high council of the kings of Britain at Glevum. Morgan is summoned to represent the still absent Merlin, and Nimue joins her, accompanied by Derfel. The tension between the British kingdoms is made clear as King Gorfyddyd of Powys does not attend and King Gundleus of Siluria is tardy. Uther makes it clear that no man other than his grandson Mordred will sit on the throne of Dumnonia. Since Mordred is only a baby, Uther appoints three guardians – King Tewdric of Gwent; Owain, Uther's champion of Dumnonia; and Merlin – and also a foster father to Mordred, who will marry the Princess Norwenna. Agricola, champion of Gwent, proposes Arthur, but Uther disowns Arthur as his son. King Gundleus is then appointed as Mordred's guardian and marries Norwenna. After Tewdric and Owain give their oaths as guardians, Morgan insists that Merlin will only take the oath if Arthur is appointed as a guardian, a demand Uther reluctantly accepts after Tewdric backs up Morgan. After Uther dies, Mordred, still only a baby, is pronounced King of Dumnonia. He is not, however, High King, because that title can only be given to a king accepted as higher than the other British kings; nor is he the Pendragon, as that title is only given to a High King who wins his rank in battle. Following Uther's death, King Gorfyddyd attacks Gwent. Dumnonia and Siluria rush to the aid of Gwent. King Gundleus sends news of victory and announces he is coming to Ynys Wydryn to be with his new wife. Morgan and Nimue tell Norwenna that the war is not over, but she does not believe them. When he arrives, Gundleus kills Norwenna and, it seems, also the baby Mordred. Then, in retribution for Nimue's curse, he rapes her and plucks out an eye. Derfel rescues Nimue and while escaping runs into Morgan, who has the baby Mordred with her. She explains that Gundleus had actually killed the baby of the child king's nurse, who had been switched with the real Mordred. Derfel takes the sword of his dead swordmaster, Hywel, and later names it Hywelbane. The group flees with Gundleus in pursuit. As they reach the Dumnonian capital at Caer Cadarn, Derfel joins Owain's army, kills his first enemy, and prepares to enter the battle against the much stronger Silurian army. However, Arthur appears with his horsemen during the battle and defeats Gundleus. Part Two: The Princess Bride In the aftermath of the battle, Arthur imprisons Gundleus but treats him with respect, as Gundleus is still a king. Much to Derfel's displeasure, Arthur gives Derfel to Owain to train, but under Owain's leadership, Derfel learns the realities of war. Owain is dishonest and seeks war for profit. While Derfel is with him, Owain enters into an agreement with Prince Cadwy of Isca to massacre a group of Cornish tin miners who had been working in Dumnonia at Uther's invitation. Derfel is traumatised by the unwarranted slaughter, and as a result loses faith in Owain as a leader, though he has sworn an oath not to betray Owain's dishonesty. When Prince Tristan, Edling of Kernow, arrives in Dumnonia and demands recompense for the massacre, Owain blames an Irish raiding party. Arthur suspects Owain is lying and, after speaking with Derfel, challenges Owain to resolve the matter in a court of swords, a battle to the death where the gods are called on to give victory to the truth. Arthur defeats Owain and assumes complete power in Dumnonia, and then takes Derfel into his service to spare him the vengeance of Owain's supporters. Arthur wishes to end the civil war and unite the British kingdoms against the Sais (Saxons). To do this, he enters into a peace treaty with Powys: he will return Gundleus to the throne of Siluria and then marry Ceinwyn, the daughter of Gorfyddyd. He travels north to Powys, where he is formally betrothed to Ceinwyn. However, when King Leodegan's daughter Guinevere enters the feasting hall, Arthur is immediately stricken with love. He abandons Ceinwyn and marries Guinevere, destroying any hope of alliance and plunging Britain back into civil war. Part Three: The Return of Merlin In the years following Arthur's marriage to Guinevere, Derfel grows into a great warrior and is given a second name, "Cadarn", meaning "The Mighty". Sagramor, Arthur's Numidian commander, initiates Derfel into the mysteries of the secret warrior cult of Mithras. Arthur receives a summons from the Armorican kingdom of Benoic, to which he swore an oath to be the kingdom's champion, for assistance against the invading Franks. Unable to go himself, he sends Derfel with 60 men. Derfel is to join forces with Arthur's cousin Culhwch and to write to Arthur if more men are necessary. Before he leaves, Sagramor warns Derfel of the Edling of Benoic, Lancelot, saying he can be treacherous. Upon arriving, Derfel is taken to Ynys Trebes, the island capital of Benoic. There he meets King Ban, who is upset when he learns that Arthur is not coming but is delighted upon learning that Derfel is a literate warrior. Ban shows Derfel the library of Ynys Trebes, which is overseen by the foul-tempered Father Celwin. At dinner, Derfel meets Lancelot and the two instantly dislike each other. Derfel is only prevented from beating Lancelot senseless by the intervention of Galahad, Lancelot's half-brother. Galahad explains in private that Lancelot will not take defeat lightly and suggests that Derfel leave Ynys Trebes immediately. Derfel returns to shore accompanied by Galahad, who wishes to fight alongside him. Derfel then spends three years in Benoic and learns quickly that Lancelot's fearsome reputation has nothing to do with his prowess in battle and everything to do with paying poets to sing his praises. Derfel and Galahad begin a campaign to slow the advance of the Frankish barbarian hordes. In this they succeed and become feared by the Franks. However, they are eventually pushed back to Ynys Trebes, where Lancelot has taken charge of defending the city. At a council of war, Lancelot insists that the kingdom can survive within the city's wall, as the city is self-sufficient. After several months under siege, the city falls. Lancelot, with his mother and followers and the kingdom's treasure, flees as soon as the city is breached. As a great massacre ensues, Derfel feels compelled to return to the palace, where he finds King Ban resigned to his fate and Father Celwin in the library frantically searching for a particular Roman scroll, both refusing to leave. As the Franks storm the palace, Father Celwin reveals himself to be Merlin in disguise. Merlin finds what he was looking for, saying that it contains the Knowledge of Britain. He then leads Derfel and Galahad out of the city and into a boat which he had already arranged for his escape. Arriving back in Dumnonia, Merlin promptly disappears again. Meanwhile, Derfel learns that Nimue has been declared dangerously mad and has been banished to the Isle of the Dead, where the insane are exiled. Derfel assumes that this is why Merlin has disappeared. Believing Derfel and his men to be dead, Lancelot has already told Arthur and the men of Dumnonia that, despite his best efforts, Ynys Trebes fell and that it was Derfel's fault. Derfel arrives in time to hear this slander, declaring Lancelot a liar and challenging him to back up his story with his sword, but Arthur defuses the situation. Part Four: The Isle of the Dead Derfel is rewarded for his service to Arthur and is declared a lord, but shortly after learns that Merlin has gone north instead of to the Isle of the Dead. With the scar on his hand reminding Derfel of his duty to Nimue, he travels south to rescue her himself. He finds Nimue at the southern tip of the isle. She initially attacks him in madness, but he clasps their scarred hands together and Nimue's wits return. As he returns to the entrance, he finds that Galahad and his men have followed him south to ensure that he could leave the isle. In the months following this adventure, Derfel and Nimue become lovers. Nimue considers leaving Merlin and the path of the Gods, but realizes that life with Derfel is an impossible dream. Arthur, meanwhile, is contemplating a final assault on Powys to end the war he knows he started. To do that, he must ensure that the Saxons, led by Aelle, remain at peace, and only money can achieve that. On the advice of Nimue he makes enforced loans from all Christian and pagan shrines, an act for which the Christians resent him. Meeting with Aelle, Arthur negotiates three months of peace in exchange for the gold and information on how to capture the Powysian stronghold of Ratae. With Dumnonia's eastern border secure Arthur marches his army north into Gwent, where at Glevum he holds a council of war with Tewdric and Meurig, the Edling of Gwent. Galahad volunteers to travel north as an emissary to King Gorfyddyd to ascertain Gorfyddyd's intentions toward Mordred, accompanied by Derfel in disguise. Gorfyddyd discovers that Derfel is sworn to his enemy and threatens to kill both him and Galahad, but Merlin arrives and declares that Derfel is not to be harmed. Gorfyddyd tells Galahad that, upon defeating Arthur, he intends to adopt Mordred himself until he is old enough to serve on the throne of Dumnonia. In private Merlin tells them that Gorfyddyd is lying and that he will kill Mordred in order to fulfill his ambition of becoming High King. During his time in Powys Derfel meets Ceinwyn again, having first encountered her years before during her betrothal to Arthur. She reveals she has been betrothed to Gundleus in return for Siluria's assistance. Derfel tells Ceinwyn of Arthur's wish to marry her to Lancelot, whom he wishes to place on the throne of Siluria upon Gundleus' death to strengthen the alliance between the British kingdoms. Ceinwyn tells Derfel that she is tired of being used as a dynastic gaming piece, and Derfel makes a declaration of love to which she does not appear to react, then swears an oath to protect her, which she accepts. Upon Galahad and Derfel's return to Glevum Tewdric refuses to commit his troops to the war, believing that Gorfyddyd was telling the truth and that Mordred will be safe. Arthur, however, believes Merlin and tries to persuade Tewdric to change his mind. Eventually Arthur gives up on Tewdric and his sworn men, including Derfel and Galahad, march north to confront Gorfyddyd alone. Part Five: The Shield Wall Derfel and his men undertake a night march to reach and capture Lugg Vale at dawn, guided by Nimue, who has an uncanny ability to find her way in the dark. They succeed in taking the Vale and prepare to hold the position against Gorfyddyd's main army there. Arthur arrives in time to destroy the vanguard of Gorfyddyd's army and sends Galahad south in the hope that the men of Gwent will come and fight now that they know battle has begun. Arthur then offers Derfel his unique armour, which will give Arthur the opportunity to spring a trap on the rear of Gorfyddyd's army and possibly drive them into panic. Derfel is confronted by Valerin, who was betrothed to Guinevere before she ran off with Arthur. Believing him to be Arthur, Valerin tells Derfel that Guinevere was a whore; Derfel cannot control his temper and fights Valerin. After killing him, Derfel finds a lovers' ring on his corpse with Guinevere's symbol on it, which he throws away. The battle then resumes with Derfel's troops being forced into retreat until Morfans, another of Arthur's commanders, gives the signal for Arthur to attack. Arthur's charge destroys almost a third of Gorfyddyd's army but the king sees the danger in time to defend against it. Arthur's trap has failed. During a lull in the fighting, Galahad returns with the bad news that no one from Gwent is coming to reinforce them, except for perhaps a few volunteers. A handful of men from Kernow do arrive led by Prince Tristan, who wishes to repay Arthur for fighting against Owain. As the fighting resumes Derfel and his men are beaten further back. The battle stops once again as Cuneglas, Edling of Powys, offers them the chance to surrender; they refuse. Before the battle can recommence Merlin arrives and commands both armies to cease hostilities because he needs all Britons to help him in his quest for the Cauldron of Clyddno Eiddyn, one of the lost Thirteen Treasures of Britain. Gorfyddyd is furious that Merlin has interrupted his chance of becoming High King, but Merlin is the most revered druid in all of Britain and therefore protected from harm. Gorfyddyd refuses Merlin's requests and readies his troops again for battle. Merlin, turning to Derfel, informs him that he has persuaded Oengus Mac Airem's Blackshield Irishmen, previously allied to Gorfyddyd, to switch sides and give Arthur victory. Sure enough as battle resumes the Blackshields attack Gorfyddyd and surround his retreating shield-wall. In the aftermath, Gorfyddyd is fatally wounded but uses his last breath to curse Arthur and declare Guinevere a whore. Arthur demands to hear from Cuneglas that his father was lying and that he swear an alliance will exist between Dumnonia and Powys against the Saxons; Cuneglas concedes, bringing the civil war to an end. Derfel and Nimue continue into the Powysian encampment and find Gundleus barricaded in a hut, protected by Tanaburs. The druid threatens to unleash his most terrible curses on Derfel and tells him that he can show him his mother, but Derfel resists his power and cuts him in half. Nimue then slowly tortures Gundleus to death, attaining her long-sought vengeance. Characters Derfel Cadarn: The narrator of the story, Derfel began as one of Merlin's orphans and worked his way up to one of Arthur's captains and then to the title of lord. He is a disciple of Arthur and even though he sees Arthur's flaws, he recognizes greatness and knows that Arthur is the only hope for Britain. Arthur: The illegitimate son of King Uther, Arthur is an exiled warlord, already something of a legend in his own time, who returns to Britain to defend the infant King Mordred. He believes that a leader's power comes from those he rules, not from the might of his own arm. As much a conscious politician as a cunning warlord, he strives for widespread peace in Britain through alliances and marriages rather than battles, though he is not opposed to fighting and is a smart, brutal warrior. However, he suffers from a tendency to trust his opponents too much once the battle is done, as well as from his irresistible love for Guinevere. Guinevere: Arthur's wife and a landless daughter of the recently usurped Leodegan, Guinevere aspires to be queen and insists on everyone calling Arthur "Lord Prince" because it gives her a sense of power and prestige. She is a hard, ambitious woman who balances Arthur's optimism with her realistic views. She carries herself with poise and confidence but cares very little for others and seems only to want power and a high social status. Merlin: The most revered druid in all of Britain, Merlin is an elderly, enigmatic man who once trained Arthur to be the dutiful warlord he is. However, even though he seems to care for Arthur, Merlin shows that he cares more about finding the lost Treasures of Britain, which he hopes to use to beseech the attention of the Gods in restoring Britain to the old pagan religion and loosening the hold Christianity has found there since the Roman occupation. His first allegiance is to his Gods and he refuses to let anyone stand in his way, even Arthur. He is fond of disguise, deceit, and political meddling when he deems that it serves the interests of the Gods. Nimue: Another of Merlin's orphans, who later became his priestess and his lover, Nimue is also Derfel's childhood friend and first love. Though they remain friends bonded by their twin scars, Nimue starts to drift away from Derfel as she goes through the trials and pains to become a druid priestess. Derfel saves her from insanity because he promised to protect her even though her first loyalty must be to the Gods. Morgan: An illegitimate daughter of Uther and Arthur's sister, and also a dedicated priestess of Merlin. She is dreadfully lonely at the top, taking care of Merlin's affairs while he is away. She was disfigured in the fire that killed her husband and so became a priestess but throughout the story she seems to slowly lose touch with the Gods, which makes her even more jealous of Nimue than she was before. She is often bitter and mean but there are reasons for her moods and she loves her brother deeply. Lancelot: The heir of King Ban of Benoic and half-brother of Galahad, Lancelot is a very handsome and charismatic young prince. Though he has earned fame throughout Britain as a great warrior, Derfel discovers he is not actually the brave, loyal, and kind man that is portrayed in the romantic tales. Instead Lancelot is a spoiled and arrogant coward who lies about his roles in battles and pays bards to sing about his heroic deeds that never actually happened. His cruel nature extends even to his immediate family: he left his father to die when their castle was besieged and overthrown, and blamed its fall on his half-brother Galahad. Galahad: The son of King Ban of Benoic and half-brother of Lancelot, Galahad is a noble and virtuous man and a skilled warrior, very much the opposite of Lancelot. Derfel immediately befriends him, and Galahad swears his allegiance to Arthur and Mordred after Ynys Trebes is captured. Publication 1995, UK, Michael Joseph , 5 October 1995, hardcover 1996, USA, St. Martin's Press , May 1996, hardcover 1996, USA, Thorndike Press , August 1996, hardcover (largeprint edition) 1996, USA, Gardners Books , 31 August 1996, paperback 1996, UK, Penguin Books , 5 September 1996, paperback 1997, USA, St. Martin's Griffin , 15 April 1997, paperback 1997, USA, Audio Renaissance , 15 April 1997, audio cassette (abridged) 1997, USA, Books on Tape , 6 May 1997, audio cassette (unabridged) Reception The Winter King was generally well-received upon its publication. Publishers Weekly called it an "exemplary kickoff to a trilogy about the legendary warrior-king", adding that "Cornwell's Arthur is fierce, dedicated and complex, a man with many problems, most of his own making" and that "Cornwell knows his history--the battle scenes are particularly fine--but not once does it get in the way of people of flesh and blood meeting on a darkened field of combat." According to Kirkus Reviews, the book's "great battle scenes and brilliant political intrigue swirl about a cast of legendary but very human characters." The Washington Post remarked that the "strength of the tale lies in the way Cornwell tells it through the creation of flesh-and-blood players who make a historical period come magically alive." The novel has been called "not at all a traditional fantasy story any more than it is a traditional Arthur story." An Amazon.com editorial review said it is essentially "a modern political thriller, told in flat American diction... Bernard Cornwell downplays the magic that enlivens the traditional stories, depicting it more as a combination of superstition and shrewd wits" and recommended it "with reservations; though it's absorbing to read, the emphasis on battles and politics means that this will greatly appeal to some fantasy readers, but disappoint others." References 1995 British novels Novels set in Brittany Fiction set in Roman Gaul The Warlord Chronicles Michael Joseph books Armorica
5262128	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enemy%20of%20God%20%28novel%29	Enemy of God (novel)	Enemy of God: A Novel of Arthur is the second novel in The Warlord Chronicles trilogy by Bernard Cornwell. A sequel to The Winter King, it was first published in the UK in 1996. The trilogy tells the legend of King Arthur through the eyes of his follower Derfel Cadarn. Against all odds, Arthur, the warlord of Dumnonia, has achieved peace among the warring British kingdoms and is set to turn his army against the Saxons. Merlin organises a dangerous quest into the lands of the most terrible of Britain's enemies in an attempt to recover an ancient relic which will help him restore Britain to its former glory. Meanwhile, Arthur's enemies close around him, ready to destroy his world for their own aims. Plot Part One: The Dark Road Arthur's unexpected victory over the combined armies of Powys and Siluria at Lugg Vale has brought peace and unity to the British kingdoms. Both Gorfyddyd, King of Powys, and Gundleus, King of Siluria, are dead. Gorfyddyd's son, Cuneglas, shares Arthur's desire for peace and also his dream of an alliance between the kingdoms that will destroy their common enemy, the Saxons. Derfel is ordered to follow Cuneglas to Caer Sws, capital of Powys, where the Edling is to be crowned king. As for the vacant Silurian throne, Arthur plans to make Lancelot the king and marry him to the Cuneglas' sister, Ceinwyn, the Princess of Powys, thus cementing the alliance between Dumnonia, Powys, and Siluria. Derfel himself is to be rewarded with land and made the new champion of Dumnonia as well as the caretaker for the boy king Mordred, as Arthur wants to remove Mordred from the growing influence of the Christian faction within Dumnonia. Derfel does not reveal that he is in love with Ceinwyn and wants her for himself. As Arthur and his wife Guinevere arrive at Caer Sws for Cuneglas' acclamation, Derfel witnesses Ceinwyn's apparent happiness with her betrothal. Derfel speaks with Merlin, who tells him that Arthur wants him to marry Gwenhwyvach, Guinevere's plain and apathetic sister. Merlin asks Derfel to meet him and Nimue late that night on a hilltop, where he has Derfel drink a foul concoction. Derfel hallucinates about Ceinwyn and sees a Dark Road and a ghoul, who Merlin tells him is Diwrnach, the vicious Irish king of Lleyn. Merlin asks Derfel to accompany him on a quest to Diwrnach's lands to recover the Cauldron of Clydno Eiddin, one of the Thirteen Treasures of Britain, which was lost after the Romans sacked Ynys Mon four centuries prior. Merlin gives Derfel a bone and tells him that all he has to do is break it and his wish will be granted – namely that Ceinwyn will choose him over Lancelot – but warns that if he breaks it, he will be oath-bound to Merlin's quest. On the night of Ceinwyn and Lancelot's betrothal feast, Derfel breaks the bone and Ceinwyn goes to Derfel instead of Lancelot. Ceinwyn refuses to be married as she wants to belong to herself and to no man, but nevertheless promises to love Derfel as a wife would. She also tells him that, since only a virgin can recover the Cauldron, Merlin has made her swear that she will remain a virgin until it is found, which means she will accompany them on the Dark Road. Derfel is reluctant to let her join the quest but she insists. Though Derfel and Ceinwyn have disrupted the political marriage he has arranged, Arthur is happy for his friend and congratulates Derfel, telling him that, once spring comes, he will call upon him to join his campaign to drive the Saxons from Lloegyr. Arthur returns to Dumnonia, where he appoints his cousin, Culhwch, as Mordred's guardian. Culhwch puts down a rebellion by Prince Cadwy of Isca and in the process discovers that Christian noblemen and magistrates in Dumnonia had conspired to kill Arthur prior to Lugg Vale. Arthur orders that all the conspirators, including Nabur, Mordred's former guardian, be executed or removed. The only Christian to escape the purge is Bishop Sansum, who manages to remain as guardian of the Christian shrine of the Holy Thorn near Ynys Wydryn because he could not be implicated in the conspiracy, and because of his unlikely friendship with Morgan, Arthur's sister and druidess, who has great influence over Dumnonia in the absence of Merlin and Nimue. Merlin's party travels along the Dark Road into Diwrnach's kingdom of Lleyn and crosses the narrow strait to the former druid fortress of Ynys Mon, where Merlin believes the Cauldron is hidden. Ceinwyn finds the Cauldron buried atop a hill, but the group is surrounded and besieged by Diwrnach's macabre warriors. Diwrnach demands the Cauldron and Ceinwyn in exchange for their freedom, but a heavy fog, apparently summoned by Merlin, allows the warband to escape undetected. Part Two: The Broken War Derfel and his men are celebrated upon their return as Warriors of the Cauldron, but he and Ceinwyn merely retreat to a quiet farm in Powys to live peacefully until spring, when Arthur will summon his warriors for the fight against the Saxons. The two are happy during their time away from the world and Ceinwyn becomes pregnant with their first child. When spring arrives, Arthur calls Derfel to a high council of the British kings in Corinium to discuss the upcoming war. Arthur also convenes a gathering of Mithras to induct Lancelot into the order. Lancelot has grown bored as King of Siluria and is angry at Ceinwyn's rejection. He has established his capital at Isca, as close to Dumnonia as possible without leaving Siluria, and has the twin grandsons of Tanaburs, the druids Dinas and Lavaine, at his service. Derfel refuses to support his rival's election to the cult of Mithras as he knows that Lancelot is no warrior. He is supported in this action by Agricola, a fellow Mithraist and a warlord of Gwent. However, Lancelot avoids the humiliation of rejection into the cult by publicly converting to Christianity and being baptised by Bishop Sansum, which ensures Lancelot's popularity with the Christians. Marching east to meet the Saxons, Arthur's army successfully lures Aelle's forces into a trap and his war dogs are defeated by Merlin and Nimue, who bring bitches to the battle to distract them. Aelle is greatly weakened during the battle but not defeated. As the enemy retreats, the British kings are surprised by the sudden arrival of Lancelot and Cerdic, another Saxon king who is Aelle's chief rival in eastern Britain. Lancelot explains that he has negotiated an alliance with Cerdic, which infuriates Arthur, who understands that doing so has negated his victory over Aelle and only made Cerdic into a more dangerous enemy. Arthur sends Derfel to find Aelle and bring him to London, where a truce is negotiated. Cerdic wins Londinium and the valley of the Thames from Aelle, but the British kings force Cerdic to renounce any claim over the river lands of the Belgae. However, Cerdic insists that Lancelot be given control of this land as a king; as such, Lancelot is granted a new kingdom much richer and more to his liking than Siluria, which will instead be divided between Gwent and Powys. Aware that this was likely the outcome that Lancelot and Cerdic had agreed all along, Arthur accepts these conditions with reluctance. As the peace negotiations are conducted, Merlin and Nimue search for the last Treasure of Britain, the Chariot of Modron. When they find it, Cerdic arrives with Dinas and Lavaine and claims it as his own, since they are now in his kingdom. Dinas and Lavaine take the chariot and cut off a plait of Merlin's beard, which could allow them to cast powerful spells against the druid. On the way back to Corinium, Arthur tells Derfel that he wants him and Ceinwyn to become Mordred's guardians in Dumnonia, as Culhwch has been having difficulty raising the boy. As Derfel travels to Powys to fetch Ceinwyn, tragedy strikes: Merlin's hall at Ynys Wydryn is burned to the ground and the Cauldron is stolen. Part Three: Camelot In the years following Aelle's defeat and the uneasy truce of London, peace nevertheless occurs in Arthur's Britain as Aelle and Cerdic fight among themselves for mastery of Lloegyr. Lancelot establishes the capital of his new kingdom at Venta. Guinevere leaves the Roman villa at Lindinis and has a new palace, the Sea Palace (later known as Camelot), built on the border between Dumnonia and Lancelot's kingdom. Arthur attempts to forge a permanent alliance by inviting representatives of each of the British kingdoms to put aside their disputes and swear oaths of loyalty to each other in what he calls the "Brotherhood of Britain", though Merlin believes the oaths will prove meaningless. Derfel and Ceinwyn move to Lindinis with the six-year-old Mordred, and their daughter, Morwenna, is born there. She is followed by two other daughters, Seren and Dian. Derfel and Ceinwyn soon discover that Mordred is an insolent, wicked child whom they have difficulty controlling and who enjoys inflicting pain on others. Merlin, who lost his hall at Ynys Wydryn the night the Cauldron was stolen and now lives at Lindinis, expresses the belief that a demon got into the boy king the night of his birth, while the Christians tended to him. Despite their concerns, Arthur refuses to consider removing Mordred and insists that he will grow into a responsible leader with time. Derfel, as the king's guardian and champion, serves on the king's council, alongside Arthur and, in a reversal of his fortunes, Bishop Sansum. After succeeding in returning to favour by his baptism of Lancelot, Sansum returned to a position of authority in Dumnonia when he succeeds in converting, and subsequently marrying, Morgan, Arthur's sister and Merlin's priestess. The conversion of Morgan is a blow to Dumnonia's pagan community, already badly shaken by the loss of the Treasures. Sansum and Morgan start training missionaries to spread the Christian religion through Britain. As the anniversary of the fifth century since the death of Christ is approaching, a frenzy begins to seize the Dumnonian Christian community as they become determined to convert all the pagans they can before that date and, they believe, the return of their god to Britain. Many of them begin to see Lancelot as their saviour due to the presence of a fish (a Christian symbol) on his shield, an assurance that Bishop Sansum encourages. Nimue, holed up half-mad and obsessed with gathering as much power as she can in the ravaged, abandoned tor of Ynys Wydryn, assures Derfel that even recent converts to Christianity remain fearful of the Old Gods, and that Merlin is only waiting for the day when those who stole the Cauldron try to use it and unleash its power on the world. Although Derfel later comes to believe that those relatively peaceful years would be the best he had known, they were not without tragedy. Tristan, the forty-year-old Edling of Kernow, who had come to Arthur's aid at Lugg Vale and at the Battle of London, falls in love with his stepmother, the fifteen-year old Queen Iseult of Kernow. A daughter of Oengus Mac Airem, King of Demetia, Iseult is just the latest in a long line of women who have been married to King Mark, Tristan's father and the sixty-year-old King of Kernow. Tristan and Iseult flee Kernow with part of the royal treasury and find refuge in Isca, where Arthur's cousin Culhwch serves as governor and welcomes them. Mark appeals to Arthur, furious at his heir's treachery and fearing that he is going to lead a rebellion against him. Though he hates what he has to do, Arthur summons Mark to Isca and tells Tristan and Iseult that they must face trial. Since any trial against them will result in their conviction, Tristan appeals for a trial by combat, his only way to escape his father's punishment. As Arthur had once fought for Tristan against Owain, Derfel and Culhwch try to fight for Tristan but are immobilized by Mark's spearmen. Tristan is killed in battle by his father's champion, and Iseult is burnt at the stake for her treason. Angered by the injustice of his friend's death, Derfel angrily breaks off his friendship with Arthur. The rift between Arthur and Derfel continues until the day Mordred is acclaimed King of Dumnonia on his fifteenth birthday. In a ceremony witnessed by the kings allied to Dumnonia, Mordred is brought to Caer Cadarn and granted his full power. Derfel, as his champion, issues the challenge to anyone who believes that Mordred is unworthy. Culhwch challenges and denounces Mordred, saying that he is unfit to be the king, but yields the fight before Derfel has to fight him to death. Forsaking his oath to Mordred, Culhwch swears his sword to Cuneglas and leaves for Powys. Mordred publicly humiliates Derfel for not killing Culhwch and dismisses him as his champion. Meeting in Lindinis, Arthur and Derfel reconcile as friends, having finally accomplished their oath to Uther to deliver Mordred's throne safely to him. Part Four: The Mysteries of Isis Shortly after his acclamation, Mordred sends both Arthur and Derfel on an errand into Powys to capture the traitor Ligessac, who years earlier had betrayed Dumnonia and caused the death of Mordred's mother Norwenna at the hands of King Gundleus. Arthur and Derfel are ambushed by Christian fanatics led by Cadoc while attempting to apprehend Ligessac. They defeat the Christians, but afterward Derfel decides to travel south separately from Arthur to find his mother, whom he has not seen since she was captured in a raid when he was very young. He finds his mother still alive, but she has been enslaved for years and does not remember him. Upon speaking with her Derfel realizes that his father is Aelle, the Saxon king. Seeing fires burning on the other side of the Severn, Derfel discovers that Lancelot has suddenly attempted to usurp the Dumnonian throne by inciting religious unrest. Arthur and Derfel are presumed killed in Cadoc's ambush, and Mordred is believed to be murdered. Mobs of fanatical Christians are hunting down pagans all across Dumnonia, announcing Lancelot as their savior-king, and many of Arthur's oath-sworn bannermen have sided with Lancelot. Cerdic is besieging the majority of Arthur's army under Sagramor on Dumnonia's frontier. Derfel eventually makes it home, where he discovers the druids Dinas and Lavaine have attacked his hall and are attempting to kidnap Ceinwyn and Merlin and bring them to Lancelot. Derfel and his men drive off Dinas and Lavaine, but during the battle Lavaine kills Derfel's youngest daughter, Dian. Derfel accompanies Ceinwyn and his daughters north to Powys and the protection of Cuneglas. Joining those who remain opposed to Lancelot at Glevum, they find Arthur there, in council with Kings Meurig of Gwent and Cuneglas of Powys. Mordred also joins the council, having been saved by Galahad from assassination. Confronted by Merlin, Mordred admits that it was Bishop Sansum's idea to distract Arthur and Derfel with the apprehension of Ligessac in order to enable the Christian uprising. Because of Mordred's incompetence in allowing Lancelot and his Christian followers to ravage Dumnonia, Arthur declares Mordred unfit to rule as king, a proclamation recognized by Cuneglas and Merlin. Arthur and his few remaining allies devise a plan to reinforce Sagramor against Cerdic, sending Culhwch and Cuneglas' spears to his aid at Corinium, while he, Derfel and forty of their best spears rescue Guinevere and Arthur's son Gwydre, who are being held captive by Lancelot's men at the Sea Palace. Arriving there, Derfel and Arthur inadvertently catch Guinevere in the midst of her ritual worship of the goddess Isis, by which she intends for the goddess to favour Lancelot as King of Dumnonia. It is revealed that the carnal rituals have involved Guinevere sleeping with Dinas and Lavaine, as well as with Lancelot. Heartbroken and enraged, Arthur slaughters the worshipers and takes Guinevere and Gwydre away. At the same time, Derfel captures Dinas and Lavaine and, with help from Nimue, brutally kills them, exacting his revenge for the death of his daughter. They also discover all of the missing Treasures of Britain, including the Cauldron, which had been hidden in Guinevere's temple to Isis. Nimue's suspicions are revealed to have been founded: Morgan had stolen the Treasures the night Merlin's hall had burnt and given them to Sansum in exchange for his promise to marry her. Sansum had given them to Guinevere, Dinas and Lavaine, sealing his favour with them and setting the stage for the Christian uprising. Abandoning his virtuous nature, Arthur storms and retakes the seat of kings at Caer Cadarn, a symbolic move which sends word to Dumnonia that Arthur lives and still has power. Lancelot's rebellion quickly loses momentum as word of Caer Cadarn's fall spreads and warriors from Dumnonia begin to rally to Arthur's side. With Lancelot in retreat, Arthur grimly asserts to Derfel that their oath to the deceased Uther binds them to acclaim Mordred as Dumnonia's king, but he will be a pure figurehead, and Arthur himself will be the land's sole ruler. Derfel, remembering something Merlin said, suggests that Arthur be known as Imperator, a Roman title understood to mean "ruler of kings." Editions 1996, UK, Michael Joseph , 5 September 1996, first-edition hardcover 1997, UK, Penguin Books , July 1997, paperback 1997, USA, St. Martins Press , August 1997, hardcover 1998, USA, St. Martin's Griffin , June 1998, paperback Reception Like its predecessor, Enemy of God has been praised for its "realistically gory battles" and "strong characterizations", and for putting a "fresh perspective on these oft-retold events". Kirkus Reviews called it "rousing, persuasive entertainment". References 1996 British novels Novels set in England The Warlord Chronicles Michael Joseph books Works based on Merlin
5262196	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary%20Herbert	Gary Herbert	Gary Richard Herbert (born May 7, 1947) is an American politician who served as the 17th governor of Utah from 2009 to 2021. A member of the Republican Party, he chaired the National Governors Association during the 2015–2016 cycle. Herbert won a seat on the Utah County Commission in 1990, where he served 14 years. He ran for the Republican nomination for governor in 2004, ultimately becoming fellow Republican candidate Jon Huntsman's running mate in the general election. Herbert served as the sixth lieutenant governor of Utah from 2005 until August 11, 2009, when he assumed the governorship following the resignation of Huntsman, who was appointed to serve as the United States Ambassador to China by President Barack Obama. Herbert was elected to serve out the remainder of the term in a special gubernatorial election in 2010, defeating Democratic nominee Salt Lake County Mayor Peter Corroon with 64% of the vote. He won election to a full four-year term in 2012, defeating Democratic Businessman Peter Cooke with 68% of the vote and was re-elected to a second full four-year term in 2016. Herbert announced in 2019 that he would not seek re-election to a third full term in 2020; he endorsed the gubernatorial candidacy of his Lieutenant Governor, Spencer Cox. Early life, education and career Herbert was born in American Fork, the son of Carol (Boley) and Paul Richard Peters. His parents divorced when he was a toddler; his mother soon remarried to Duane Barlow Herbert, who legally adopted him. His biological father also remarried, but Herbert and his paternal half-siblings were raised in different households and had minimal contact with each other. Herbert grew up in Orem, Utah. He graduated from Orem High School, served a two-year mission for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in the Eastern States Mission and later attended Brigham Young University, but did not graduate. He is married to Jeanette Snelson Herbert; they have six children and sixteen grandchildren. Mrs. Herbert was born in Preston, Idaho. She moved with her family as a young child to Springville, Utah. She is Honorary Chair of the Governor's Commission on Literacy. Herbert served for six years as a member of the Utah Army National Guard, becoming a staff sergeant. Following his time in the National Guard, he set up a real estate firm, Herbert and Associates Realtors. Herbert was president of the Utah Association of Counties and Utah Association of Realtors. Mrs. Herbert ran a child care service, The Kids Connection. Political career Utah County Commission Between 1990 and 2004, Herbert served as a commissioner on the Utah County Commission. He replaced Brent Morris in 1990. During his time as a commissioner, Herbert also served as presidents of the Utah Association of Counties and the Utah Association of Realtors. Larry Ellertson succeeded Herbert as County Commissioner. 2004 election In November 2003, Herbert began campaigning for the Republican nomination for Governor of Utah. In April 2004, a month before the state convention at which the gubernatorial nominee would be selected, Herbert joined forces with then-rival Jon Huntsman, Jr., becoming the latter's running mate. The Huntsman-Herbert ticket defeated incumbent governor Olene S. Walker at the convention, before going on to win in the November election. Herbert subsequently became lieutenant governor. Lieutenant Governor of Utah Herbert's central role as lieutenant governor was running the state electoral office and managing the campaign disclosure system. His record on those responsibilities was somewhat mixed, improving standards marginally but seeing the state slip overall on nationwide rankings published by the Campaign Disclosure Project. Moreover, Herbert's office was criticized for failing to enforce campaign disclosure laws more vigorously. In 2007, Herbert oversaw the first statewide voter referendum to take place since the creation of the Lieutenant Governor's post. During his time as lieutenant governor, Herbert also served as the chairman of numerous statewide commissions, including the Commission on Volunteers and the Commission on Civic and Character Education and the Emergency Management Administrative Council. 2008 election Huntsman and Herbert faced little opposition during their 2008 campaign for re-election, avoiding a primary election after achieving a plurality of votes at the state Republican Party convention. The Republican ticket was re-elected to office with a record 77 percent of the vote. Governor of Utah 2010 Herbert became Governor of Utah on August 11, 2009, after Governor Jon Huntsman stepped down to become Ambassador to China. As the Republican gubernatorial nominee in the 2010 special election, Herbert defeated his Democratic opponent, Salt Lake County Mayor Peter Corroon, 64% to 32%. 2012 In 2012, Herbert won election to a full four-year term. He defeated his Democratic opponent, retired Major General Peter Cooke, by a margin of 69% to 28%. Important legislation included the passage of the Utah Transfer of Public Lands Act which Herbert signed into law on 23 March 2012. 2015 Herbert served as the vice chair for the National Governors Association from 2014 to 2015 and served as chair of the association from 2015 to 2016. 2016 Herbert won re-election to a second full term in 2016. He defeated the Democratic nominee, entrepreneur Mike Weinholtz, 66.7% to 28.7%. Political positions Economics In a 2010 statement, Herbert took partial credit for Utah's relatively quick recovery from the economic crisis which began in 2008, stating: The best methods to foster job growth are not complex or secret, but require discipline: low taxes, limited government spending, and a focus on a business friendly environment to encourage private capital investment. Education As of December 1, 2009, the Utah State Governor's website showed that Herbert listed "public and higher education" as one of four "priorities." (The other three listed priorities were "economic development", "energy security" and "infrastructure"). The Governor's site explained that Utah must improve its public education system to remain competitive and to empower its individual citizens to succeed, and the site said that "attracting and retaining the best teachers into our schools" was a way Utah could accomplish educational excellence. In his 2012 re-election bid, Herbert was endorsed by the Utah Education Association. In March 2012, Herbert vetoed a controversial sex education bill, HB363, which would have allowed schools to stop teaching sex education entirely and would have required those that kept the lessons to teach abstinence only. In vetoing it, Herbert said "HB363 simply goes too far by constricting parental options... I cannot sign a bill that deprives parents of their choice". LGBT rights After Salt Lake City passed a non-discrimination ordinance which would protect gay and lesbian people from discrimination in employment and housing, a member of the Utah Legislature indicated that he would seek a statewide law to prevent cities from passing ordinances related to civil rights. Herbert has asserted that municipalities should have the right to pass rules and ordinances absent state interference. On August 27, 2009, Herbert indicated at a news conference that he did not support making sexual orientation a legally protected class, saying: "We don't have to have a rule for everybody to do the right thing. We ought to just do the right thing because it's the right thing to do and we don't have to have a law that punishes us if we don't." The gay rights advocacy group Equality Utah criticized Herbert's statements and expressed the view that he did not fully comprehend the challenges faced by gay people in Utah. Following the legalization of same-sex marriage in Utah by a U.S. district court on December 20, 2013, Herbert's office issued the following statement: "I am very disappointed an activist federal judge is attempting to override the will of the people of Utah. I am working with my legal counsel and the acting Attorney General to determine the best course to defend traditional marriage within the borders of Utah". Shortly thereafter, the Attorney General's office did indeed request an emergency stay to stop further same-sex marriages from occurring in the state. After elected officials in Oregon and Pennsylvania chose not to defend same-sex marriage bans from constitutional challenge, Herbert expressed his disappointment. He took issue with a comparison between same-sex marriage and interracial marriage, saying, "Clearly the actions involved in sexual activity ultimately end up being choices. What your attraction may be is something else, but how you act upon those impulses is a choice." On March 12, 2015, however, Herbert signed into law a bill prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in employment and housing in the state of Utah. Utah thus became the 19th state to pass such a law. According to The Salt Lake Tribune, the law was "hailed nationwide for its attempt to balance the advancements in gay rights with the deeply held beliefs and conservative values of churches and other religious groups". In January 2020, after a proposal in the state legislature to ban conversion therapy on minors stalled, Herbert signed an executive order banning conversion therapy on minors statewide. The order includes exceptions for religious officials, parents and grandparents. Gun rights Herbert is a moderate supporter of the right to bear arms, in 2010 signing state Senate Bill 11, which protects the right of Utah-based companies to manufacture firearms for sale and use within the State. However, Herbert vetoed a Constitutional Carry bill in 2013 (The bill would have allowed open or concealed carry without a permit by anyone who can legally possess a handgun.), and in a 2018 interview, he said "I don't know that there's any reason to have anything more than a seven- or nine-shot magazine. Once you get past a typical size when you go out hunting, you're probably having excess baggage you don't need." Medicaid expansion In February 2019, Herbert defied the result of a ballot initiative where voters voted for an expansion of Medicaid. Herbert instead supported a GOP-authored bill which implemented a restricted version of Medicaid; this version insured 60,000 fewer people than the expansion in the ballot initiative and was estimated to initially cost the state more. Medical marijuana Herbert has openly opposed the legalization of medical marijuana over concerns that it would lead to recreational use. He did, however, sign the passage of HB195 and HB197, which allows people who have an estimated six months or less left to live to have access to marijuana. Free-range parenting Herbert supported and signed the free-range parenting bill for Utah in March 2018. After the implementation of the law, in May 2018, Utah became the first state in America to legalize free-range parenting. Utah Inland Port Herbert has supported the creation of a Utah Inland Port. He signed HB234, a bill which created an Inland Port Authority, and HB433, a bill to increase the extent of the port and the powers of the Port Authority. Earlier, Herbert had created an Inland Port Exploratory Committee to "drive the development" of an inland port in Utah. At the time, he stated that "despite anti-trade, isolationist rhetoric at the national level, Utah remains committed to promoting international trade." Controversies Campaign contributions 2009-2010 Merit gave separate $25,000 checks to the Herbert campaign on November 2, 2009, and January 21, 2010, and Herbert and Lampropoulos met in October 2009. In December 2009, Merit got $4.4 million in tax credits. Lampropoulos has publicly endorsed Herbert and appears in a television commercial supporting Herbert's reelection bid. In February 2010, The Deseret News reported that Herbert's campaign had received a $10,000 donation from Alton Coal Development, a coal company that had complained about delays in regulators issuing a permit for strip-mining. The Associated Press reported that a memorandum they had obtained showed that state regulators later agreed to fast-track a decision regarding the permit, despite environmental concerns from local residents. According to a businessman who lives near the proposed mine, regulators arrived within days of a meeting between Herbert and the coal company, and they felt pressure to make a quick decision. A Utah regulator said that this was not the case and that Herbert did not make any orders about whether to issue a permit. A spokeswoman for Herbert said that he was not aware of the donation, and that given his long-term support of the energy industry, it was not surprising that Alton made a donation. In September 2010, KSL TV reported another instance of Herbert accepting campaign donations from companies who benefited from state contracts related to the I-15 CORE rebuild in Utah County—the state's biggest ever road project. Three teams vied for the contract. One gave the governor's campaign no money, another gave $35,000. The third team, Provo River Constructors, gave Herbert's campaign much more. Wadsworth Brothers Construction and partners Ames, Ralph Wadsworth and Fluor have contributed more than $80,000. Around the time most of those donations came in Guy Wadsworth got two meetings with the governor, apparently something no other bidding team had. A month later, the state awarded the $1.725 billion contract to Provo River. KSL TV also reported that Herbert had meetings with, and received donations from Fred Lampropoulos, CEO of Merit Medical, months before the Governor's Office of Economic Development awarded a tax break to Merit to expand its business in Utah. 2016 In May 2016, Herbert was criticized for unethical campaign fund-raising activity. In a tape that was made without his knowledge, as Herbert was trying to get donors to contribute his campaign finance money, Herbert said that he would go anywhere and do whatever it takes. "I'm available. I'm Available Jones!" he was heard saying on the tape. Although he did say that there would be no quid pro quo he also said to the lobbyists in attendance that even if he did not agree with them that he would make them happy. Herbert's Republican challenger Jonathan E. Johnson said that he was so upset that he was physically shaking when he heard what Herbert did. Herbert's Democratic opponent Mike Weinholtz promised that if he were elected to be Utah's governor, that he work to change the laws of Utah so that what Herbert did would be illegal. Later in May 2016, Herbert apologized, saying that he regretted his actions and the actions of his campaign, but he said that he did nothing wrong. Herbert said that he was apologizing for his remarks earlier in the month, when he said "I'm available. I'm available Jones." which was a saying from a character in Lil Abner comic strips in which the character was always available to do something for a price. UDOT's $13,000,000 payment to second-place finisher in highway bidding On September 13, 2010, Utah Department of Transportation admitted to paying $13,000,000 to prevent a lawsuit by the second-place finisher Flatiron/Skanska/Zachry (FSZ) for the Interstate 15 rebuild project in Utah County. UDOT admitted that after "adjustments" were made to the scoring system, the 1.7 billion dollar contract was awarded to Provo River Constructors (PRC) after winning the bidding process by a single point. UDOT claimed the $13,000,000 payment to FSZ was to avoid any further or pending legal action. Peter Corroon's campaign questioned whether this was related to a $87,500 donation made by PRC to Herbert's campaign. In a press conference on the same day, Herbert denied any knowledge of the $13,000,000 payoff to FSZ. However, on September 21, 2010, ABC4 reported that on September 9 four days before Herbert press conference UDOT informed Jason Perry, the Governor's Chief of Staff of a payment. On September 13, hours before Herbert's press conference, UDOT again informed Perry of a payoff and also specified the amount of the payment. Governor signs House Bill 477 During the 2011 legislative session, Herbert signed into law House Bill 477 after it passed through the legislature in three days. The bill would have drastically reduced the ability of citizens to access public records, especially records of Legislators. After large public outcry, Herbert announced he would sign the bill yet also call a special session to repeal the new law. The law was repealed two weeks later, and Herbert was criticized for costing the state $30,000 for not simply vetoing the bill when he first had a chance. Governor signs House Bill 187 On March 20, 2012, Herbert signed into law House Bill 187, dealing with "Agricultural Operation Interference" despite several individuals and organizations urging him veto it. The new law makes it a crime to take pictures or sound recordings while on the property of any agricultural production facility, even if the person is not trespassing (e.g. an employee of said facility) and even if the person is not interfering with anything (i.e. if nobody knows the recording is taking place). Offenders are guilty of a class B misdemeanor. Critics of the bill say that the law creates a safe haven for animal abuse and other criminal activity and that it adds nothing beneficial to legitimate operations. Proponents of the bill state that the purpose of the legislation is to prevent whistleblowers from unfairly damaging farming operations. The Humane Society has many examples of undercover videos that this bill is meant to prevent. Governor signs Senate Bill 136 On March 20, 2018, Herbert signed S.B. 136 (sponsored by Wayne Harper and Mike Schultz) into law. Among other provisions, S.B. 136 includes an additional annual registration fee of up to $120 on clean air vehicles. The additional fees were opposed by air quality advocates such as the nonprofits Breathe Utah, and Utah Clean Energy which has stated the fees are misguided. Clean air advocates have voiced concerns that the additional fees will slow electric vehicle adoption and promote poorer air quality in Utah. There are an estimated 1,000–2,000 deaths in Utah annually due to poor air quality, and emissions from gasoline and diesel powered vehicles, are the primary cause of pollution. Media appearances Herbert had a cameo in the low budget movie Sharknado: The 4th Awakens alongside Dan Farr of Salt Lake Comic Con. Herbert has expressed interest in the UAP phenomenon, appearing in History Channel's "The Secrets of Skinwalker Ranch." Electoral history References External links Utah Governor Gary Herbert official government site \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1947 births 21st-century American politicians American adoptees American Mormon missionaries in the United States County commissioners in Utah Republican Party governors of Utah Latter Day Saints from Utah Lieutenant Governors of Utah Living people People from American Fork, Utah United States Army soldiers Western Governors University people
5263095	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carola%20of%20Vasa	Carola of Vasa	Carola of Vasa (Caroline Friederike Franziska Stephanie Amalie Cäcilie; 5 August 1833 – 15 December 1907), was by birth a titular princess of Sweden and styled Princess of Vasa as member of the House of Holstein-Gottorp, and by marriage the last queen consort of Saxony. At the side of her husband, Carola dedicated herself to the charitable development of new social institutions in the Kingdom of Saxony. With the founding of the Albert Association (German: Albertverein) in 1867 and other nursing and training institutions, she set impulses in the areas of charity, poor and sick care as well as the care of the wounded. In addition, she was involved in aid, children's and women's associations for the support of the disadvantaged. She was a recipient of the Order of Sidonia and gave her name to the Carola Medal for charity, which was named after her. Numerous places are named after her, especially in Dresden. Princess of Vasa 1833–1853 Childhood and youth Princess Carola of Vasa was born on 5 August 1833 in the Kaiserstöckl, an annex of Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, as the second child and only daughter of the former crown prince of Sweden and Austrian field marshal Prince Gustav of Vasa and his wife Princess Louise Amelie of Baden. Her only sibling, Prince Louis, was born and died in 1832, so Carola remained the only surviving offspring from her parents' marriage. Carola did not come from the Vasa dynasty, as her name might suggest. Rather, she owed the suffix to her father, who, as a member of the deposed Swedish House of Holstein-Gottorp, was no longer allowed to call himself "Prince of Sweden". Instead, he gave himself the nicknames Vasa and (to further affirm his claim to the throne) Holstein-Gottorp, hence Vasa-Holstein-Gottorp. Consequently, Carola also received this surname. Carola's evangelical baptism took place on 7 August 1833 in Schönbrunn Palace with the full name of Caroline Friederike Franziska Stephanie Amalie Cäcilie, but her mother called her "Carola". Her godparents were, among other royal representatives, Emperor Francis I of Austria and his third wife Empress Caroline Augusta (born Princess of Bavaria), Stephanie, Dowager Grand Duchess of Baden (born of Beauharnais) and Cecilia, Grand Duchess of Oldenburg (born Princess of Sweden and Carola's paternal aunt); she received her names after her godparents, her paternal grandmother, Frederica of Baden (former Queen of Sweden) and another paternal aunt, Princess Amalia of Sweden. Until the divorce of her parents in the summer of 1844, Carola spent most of her childhood in the couple's summer residence in South Moravia, Veveří Castle. The princess, who was considered shy and reserved, was raised and instructed in a strict manner, but marked by parental love. After the separation of her parents, Carola and her mother settled in Moravec Castle in August 1846. Amalie von Ungern-Sternberg took over the instruction of the princess: she developed a preference for drawing, painting and chess, but not for making music. Carola enjoyed performing her own plays. Apart from larger gatherings, rural life in Moravec was quiet and tranquil. During this time, the young princess developed great compassion for underprivileged children and the infirm, to whom she donated food and clothing financed by her mother. In doing so, she laid the foundation for her later involvement in the field of charitable care for the poor and sick. The stay was mostly interrupted for spa trips by her mother, who was suffering from asthma and a heart defect, or for visits to her father or relatives in Mannheim or Karlsruhe. During the Italian Wars of Independence in 1848–1849, Carola supported Hungarian wounded by submitting gifts. In the years that followed, her mother's health continued to deteriorate, which made it necessary for her and her daughter to have long visits to the spas in Merano, Venice, Bolzano and Baden. In the years leading up to 1851, the now 18-year-old Carola, who was considered the most beautiful princess in Europe at the time, devoted herself intensively to oil painting. Carola, like her mother, converted to Catholicism in 1852, despite strong opposition from her father. He only gave his consent on the condition that his daughter separated from her mother for a long time in order to take religious instruction with his sister Sophie, Grand Duchess of Baden in Karlsruhe. The princess returned to her mother after graduation and professed her Catholic faith on 4 November of the same year in the parish church in Moravec. Betrothal and marriage In November 1852, in Moravec, Carola and her mother received an unexpected visit from Princes Albert and George of Saxony, who were on a hunting trip. In truth, however, this was only a pretext, since Prince Albert had been looking for a bride since 1850, which had not been successful until then. Firstly, plans were made for a marriage with Amélie of Leuchtenberg (widow of Emperor Pedro I of Brazil), but Albert did not like her; then, other potential candidates were Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska of Austria (widow of Archduke Ferdinand Karl Viktor of Austria-Este) and of course Carola. During the banquet for the princes and other royals, Albert introduced himself to Carola and was struck by her grace and witty conversation. In later notes, Albert described meeting Carola as "love at first sight". A little later, Albert's father, Prince John of Saxony (who wanted his heir to marry someone with the same religious denomination), asked Carola's hand for his son in a letter to the princess' mother. Albert had feared that Napoleon III, Emperor of the French, who had also courted Carola, might forestall him. Another opponent for Carola's hand was Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia. After a second meeting, Carola accepted Albert's proposal on 5 December 1852, and the official engagament was celebrated in the same day. The couple spent that New Year together in Moravec. The imminent wedding of Albert and Carola initially met with little approval in Saxony. This was less because Carola was a rather penniless princess, and not because of the prevailing bad reputation of her divorced parents. Rather, the reason was that Carola had only converted to the Catholic faith shortly before the engagement. However, Prince John was more concerned about his son's happiness than any animosity towards the bride and did his best to promote the relationship that had developed. He also rejected arguments for or against the wedding for purely financial reasons. In January 1853, Carola and her mother moved to Brno. There, Albert often visited his fiancée in the coming months. The couple appeared together at balls, theater visits and other festivities, with Carola using the social appearances to prepare for her future position in the Saxon royal family, where the strict Spanish ceremonial applied. Prince John in particular was keen that his future daughter-in-law should demonstrate a high level of confidence in conversation and in the court environment, which Carola fulfilled without hesitation. Meanwhile, her mother's health continued to deteriorate. For the wedding scheduled for June 1853, Carola traveled from Brno to Prague and from there to Děčín. There she met Albert, with whom she continued in a decorated special train to Pirna, where the couple inspected a troop parade. They arrived with a mounted and horse-drawn escort at Pillnitz Castle, where the Saxon court received the couple and invited them to the family dinner. The procession then traveled on to Dresden, where the wedding took place around noon on 18 June in the Palace in the Great Garden (German: Palais im Großen Garten). After the wedding ceremony, the newlyweds drove in a covered golden gala carriage to the Old Town Hall (German: Altstädter Rathaus), where the Lord Mayor (German: Oberbürgermeister) Wilhelm Pfotenhauer gave a reception. Bishop Joseph Dittrich performed the catholic wedding ceremony at Dresden Cathedral. The festivities continued through 2 July. The couple then moved into a spacious apartment in the Taschenbergpalais. Adolf Senfft von Pilsach took over the management of their household. Carola's new Chief Court Mistress (German: Oberhofmeisterin) came from the Werther noble family and instructed her in the court protocol. Crown Princess of Saxony 1854–1873 Years of peace In March 1854, Carola visited her seriously ill mother in Moravec, who died of lung paralysis on 19 July; twenty-one days later, on 9 August, King Frederick Augustus II of Saxony died after a carriage accident during a trip to Tyrol and Carola's father-in-law became the new king. Her husband, as the eldest son and heir became the crown prince and Carola, as his consort, the crown princess. The following years were marked by extensive trips lasting several months at home and abroad for the couple, including to Switzerland, Italy and increasingly Austria. In the winter of 1855, Carola took over the protectorate of the Saxon Pestalozzi Association, which supported needy widows and orphans of teachers. In 1859 Carola and Albert moved into the Royal Villa in rural Strehlen. After recovering from measles in November 1860, Carola began to learn to play the piano and devoted herself to painting again. She gave up riding lessons due to increasing myopia. Austro-Prussian War When in the spring of 1866 the war between Prussia and Austria to dissolve the German dualism began to emerge, the Saxon army mobilized its troops on 19 May under the supreme command of Prince Albert. The Kingdom of Saxony was wedged in the most unfavorable way at the interface between the two spheres of interest. As Prussia's demands, e.g. concerning the core question of the future administration of the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, had been rejected by the Frankfurt Bundestag, it declared that the German Confederation would resolve the conflict. When Saxony then refused to join a new league to be concluded under Prussia's leadership and reaffirmed its adherence to the German Confederation, Prussia declared war on Saxony on 15 June 1866. In order to protect the kingdom from extensive war damage, the Saxon Army Corps was subordinated to the Austrian Northern Army in Bohemia. Carola and Albert moved into quarters in Prague. Albert commanded his army from there, while Carola increasingly took care of the needs of the wounded who were housed in a hospital on Karlovo náměstí. When Prague itself threatened to become a theater of war, the couple was brought to Regensburg and from there, when news of the defeat of the German Confederation after the Battle of Königgrätz on 3 July arrived, they took refuge in Vienna. In her native town, Carola devoted herself to caring for up to 5,000 wounded soldiers. She organized their food and medical treatment, donated medical equipment and gave comfort and support to the seriously injured, often for several hours a day. In addition, she had books and games distributed and organized the exchange of mail with relatives. When the peace treaty between Prussia and Saxony was signed in Berlin on 21 October, Carola and Albert returned to Dresden in November. New welfare facilities As the loser state in the war, Saxony was pressed into the North German Confederation by Prussia. The royal family of Saxony declared unlimited loyalty to German Emperor William I, who then had his troops withdraw from Dresden by May 1867. In June 1867, Carola and Albert incognito visited the Exposition Universelle in Paris, and were welcomed by Emperor Napoleon III and his wife Eugénie de Montijo. During the following years there was a political rapprochement between the Saxon and Prussian royal families. After her return, Carola, shaked by the experience of the war, increased her commitment to the care of the wounded in order to shape the Geneva Conventions that had been negotiated a few years earlier. Therefore, on 14 September 1867, together with Marie Simon, she founded the Albert Association (German: Albertverein), named after her husband, which from 1869 was primarily dedicated to the training of nurses, from which the interdenominational sister community of the Albertines emerged and whose instruction was carried out under the patronage of Carola in the former Gate House (German: Torhäuser) at Leipziger Tor, after their training in the Johannstadt "Carola House" (German: Carolahaus) that served as a mother house, or used in community hospitals. They were also sent to military hospitals in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. Franco-Prussian War In the summer of 1870, the dispute over the candidacy for the Spanish throne sparked the Franco-Prussian War between the North German Confederation (to which Saxony belonged from 1866) and the Second French Empire. On 16 July, the Crown Prince, as Prussia's ally, mobilized the Saxon troops, who were moved with him to the Rhine front. Carola stayed behind in Dresden and took over the Prinz-Max-Palais from the management of the entire female nursing in Saxony. In addition to the Albert Association, the institutions involved included the International Association for the Care of Sick and Wounded Warriors, the Saxon State Military Association, the Association for Saxon Field Diaconia and the aid associations for the families of conscripted warriors. Her tasks included the allocation of the Albertines and Deaconesses to home or front hospitals as well as the distribution of food, bandages and clothing to the three Dresden hospitals that had been set up. Added to this was the supply of up to 18,000 French prisoners of war in the state capital alone. As in the German War, Carola took over the support of numerous wounded, including in the foreign military hospitals in Leipzig, Wurzen, Großenhain, Zittau, Bautzen and Chemnitz. For this she was ridiculed by the military doctors who were present and occasionally perceived as annoying to obtrusive. After the victory of the North German Confederation and its allies over France, King John awarded Carola with the Order of Sidonia in recognition of her charitable services during the war on 15 March 1871; in addition, she was appointed as the 499th Dame of the Royal Order of Queen Maria Luisa. Afterwards, Carola accompanied her husband to his military headquarters in Compiègne. In the Château of the same name, they moved into the former imperial apartments. From there, Carola traveled with Albert and held receptions. To help break up the Paris Commune, German troops intervened again in May; Carola traveled back to Dresden. After the restoration of French government, Crown Prince Albert succeeded her in June 1871. In the winter of 1872–1873, King John's health deteriorated rapidly. He died in Pillnitz on 29 October 1873, whereby the succession to the throne passed his eldest son, who now became King Albert and Carola, as his consort, became Queen of Saxony. Queen of Saxony 1873–1902 Tenure as consort The funeral ceremonies of King John lasted until January 1874. Having largely been relieved of their foreign policy powers by the previous unification of the empire, the new king and queen devoted themselves in particular to representation at the beginning of the integration of the Kingdom of Saxony into the German Empire. Among the first acts was an extensive tour of inspection of the kingdom, followed by a tour of friendly principalities and abroad. In 1874 the royal couple moved from the Taschenbergpalais to the Dresden Residenzschloss, where Carola moved into her rooms in the Georgenbau annex. In the same year, Tsar Alexander II of Russia paid his respects to the royal couple. In 1878 the Carola and Albert celebrated their silver anniversary. The participation of the Prussian royal family supported the further rapprochement of Saxony and Prussia and at the same time symbolized the further integration of the kingdom into the empire. Primarily, however, such anniversaries served to present the people to their king as the educational and political father of the country, while Carola was portrayed as the caring and comforting mother of the country. On 4 August 1877 Carola's father died at the Riverside Palace (German: Wasserpalais), one of the three main buildings of Pillnitz Castle complex in Dresden, and his residence during the last years of his life. The following decade was marked by a variety of trips and receptions, including visits from the Italian royal family in 1880, King Ferdinand II of Portugal and King Carol I of Romania in 1883, and King Louis I of Portugal in 1886 and King Chulalongkorn of Siam in 1897. On 29 May 1884, the deposed Swedish branch of the House of Holstein-Gottorp finally made peace with the new Swedish Bernadotte dynasty through Carola and her first cousin once removed the Swedish Crown Princess Victoria (born Princess of Baden), when the remains of Carola's grandfather, King Gustav IV Adolf, her father Prince Gustav of Vasa and her infant brother Prince Louis were taken to Stockholm and interred in the royal crypt at Riddarholmen Church. In 1888, Carola and her husband made an official visit to Sweden. During her years as Queen of Saxony, Carola gave up political activities and left them to her husband, "compensating for many of his political clumsiness with her affable manner". In 1898 the royal couple celebrated their 25th anniversary of government. As Albert began to become ill in his final years, Carola increasingly took on his representational duties and lovingly looked after her husband. He died on 19 June 1902 in Sibyllenort (now Szczodre). He was succeeded by his younger brother Prince George as King of Saxony. Charity With Carola's accession to the throne, Saxon social welfare received important funding impulses. In the residential city of Dresden in particular, the proportion of the working population increased under the impression of growing industrialization and with it at the same time the social needs, which were alleviated by the creation of new welfare institutions. This included the laying of the foundation stone for the "Carola House" in 1876, which was inaugurated two years later. In the same year the Johannes Association (German: Johannes-Verein) was founded, which bundled all four of the Queen's previously founded associations. This included the sewing machine acquisition association in Leubnitz-Neuostra to get women into paid work by buying sewing machines, the Pestalozzi Association for the support and care of needy widows and orphans, the domestic service home for female servants over the age of 60, which provided free housing and covered the costs of treatment in the event of illness, as well as the children's employment association in Dresden Neustadt and Antonstadt. Furthermore, the private Loschwitz Sanatorium (German: Heilstatte Loschwitz) was taken over. Under Carola's direction, the Johannes Association built six houses in Dresden in which 144 poorer families could live. In addition, Carola was responsible for setting up and maintaining pulmonary sanatoriums, which primarily specialized in treating tuberculosis. In addition, other charities were founded under her work, including the Dresden Women's Association, which primarily took care of feeding the elderly and sick poor and maintained five children's institutions (German: Kindergarten) and three nurseries (German: Kinderkrippe), and two Catholic charities: the Dresden Association of Saint Elizabeth for the Care of the Poor (German: Verein der Heiligen Elisabeth Dresden zur Armenpflege) and the Vincentius Association for poor relief (German: Vincentiusverein für Armenförderung). Other clubs and institutions were the Gustavheim in Niederpoyritz for the care of old and infirm people, the convalescent station in Pillnitz, the cripple home in Trachenberge, from which today's Dresden Vocational Training Center (German: Berufsbildungswerk Dresden) emerged, which was an educational institution for "crippled" but mentally healthy children, as well as the establishment of three people's kitchens in Dresden Friedrichstadt, in the Leipziger Vorstadt suburb and in Löbtau as well as various soup establishments (German: Suppenanstalten) for children. Outside of Dresden, women's associations were established, including the technical and home economics school in Schwarzenberg, and the Leipzig Carola Association with a technical and trade school for women. Outside of Saxony, a hospital in Dobrodzień, the children's home in Słabowo, was under the Queen's patronage as well as the two Louise Houses (German: Louisenhäuser) in Moravec and Mannheim. Carola's personal commitment to charity was by no means unusual at the time. Rather, it corresponded to the traditional understanding of the role of noble women and was also the only way for them to work independently and gain a certain social recognition. The systematic development of the social and foundation system in the Kingdom of Saxony and other imperial states opened up completely new public fields of activity for aristocratic and middle-class women. Queen Carola and Empress Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg thus rose to become "state mothers" and represented a whole new generation of women in the field of women's welfare. The new state also knew how to exploit their work for its own purposes. In the case of Queen Carola, for example, her social commitment was effectively equated with the military duties of her husband Albert in order to generate female participation in the myth of the founding of the empire. At the same time, the state underpinned the concept of a common “people under arms”, which negated the gender differentiation that had previously been practiced. However, Carola's initiative and her tireless efforts were not only fruitful in social affairs. By training women and girls to become nurses, economists, seamstresses, etc. Occupational branches created new fields of activity for the female sex. With their knowledge of proper household management, the quality of life of the affected families increased. According to Dagmar Vogel, Carola unconsciously contributed to the emancipation and professional independence of women. Personal life Very little is known about the private life of Carola and her husband. Contrary to the forced or political marriage practiced in many royal families, the 49-year marriage between Carola and Albert was a love marriage. The couple complemented each other harmoniously throughout their lives. The marriage remained childless for unknown reasons. It has been handed down that Carola undertook spa stays and visited healing springs because she was not pregnant, which she continued to do later. In 1881 and 1889 she visited Bad Ems, where she attended the Catholic service every day. Furthermore, Carola could always count on her husband for her charitable projects. The couple celebrated their silver wedding anniversary in 1878. From 1859 onwards, the couple's further private life largely took place in their Strehlen villa, which was the main residence away from the royal court, whereas the castle was only used as a residence when the couple was at court. In later years, the couple also occasionally used the Rehefeld hunting lodge (German: Jagdschloss Rehefeld), a gift from Carola to her husband, or the Sibyllenort Castle. In addition, both Albert and Carola loved traveling and nature trips. Court life Court life was subject to annual regularity. Around the turn of the year, the royal couple sometimes stayed in Dresden Castle to receive New Year's greetings and blessings. This was followed in the first months of the year by the time of the court festivals. The court balls that took place at the same time included up to 900 people, the chamber balls up to 300 people. In April, the royal couple moved to their estate in Strehlen and from June to September to Pillnitz Castle, from where they went on nature and hunting trips to Moritzburg, Bad Schandau or the Tharandt Forest. In the very hot summer months, the royal couple sometimes lived in Rehefeld or later at Sibyllenort Castle (which Albert had inherited from his relative William, Duke of Brunswick in 1884). In October, the couple returned to their villa in Strehlen, where they hosted suppers for high-ranking civil servants, generals and foreign guests well into the winter. Royal household Queen Dowager of Saxony 1902–1907 Last years After Albert's death, Carola wore mourning ribbon or simple middle-class clothing until the end of her life. She turned down King George's offer to continue living in the Royal Palace. Instead, Carola withdrew to her villa in Strehlen and only appeared in public occasionally. The now visibly aged Queen Dowager, who was considered undemanding by her servants and sometimes stingy, worked for several years on her will, which eventually ran to 140 pages. In it she bequeathed a total of 783,000 marks to individuals and charities. In the last years of her life, according to her servants, Carola prepared for her death. In addition to the noticeable decrease in her strength, she had scattered a large number of framed photographs of deceased relatives on their deathbeds in her bedchamber, intended to remind her of her own impermanence. Death and burial The Dowager Queen had been suffering from diabetes for some time, which later developed into a gradual infection of the bladder and kidneys. A few days before her death, Carola developed chills and a high fever, accompanied by temporary drowsiness that ended in apathy. The attending physician diagnosed a life-threatening functional impairment of the urinary organs, which had led to severe uremia. Carola died at the age of 74 on 15 December 1907 at around 3:30 in the morning in her villa in the presence of the royal family. After the funeral mass, Carola was publicly laid out in the conservatory of her villa, where thousands bid her farewell. The coffin was then transferred to the Catholic Court Church while all the Dresden bells were ringing, where it was buried the next day in the New Crypt at Dresden Cathedral next to that of her husband. Messages of condolence reached the Saxon court from all parts of Germany, and obituaries and tributes to the late queen appeared in the daily newspapers. The Queen Carola Foundation (German: Königin Carola-Stiftung), founded by the Saxon state parliament in memory of Carola, existed until the end of the World War II. Honors In Dresden in particular, the last queen of Saxony was commemorated by naming a large number of places and institutions. These include the Carola-Allee (today Stauffenberg-Allee), dedicated in 1879, the Carola's Bridge (German: Carolabrücke) over the Prießnitz river, another Carolabrücke over the Elbe with the subsequent Carolaplatz and the Carola Lake (German: Carolasee) in the Großer Garten with the Carolaschlösschen restaurant. The 2nd Royal Saxon Hussar Regiment No. 19 received its honorary name after her in 1891. In September 1892, King Albert created the Carola Medal (German: Carola-Medaille), which was awarded for helpful charity. Carola received the Diplome d'honeur and the Diplome de Grand Prix in Brussels in 1897 for her efforts in the education for girls. Also while she was still alive, the Carola Theater in Leipzig in 1887 and the Queen Carola Gymnasium (German: Königin-Carola-Gymnasium) built in 1902 were named after her, as was the cruiser frigate SMS Carola commissioned in 1879 and a bay (the Queen Carola Harbour) on the Buka Island. In addition, the Carolafelsen (the highest point of the Affensteine is one of the most-visited vantage points in the rear Saxon Switzerland) bears her name, as does the district of Carolathal in the municipality of Breitenbrunn and the Queen Carola mine (German: Königin-Carola-Schacht) in today's Freital. A healing water spring in Tarasp is also named after her. A wounded French soldier whom she cared for during the Franco-Prussian War named a rose variety after her in memory of her, the "Reine Carola de Saxe" (Queen Carola of Saxony). In 1894, the Carola's parotia, a species of the radiated paradise bird genus, was named after her. In the town of Auerbach was founded a lung sanatorium, named Carolagrün after the Queen. Today, the figure of Carola, together with other historical personalities, regularly strolls through the baroque garden in the Franconian town of Bad Bocklet, where she stayed in the summer of 1857, as part of the Rondo historica. Ancestry Notes References Bibliography Almanach de Gotha, 1887 und 1901. Gotha: Justus Perthes. online online online in Internet Archive and online in SLUB Dresden External links Idun number 28, Friday 13 July 1888 Literature about Carola of Vasa in the Sächsische Bibliografie Albert, Margrave of Meissen: König Albert als Politiker unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Sozial- und Wirtschaftspolitik. Lecture manuscript on author's private website, June 2002 (with section on Queen Carola's social engagement) \|- 1833 births 1907 deaths Crown Princesses of Saxony House of Holstein-Gottorp Carola 1833 Saxon princesses Queens consort of Saxony Burials at Dresden Cathedral Nobility from Vienna Swedish Roman Catholics Converts to Roman Catholicism from Lutheranism ⚭Carola of Vasa
5263542	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Gladiator	Star Gladiator	is a 1996 weapon-based 3D fighting game released by Capcom for the PlayStation-based ZN-1 arcade hardware. It was Capcom's first in-house polygonal fighting game (the earlier Battle Arena Toshinden 2 was licensed to Capcom from an outside developer). A PlayStation port was released in October 1996. It was followed by a single sequel, Plasma Sword: Nightmare of Bilstein, in 1998. Gameplay Instead of the six-button configuration system seen in past Capcom fighting game series such as Street Fighter II and Darkstalkers, Star Gladiator utilizes a Soulcalibur series-esque four-button configuration system, which consists of two attack buttons for a character's weapon, a kick attack, and a guard defense. The fighters battle upon a hovering arena, and if a fighter is knocked off the arena they lose the round. Plasma Reverses are two special guard moves that can be unleashed at any time from within a battle. A Plasma Reflect enables a fighter to deflect an opponent's incoming move and stun them, leaving them vulnerable for a few seconds, while a Plasma Revenge enables a fighter to counterattack an opponent's incoming move and strike back with their own fast attack. Characters can also use a Plasma Strike, which can cause huge damage to an opponent if it connects on sight, but a Plasma Strike can only be done once per round. Star Gladiator also introduces the Plasma Combo System. Through a specific string of attacks, a fighter can combo their opponent even if the opponent is blocking. If a character strings together five hits and presses a specific button at the end of the combo, they initiate a Plasma Final, which unlocks a technique that inflicts a large amount of damage upon their opponent if used. This system was discarded in the game's sequel, Plasma Sword. The arcade mode of Star Gladiator consists of ten fights. Depending on who the player chooses as their character, they will fight against a specific set of opponents. Gore, who serves as the sub-boss of the game is always fought at Stage 9 and Bilstein, who serves as the final boss of the game is always fought at Stage 10. Depending on how quickly the player defeats Bilstein, either the game ends with a false ending or the player is then taken to a special battle against an unplayable computer-controlled true final boss named Ghost Bilstein. Losing to Ghost Bilstein results in both a bad ending and a game over while defeating Ghost Bilstein results in the chosen character's own true ending. Story In the future, the growing population of the world led to humanity looking across the stars for new homes. In the year 2348, humans have been exploring the vast reaches of outer space for four centuries and have established peaceful contact with various alien civilizations. People now emigrate from one planet to another. However, some problems arise with a couple of alien races, so the Earth Federation begins developing a Plasma-power weapon to protect the Earth from any outside threats. Dr. Edward Bilstein, a Nobel Prize-winning German-American physicist for the Earth Federation, uncovers the secret to humanity's "sixth sense": a technique for capturing the energy of the human mind, an energy source he calls "Plasma Power". The Plasma weapon is built, and Bilstein gains fame and fortune for the invention. It is discovered by the Earth Federation that Bilstein experimented on actual human bodies during his research on Plasma Power. He is arrested and exiled from Earth, imprisoned in a satellite that orbits the Planet Zeta, while development of the Plasma weapon is indefinitely suspended. Word of Earth's possession of a super weapon spreads throughout the universe and it reduces hostile confrontations. Four years later, an Earth Federation army base is attacked and destroyed by a small group of rebels calling themselves the "Fourth Empire". Bilstein, who has built himself a powerful cyborg body and escaped from Zeta, is their leader. Realizing their pattern of attacks is leading back to Earth, a panicked Earth Federation searches for people who can utilize Plasma Power in their own given accord and stop Bilstein before he can conquer the universe with his nascent Fourth Empire. All of Earth's hopes rest in the project codenamed "Star Gladiator". Characters Hayato Kanzaki (Voiced by Nobutoshi Canna in the series proper, and by Toshiyuki Morikawa in Marvel vs Capcom 2.) The protagonist of the series. A rebellious young Japanese intergalactic bounty hunter who fights with a Plasma Sword while living on his own and caring about others, especially the children living in the orphanage in which he was raised from and his close friends June, Saturn, and Gamof. Hayato's noble love and determination for his friends is the driving force that prompts him to go up against Bilstein and the Fourth Empire. In his true ending, Hayato returns to the orphanage a month later finding the director closing the doors, and presents her with rolls of money. When she sees the money her emotions are torn between love and hate, but Hayato realizes this and asks her not to be made, promising to reform himself from then on. Filled with mixed emotions, the director says to Hayato that he’s going to give her a heart attack, to which Hayato, embarrassed, replies “But if you die … I’ll never change!” His alternate evil-self known as Black Hayato is originally his alternate costume prior to becoming a separate character in later appearances. Hayato is one of the few characters in the series to crossover in another Capcom game; in this case, Marvel vs. Capcom 2. Hayato also makes a cameo appearance in Tekkaman Blade's ending in Tatsunoko vs. Capcom: Ultimate All-Stars, while Black Hayato appears as a boss unit in the tactical RPG Project X Zone 2. June Lin Milliam (Voiced by Megumi Ogata): A talented young British-Chinese rhythmic gymnast who fights with a Plasma Ring to avenge the death of her parents by Bilstein (she is unaware that her father is in fact Rimgal). In her true ending, June returns home to visit the picture of her deceased parents. She says to her parents that she has finally avenged them and notes how for many years all she felt was vengeance, but now feels nothing. She adds that they can now rest in peace, and notes that since she has nothing left she will join them soon. June takes a bottle of drugs off her desk and as she raises it to her mouth and Hayato, thinking that June is about to end her life, Hayato hurries in telling her not to do so, saying to June that he, Saturn and Gamof need her, reminding her that she has a new family now. Hayato's words slowly warm her frozen heart, who asks Hayato what he’s talking about, saying that this is just cough medicine. June runs into Hayato’s arms, while behind June her parents smile from their picture. June makes cameo appearances in two of the background stages in Super Gem Fighter Mini Mix, the Shanghai stage in Capcom vs. SNK 2, one of Hayato's win poses in Marvel vs. Capcom 2, Hawkeye's ending in Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 as a member of the new West Coast Avengers, and Deadpool's ending from the same game. She also appears as a playable solo unit in Project X Zone 2, where she is voiced by Yukari Tamura. She was also the first Star Gladiator character to be confirmed for the series. Saturn Dyer: A green-skinned cone-headed alien who is named after the planet where he comes from in the Andromeda Galaxy of the universe (but not the one present in Earth's Solar System), he fights with Plasma Yo-Yos while having quite an eccentric yet friendly personality. Saturn is a well-known and renowned popular street performer on his home planet, with a clown-like attitude and a perennial ten-mile-wide smile on his face. Upon coming to Earth in order to enjoy his hobby of theater while on a new assignment to research life on Earth, Saturn learns about the threat of the Fourth Empire and joins the Star Gladiator project in order to help protect both Earth and his home planet. In his true ending, Saturn is thanked by the general back at the United Force base for a job well done, to which Saturn replies that the whole “Fourth Empire thing” wasn’t part of his mission, and since they used him, he believes its in his planet’s best interests not to share any information between their 2 worlds. The general is left speechless, but then Saturn (who it seems was actually joking) whispers in his ear that he’s sure they can work something out. A few days later, at the Pompidou Center in Paris (the place Where Saturn first learnt about yo-yos from seeing a performance performed there on a T.V. broadcast he came across)) Saturn is entertaining people on the streets, surrounded by a crowd. Saturn makes a cameo appearance in one of Hayato's win poses in Marvel vs. Capcom 2. Gamof Gohgry (Voiced by Daisuke Gōri): A brown-furred ape-like alien who comes from the forest planet of De Rosa which lies from within the Andromeda Galaxy of the universe, he fights with a Plasma Axe. When Gamof's job as a lumberjack is compromised at the hand of an unknown Earth microbe virus that destroys nearly all of De Rosa's forests. It was discovered that a type of thistle that can only be grown on Planet DeRosa is the raw material for a drug called "White Heaven," which is 3,000 times more potent than heroin. People competed to grow this money-producing plant, and the planet's rich forests were devastated. Although Planet DeRosa's government prohibited cultivation the Earth's drug syndicate had already entered the organization, and even the officials of Planet DeRosa had been taken into the organization, and the law was no longer valid. As a result, the ordinary people of Planet DeRosa were forced to leave their devastated planet and go to work. Gamof becomes a reluctant bounty hunter and eventually meets up with Hayato, becoming good friends with him. When Gamof learns about the threat of the Fourth Empire, he joins the Star Gladiator project along with Hayato so that he can protect both his home planet and his family. In Gamof’s true ending, its revealed that a few years after the Final Crusade Gamof had purchased the woodlands with his reward money and decided to return to his peaceful life as a lumberman. However, to ensure that the woodlands are never corrupted again, Gamof forms an organization against drugs. After coming home from a hard day’s work one day, Gamof’s family greets him, with his younger brothers asking him to tell them again the story of the Star Gladiators (Gamof’s favorite story) which he does. Franco Gerelt: (Voiced by Hisao Egawa) A renowned and honorable Spanish matador, he is an expert fencer and fights with a Plasma Rapier. Seeing the strong potential that Gerelt has from within his fighting skills, Bilstein kidnapped Gerelt's wife and daughter with the help of a rival matador who had envied Gerelt's popularity and skill and coerced Gerelt to follow his command. Bilstein also implanted a bomb in his chest which would be triggered if he disobeys. In Gerelt’s true ending, Gerelt finds himself in a no-win situation: to free his wife and daughter he would have to destroy the human race to do this, but at the same time he can’t live without them. Gerelt decides to surrender himself to Earth’s United Forces. He receives judgment 2 months later on the crimes he committed, and is astonished when he is sentenced to 5 years in prison, thinking that he would receive the death penalty, and looking up he sees his family. It transpires that through the help of his adoring fans Gerelt’s family was rescued from prison while the truth about how Gerelt was blackmailed by Bilstein is revealed, and a joyful Gerelt runs up to his family and hugs them. Vector (Voiced by Osamu Hosoi) An emotionless prototype assassin robot created by Bilstein to be the ultimate killing weapon. It fights with a Plasma Gun. Vector's only directive is to seek and destroy every single human being. Vector makes a cameo appearance in Roll's ending in Tatsunoko vs. Capcom: Ultimate All-Stars, in which he is reprogrammed to do household tasks. Rimgal: June's father, the former English scientist Michael Milliam turned into a Velociraptor dinosaur who fights with a Bone Club after Bilstein experimented on him. Rimgal fights to try and control his transformation. However, Rimgal ultimately fails, and fearing his primal instincts will overtake his human sensitivity and end up having him kill his daughter, Rimgal kills himself in the end. Rimgal is the only regular character not to return in Plasma Sword: Nightmare of Bilstein (along with Kappah, a secret character). In his true ending, Rimgal has entered the last stage of his transformation, and is unable to control the savage dinosaur nature lurking in his mind. Knowing that the next time his inner beast awakens he will never be able to regain true control over his actions, Rimgal makes the ultimate sacrifice. Looking at June and her companions slowly, Rimgal asks them to “Please take care of my daughter. I love her…” and then leaps from the fortress, plummeting to the ground below. He does not have a voice actor but his roars are provided by Michio Sakurai. Zelkin Fiskekrogen (Voiced by Hisao Egawa): A blue-feathered bird-like humanoid alien from the Planet Klondike, which lies from within the Andromeda Galaxy of the universe. He fights with a Plasma Claw. Zelkin, who is known for being a brave and noble valiant warrior, fights alongside Bilstein because of his loathing of humans, who nearly destroyed his race during a war. Zelkin is an old acquaintance of Hayato. In his true ending, Zelkin is shown to have come to the realization that not all of Earth’s people are cruel and brutal, and reflects that he has made a horrible mistake, and that him defeating Bilstein can’t make up for wronging the humans so terribly. Although Zelkin tries to give himself up to Hayato and the other earth warriors they don’t accept his surrender, with Hayato telling Zelkin that now that they’ve fought him they know he is not the enemy. Hayato tells Zelkin to go home, thinking that this might bring peace between their two peoples. The other Earth warriors agree with Hayato. Zelkin expresses his gratitude and heads off to his home planet on a spaceship from Zeta. On his way back Zelkin reflects “So this is what they mean by ‘Forgive.’ I am only now beginning to understand. We have much to learn from our human brethren.” Gore Gajah: A big-brained pointy-eared tanned Indonesian who fights with a Plasma Mace. Gore, a genius magician, seeks to gain knowledge about Plasma Wizardry and joins Bilstein's Fourth Empire in order to advance his studies into Plasma Power. According to Japanese materials, Gore's alien-esque appearance is due to the side effects of the constant abuse of Plasma Wizardry, which had deformed him into his current state. In his true ending, Gore announces that he is bored with the Fourth Empire, believing that it offered him no challenge and was a waste of his time; seeking only to play with his “favorite new toy;” the human race, whom Gore thinks of burning. The narrative text notes that when Gore next stands on the Earth’s ground, “humans will face the real demon.” Dr. Edward Bilstein (Voiced by Daisuke Gōri): The antagonist of the series. A Nobel Prize-winning German-American prestigious physicist and cybernetic mad scientist emperor who fights with a Plasma Broadsword. Bilstein stumbled upon a research document left behind by one of his ancestors. It described Plasma Power and how it could be derived from human emotions. After escaping his prison and forming his "Fourth Empire" organization while placing himself in a powerful cyborg body, Bilstein seeks to conquer the entire universe and establish a new order. This form of Bilstein, who would later be known as "Ghost Bilstein", makes a cameo appearance in Tekkaman Blade's ending in Tatsunoko vs. Capcom: Ultimate All-Stars, when he is attacked by Ghost Bilstein and saved by Hayato, who teams up with Tekkaman Blade to beat him. Kappah Nosuke (Voiced by Kazumi Tanaka): A green-skinned turtle-like humanoid alien from the Planet Kappa, which lies within the Cygnus Galaxy of the universe. He fights with a Plasma Spear. Kappah is based on a Kappa, a type of water sprite that inhabits various ponds and rivers throughout most of Japan. Kappah and his race have a militaristic lifestyle; all of them despise peace and friendship, living only for war and fighting. This leads him to join Bilstein and the Fourth Empire, who promise to defend his home planet from any outside threats. Kappah plays very similar to Gerelt barring a few specials, although the characters are in no way related. Also, Kappah does not have a character select screen portrait in favor of a zucchini pair image. A sub-boss and secret character. Blood Barbarians: A robust young American expert swordsman who fights with a Plasma Broadsword. Blood was taken in by Bilstein at a very young age after Bilstein himself had killed Blood's parents; Blood had the highest amount of Plasma Power stored in his body, and Bilstein wanted to use his potential on his Plasma Power research. Blood plays similarly to Bilstein, barring a few specials. A sub-boss and secret character. Super Bilstein: Bilstein's greater form and the true final boss of the game. Stages The events of Star Gladiator take place over the following 11 stages: Stage 1 "Earth Federation Forces Headquarters Communication Elevator" This is an elevator that connects the Earth Federation Forces Headquarters, floating 3000m above the earth, to the ground, and a powerful magnetic flux field motor allows it to move at a maximum speed of 200km/h. Stage 2 "New Tokyo Downtown" In the year 2348 AD, the Japanese economy is in decline and the capital Shin-Tokyo has become dominated by companies from other nations. New Tokyo is filled with unemployed people, while downtown has become a hotbed for criminals. Here Hayato and the mercenaries do their final training (distraction) before the battle. Stage 3 "Earth Federation Forces Spaceport" This is a military relay station for shuttles heading out of the atmosphere and airplanes flying around the earth. It is here that Hayato and his friends gather to begin a plan to defeat Bilstein as the "Star Gladiators". Stage 4 "Interstellar spacecraft launch base" This is a transfer base for interstellar spaceships heading to the inner galaxy and further outer space from a shuttle that connects with the earth. Combat exercises in outer space, which can’t be done on Earth, are constantly conducted here, and from here Hayato and the others board a ferry heading for Planet Zeta. Stage 5 "Cargo space inside the interstellar transport" This is a warehouse inside the regular unmanned transport ship bound for Planet Zeta, and Hayato hides in a camouflaged container and plans to invade Planet Zeta. Although the containers appear to float in disarray they are connected safely by magnetic flux wires. Stage 6 "Fourth Empire Reconnaissance Plane" This is a reconnaissance plane of the Fourth Empire army that is sent by Bilstein who noticed Hayato's presence, but Hayato and his friends hijack this and attempt to invade Imperial Army territory all at once. Stage 7 "Fourth Empire Frontline Radar Base" This is a radar base of the Fourth Empire's army that explores space near the Zeta planet, which Hayato and his friends first destroy in order to allow the main body of the Federation army to follow. Stage 8 "Fourth Imperial Army Base Vent" As the Imperial Army base is protected by powerful defensive weapons, Hayato and his friends try to break through the relatively weakly defended vent. However, it is still a dangerous place with scorching sand and gusty winds. Stage 9 "Fourth Empire Biological Laboratory" This is a biological laboratory located inside the Imperial military base, where many innocent people from Planet Zeta were killed in horrific experiments, and it is Hayato's mission to quickly rescue the people trapped here. Stage 10 "Atop the 4th Imperial Base" The top of the Imperial Base, which Bilstein tries to escape on, can be floated by an anti-gravity plasma engine, but Hayato and others catch up on the verge of jumping, and here the decisive battle with Bilstein begins. Special stage "Bilstein's Spiritual World" Bilstein, injured and unable to fight, sends his intense thought power (plasma power) into Hayato's head and challenges the final battle in the spiritual world. As this thought completely controls the opponent's brain cells, losing the battle here means death. Development In an interview with Destructoid.com, Capcom's former senior manager of community Seth Killian mentioned that Star Gladiator was originally designed to be a Star Wars game with Star Wars characters. Reception In Japan, Game Machine listed Star Gladiator on their September 1, 1996 issue as being the sixteenth most-successful arcade game of the month. A Next Generation reviewer called Star Gladiator "a quirky, stylish game that is more subtle than obvious, with innovative gameplay and likeable character design." He especially praised the ability to move, attack, and defend in three dimensions, and the "intuitive and simple" controls for executing these moves. GamePro approved of the game's graphical effects, unique combo system, and characters, and deemed it a satisfying first foray into 3D for Capcom. The PlayStation conversion also received positive reviews, with critics almost universally praising the characters and the variety of their fighting techniques, as well as the game's graphics, particularly the 3-D animated backgrounds. The most common criticism was that the game is too easy in single-player mode. GamePro said that Star Gladiators "visual appeal and outstanding control will put other 3D games on their backs." Next Generation was more moderate, saying that Star Gladiator "is a pretty good game all on its own", but is more of a harbinger of the more outstanding 3D fighting games they anticipated Capcom would put out in the near future. GameSpot assessed that "All in all, the surreal alien characters, weapon-based fighting, and overall quality make Star Gladiator yet another peal of the thunder in the resounding Capcom storm." The PlayStation version of Star Gladiator held an aggregate score of 82% on GameRankings based on five reviews. See also Plasma Sword: Nightmare of Bilstein References External links Official Japanese website (includes character biographies) Star Gladiator at MobyGames 1996 video games 3D fighting games Arcade video games Capcom franchises Capcom games PlayStation (console) games PlayStation Network games Science fiction video games Fighting games Video games developed in Japan Video games set in the 24th century Video games set on fictional planets
5263684	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralytic%20illness%20of%20Franklin%20D.%20Roosevelt	Paralytic illness of Franklin D. Roosevelt	Franklin D. Roosevelt, later the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 to 1945, began experiencing symptoms of a paralytic illness in 1921 when he was 39 years old. His main symptoms were fevers; symmetric, ascending paralysis; facial paralysis; bowel and bladder dysfunction; numbness and hyperesthesia; and a descending pattern of recovery. He was diagnosed with poliomyelitis and underwent years of therapy, including hydrotherapy at Warm Springs, Georgia. Roosevelt remained paralyzed from the waist down and relied on a wheelchair and leg braces for mobility, which he took efforts to conceal in public. In 1938, he founded the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, leading to the development of polio vaccines. Although historical accounts continue to refer to Roosevelt's case as polio, the diagnosis has been questioned in the context of current medical science, with a competing diagnosis of Guillain–Barré syndrome proposed by some authors. Illness and aftermath On August 9, 1921, 39-year-old Franklin D. Roosevelt, at the time a practicing lawyer in New York City, joined his family at their vacation home at Campobello, a Canadian island off the coast of Maine. Among those at Campobello when Roosevelt arrived were his wife, Eleanor, their children, his political aide Louis Howe, Howe's wife, and their young son. On August 10, after a day of strenuous activity, Roosevelt came down with an illness characterized by fevers, ascending paralysis, facial paralysis, prolonged bowel and bladder dysfunction, and numbness and hypersensitivity of the skin. Roosevelt came close to death from the illness. He faced many life-threatening medical problems including the possibility of respiratory failure, urinary tract infection, injury to the urethra or bladder, decubitus ulcers, clots in the leg veins, and malnutrition. Eleanor's nursing care was responsible for Roosevelt's survival. Most of the symptoms resolved themselves, but he was left permanently paralyzed from the waist down. Timeline of illness Mid July: Roosevelt gave testimony to a Senate committee investigating a Navy scandal. July 28: Roosevelt visited the Boy Scout Jamboree at Bear Mountain State Park. August 5–8: Roosevelt traveled to Campobello with his friend and new employer, Van Lear Black, on Black's ocean-going yacht. August 9 (Tuesday): Roosevelt fell into the cold waters of the Bay of Fundy. Later, he arrived at Campobello. August 10: Roosevelt spent the day physically active. Afterward, he complained of chills, nausea, and pain in his lower back. He skipped dinner and went to bed. Chills lasted through the night. August 11: In the morning, one of his legs felt weak. Roosevelt had a fever. Dr. Eben H. Bennet, a general practitioner in the nearby village of Lubec who had known the Roosevelts for years, visited Roosevelt and diagnosed a bad summer cold. By the evening, one leg was paralyzed, and the other had become weak. August 12: Both legs were paralyzed. His temperature was 102 °F (39 °C). Pain shot through his legs, feet and back. Bennet suggested a consultation with Dr. William W. Keen, an eminent retired neurosurgeon vacationing nearby. Roosevelt's legs were numb. They then became painfully sensitive to touch, "so painful that he could not stand the pressure of the bedclothes, and even the movement of the breezes across his skin caused acute distress." He could not pass urine. August 13: Roosevelt was paralyzed from the chest down. On that day and the following, his hands, arms, and shoulders were weak. He had difficulty moving his bowels and required enemas. Keen made what Eleanor described as "a most careful, thorough examination". August 14: Roosevelt continued to be unable to pass urine for two weeks, and required catheterization. His fever continued for a total of six to seven days. Keen repeated his examination, a bending and prodding that Elliott later termed "excruciating" for his father. Keen diagnosed a clot of blood to the lower spinal cord, and prescribed massage of the leg muscles. Eleanor and Howe began massaging Roosevelt's legs as instructed by Keen, bringing on agonizing pain. August 15: Prostrate and mildly sedated, Roosevelt was occasionally delirious. August 19: Frederic Delano, Roosevelt's uncle, had received a letter from Louis Howe requesting to find a doctor to come see Roosevelt. Delano called his son-in-law, a physician, who recommended he speak to another physician, a Dr. Parker. Parker told Delano that the case sounded like infantile paralysis, and that the leading authorities on the disease were at the Harvard Infantile Paralysis Commission in Boston. Delano caught a train and arrived the next morning. August 20: Dr. Samuel A. Levine was at his office when Delano telephoned Brigham Hospital on Saturday morning. Levine said the senior members of the Harvard Infantile Paralysis Commission, Dr. Lovett and Dr. Peabody, were out of town, but he would try to answer Delano's questions. After reviewing the messages Delano had received from Campobello, Levine thought Roosevelt had acute poliomyelitis. He urged that a lumbar puncture be done, with the goal of making a diagnosis, but mainly because Levine believed there could be acute benefit from the procedure. Delano phoned and wrote Eleanor the same day, advising her to stop massaging Roosevelt's legs, and to disregard Keen's advice: "I think it would be very unwise to trust his diagnosis where the Inf. Paralysis can be determined by test of the spinal fluid." Eleanor communicated with Keen, who "very strenuously" resisted the idea of poliomyelitis. Keen asked Lovett to visit Campobello. August 22: Lovett met Levine for dinner. Lovett asked how to distinguish whether paralysis was caused by poliomyelitis or by a clot or lesion of the spinal cord. August 23: Lovett left for Campobello. August 24: Lovett saw Roosevelt and performed a "more or less superficial" examination since Roosevelt was highly sensitive to touch. The arms were weak; the bladder was paralyzed; the left thumb indicated atrophy. Roosevelt could not stand or walk, and Lovett documented "scattered weakness, most marked in the hips". August 25: Roosevelt's temperature was 100 °F (38 °C). Both legs were paralyzed. His back muscles were weak. There was also weakness of the face and left hand. Pain in the legs and inability to urinate continued. After a brief conference with Keen, Lovett saw Roosevelt. Lovett informed him that the "physical findings" presented a "perfectly clear" diagnosis of poliomyelitis. Lovett ordered an end to massage, which had no benefit and caused pain, and recommended a trained nurse to care for Roosevelt. September 1: Roosevelt was still unable to urinate. His leg pain continued. September 14: Roosevelt was transported to New York, by boat and train, a long and painful journey. September 15: Roosevelt was admitted to Presbyterian Hospital in New York City for convalescence, under the care of Dr. George Draper, an expert on poliomyelitis and Roosevelt's personal physician. Lovett continued to consult from Boston. There was pain in the legs, paralysis of the legs, muscle wasting in the lower lumbar area and the buttocks, weakness of the right triceps, and gross muscle twitching in both forearms. October 28: Roosevelt was transferred from Presbyterian Hospital to his house on East 65th Street. His chart still read "not improving". Later: Roosevelt exercised daily. His hamstrings tightened, and his legs were encased in plaster to straighten them by degrees. There was gradual recovery, but he remained paralyzed from the waist down. Diagnosis After falling ill, Roosevelt was seen by four doctors. Eben Homer Bennet, the Roosevelt family doctor, diagnosed a heavy cold. William Keen, a retired neurosurgeon, thought Roosevelt had a blood clot. Robert Lovett, an expert on the orthopedic management of children paralyzed from poliomyelitis, diagnosed "infantile paralysis", as did George Draper, Roosevelt's personal physician. Roosevelt's physicians never mentioned Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS) in their communications concerning Roosevelt's case, indicating that they were not aware of it as a diagnostic possibility. All reports before 1921 of what is now called GBS were by European physicians, in European journals. The result was that very few American physicians knew that GBS was a separate disease. For example, Lovett mistakenly believed that Landry's ascending paralysis, now termed GBS, was one of the clinical presentations of paralytic polio. In 1921, an American physician would assume that if an individual developed a sudden, non-traumatic flaccid paralysis, it was due to paralytic polio. The concept of GBS as a separate disease was not widely accepted in the United States until after the Second World War. Efforts to rehabilitate Roosevelt was totally and permanently paralyzed from the waist down, and unable to stand or walk without support. For the next few months, he confined himself to indoor pursuits, including resuming his lifelong hobby of stamp collecting. In December 1921, after he had recuperated for several months, a physiotherapist began working with him to determine the extent of the damage. He was able to perform small exercises on his own, moving one muscle and then another. He was fitted with heavy steel braces that locked at the knee and provided enough stability that he could stand with crutches. In 1922, at Springwood, he worked diligently to make his way across the room. He set himself the goal of getting down the long driveway, managing to do it once, but never trying again. In October 1922, Roosevelt visited his law office at the Equitable Building, where a welcome-back luncheon had been arranged. The chauffeur assisting him failed to brace the tip of his left crutch and Roosevelt fell onto the highly polished lobby floor. Laughing, he asked two young men in the crowd of onlookers to help get him back on his feet. After the luncheon, he told friends it was a "grand and glorious occasion". He did not return to his office for two months. Roosevelt believed that warmth and exercise would help rebuild his legs. He bought a run-down 71-foot (21.6 m) houseboat and, in February 1923, sailed to Florida with friends and a small crew. Eleanor found it dull and left, but Roosevelt sailed for weeks, fishing and spending time with a succession of friends who came to visit. He designed a pulley system that lowered him into the water to swim. In May 1923, Lovett documented no overall improvement over the preceding year, but Roosevelt would not accept his doctors' determination that further progress was unlikely. He tried a range of therapies and made two more voyages on his houseboat, but his efforts had no effect. "Between 1925 and 1928, Franklin would spend more than half his time—116 of 208 weeks—away from home, struggling to find a way to regain his feet," wrote biographer Geoffrey Ward. "Eleanor was with him just 4 of those 116 weeks, and his mother was with him for only 2. His children hardly saw him." Roosevelt lost the use of his legs and two inches of height, but the subsequent development of the rest of his body gave him a robust physique, and he enjoyed many years of excellent health. Jack Dempsey praised his upper-body musculature, and Roosevelt once landed a 237-pound (107.5 kg) shark after fighting it on his line for two hours. Roosevelt first traveled to Warm Springs, Georgia, on October 3, 1924. For many years to come Warm Springs would be where he would retreat in comfort for hydrotherapy. With his physiotherapist at Warm Springs, Roosevelt laboriously taught himself to walk short distances while wearing iron braces on his hips and legs, by swiveling his torso. For this "two-point walk", he would grip the arm of a strong person with his left hand, and brace himself with a cane in his right. On April 29, 1926, he bought Warm Springs with the intention of making it into a rehabilitation center for polio patients. Governor and President Roosevelt was twice elected Governor of New York, on November 6, 1928, and November 4, 1930. He moved into the Governor's Mansion in Albany in January 1929. Before he moved in, the mansion was made wheelchair-friendly with ramps and an elevator. Roosevelt won the 1932 presidential election in a landslide and became the first (and, as of 2023, only) physically disabled person to be President of the United States. Before he moved into the White House, ramps were added to make it wheelchair-friendly. Any photos of the President were taken at certain angles and at a distance. Public awareness Roosevelt took great care to convince even close confidants that he was getting better, which he believed was essential if he was to run for public office again. To Richard E. Byrd, he wrote "By next autumn I will be ready to chase the nimble moose with you." To General Leonard Wood: his leg muscles "were all coming back." His public appearances were carefully choreographed to avoid the press covering his arrival and departure, which would have shown him getting into or out of a vehicle or train. In private he used a wheelchair, but was careful not to be seen using it in public, although he sometimes appeared on crutches. He usually appeared in public standing upright, supported on one side by an aide or one of his sons. For major speaking occasions, an especially solid lectern was placed on the stage so that he could support himself on it; as a result, in films of his speeches, Roosevelt can be observed using his head to make gestures because his hands were gripping the lectern. Journalist John Gunther reported that in the 1930s, he often met people in Europe, including world leaders, who were unaware of Roosevelt's paralysis. David Brinkley, who was a young White House reporter in World War II, stated that the Secret Service actively interfered with photographers who tried to take photos of Roosevelt in a wheelchair or being moved about by others. The Secret Service commonly destroyed photographs they caught being taken in this manner; however, there were occasional exceptions. Disability advocate Hugh Gallagher posited that Roosevelt was desperate to appear able-bodied. "FDR did not want the public to be aware that he was forced to use a wheelchair." When discussing Roosevelt's limited use of a wheelchair in public, Gallagher stated, "This was not by accident. It was a strategy that served to minimize the extent of his handicap: To make it unnoticed when possible and palatable when it was noticed." In contrast, historian James Tobin argued that Roosevelt used his disability to his advantage. Tobin stated, "But he could, instead, show himself to be something he had never been seen as before: A fighter and, and better yet, an underdog. Not a man to pity; not a man to envy; but a man to cheer." When Roosevelt addressed the Congress in person on March 1, 1945, about a month before his death, he made public reference to his disability for almost the first time in 20 years. "I hope that you will pardon me for this unusual posture of sitting down," Roosevelt began, "but I know you will realize that it makes it a lot easier for me not to have to carry about ten pounds of steel around on the bottom of my legs." Legacy March of Dimes On January 3, 1938, Roosevelt founded the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, now known as the March of Dimes. Basil O'Connor, an attorney and close associate of Roosevelt, helped establish the foundation and was its president for more than three decades. The organization's annual fundraising campaign coincided with Roosevelt's birthday on January 30. The organization initially focused on the rehabilitation of victims of paralytic polio and supported the work of Jonas Salk and others that led to the development of polio vaccines. Today, the March of Dimes focuses on preventing premature births, congenital disabilities, and infant mortality. Because he founded the March of Dimes, a dime was chosen to honor Roosevelt after his death. The Roosevelt dime was issued on January 30, 1946. Warm Springs Institute Roosevelt's center at Warm Springs operates today as the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation, a comprehensive rehabilitation facility operated by the state of Georgia. A center for post-polio treatment, it provides vocational rehabilitation, long-term acute care, and inpatient rehabilitation for amputees and people recovering from spinal cord injuries, brain damage, and stroke. Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial Wheelchair Statue The Roosevelt Memorial in Washington, D.C., includes a statue of Roosevelt in a wheelchair. The wheelchair statue was not originally included in the memorial. The statue was added in January 2001 because of the concerns of disability-rights advocates and fundraising by the National Organization on Disability. Retrospective diagnosis Statistical analysis A 2003 peer-reviewed study by Armond Goldman and others reconsidered the diagnosis of Roosevelt's illness, using three diagnostic methods – pattern recognition, reconstructing the pathogenesis, and Bayesian analysis – and found Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS) more probable than poliomyelitis. For the Bayesian analysis, the best estimate of the annual incidence of GBS was 1.3 per 100,000. For paralytic polio in Roosevelt's age group, an annual incidence of 1.0 per 100,000 was used. The paralytic polio rate was derived from the exceptionally severe polio epidemic that struck New York City in 1916, to tilt the odds in favor of polio. The prior probability of paralytic polio in Roosevelt's age group in the United States in 1921 was likely much lower because paralytic polio was at one of its lowest ebbs in the Northeastern region of the country at that time. In July 1921, three cases were reported in New Jersey. By late August some 100 cases were reported in the state of New York. Based on the incidence rates for GBS and paralytic polio, and symptom probabilities from the medical literature, Roosevelt's symptoms were analyzed by Bayesian analysis to obtain posterior probabilities, as listed below. Goldman and his co-authors found that six of eight symptoms favored GBS, with the posterior probability of GBS shown for each: 98%: Roosevelt's paralysis was symmetric and ascending, and progressed more than four days, whereas the paralysis in poliomyelitis is typically asymmetric, variable in its ascent or descent, and usually progresses for only two to four days. A review of the medical research literature revealed only one report of paralytic polio with a symmetric, ascending paralysis. 98%: Roosevelt's numbness and hyperesthesia rarely if ever occur in paralytic polio (motor neurons affected), but are common in GBS (sensory neurons also affected). 98%: A consistent descending pattern of recovery from paralysis is absent in paralytic polio, but common in GBS. 97%: Facial paralysis, as Roosevelt had, in the absence of other cranial nerve abnormalities, is not consistent with a polio diagnosis, but is common in GBS. 93%: Roosevelt's prolonged bladder and bowel dysfunction are rare in paralytic polio, since polioviruses do not attack autonomic nerves, but are common in GBS. 93%: Meningismus (neck stiffness), a characteristic feature of paralytic polio, was absent in Roosevelt's case. Two of eight symptoms favored polio, with the posterior probability of polio shown for each: 99%: Roosevelt had fevers up to 102 °F (38.9 °C), which is rare in GBS, although the pattern of the fevers that Roosevelt experienced was atypical of paralytic polio. 72%: Roosevelt had permanent paralysis, which occurs in about 50% of paralytic polio survivors, and only about 15% of cases of GBS. Using a Bayesian analysis with all eight symptoms, Goldman obtained an overall probability above 99% that Roosevelt had GBS. Exposure and susceptibility It is possible Roosevelt was exposed to an infectious agent at the Boy Scout Jamboree in late July. The two-week interval before the onset of his neurological illness was in keeping with both the incubation period of poliomyelitis, and with exposure to an infectious agent leading to GBS. There are no reports that any scouts or personnel at the camp developed polio around the time of Roosevelt's visit. In 1912 and 1915, Roosevelt had illnesses compatible with Campylobacter jejuni, a major causative agent of GBS. It has been stated that Roosevelt may have been predisposed to paralytic polio by genetic inheritance. However, such a genetic predisposition has never been discovered. Several authors have stated that Roosevelt was more vulnerable to polio since he was raised on an isolated family estate and had little contact with other children until he entered Groton at age 14. However, Roosevelt was not a "boy in a bubble". He had many possible exposures to polioviruses before 1921. Most polio cases are asymptomatic or a mild illness. Yet those asymptomatic individuals can transmit the viral infection. Goldman explored the predisposition thesis by increasing the prior probability of polio in his analysis by a factor of 100, and still obtained a 99.4% overall probability of GBS (99.97% posterior probability). Cerebrospinal fluid testing A 2014 biography of Roosevelt by James Tobin focused on his paralysis, accepting the original diagnosis of polio. Tobin believed that Lovett had tested the diagnosis with a lumbar puncture, based on excerpts from an "unpublished note" by Dr. Samuel A. Levine of the Harvard Infantile Paralysis Commission. The book stated, "Levine's private note indicates that Dr. Lovett did examine the cerebrospinal fluid and knew very well that a high level of white blood cells was consistent with poliomyelitis... If Lovett had discovered a low white blood cell count, he would have doubted that poliomyelitis was the cause of Roosevelt's illness. Yet Lovett wrote George Draper that 'I thought [the diagnosis] was perfectly clear as far as the physical findings were concerned. Goldman and his co-authors reviewed the note to which Tobin referred and other surrounding correspondence. In response to Tobin's interpretation, they pointed out that the note was written well after 1921, that no one present during Roosevelt's illness mentioned the invasive procedure being done, that it would have demanded resources not available at Campobello, and that the note made no mention of results. They further stated that such fluid testing is most effective within the first several days of paralysis onset, and Lovett did not see Roosevelt until about 15 days had passed. Defense of polio diagnosis John F. Ditunno, of the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Bruce E. Becker, and Gerald J. Herbison challenged the retrospective diagnosis of GBS primarily on the basis that several of the symptoms that Goldman highlighted as atypical in polio were quite typical in adult cases identified as polio. They noted that the form of GBS most resembling Roosevelt's symptoms is not otherwise known to require permanent wheelchair use. The authors concluded that Roosevelt's case provided sufficient information to differentiate his condition from GBS, and that the polio diagnosis was properly made by physicians familiar with the then-common disease. Implications for prognosis Biographer Jonathan Alter observed that "in any event, there was no cure for either disease in 1921." Levine mistakenly thought that the main benefit of a spinal tap, if done, would be to improve the outcome by lowering elevated CSF pressure. Even today, some authors mistakenly believe that Roosevelt's paralysis, assuming a polio diagnosis, could have been prevented with early intervention. However, there is no objective evidence that a spinal tap lessens the possibility of paralysis in polio, and it is unlikely Roosevelt's physicians would have tried human serum injections into the CSF, or that such injections would have helped. Lovett did not think the injections were useful, and there were alarming meningeal symptoms associated with them, probably secondary to the formation of antigen-antibody complexes. Concerning GBS, virtually all of the effective measures that are currently standard practice for the medical management of GBS were not developed until many decades after Roosevelt's 1921 illness, so Roosevelt's prognosis would not have improved even if GBS had been diagnosed. See also Polio Hall of Fame Sunrise at Campobello (1958 play) Sunrise at Campobello (1960 film, based on the 1958 play) Eleanor and Franklin (1976 television miniseries) Warm Springs (2005 television film) References Paralysis Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Franklin D. Medical controversies in the United States Retrospective diagnosis Polio survivors
5263832	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HK%20Drott	HK Drott	HK Drott Halmstad is a handball club, based in Halmstad, Sweden. The club has won the Swedish Championship eleven times, last in 2013. Together with Redbergslids IK, HK Drott have dominated Swedish handball between 1984 and 2003. This club has had many famous players, among them Magnus Andersson, Ola Lindgren, Bengt Johansson and Göran Bengtsson. History The founding HK Drott was founded on 10 March 1936 by Lars-Erik Dymne, Erik Månsson, Arvid Fridh and Ingvar Svensson, all 13 years of age; the club was originally formed as a football club. A few games were then played in 1937, with HK Drott winning all games played in the rural areas, while at least 3 of the games played in town were lost. The club also bought their first sports kit, based on the Arsenal F.C. model, and for practice the club rented I 16's gym. When playing away against Laholm, the club members pretended to be children to be able to buy the cheaper children's tickets. Several more football matches were played in 1938, but during this year handball became stronger within the club and the first handball matches were played against Läroverkets realskolelag. At this time no centre halves were used so only 6 outfielders and 3 substitutes were used. In 1939 the football part of the club lost a number of key players to their larger local rivals, the same year the handball section successfully filed for entrance to both the Swedish Sports Confederation and Swedish Handball Federation, and the club participated in Division 3. In 1940 it was decided to shut down the football section completely and on 20 September the same year the name was changed from Fotbollsklubben, F.C., to Handbollsklubben Drott. The club also ended up last in Div. 3 the same year. Drott ended up last in 1941 as well, however Halmstads BK declined its place in Div. 2 and the Federation called for a playoff for the position between newly demoted IF Cate and HK Drott. Cate won the game by 10–0. To celebrate the club's 5 years of existence a tournament was played between all the teams in the Halmstad, which was won by IS Halmia. The club's first success came in 1942 as it was able to win Div. 3 and gain promotion to Div. 2. The success continued in 1943 as Drott won Div. 2 in their first year of participation. They then played qualification games against Ystads IF and Pantarholmens SK; Ystads IF won the qualification and were promoted. 1944 saw a change of the league system which was remodeled in football style, creating only four divisions. Drott was placed in Division 2 Södra and were relegated to Div. 3 in 1945 as the club ended up last in the league. The club's first international game was played that year against IF Vidar from Copenhagen. The growth In 1946 all parts of the club played in total 47 games and lost 11 of them. The home games were played in a remodeled aircraft hangar at F14, the local air force wing; the games attracted a large number of spectators despite the remoteness of the base. Drott returned to Div. 2 in 1947 after winning Div. 3. They achieved 5th place in 1948 and won an exhibition game against IK Heim from Allsvenskan. In 1949 Hasse Carlsson became the new chairman and after some intensive work both he and the teams in the club were able to establish a long term stable economy. An exhibition game was played against Danish champions IF Ajax which ended in a draw, 14–14. In 1950 HK Drott made its first trip abroad to Germany and played a tournament there. However, back home the club's playing ground at F14 was closed, but after some intense negotiations the club was able to play its games at the local tennis hall, while the in-between game practice continued at I16. Drott was able to reach 3rd place in Div. 2 that season. In 1951 Drott again traveled abroad to play a new tournament, this time in Germany and Austria. Drott finished 2nd in Div. 2 after losing the series final at home against IFK Karlskrona. Drott yet again traveled abroad to play a friendly tournament, this time in Germany and Denmark, while the club ended up in 5th place in the 1951–52 season. 1952–53 saw a new friendly tournament abroad while none of the club's teams did any good in the league. Following a 2nd place in 1953–54 season the club finished in a relegation place in 1954–55 season, however following objections against an incorrect judgment from the match referee in the last game against Wargo, the club was allowed to remain in Div. 2. In 1956 a new sports hall was opened, resolving earlier problems with where the home matches were supposed to be played. Drott achieved a 3rd place in Div. 2 the same season. In 1956–57 both the senior and youth teams traveled to Berlin and Germany to play a friendly tournament, the club then ended up in 4th place in the league. In 1957–58 Drott were able to defeat the Dutch national handball team during a tournament in Germany and the Netherlands. Five of the team's players participated in the South Swedish Team playing an annual New Year's tournament in Berlin. The club ended up in 6th position in Div. 2. 1958–59 saw new friendly tournaments abroad, the seniors visiting Berlin again, while the youth team played matches in Paris and Amsterdam. Drott ended up in 2nd place behind LUGI HF, only losing 4 matches in the season. Drott ended up 2nd again in 1959–60, while Vikingarnas IF completely dominated the league. Drott ended up 2nd in the 1960–61 season, this time behind Ystads IF. Success The 1961–62 became a very successful year for the club; it was for the second time able to win Div. 2 and then win the qualification to Allsvenskan against IF Hallby, IF Start and Lundens BK. The team's first season in Allsvenskan in 1962–63 was plagued by the loss of several players, however the club were able to achieve a 7th place. The club arranged two World Men's Handball Championship games, Japan against Spain and West Germany against Romania. After having the chance to remaining in Allsvenskan Drott was eventually relegated back down to Div. 2 in the 1963–64 season. The youth team won the NILOC tournament in Amsterdam and the club left the Allsvenska serieföreningen after a disagreement between the club and the organization. Following a generational change in 1964–65 the club finished in 5th place in Div. 2, the supporters failed the club, as only about 600 people came to see each home game, compared to over 1,300 the previous year. The supporters however returned strongly in 1965–66, with about 1,000 per game, and a new attendance record was set against local rivals HBP with 2,831 spectators. After wins against their top competitors and losses against teams in the middle of the league, the club gained a 3rd place. In the 1966–67 season duels with local competitor HBP for the 1st place spot, Drott just failed on inferior goal difference after both teams ended up on 30 points by the season's end. HK Drott won the 1967–68 season 9 points ahead of IF Hallby after the league system had been remodeled yet again and again return to Allsvenskan. Drott was able to reach the final in Svenska Cupen; they were however then defeated by SoIK Hellas. HK Drott won Allsvenskan in 1968–69 ahead of Hellas, the team however then lost the new playoffs against Hellas who in turn became Swedish champions. Drott yet again won the league in 1969–70 and this time reached the playoff finals, yet again against Hellas, and again were defeated. The 1970–71 season started with friendly games in Iceland, including a game against Iceland's national team. After a poor performance at home Drott ended up in 5th place, just 1 point away from the playoffs. The club reached a 3rd place in Allsvenskan in the 1971–72 season, however Hellas turned out to be too strong yet again in the playoffs, but not until a third decisive game had been played. Drott became runners-up in the 1972–73 season Allsvenska and were yet again defeated in the playoff semifinals by Hellas; the club lost only 4 of 18 matches in the league. Drott ended up in 6th place in the 1973–74 season, with Bengt Hansson becoming the league's top goal scorer. Champions and Bengt Johansson The 1974–75 season started badly for Drott, with Bengt Johansson as playing head coach, following injury to last season's top goal-scorer Bengt Hansson; the club found itself second from last by the end of the year with only five points, however after a strong spring the club was able to gain a playoff position in the final game of the league. Following two drawn matches against Västra Frölunda IF Handboll the club won the third and final match, they then faced IFK Kristianstad in the playoff finals. Achieving a draw in the first match they were able to win the second by 14–12, becoming Swedish champions for the first time ever; the final match was played in front of a sold out stand. Drotts attempt to follow up the previous season's success in 1975–76 with Karl-Erik Einerth as head coach, resulted in a complete failure due to injuries on key players. Drott conceded only 310 goals with only Hellas conceding fewer, however the club also scored the fewest goals and ended second from last. Drott was however able to remain in Allsvenskan after defeating both IF Saab and Kiruna AIF in the relegation-promotion playoffs; the participation in the European Cup ended with defeat against Fredensborg/Ski in the first round. Bengt Johansson returned as head coach to the 1976–77 season and Drott ended up in ninth place. Drott just barely missed out on the league title in 1977–78, even after scoring the most goals (547 in total), but eventually won the playoffs and became Swedish champions for the second time in four seasons. HK Drott was awarded the Årets IF (eng: athletic association of the year) by Hallands Idrottsförbund. HK Drott dominated Allsvenskan through the entire 1978–79 season, but just at the end fell to fourth place. The club moved its playoff matches to Sannarpshallen, the local ice hockey rink, which became a major success with spectators, exceeding 12,000, coming to see the games. HK Drott won its third Swedish champions title after a final match in Ystad against Ystads IF. In the after matches on both the Faroe Islands and in Paris, the club just missed out on the quarterfinal in the European Cup. HK Drott continued to play strongly in the 1979–80 season winning the league before being defeated by LUGI in the playoffs; in the European Cup Drott were able to defeat Grasshopper Club Zürich in order to reach the quarter-final, where Valur from Iceland were able to go from trailing behind to victory and thus kick Drott out of the competition. Drott ended up in fifth place in 1980–81, but won Svenska Cupen; in the European Cup the club was directly kicked out by Hungarian team PLER KC. Drott won the league in 1981–82 but were defeated in the playoff finals by IK Heim, however Drott gained revenge as they defeated Heim in Svenska Cupen just a few days later. Drott ended up in sixth place in 1982–83 season and in the European Cup the club was able to reach the quarter-finals after defeating Atlas from Finland and Ivry from France; in the quarter-final Zeljeznicar from Yugoslavia proved too strong. Drott struggled to reach third place in the 1983–84 season; however, the club was able to win the playoffs to become Swedish champions for the fourth time. The club also reached the final in Svenska Cupen; however, Västra Frölunds proved too strong there. Bengt Johansson left the club after nine years prior to the 1984–85 season, to take time out. He was replaced by Ulf Schefvert. The club ended up in second place in Allsvenskan and were after five playoff final matches defeated in the last seconds of the fifth match by Redbergslids IK. During the playoffs the first ever live coverage of a game at club level in Sweden was recorded in Sannarpshallen. The club won Svenska Cupen, however they rejected play in the European Cup due to economical shortage. Bengt Johansson returned to the club prior to the 1985–86 season, the club ending up in second place in the league. They were drawn against the league winner Redbergslids in the playoffs and were eventually defeated; participation in the European Cup went somewhat better as they were able to defeat HC Empor Rostock from East Germany and then being defeated, although putting up a good game, against Romanian HC Minaur in the quarter-final. The team ended up in second place in the league after conceding the fewest goals, in the playoffs Redbergslid became too strong again over four matches. Drott was defeated in Svenska Cupen as well by IFK Skövde and CSKA Moscow from the Soviet Union proved too strong in the European Cup. The 1987–88 league season ended as the years before, Redbergslids IK won Allsvenskan with HK Drott in second place. RIK were the main favorites to win the playoffs again and claim their fourth straight championship, however Drott stunned people by winning all three final games in a row, winning the last match on a penalty shootout, claiming their fifth Swedish championship. Drott was again defeated in international play by Romanian HC Minaur, and lost the Svenska Cupen to RIK. Bengt Johansson left the club after twelve years, winning five Swedish championships during the time and two as a player in the club. Ulf Schefvert returned to the club for the 1988–89 season; Drott dominated the league and eventually won it, the club were able to defeat LUGI after some hard matches and reached the playoff finals, again against RIK. This time RIK won three games in a row claiming the championship title, after defeating Finnish BK 46 Karis and Hungarian Raba Vasas ETÖ, then faced FC Barcelona in the quarter-final and defeated them in both matches. Barcelona's first defeat at home in international competition for six years, Steaua București then proved too strong in the semifinals. The 1990s and onward Yet again the 1989–90 league season ended with RIK in first place and Drott second, however Drott were able to reach the playoff finals in which they defeat IF Saab claiming their sixth Swedish championship title, the club participated in the Cup Winners Cup and reached the final after defeating UHF Stjarnan from Iceland, Ionikos Aten from Greece, GKS Wybrzeze from Poland and Gummersbach from West Germany, the club face Teka Santander from Spain in the final, Santander however proved too strong, Sweden won the 1990 World Men's Handball Championship in Czechoslovakia with Ola Lindgren and Magnus Andersson from the club in the team, the national team was also coached by Bengt Johansson. HK Drott completely dominated the 1990–91 season, the league now remade into a fall and a spring season and renamed Elitserien, HK Drott won both the fall and spring season, taking 51 points out of a total 60, the club then defeated LUGI in two matches in a best out of three semifinal, before defeating Irsta HF in three straight games in the finals, HK Drott became both the best home- and away team of the entire season, an injury suffered HK Drott were then defeated in the quarterfinals of the European Cup by Russian Dynamo Astrakan. HK Drott failed to repeat any of last season's success in 1991–92, ending up in 5th place in the league before being defeated by eventual champions Ystads IF in the playoffs and in the European Cup the club was defeated in the first round by Icelandic Valur. A series of injuries destroyed the 1992–93 season as the club reached 4th place in Elitserien before being defeated in the semifinal by RIK, Ulf Schefvert departed the club to take over the Danish national team. Göran Bengtsson took over as head coach and Magnus Andersson returned to the club prior to the 1993–94 season, the club yet against won both the fall and spring seasons and also the semifinals, before defeating IK Sävehof in three straight final games, thus claiming their eighth championship title, in the EHF Challenge Cup Drott defeated Intercollage from Cyprus with 100–21, then defeating Cancaya Ankara from Turkey in the Round of 16, then defeating Nova Oprema/Prevent from Slovenia in the quarter-finals, Paris SGAsnieres from France were defeated in the semifinals, however German club TUSEM Essen proved too strong in the finals. Drott dominated the 1994–95 league season, again claiming 1st place, the club then defeated Sävehof to reach the finals in the playoffs against RIK, Drott then falls in the fifth game and RIK became champions, the club was then defeated in Europe by Badel Zagreb from Yugoslavia, in a friendly tournament in Flensburg Drott defeated the Russian national team. HK Drott ended up in 5th place in Elitserien in the 1995–96 season, then defeated IF Guif in the quarterfinals before being defeated by RIK in the semifinals, due to a strike both international matches against Swiss Borba Luzern were played in Switzerland and it ended in defeat for HK Drott, Göran Bengtsson retires as coach for the club. HK Drott hires Ulf Sivertsson as new coach before the 1996–97 season and somewhat against expectations Drott won Elitserien however Guif turned out be too strong in the playoff semifinals. A large number of injuries caused problems for the club in the 1997–98, the club ended up in 3rd place in Elitserien and after victories against HP Warta and Guif, the club reached the finals in the playoffs, however RIK were too strong and won. Magnus Andersson returned to the club to the 1998–99 season and the club were able to reach the finals in the playoffs where after four games against RIK the club claimed its ninth Swedish championship title. Present day RIK won the 1999–00 league series and HK Drott were yet again in 2nd place, the club then defeated Alingsås HK and Guif in the playoffs before losing the final to RIK, in Europe the club was defeated by Polish club Iskra-Lider Markel. RIK yet again claimed 1st place in the 2000–01 league series with Drott coming in 2nd place, Alingsås was defeated in the playoffs before Guif proved too strong in the semifinals. Magnus Andersson took over as head coach to the 2001–02 season, Drott ended up in 3rd place behind RIK and Ystad, in the playoffs Drott defeated Guif in the quarter-finals and then LUGI in semifinals, before facing old rivals RIK in the finals, Drott were able to win both matches against RIK and win their tenth Swedish championship title. Injuries yet again plagues the team during the 2002–03 season and the club finally ended up in 3rd place, the club then first defeated H 43 in the quarterfinals and then Sävehof in the semifinals, however RIK proved yet again too strong in the finals, a strike caused Drott to play its home games in Ljungby, ASKI Ankara from Turkey proved too strong for the club in the European games and due to the strike both games were played in Turkey. Drott shows good play in the 2003–04 season before injuries yet again caused problem and the club ended up in 4th place in the league and in the quarterfinals Ystad proved too strong, in the Cup Winners' Cup Drott first defeated Forst Brixen from Italy, Kopavogs from Iceland and then HC Karvina from the Czech Republic before Oberhausen Essen from Germany proved too strong. Drott ended up in 5th place in the league in the 2004–05 season, it then took four matches to defeat Ystad in the quarterfinals, then in the semifinals the eventual champions Sävehof proved too strong, HK Tongeren from Belgium were defeated in the Cup Winner's Cup, then Drott was defeated on goals difference after two matches against FCK Håndbold, Magnus Andersson left the club after the season, he becomes new coach for FCK Håndbold, the club that earlier the same year defeated him and Drott. Sports Hall information Name: – Halmstad Arena City: – Halmstad Capacity: – 4000 Address: – Växjövägen 11, 302 44 Halmstad, Sweden Kits Current squad Achievements Elitserien: Champion (11): 1975, 1978, 1979, 1984, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1994, 1999, 2002, 2013 References External links Sport in Halmstad Handball clubs in Sweden 1936 establishments in Sweden Handball clubs established in 1936
5264082	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist%20cosmology	Buddhist cosmology	Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and evolution of the Universe according to Buddhist scriptures and commentaries. It consists of a temporal and a spatial cosmology. The temporal cosmology describes the timespan of the creation and dissolvement of alternate universes in different aeons. The spatial cosmology consists of a vertical cosmology, the various planes of beings, into which beings are reborn due to their merits and development; and a horizontal cosmology, the distribution of these world-systems into an infinite sheet of existential dimensions included in the cycle of samsara. The entire universe is said to be made up of five basic elements of Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Space. Buddhist cosmology is also intwined with the belief of Karma. As a result, some ages are filled with prosperity and peace due to common goodness, whereas other eras are filled with suffering, dishonesty and short lifespans. Meaning and origin Course of rebirth and liberation The Buddhist cosmology is not a literal description of the shape of the universe; rather, it is the universe as seen through the (), the "divine eye" by which a Buddha or an arhat can perceive all beings arising (being born) and passing away (dying) within various worlds; and can tell from what state they have been reborn, and into which state they will be reborn. Beings can be reborn as devas (gods and Brahmas), humans, animals, asuras (titans), pretas ("hungry ghosts"), and as inhabitants of the hell realms. The process by which sentient beings migrate from one state of existence to another is dependent on causes and conditions. The three causes are giving or charity, moral conduct, meditative development, and their opposites. Rebirth in the Kama-loka (desire realm) depends on a person's moral conduct and practice of giving. Rebirth in the Rupa-loka (form realm) and Arupa-loka (formless realm) also requires meditation development. Liberation from all rebirth requires eons upon eons of perfecting charity, moral conduct, and meditative development, in order to achieve Buddhahood. Origins The Buddhist cosmology as presented in commentaries and works of Abhidharma in both Theravāda and Mahāyāna traditions, is the end-product of an analysis and reconciliation of cosmological comments found in the Buddhist sūtra and vinaya traditions. No single sūtra sets out the entire structure of the universe, but in several sūtras the Buddha describes other worlds and states of being, and other sūtras describe the origin and destruction of the universe. The order of the planes are found in various discourses of Gautama Buddha in the Sutta Pitaka. In the Saleyyaka Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya the Buddha mentioned the planes above the human plane in ascending order. In several suttas in the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha described the causes of rebirth in these planes in the same order. The synthesis of this data into a single comprehensive system must have taken place early in the history of Buddhism, as the system described in the Pāli Vibhajyavāda tradition (represented by today's Theravādins) agrees, despite some minor inconsistencies of nomenclature, with the Sarvāstivāda tradition which is preserved by Mahāyāna Buddhists. Spatial cosmology The spatial cosmology displays the various worlds in which beings can be reborn. Spatial cosmology can also be divided into two branches. The vertical (or ) cosmology describes the arrangement of worlds in a vertical pattern, some being higher and some lower. By contrast, the horizontal (sahasra) cosmology describes the grouping of these vertical worlds into sets of thousands, millions or billions. Vertical cosmology - Three Realms The three realms The vertical cosmology is divided into three realms, or dhātus: the formless realm (Ārūpyadhātu), corresponding to the formless jhanas; the form realm (Rūpadhātu), corresponding to the rūpa jhānas; and the desire realm (Kamadhātu). The three realms contain together thirty-one planes of existence, each corresponding to a different type of mentality. These three realms (tridhātu, trailokya) are the Formless Realm (Ārūpyadhātu), which consists of four planes; the Form Realm (Rūpadhātu), which consists of sixteen planes; and the Pleasure Realm (Kāmadhātu), which consists of fifteen planes. A world is not so much a location as it is the beings which compose it; it is sustained by their karma, and if the beings in a world all die or disappear, the world disappears too. Likewise, a world comes into existence when the first being is born into it. The physical separation is not so important as the difference in mental state; humans and animals, though they partially share the same physical environments, still belong to different worlds because their minds perceive and react to those environments differently. Devas and Brahma In some instances, all of the beings born in the Ārūpyadhātu and the Rūpadhātu are informally classified as "gods" or "deities" (), along with the gods of the Kāmadhātu, notwithstanding the fact that the deities of the Kāmadhātu differ more from those of the Ārūpyadhātu than they do from humans. It is to be understood that deva is an imprecise term referring to any being living in a longer-lived and generally more blissful state than humans. Most of them are not "gods" in the common sense of the term, having little or no concern with the human world and rarely if ever interacting with it; only the lowest deities of the Kāmadhātu correspond to the gods described in many polytheistic religions. The term Brahmā is used both as a name and as a generic term for one of the higher devas. In its broadest sense, it can refer to any of the inhabitants of the Ārūpyadhātu and the Rūpadhātu. In more restricted senses, it can refer to an inhabitant of one of the eleven lower worlds of the Rūpadhātu, or in its narrowest sense, to the three lowest worlds of the Rūpadhātu (Plane of Brahma's retinue). A large number of devas use the name "Brahmā", e.g. Brahmā Sahampati (ब्रह्मा सहम्पत्ति), Brahmā Sanatkumāra (ब्रह्मा सनत्कुमारः), Baka Brahmā (बकब्रह्मा), etc. It is not always clear which world they belong to, although it must always be one of the worlds of the Rūpadhātu. According to the Ayacana Sutta, Brahmā Sahampati, who begs the Buddha to teach Dhamma to the world, resides in the Śuddhāvāsa worlds. Formless Realm (Ārūpyadhātu) The Formless Realm (Ārūpyadhātu (Sanskrit) or Arūpaloka (Pāli)) belongs to those Devas who attained and remained in the Four Formless Absorptions () of the arūpadhyānas in a previous life, and now enjoy the fruits (vipāka) of the good karma of that accomplishment. Bodhisattvas, however, are never born in the Ārūpyadhātu even when they have attained the arūpadhyānas. The Formless Realm would have no place in a purely physical cosmology, as none of the beings inhabiting it has either shape or location; and correspondingly, the realm has no location either. The inhabitants of these realms are possessed entirely of mind. Having no physical form or location, they are unable to hear Dhamma teachings. There are four types of Formless Deva planes corresponding to the four types of arūpadhyānas: "Sphere of neither perception nor non-perception" ( नैवसंज्ञानासंज्ञायतन or Nevasaññānāsaññāyatana नेवसञ्ञानासञ्ञायतन ). Rebirth on this plane is a result of attaining the fourth formless jhana in a previous life. In this sphere the Formless Devas have gone beyond a mere negation of perception and have attained a liminal state where they do not engage in "perception" (, recognition of particulars by their marks) but are not wholly unconscious. This was the sphere reached by Udraka Rāmaputra (Pāli: Uddaka Rāmaputta), the second of the Buddha's original teachers, who considered it equivalent to enlightenment. The Buddha rejected this conclusion on the grounds that attaining this sphere did not lead to further knowledge or enlightenment. Total life span in this realm in human years - 84,000 Maha Kalpa (Maha Kalpa = 4 Asankya Kalpa). This realm is placed 5,580,000 Yojanas above the Plane of Nothingness (Ākiṃcanyāyatana). "Sphere of Nothingness" (literally "lacking anything") ( आकिंचन्यायतना or Ākiñcaññāyatana आकिञ्चञ्ञायतन ). Rebirth on this plane is a result of attaining the third formless jhana in a previous life. In this sphere Formless Devas dwell contemplating upon the thought that "there is no thing". This is considered a form of perception, though a very subtle one. This was the sphere reached by (), the first of the Buddha's original teachers; he considered it to be equivalent to enlightenment. This was again rejected by the Buddha due to the plane still being a part of samsara. Total life span in this realm in human years – 60,000 Maha Kalpa. This realm is placed 5,580,000 yojanas above the Plane of Infinite Consciousness(Vijñānānantyāyatana). "Sphere of Infinite Consciousness" (Vijñānānantyāyatana विज्ञानानन्त्यायतन or विञ्ञाणानञ्चायतन or more commonly the contracted form ). Rebirth on this plane is a result of attaining the second formless jhana. In this sphere Formless Devas dwell meditating on their consciousness (vijñāna) as infinitely pervasive. Total life span in this realm in human years – 40,000 Maha Kalpa. This realm is placed 5,580,000 yojanas above the Plane of Infinite Space (Ākāśānantyāyatana) "Sphere of Infinite Space" (Ākāśānantyāyatana अाकाशानन्त्यायतन or Ākāsānañcāyatana आकासानञ्चायतन ). Rebirth on this plane is a result of attaining the first formless jhana. In this sphere Formless Devas dwell meditating upon space or extension (ākāśa) as infinitely pervasive. Total life span in this realm in human years – 20,000 Maha Kalpa. This realm is placed 5,580,000 yojanas above the Akanittha Brahma Loka – Highest plane of pure abodes. Form Realm (Rūpadhātu) The Rūpadhātu (; ; ; ; ; ; ; ) or "Form realm" is, as the name implies, the first of the physical realms; its inhabitants all have a location and bodies of a sort, though those bodies are composed of a subtle substance which is of itself invisible to the inhabitants of the Kāmadhātu. According to the Janavasabha Sutta, when a brahma (a being from the Brahma-world of the Rūpadhātu) wishes to visit a deva of the heaven (in the Kāmadhātu), he has to assume a "grosser form" in order to be visible to them. There are 16–22 Rūpadhātu in Buddhist texts, the most commonly given number being 18. The beings of the Form realm are not subject to the extremes of pleasure and pain, or governed by desires for things pleasing to the senses, as the beings of the Kāmadhātu are. The bodies of Form realm beings do not have sexual distinctions. Like the beings of the Ārūpyadhātu, the dwellers in the Rūpadhātu have minds corresponding to the dhyānas (Pāli: jhānas). In their case, it is the four lower dhyānas or rūpadhyānas (रुपध्यान). However, although the beings of the Rūpadhātu can be divided into four broad grades corresponding to these four dhyānas, each of them is subdivided into further grades, three for each of the four dhyānas and five for the Śuddhāvāsa devas, for a total of seventeen grades (the Theravāda tradition counts one less grade in the highest dhyāna for a total of sixteen). Physically, the Rūpadhātu consists of a series of planes stacked on top of each other, each one in a series of steps half the size of the previous one as one descends. In part, this reflects the fact that the devas are also thought of as physically larger on the higher planes. The highest planes are also broader in extent than the ones lower down, as discussed in the section on Sahasra cosmology. The height of these planes is expressed in yojanas, a measurement of very uncertain length, but sometimes taken to be about 4,000 times the height of a man, and so approximately . Pure Abodes (non-returners) The Śuddhāvāsa (; ; ; ; ; ) worlds, or "Pure Abodes", are distinct from the other worlds of the Rūpadhātu in that they do not house beings who have been born there through ordinary merit or meditative attainments, but only those Anāgāmins ("Non-returners"), the third level on the path of enlightenment, who are already on the path to Arhat-hood and who will attain enlightenment directly from the Śuddhāvāsa worlds without being reborn in a lower plane. These Pure Abodes are accessible only to those who have destroyed the lower five fetters, consisting of self-view, sceptical doubt, clinging to rites and ceremonies, sense desires, and ill-will. They will destroy their remaining fetters of craving for fine material existence, craving for immaterial existence, conceit, restlessness and ignorance during their existence in the Pure Abodes. Those who take rebirth here are called "non-returners" because they do not return from that world, but attain final nibbana there without coming back. Every Śuddhāvāsa deva is therefore a protector of Buddhism. They guard and protect Buddhism on earth, and will pass into enlightenment as Arhats when they pass away from the Suddhavasa worlds. Brahma Sahampati, an inhabitant from these worlds, who appealed to the newly enlightened Buddha to teach, was an Anagami under the previous Buddha. Because a Śuddhāvāsa deva will never be reborn outside the Śuddhāvāsa worlds, no Bodhisattva is ever born in these worlds, as a Bodhisattva must ultimately be reborn as a human being. Since these devas rise from lower planes only due to the teaching of a Buddha, they can remain empty for very long periods if no Buddha arises. However, unlike the lower worlds, the Śuddhāvāsa worlds are never destroyed by natural catastrophe. The Śuddhāvāsa devas predict the coming of a Buddha and, taking the guise of Brahmins, reveal to human beings the signs by which a Buddha can be recognized. They also ensure that a Bodhisattva in his last life will see the four signs that will lead to his renunciation. The five Śuddhāvāsa worlds are: (; ; ; ; ) – World of devas "equal in rank" (literally: having no one as the youngest). The highest of all the Rūpadhātu worlds, it is often used to refer to the highest extreme of the universe. The current Śakra will eventually be born there. The duration of life in is 16,000 kalpas (Vibhajyavāda tradition). Maheśvara, the ruler of the three realms of samsara is said to dwell here. The height of this world is 167,772,160 yojanas above the Earth. (; ; ; ; ) – The "clear-seeing" devas live in a world similar to and friendly with the world. The height of this world is 83,886,080 yojanas above the Earth. (; ; ; ; ) – The world of the "beautiful" devas are said to be the place of rebirth for five kinds of anāgāmins. The height of this world is 41,943,040 yojanas above the Earth. (; ; ; ; ) – The world of the "untroubled" devas, whose company those of lower realms wish for. The height of this world is 20,971,520 yojanas above the Earth. (; ; ; ; ) – The world of the "not falling" devas, perhaps the most common destination for reborn Anāgāmins. Many achieve arhatship directly in this world, but some pass away and are reborn in sequentially higher worlds of the Pure Abodes until they are at last reborn in the world. These are called in Pāli , "those whose stream goes upward". The duration of life in is 1,000 kalpas (Vibhajyavāda tradition). The height of this world is 10,485,760 yojanas above the Earth. Bṛhatphala worlds (fourth dhyana) The mental state of the devas of the worlds (; ; ; ) corresponds to the fourth dhyāna, and is characterized by equanimity (). The worlds form the upper limit to the destruction of the universe by wind at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology below), that is, they are spared such destruction. Asaññasatta ; ;; (Vibhajyavāda tradition only) – "Unconscious beings", who have only bodies without consciousness are the devas who have attained a high dhyāna (similar to that of the Formless Realm), and, wishing to avoid the perils of perception, have achieved a state of non-perception in which they endure for a time. Rebirth into this plane results from a meditative practice aimed at the suppression of consciousness. Those who take up this practice assume release from suffering can be achieved by attaining unconsciousness. However, when the life span in this realm ends, perception arises again, the beings pass away and are born in other planes where consciousness returns. बृहत्फल or Vehapphala वेहप्फल (; ; ; – Devas "having great fruit". Their lifespan is 500 mahākalpas. (Vibhajyavāda tradition). Some Anāgāmins are reborn here. The height of this world is 5,242,880 yojanas above the Earth. In the Jhana Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya the Buddha said "The Vehapphala devas, monks, have a life-span of 500 eons. A run-of-the-mill person having stayed there, having used up all the life-span of those devas, goes to hell, to the animal womb, to the state of the hungry shades." पुण्यप्रसव (Sarvāstivāda tradition only; ; ; ; – The world of the devas who are the "offspring of merit". The height of this world is 2,621,440 yojanas above the Earth. Anabhraka अनभ्रक (Sarvāstivāda tradition only; ; ; ; – The world of the "cloudless" devas. The height of this world is 1,310,720 yojanas above the Earth. worlds (third dhyana) The mental state of the devas of the worlds (; ; Devanagari: शुभकृत्स्न; ) corresponds to the third dhyāna, and is characterized by a quiet joy (sukha). These devas have bodies that radiate a steady light. The worlds form the upper limit to the destruction of the universe by water at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology below), that is, the flood of water does not rise high enough to reach them. शुभकृत्स्न or सुभकिण्ण/सुभकिण्ह (; ; ; ) – The world of devas of "total beauty". Their lifespan is 64 mahākalpas (some sources: 4 mahākalpas) according to the Vibhajyavāda tradition. 64 mahākalpas is the interval between destructions of the universe by wind, including the worlds. The height of this world is 655,360 yojanas above the Earth. The Buddha said, " A run-of-the-mill person having stayed there, having used up all the life-span of those devas, goes to hell, to the animal womb, to the state of the hungry shades." अप्रमाणशुभ or अप्पमाणसुभ (; ; ; ) – The world of devas of "limitless beauty". Their lifespan is 32 mahākalpas (Vibhajyavāda tradition). They possess "faith, virtue, learning, munificence and wisdom". The height of this world is 327,680 yojanas above the Earth. Parīttaśubha परीत्तशुभ or Parittasubha परित्तसुभ (; ; ; ) – The world of devas of "limited beauty". Their lifespan is 16 mahākalpas. The height of this world is 163,840 yojanas above the Earth. Ābhāsvara worlds (second dhyana) The mental state of the devas of the Ābhāsvara आभास्वर worlds (; ; corresponds to the second dhyāna, and is characterized by delight (prīti) as well as joy (sukha); the Ābhāsvara devas are said to shout aloud in their joy, crying aho sukham! ("Oh joy!"). These devas have bodies that emit flashing rays of light like lightning. They are said to have similar bodies (to each other) but diverse perceptions. The Ābhāsvara worlds form the upper limit to the destruction of the universe by fire at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology below), that is, the column of fire does not rise high enough to reach them. After the destruction of the world, at the beginning of the vivartakalpa, the worlds are first populated by beings reborn from the Ābhāsvara worlds. Ābhāsvara आभास्वर or Ābhassara आभस्सर (; ; ; ) – The world of devas "possessing splendor". The lifespan of the Ābhāsvara devas is 8 mahākalpas (others: 2 mahākalpas). Eight mahākalpas is the interval between destructions of the universe by water, which includes the Ābhāsvara worlds. The height of this world is 81,920 yojanas above the Earth. अप्रमाणाभ or अप्पमाणाभ (; ; ; ) – The world of devas of "limitless light", a concept on which they meditate. Their lifespan is 4 mahākalpas. The height of this world is 40,960 yojanas above the Earth. Parīttābha परीत्ताभ or Parittābha परित्ताभ (; ; ; ) – The world of devas of "limited light". Their lifespan is 2 mahākalpas. The height of this world is 20,480 yojanas above the Earth. Brahmā worlds (first dhyana) The mental state of the devas of the Brahmā worlds (; ; ) corresponds to the first dhyāna, and is characterized by observation (vitarka) and reflection (vicāra) as well as delight (prīti) and joy (sukha). The Brahmā worlds, together with the other lower worlds of the universe, are destroyed by fire at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology below). One way to rebirth in the Brahma world is mastery over the first jhana. Another is through meditations on loving kindness, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity. The Buddha teaches the Brahmin Subha, how to be born in the world of Brahma, in the Subha Sutta, when asked by him. Mahābrahmā महाब्रह्मा (; ; ; ) – Brahmaloka is the world of "Great Brahmā", believed by many to be the creator of the world, and having as his name Mahābrahmā, the Conqueror, the Unconquered, the All-Seeing, All-Powerful, the Lord, the Maker and Creator, the Ruler, Appointer and Orderer, Father of All That Have Been and Shall Be." According to the Brahmajāla Sutta (DN.1), a Mahābrahmā is a being from the Ābhāsvara worlds who falls into a lower world through exhaustion of his merits and is reborn alone in the Brahma-world; forgetting his former existence, he imagines himself to have come into existence without cause. Note that even such a high-ranking deity has no intrinsic knowledge of the worlds above his own. Mahābrahmā is 1 yojanas tall. His lifespan variously said to be 1 kalpa (Vibhajyavāda tradition) or 1 kalpas long (Sarvāstivāda tradition), although it would seem that it could be no longer than of a mahākalpa, i.e., all of the mahākalpa except for the , because that is the total length of time between the rebuilding of the lower world and its destruction. It is unclear what period of time "kalpa" refers to in this case. The height of this world is 10,240 yojanas above the Earth. Brahmapurohita ब्रह्मपुरोहित (; ; ; ) – the "Ministers of Brahmā" are beings, also originally from the Ābhāsvara worlds, that are born as companions to Mahābrahmā after he has spent some time alone. Since they arise subsequent to his thought of a desire for companions, he believes himself to be their creator, and they likewise believe him to be their creator and lord. They are 1 yojana in height and their lifespan is variously said to be of a kalpa (Vibhajyavāda tradition) or a whole kalpa (Sarvāstivāda tradition). If they are later reborn in a lower world, and come to recall some part of their last existence, they teach the doctrine of Brahmā as creator as a revealed truth. The height of this world is 5,120 yojanas above the Earth. ब्रह्मपारिषद्य or Brahmapārisajja ब्रह्मपारिसज्ज (; ; ; ) – the "Councilors of Brahmā" or the devas "belonging to the assembly of Brahmā". They are also called Brahmakāyika, but this name can be used for any of the inhabitants of the Brahma-worlds. They are half a yojana in height and their lifespan is variously said to be of a kalpa (Vibhajyavāda tradition) or of a kalpa (Sarvāstivāda tradition). The height of this world is 2,560 yojanas above the Earth. Desire Realm (Kāmadhātu) The beings born in the Kāmadhātu कामधातु (; ; ; ; ; ) differ in degree of happiness, but they are all, other than Anagamis, Arhats and Buddhas, under the domination of Māra and are bound by sensual desire, which causes them suffering. Birth into these planes takes place as a result of our Karma. The Sense-Sphere (Desire) Realm is the lowest of the three realms. The driving force within this realm is sensual desire. Heavens The following four worlds are bounded planes, each 80,000 yojanas square, which float in the air above the top of Mount Sumeru. Although all of the worlds inhabited by devas (that is, all the worlds down to the Cāturmahārājikakāyika world and sometimes including the Asuras) are sometimes called "heavens". These devas enjoy aesthetic pleasures, long life, beauty, and certain powers. Anyone who has led a wholesome life can be born in them. Higher Heavens (Higher Kama Loka) These devas live in four heavens that float in the air, leaving them free from contact with the strife of the lower world. In the Western sense of the word "heaven", the term best applies to the four worlds listed below: Parinirmita-vaśavartin परिनिर्मितवशवर्ती or Paranimmita-vasavatti परनिम्मितवसवत्ति (; ; ; ; ; ) – The heaven of devas "with power over (others') creations". These devas do not create pleasing forms that they desire for themselves, but their desires are fulfilled by the acts of other devas who wish for their favor. The ruler of this world is called Vaśavartin (Pāli: Vasavatti), who has a longer life, greater beauty, more power and happiness and more delightful sense-objects than the other devas of his world. This world is also the home of the devaputra (being of divine race) called Māra, who endeavors to keep all beings of the Kāmadhātu in the grip of sensual pleasures. Māra is also sometimes called Vaśavartin, but in general these two dwellers of this world are kept distinct. The beings of this world are tall and live for 9,216,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition). The height of this world is 1,280 yojanas above the Earth. निर्माणरति or Nimmānaratī निम्माणरती (; ; ; ; ; )– The world of devas "delighting in their creations". The devas of this world are capable of making any appearance to please themselves. The lord of this world is called Sunirmita (Pāli: Sunimmita); his wife is the rebirth of Visākhā, formerly the chief of the upāsikās (female lay devotees) of the Buddha. The beings of this world are tall and live for 2,304,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition). The height of this world is 640 yojanas above the Earth. तुषित or Tusita तुसित (; ; ; ; ; ) – The world of the "joyful" devas. This world is best known for being the world in which a Bodhisattva lives before being reborn in the world of humans. Until a few thousand years ago, the Bodhisattva of this world was Śvetaketu (Pāli: Setaketu), who was reborn as Siddhārtha, who would become the Buddha Śākyamuni; since then the Bodhisattva has been Nātha (or Nāthadeva) who will be reborn as Ajita and will become the Buddha Maitreya (Pāli Metteyya). While this Bodhisattva is the foremost of the dwellers in , the ruler of this world is another deva called (Pāli: Santusita). The beings of this world are tall and live for 576,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition). The height of this world is 320 yojanas above the Earth. Yāma याम (; ; ; ; ; ) – Sometimes called the "heaven without fighting", because it is the lowest of the heavens to be physically separated from the tumults of the earthly world. These devas live in the air, free of all difficulties. Its ruler is the deva Suyāma; according to some, his wife is the rebirth of Sirimā, a courtesan of in the Buddha's time who was generous to the monks. The beings of this world are tall and live for 144,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition). The height of this world is 160 yojanas above the Earth. Lower Heavens (Worlds of Sumeru) The world-mountain of Sumeru सुमेरु (; Sineru सिनेरु; ) is an immense, strangely-shaped peak which arises in the center of the world, and around which the Sun and Moon revolve. Its base rests in a vast ocean, and it is surrounded by several rings of lesser mountain ranges and oceans. The three worlds listed below are all located on, or around, Sumeru: the devas live on its peak, the Cāturmahārājikakāyika devas live on its slopes, and the Asuras live in the ocean at its base. Sumeru and its surrounding oceans and mountains are the home not just of these deities, but also vast assemblies of beings of popular mythology who only rarely intrude on the human world. They are even more passionate than the higher devas, and do not simply enjoy themselves but also engage in strife and fighting. त्रायस्त्रिंश or तावतिंस (; ; ; ; ; ) – The world "of the Thirty-three (devas)" is a wide flat space on the top of Mount Sumeru, filled with the gardens and palaces of the devas. Its ruler is Śakro devānām indra, शक्रो देवानामिन्द्रः "Śakra, lord of the devas or King of devas". Śakra's consort Shachi devi live in this heaven. Besides the eponymous Thirty-three million gods and goddesses, many other devas and supernatural beings, known as Varuna and Vayu dwell here, including the attendants of the devas and many heavenly courtesans (apsaras or nymphs). Sakka and the devas honor sages and holy men. Many devas dwelling here live in mansions in the air. The beings of this world are tall and live for 36,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition) or 3/4 of a yojana tall and live for 30,000,000 years (Vibhajyavāda tradition). The height of this world is 80 yojanas above the Earth. Cāturmahārājikakāyika चातुर्महाराजिक or Cātummahārājika चातुम्महाराजिक (; ; ; ; ; ) – The world "of the Four Great Kings" is found on the lower slopes of Mount Sumeru, though some of its inhabitants live in the air around the mountain. Its rulers are the four Great Kings of the name, Virūḍhaka विरूढकः, king of the Southern Direction, is lord of the kumbandas; Dhṛtarāṣṭra धृतराष्ट्रः, king of the Eastern Direction, is lord of the gandhabbas; Virūpākṣa विरूपाक्षः, king of the Western Direction, is lord of the nagas; and their leader Vaiśravaṇa वैश्रवणः,also known as Kuvera, who rules as king of the Northern Direction, is lord of the yakkhas, but ultimately all are accountable to Sakra. They are the martial kings who guard the four quarters of the Earth. The Garudas and the devas who guide the Sun and Moon are also considered part of this world, as are the retinues of the four kings, composed of Kumbhāṇḍas कुम्भाण्ड (dwarfs), Gandharvas गन्धर्व (fairies), Nāgas नाग (dragons) and Yakṣas यक्ष (goblins). These devas also inhabit remote areas such as forests, hills, and abandoned caves. Though living in misery they have the potential for awakening and can attain the path and fruits of the spiritual life. The beings of this world are 750 feet (230 m) tall and live for 9,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition) or 90,000 years (Vibhajyavāda tradition). The height of this world is from sea level up to 40 yojanas above the Earth. Asura असुर (; ; ; ; ; – The world of the Asuras is the space at the foot of Mount Sumeru, much of which is a deep ocean. It is not the Asuras' original home, but the place they found themselves after they were hurled, drunken, from where they had formerly lived. The Asuras are always fighting to regain their lost kingdom on the top of Mount Sumeru, but are unable to break the guard of the Four Great Kings. The Asuras are divided into many groups, and have no single ruler, but among their leaders are Vemacitrin वेमचित्री (Pāli: Vepacitti वेपचित्ती) and Rāhu. In later texts, we find the Asura realm as one of the four unhappy states of rebirth, but the Nikāya evidence however does not show that the Asura realm was regarded as a state of suffering. The foundations of the earth All of the structures of the earth, Sumeru and the rest, extend downward to a depth of 80,000 yojanas below sea level – the same as the height of Sumeru above sea level. Below this is a layer of "golden earth", a substance compact and firm enough to support the weight of Sumeru. It is 320,000 yojanas in depth and so extends to 400,000 yojanas below sea level. The layer of golden earth in turn rests upon a layer of water, which is 8,000,000 yojanas in depth, going down to 8,400,000 yojanas below sea level. Below the layer of water is a "circle of wind", which is 16,000,000 yojanas in depth and also much broader in extent, supporting 1,000 different worlds upon it. Yojanas are equivalent to about 13 km (8 mi). Earthly realms मनुष्यलोक (; ; ; ; ; ) – This is the world of humans and human-like beings who live on the surface of the earth. Birth in this plane results from giving and moral discipline of middling quality. This is the realm of moral choice where destiny can be guided. The Khana Sutta mentioned that this plane is a unique balance of pleasure and pain. It facilitates the development of virtue and wisdom to liberate oneself from the entire cycle of rebirths. For this reason rebirth as a human being is considered precious according to the Chiggala Sutta. The mountain-rings that engird Sumeru are surrounded by a vast ocean, which fills most of the world. The ocean is in turn surrounded by a circular mountain wall called चक्रवाड (Pāli: ; Thai: จักรวาล or จกฺกวาฬ) which marks the horizontal limit of the world. In this ocean there are four continents which are, relatively speaking, small islands in it. Because of the immenseness of the ocean, they cannot be reached from each other by ordinary sailing vessels, although in the past, when the cakravartin kings ruled, communication between the continents was possible by means of the treasure called the cakraratna (Pāli cakkaratana), which a cakravartin king and his retinue could use to fly through the air between the continents. The four continents are: Jambudvīpa जम्वुद्वीप or Jambudīpa जम्बुदीप (; ; ; ; ; ) is located in the south and is the dwelling of ordinary human beings. It is said to be shaped "like a cart", or rather a blunt-nosed triangle with the point facing south. (This description probably echoes the shape of the coastline of southern India.) It is 10,000 yojanas in extent (Vibhajyavāda tradition) or has a perimeter of 6,000 yojanas (Sarvāstivāda tradition) to which can be added the southern coast of only 3.5 yojanas' length. The continent takes its name from a giant Jambu tree (Syzygium cumini), 100 yojanas tall, which grows in the middle of the continent. Every continent has one of these giant trees. All Buddhas appear in Jambudvīpa. The people here are five to six feet tall and their length of life varies between 10 and about 10140 years (Asankya Aayu). Pūrvavideha पूर्वविदेह or Pubbavideha पुब्बविदेह (; ; ; ; is located in the east, and is shaped like a semicircle with the flat side pointing westward (i.e., towards Sumeru). It is 7,000 yojanas in extent (Vibhajyavāda tradition) or has a perimeter of 6,350 yojanas of which the flat side is 2,000 yojanas long (Sarvāstivāda tradition). Its tree is the acacia, or Albizia lebbeck (Sukhōthai tradition). The people here are about tall and they live for 700 years. Their main work is trading and buying materials. Aparagodānīya अपरगोदानीय or Aparagoyāna अपरगोयान (; ; ; ; ) is located in the west, and is shaped like a circle with a circumference of about 7,500 yojanas (Sarvāstivāda tradition). The tree of this continent is a giant Kadamba tree (Anthocephalus chinensis). The human inhabitants of this continent do not live in houses but sleep on the ground. Their main transportation is Bullock cart. They are about tall and they live for 500 years. Uttarakuru उत्तरकुरु (; ; ; ; ) is located in the north, and is shaped like a square. It has a perimeter of 8,000 yojanas, being 2,000 yojanas on each side. This continent's tree is called a (Pāli: kapparukkha कप्परुक्ख) or kalpa-tree, because it lasts for the entire kalpa. The inhabitants of Uttarakuru have cities built in the air. They are said to be extraordinarily wealthy, not needing to labor for a living – as their food grows by itself – and having no private property. They are about tall and live for 1,000 years, and they are under the protection of . Tiryagyoni-loka तिर्यग्योनिलोक or Tiracchāna-yoni तिरच्छानयोनि (; ; ; ; ; ) – This world comprises all members of the animal kingdom that are capable of feeling suffering, regardless of size. The animal realm includes animals, insects, fish, birds, worms, etc.. Pretaloka प्रेतलोक or Petaloka पेतलोक (; ; ; ) – The pretas, or "hungry ghosts", are mostly dwellers on earth, though due to their mental state they perceive it very differently from humans. They live for the most part in deserts and wastelands. This is the realm where ghost and unhappy spirits wander in vain, hopelessly in search of sensual fulfillment. Hells (Narakas) Naraka नरक or Niraya निरय (; ; ; ) is the name given to one of the worlds of greatest suffering, usually translated into English as "hell" or "purgatory". These are realms of extreme sufferings. As with the other realms, a being is born into one of these worlds as a result of his karma, and resides there for a finite length of time until his karma has achieved its full result, after which he will be reborn in one of the higher worlds as the result of an earlier karma that had not yet ripened. The mentality of a being in the hells corresponds to states of extreme fear and helpless anguish in humans. Physically, Naraka is thought of as a series of layers extending below Jambudvīpa into the earth. There are several schemes for counting these Narakas and enumerating their torments. One of the more common is that of the Eight Cold Narakas and Eight Hot Narakas. Eight Great Cold Narakas Arbuda अर्बुद – the "blister" Naraka Nirarbuda निरर्बुद – the "burst blister" Naraka Ataṭa अतट – the Naraka of shivering Hahava हहव – the Naraka of lamentation Huhuva हुहुव – the Naraka of chattering teeth Utpala उत्पल – the Naraka of skin becoming blue as a blue lotus Padma पद्म – the Naraka of cracking skin Mahāpadma महापद्म – the Naraka of total frozen bodies falling apart Each lifetime in these Narakas is twenty times the length of the one before it. Eight Great Hot Narakas Sañjīva सञ्जीव (Burmese: သိဉ္ဇိုး ငရဲ; Thai: สัญชีวมหานรก) – the "reviving" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 162×1010 years long. Kālasūtra कालसूत्र (Burmese: ကာဠသုတ် ငရဲ; Thai: กาฬสุตตมหานรก/กาลสูตร) – the "black thread" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 1296×1010 years long. Saṃghāta संघात (Burmese: သင်္ဃာတ ငရဲ; Thai: สังฆาฏมหานรก or สํฆาต) – the "crushing" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 10,368×1010 years long. Raurava/Rīrava रौरव/रीरव (Burmese: ရောရုဝ ငရဲ; Thai: โรรุวมหานรก) – the "screaming" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 82,944×1010 years long. Mahāraurava/Mahārīrava महारौरव/महारीरव (Burmese: မဟာရောရုဝ ငရဲ; Thai: มหาโรรุวมหานรก) – the "great screaming" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 663,552×1010 years long. Tāpana/Tapana तापन/तपन (Burmese: တာပန ငရဲ; Thai: ตาปนมหานรก) – the "heating" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 5,308,416×1010 years long. Mahātāpana महातापन (Burmese: မဟာတာပန ငရဲ; Thai: มหาตาปนมหานรก) – the "great heating" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 42,467,328×1010 years long. Avīci अवीचि (Burmese: အဝီစိ ငရဲ;Thai: อเวจีมหานรก/อวิจี) – the "uninterrupted" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 339,738,624×1010 years long. Each lifetime in these Narakas is eight times the length of the one before it. Horizontal cosmology – Sahasra cosmology Sahasra means "one thousand". All of the planes, from the plane of neither perception nor non-perception (nevasanna-asanna-ayatana) down to the Avīci – the "without interval" niraya – constitutes the single world-system, Cakkavāla (intimating something circular, a "wheel" or one Planetary system, but the etymology is uncertain), described above. A collection of one thousand systems are called a "thousandfold minor world-system" (Culanika Lokadhātu) or a small chiliocosm. A collection of a million systems is a "thousandfold to the second power middling world-system" (Dvisahassi Majjhima Lokadhātu) or a medium dichiliocosm. The largest grouping, which consists of a billion world-systems, is called (Trisahassi Mahasassi Lokadhātu), a great trichiliocosm or The Galaxy. The Tathagata, if he so wished, could effect his voice and divine power throughout a great trichiliocosm. He does so by suffusing the trichiliocosm with his radiance, at which point the inhabitants of those world-system will perceive this light, and then proceeds to extend his voice and powers throughout that realm. Temporal cosmology Buddhist temporal cosmology describes how the universe comes into being and is dissolved. Like other Indian cosmologies, it assumes an infinite span of time and is cyclical. This does not mean that the same events occur in identical form with each cycle, but merely that, as with the cycles of day and night or summer and winter, certain natural events occur over and over to give some structure to time. The basic unit of time measurement is the mahākalpa or "Great Eon" (Chn 大劫 dàjié/Jpn: 大劫 daigō; Thai: มหากัปป์ or มหากัลป์; Devanagari: महाकल्प / महाकप्प). The length of this time in human years is never defined exactly, but it is meant to be very long, to be measured in billions of years if not longer. Maha Kalpa The word kalpa, means 'moment'. A maha kalpa consists of four moments (kalpa), the first of which is creation. The creation moment consists of the creation of the "receptacle", and the descent of beings from higher realms into more coarse forms of existence. During the rest of the creation moment, the world is populated. Human beings who exist at this point have no limit on their lifespan. The second moment is the duration moment, the start of this moment is signified by the first sentient being to enter hell (niraya), the hells and nirayas not existing or being empty prior to this moment. The duration moment consists of twenty "intermediate" moments (antarakappas), which unfold in a drama of the human lifespan descending from 80,000 years to 10, and then back up to 80,000 again. The interval between 2 of these "intermediate" moments is the "seven day purge", in which a variety of humans will kill each other (not knowing or recognizing each other), some humans will go into hiding. At the end of this purge, they will emerge from hiding and repopulate the world. After this purge, the lifespan will increase to 80,000, reach its peak and descend, at which point the purge will happen again. Within the duration 'moment', this purge and repeat cycle seems to happen around 18 times, the first "intermediate" moment consisting only of the descent from 80,000 – the second intermediate moment consisting of a rise and descent, and the last consisting only of an ascent. After the duration 'moment' is the dissolution moment, the hells will gradually be emptied, as well as all coarser forms of existence. The beings will flock to the form realms (rupa dhatu), a destruction of fire occurs, sparing everything from the realms of the 'radiant' gods and above (abha deva). After 7 of these destructions by 'fire', a destruction by water occurs, and everything from the realms of the 'pleasant' gods and above is spared (subha deva). After 64 of these destructions by fire and water, that is56 destructions by fire, and 7 by watera destruction by wind occurs, this eliminates everything below the realms of the 'fruitful' devas (vehapphala devas, literally of "great fruit"). The pure abodes (suddhavasa, meaning something like pure, unmixed, similar to the connotation of "pure bred German shepherd"), are never destroyed. Although without the appearance of a Buddha, these realms may remain empty for a long time. The inhabitants of these realms have exceedingly long life spans. The formless realms are never destroyed because they do not consist of form (rupa). The reason the world is destroyed by fire, water and wind, and not earth is because earth is the 'receptacle'. After the dissolution moment, this particular world system remains dissolved for a long time, this is called the 'empty' moment, but the more accurate term would be "the state of being dissolved". The beings that inhabited this realm formerly will migrate to other world systems, and perhaps return if their journeys lead here again. A mahākalpa is divided into four kalpas or "eons" (Chn/Jpn: 劫 kō; Thai: กัป; अन्तरकल्प), each distinguished from the others by the stage of evolution of the universe during that kalpa. The four kalpas are: Vivartakalpa विवर्तकल्प "Eon of evolution" – during this kalpa the universe comes into existence. Vivartasthāyikalpa विवर्तस्थायिकल्प "Eon of evolution-duration" – during this kalpa the universe remains in existence in a steady state. "Eon of dissolution" – during this kalpa the universe dissolves. "Eon of dissolution-duration" – during this kalpa the universe remains in a state of emptiness. Each one of these kalpas is divided into twenty antarakalpas अन्तरकल्प (Pāli: antarakappa अन्तरकप्प; Chn/Jpn: 中劫, "inside eons"; Thai: อันตรกัป) each of about the same length. For the this division is merely nominal, as nothing changes from one antarakalpa to the next; but for the other three kalpas it marks an interior cycle within the kalpa. Vivartakalpa The Vivartakalpa begins with the arising of the primordial wind, which begins the process of building up the structures of the universe that had been destroyed at the end of the last mahākalpa. As the extent of the destruction can vary, the nature of this evolution can vary as well, but it always takes the form of beings from a higher world being born into a lower world. The example of a Mahābrahmā being the rebirth of a deceased Ābhāsvara deva is just one instance of this, which continues throughout the Vivartakalpa until all the worlds are filled from the Brahmaloka down to Avīci Hell During the Vivartakalpa the first humans appear; they are not like present-day humans, but are beings shining in their own light, capable of moving through the air without mechanical aid, living for a very long time, and not requiring sustenance; they are more like a type of lower deity than present-day humans are. Over time, they acquire a taste for physical nutriment, and as they consume it, their bodies become heavier and more like human bodies; they lose their ability to shine, and begin to acquire differences in their appearance, and their length of life decreases. They differentiate into two sexes and begin to become sexually active. Then greed, theft and violence arise among them, and they establish social distinctions and government and elect a king to rule them, called Mahāsammata। महासम्मत, "the great appointed one". Some of them begin to hunt and eat the flesh of animals, which have by now come into existence. Vivartasthāyikalpa First antarakalpa The Vivartasthāyikalpa begins when the first being is born into Naraka, thus filling the entire universe with beings. During the first antarakalpa of this eon, the duration of human lives declines from a vast but unspecified number of years (but at least several tens of thousands of years) toward the modern lifespan of less than 100 years. At the beginning of the antarakalpa, people are still generally happy. They live under the rule of a universal monarch or "wheel-turning king" (Sanskrit: cakravartin चक्रवर्ति; Jpn: 転輪聖王 Tenrin Jō-ō; Chn: 轉輪聖王 Zhuǎnlún Shèngwáng; Thai: พระเจ้าจักรพรรดิ), who conquer. The Mahāsudassana-sutta (DN.17) tells of the life of a cakravartin king, Mahāsudassana (Sanskrit: Mahāsudarśana) who lived for 336,000 years. The Cakkavatti-sīhanāda-sutta (DN.26) tells of a later dynasty of cakravartins, (Sanskrit: ) and five of his descendants, who had a lifespan of over 80,000 years. The seventh of this line of cakravartins broke with the traditions of his forefathers, refusing to abdicate his position at a certain age, pass the throne on to his son, and enter the life of a . As a result of his subsequent misrule, poverty increased; as a result of poverty, theft began; as a result of theft, capital punishment was instituted; and as a result of this contempt for life, murders and other crimes became rampant. The human lifespan now quickly decreased from 80,000 to 100 years, apparently decreasing by about half with each generation (this is perhaps not to be taken literally), while with each generation other crimes and evils increased: lying, greed, hatred, sexual misconduct, disrespect for elders. During this period, according to the Mahāpadāna-sutta (DN.14) three of the four Buddhas of this antarakalpa lived: Kakusandha Buddha क्रकुच्छन्दः (Pāli: Kakusandha ककुन्ध), at the time when the lifespan was 40,000 years; Kanakamuni कनकमुनिः Buddha (Pāli: Konāgamana कोनागमन) when the lifespan was 30,000 years; and Kāśyapa काश्यपः Buddha (Pāli: Kassapa कस्सप) when the lifespan was 20,000 years. Our present time is taken to be toward the end of the first antarakalpa of this Vivartasthāyikalpa, when the lifespan is less than 100 years, after the life of Śākyamuni शाक्यमुनिः Buddha (Pāli: Sakyamuni ), who lived to the age of 80. The remainder of the antarakalpa is prophesied to be miserable: lifespans will continue to decrease, and all the evil tendencies of the past will reach their ultimate in destructiveness. People will live no longer than ten years, and will marry at five; foods will be poor and tasteless; no form of morality will be acknowledged. The most contemptuous and hateful people will become the rulers. Incest will be rampant. Hatred between people, even members of the same family, will grow until people think of each other as hunters do of their prey. Eventually a great war will ensue, in which the most hostile and aggressive will arm themselves with swords in their hands and go out to kill each other. The less aggressive will hide in forests and other secret places while the war rages. This war marks the end of the first antarakalpa. Second antarakalpa At the end of the war, the survivors will emerge from their hiding places and repent their evil habits. As they begin to do good, their lifespan increases, and the health and welfare of the human race will also increase with it. After a long time, the descendants of those with a 10-year lifespan will live for 80,000 years, and at that time there will be a cakravartin king named . During his reign, the current bodhisattva in the heaven will descend and be reborn under the name of Ajita अजित. He will enter the life of a and will gain perfect enlightenment as a Buddha; and he will then be known by the name of Maitreya (मैत्रेयः, Pāli: Metteyya मेत्तेय्य). After Maitreya's time, the world will again worsen, and the lifespan will gradually decrease from 80,000 years to 10 years again, each antarakalpa being separated from the next by devastating war, with peaks of high civilization and morality in the middle. After the 19th antarakalpa, the lifespan will increase to 80,000 and then not decrease, because the Vivartasthāyikalpa will have come to an end. The begins when beings cease to be born in Naraka. This cessation of birth then proceeds in reverse order up the vertical cosmology, i.e., pretas then cease to be born, then animals, then humans, and so on up to the realms of the deities. When these worlds as far as the Brahmaloka are devoid of inhabitants, a great fire consumes the entire physical structure of the world. It burns all the worlds below the Ābhāsvara worlds. When they are destroyed, the begins. There is nothing to say about the , since nothing happens in it below the Ābhāsvara worlds. It ends when the primordial wind begins to blow and build the structure of the worlds up again. Other destructions The destruction by fire is the normal type of destruction that occurs at the end of the . But every eighth mahākalpa, after seven destructions by fire, there is a destruction by water. This is more devastating, as it eliminates not just the Brahma worlds but also the Ābhāsvara worlds. Every sixty-fourth mahākalpa, after fifty six destructions by fire and seven destructions by water, there is a destruction by wind. This is the most devastating of all, as it also destroys the worlds. The higher worlds are never destroyed. See also Buddhism and evolution Fourteen unanswerable questions Hindu cosmology Index of Buddhism-related articles Jain cosmology Religious cosmology Secular Buddhism Six Paths Notes References Sources Further reading Religious cosmologies Cosmology
5264298	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny%20Greene	Danny Greene	{{Infobox person \| name = Danny Greene \| image = DannyGreene.gangster.png \| caption = Danny Greene circa. 1970s \| birth_name = Daniel John Patrick Greene \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Cleveland, Ohio, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Lyndhurst, Ohio, U.S. \| death_cause = Car bomb \| occupation = Longshoreman, dock worker, teamster, mobster, racketeer, Mafia family associate \| known_for = Former associate of Cleveland mobster John NardiWar with the Cleveland Mafia }} Daniel John Patrick Greene (November 14, 1933 – October 6, 1977) was an Irish-American mobster based in Cleveland, Ohio. Greene gained power first in the local chapter of the International Longshoremen's Association, where he was elected president during the early 1960s. He later became a full time crime boss and began competing with Jewish-American organized crime figure Shondor Birns and the Italian-American Cleveland crime family for control of the city's criminal underworld. Greene set up his own crew called the Celtic Club, complete with enforcers and a close alliance with outlaw biker gangs. During the 1970s, Greene allied himself with mob-affiliated labor union leader John Nardi during the latter's war against Jack Licavoli for leadership of the Cleveland crime family. Competing factions set off more than 36 bombs, most attached to cars, in murder attempts, many successful. After the humiliating failure of multiple attempts of his life and Greene's decision to repeatedly taunt the Licavoli faction as "maggots" in the Cleveland news media, Greene was successfully assassinated in 1977 by Los Angeles crime family enforcers Ray Ferritto and Ronald Carabbia. A subsequent police investigation revealed that Greene's murder had been a criminal conspiracy by the Italian-American crime families in Cleveland, New York City, and Southern California. The investigation also resulted in the defections of both Ray Ferritto and Los Angeles crime family boss Jimmy Fratianno, followed by the exposure and arrest of a mole inside the Cleveland FBI. The investigation also laid the groundwork for many successful Federal prosecutions of the Italian-American Mafia in multiple cities nationwide. Early life and education Daniel John Patrick "Danny" Greene was born November 14, 1933, in Cleveland, Ohio, to John Henry Greene and Irene Cecelia Greene (née Fallon). His father was also born in Cleveland, but his mother was born in Pennsylvania. Three days after his birth, Greene's mother died. He was called "Baby Greene" until his mother was buried, after which he was eventually named after his grandfather (Daniel John Greene). Danny's father drank heavily and eventually lost his job as a salesman for Fuller Brush. After this, Danny temporarily moved in with his grandfather (a newspaper printer), who had also been recently widowed. Unable to provide for Danny, his father placed him in Parmadale, a Roman Catholic orphanage in Parma, Ohio, three miles outside Cleveland. In 1939, Danny's father began dating a nurse. He married her, and they started their own family and brought Danny to live with them. At age 6, Danny resented his stepmother and ran away on several occasions. His paternal grandfather took him in, and Danny lived with him and an aunt for the rest of his childhood in the Collinwood neighborhood. Taking advantage of the fact that his grandfather worked nights, Danny roamed the streets at night. When Danny's father died in 1959, the newspaper obituary listed his children from his second marriage but did not mention Danny. Danny attended St. Jerome Catholic School, where he developed a great fondness for the nuns and priests, developed a lasting friendship with some of his teachers, and served as an altar boy. He was athletic, excelled at baseball, and was an all-star basketball player. Although Danny was a poor student, the nuns at St. Jerome let him play sports because he was valuable to the team. Danny attended St. Ignatius High School. There he frequently fought with Italian-American students, children of more recent immigrants struggling for a place, and he developed an intense dislike for Italians that lasted his entire life. After being expelled from Saint Ignatius, he transferred to Collinwood High School, where he excelled in athletics. He was also a Boy Scout for a short time, before being kicked out of his troop. He was also expelled from Collinwood High School, in that case, due to excessive tardiness, which he claimed was caused by the bullying of fellow students. Military service After being expelled from Collinwood High School in 1951, Greene enlisted in the United States Marine Corps, where he was soon noticed for his abilities as a boxer and marksman. He was stationed for a time at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, Jacksonville, North Carolina and was transferred many times, possibly because of behavioral issues. Promoted to the rank of corporal in 1953, Greene taught new junior Marines how to be artillerymen. He was honorably discharged later that year. Waterfront In the early 1960s, Greene worked steadily as a longshoreman at the Cleveland docks, years before the work was unionized by the International Longshoremen's Association (ILA). In his free time he read about Ireland and its turbulent history, and began to think of himself as a "Celtic warrior". Some writers have speculated that reading about such warriors inspired his criminal ambitions. In 1961, the ILA removed the president of the local union. Greene was chosen to serve as interim president and handily won the next election. Once president, Greene had the union office painted green (to represent his Irish ethnicity) and installed thick green carpeting. He was known to drive a green car, wear green jackets, and often handed out green ink pens. In office, he raised dues 25% and pushed workers to perform "volunteer" hours to assist in providing a "building fund". Those who refused often found themselves losing work. He fired more than 50 members while denouncing them as "winos and bums" to other workers. Greene led sometimes violent protests and strikes to force the stevedore companies to allow the ILA to oversee the hiring of dockworkers. As a prerequisite to landing a job as a longshoreman, many workers had to unload grain from the ships on a temporary basis and turn their paychecks over to Greene. Said to have been collected to build a union hall, most of the funds ended up in Greene's personal bank account. An unidentified ILA member would later recall about Greene, "He read On the Waterfront. He imagined himself a tough dock boss. But he was thirty years too late. He used workers to beat up union members who did not come in line, but he was never seen fighting himself. He was a spellbinding speaker and a good organizer." As a union organizer, Greene sometimes declared work stoppages, as frequently as 25 per day, to demonstrate to company owners his authority on the docks. On one occasion, he threatened to murder the two children of one owner, and the FBI put the man's house and family under protection. After Sam Marshall, an investigative reporter, collected affidavits that supported charges of extortion, Greene was exiled from the union and convicted of embezzlement. The conviction was later overturned on appeal. Rather than face a second trial, Greene pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of falsifying union records, was fined $10,000, and received a suspended sentence. Afterward, he did not pay the fine nor receive any prison time. After returning to his rackets, Greene met and befriended Teamsters boss Louis Triscaro, who introduced Greene to Jimmy Hoffa. After the friendly meeting, Hoffa later reportedly said to Triscaro, "Stay away from that guy. There's something wrong with him." Marty McCann, of the Organized Crime Division of the FBI, recruited Greene as an informant. Greene passed along information to the FBI and became a top-echelon confidential informant, but only that which suited his personal needs, and he would not hurt those close to him. Greene's codename was "Mr. Patrick", a reflection on his Irish pride. It was his confirmation name and that of his beloved Irish saint. Protected by his informant status, Greene increased his criminal activities. By 1964, the union members were fed up with Greene's behavior. The Plain Dealer began writing a nine-part investigative series about him. The series brought Greene unwanted attention from the U.S. Attorney, the Internal Revenue Service, the Labor Department, and the Cuyahoga County prosecutor. The ILA began its own investigation and soon removed Greene from office. Eventually, Greene was convicted in federal court of embezzling $11,500 in union funds and on two counts of falsifying records. The verdict was overturned by an appeals court, and federal prosecutors and Greene negotiated a settlement of Greene's guilty plea in exchange for two misdemeanor charges and a $10,000 fine, but he paid only a fraction of it. Criminal career Greene was hired by the Cleveland Solid Waste Trade Guild to "keep the peace". Impressed with his abilities, mobster Alex "Shondor" Birns hired him as an enforcer for his various "numbers" operators. Additionally, the Cleveland Mafia family underboss, Frank "Little Frank" Brancato, used Greene and other Irish-American gangsters, during the 1960s, to act as muscle to enforce the Mafia's influence over the garbage-hauling contracts and other rackets. Until his death in 1973, Brancato reportedly regretted having brought Greene into the mob due to the damage Greene did. For example, in May 1968, under Birns's orders, Greene was supposed to attack a black numbers man who was holding out on protection money due. Unfamiliar with the military-type detonator, Greene barely made it out of his car before the bomb exploded. He survived being thrown nearly 20 feet, although the hearing in his right ear was damaged for life. He told the police a story about what had occurred, and thereafter would only trust professionals to handle bombs for him. "Big Mike" Frato broke away from the Cleveland Solid Waste Trade Guild and founded the more legitimate trade group called the Cuyahoga County Refuse Haulers Association. A legitimate businessman, he protested Greene's bringing mob involvement and strong-arm tactics to the guild (although he had his own connections). The Cleveland Solid Waste Trade Guild fell apart shortly thereafter. In September 1970, Greene instructed Art Sneperger to place a bomb on Frato's car, but Sneperger had second thoughts and told Frato. Sneperger was a police informant and told Sgt. Edward Kovacic of the Cleveland Police intelligence unit about Greene's plans and Greene's role as an FBI informant. Greene once again ordered Sneperger to plant a bomb on Frato's car in 1971. The bomb detonated before Sneperger could get away, killing him and sparing Frato, who was across the street. Some investigators believed the premature explosion was caused by a radio signal, possibly from a short wave radio or a passing police car. Others thought that Birns and Greene killed Sneperger after learning he was an informant. Sgt. Kovacic was told by an underworld source that Greene had pushed the detonator, killing Sneperger instantly. The case was never officially solved. On November 26, 1971, Frato was shot and killed at Cleveland's White City Beach. Greene was arrested and interrogated. He admitted to the killing but claimed self-defense. He said Frato had fired three shots at Greene, who was jogging and exercising his dogs, and fired one back. Evidence seemed to corroborate Greene's story, and he was released. Cleveland police later learned Frato was armed and had an opportunity to kill Greene several weeks prior to the White Beach shooting. During their partnership, Greene and Frato had become so close that they had named sons after each other. Not long afterward, Greene again found himself a target while jogging in White City Beach. A sniper, concealed several hundred feet away, fired several shots at Greene from a rifle. Instead of ducking to the ground, Greene pulled out his revolver and started shooting, while running toward his would-be assassin. The sniper fled and was never positively identified. Investigators learned that this attempt was part of a murder contract left by Birns. Greene left his wife and their three children for their own safety and moved to Collinwood, where he rented an apartment. Journalist Ned Whelan wrote about Greene: "Imagining himself as a feudal baron, he supported a number of destitute Collinwood families, paid tuition to Catholic schools for various children and, like the gangsters of the Twenties, actually had 50 twenty-pound turkeys delivered to needy households on Thanksgiving." He often picked up restaurant tabs for friends, neighbors, and acquaintances, and left generous tips. Greene evicted a bookmaker who operated out of a small Waterloo business, and kept a local bar in order by making personal visits. When a rowdy group of Hells Angels moved into Collinwood, Greene visited their headquarters with a stick of dynamite. He threatened to light it and throw it into their club house until they came out to hear his warning to keep things quiet while in Collinwood. The Celtic Club Greene formed his own crew of young Irish-American gangsters, called "The Celtic Club". His main enforcers were Keith "The Enforcer" Ritson, Kevin McTaggart, Brian O'Donnell, Danny Greene Jr., Billy McDuffy, Elmer Brittain, Ernest "Ted" Waite, Art "Snep" Snepereger and Jimmy "Icepick" Sterling who set up gambling dens across the city. He also allied with John Nardi, a Cleveland crime family labor racketeer who wanted to overthrow the leadership. The relationship between Greene and Birns began to sour. Greene had asked Birns for a loan of $75,000 to set up a "cheat spot" (speakeasy and gambling house). Birns arranged for it through the Gambino crime family, but the money was lost in the hands of Birns's courier Billy Cox, who used it to purchase cocaine. The police raided Cox's house, arrested him, and seized the narcotics and what was left of the $75,000. The Gambino family wanted their money, and Birns pressed Greene, who refused to return it, reminding Birns that he could not return something he had never received and that Birns was responsible for it, since Birns's courier had lost it. To settle the dispute, Birns directed an associate to hire a hitman for Greene, gave him $25,000 for the job, and noted it should be carried out even in the event of any harm befalling Birns. Several minor underworld characters, burglars by trade, took the contract, but their numerous assassination attempts on Greene failed. Not long afterward, Greene found an unexploded bomb in his car when he pulled into a Collinwood service station to get gas. The explosive was wired improperly and failed to detonate. Greene disassembled the bomb himself, removed the dynamite, and brought the rest of the package to a policeman, Edward Kovacic. Kovacic offered him police protection, but Greene refused it. He also refused to hand over the bomb, stating, "I'm going to send this back to the old bastard that sent it to me". Suspecting that Birns had ordered the hit, Greene decided to retaliate. On March 29, 1975, Holy Saturday, the eve of Easter, Birns was blown up by a bomb containing C-4, a potent military explosive, in the lot behind Christy's Lounge, formerly Jack & Jill West Lounge, a go-go spot at 2516 Detroit Ave. near St. Malachi's Church. On May 12, another explosion rocked Collinwood. Greene's building at 15805 Waterloo Road was destroyed, but he sustained only minor injuries. As the second floor fell, he was shielded from the debris by a refrigerator that had lodged against a wall. A second, more powerful bomb failed to explode, for which Greene credited the intercession of St. Jude, whose medal he always wore around his neck. In 1975, Greene began to push into the vending machine racket, traditionally controlled by the Mafia, as well as muscled into gambling operations. This angered the Cleveland family leadership, especially the soldier Thomas "The Chinaman" Sinito. Greene controlled some of the more lucrative laundry contracts that Sinito wanted, and Sinito deemed the excessive fees Greene charged for coin-operated laundry contracts extortion. Sinito and mob soldier Joseph "Joey Loose" Iacobacci murdered one of Greene's associates. In retaliation, Greene had dynamite wired to the frame of Sinito's car, but Sinito found the bomb, removed and disarmed it, and later destroyed it. In Greene's competition with the Mafia to build a vending machine empire, John Conte became a victim. Conte owned a vending machine company (that provided slot machines to various private clubs and parties) while working as a route man for another one. Conte was also a close friend of Joseph Gallo's. On the day of Conte's disappearance, he told his wife he had a meeting with Greene. That was the last time she saw him; his badly beaten corpse was discovered a few days later at a dump site in Austintown. Police investigators theorized that Conte was beaten to death in Greene's trailer and his body later transported to Austintown. They found some physical evidence, but Greene was never charged with Conte's murder. In 1976, longtime mobster John Scalish died, leaving control of Cleveland's lucrative criminal operations, specifically the city's Teamsters Union locals, up for grabs. Scalish had appointed James Licavoli as his successor, but other mobsters, such as John Nardi, challenged Licavoli for leadership of the organization. Within weeks, with Greene's assistance, Nardi had many of Licavoli's supporters killed, including Licavoli's underboss, Leo "Lips" Moceri. The Cleveland family's enforcer, Eugene "The Animal" Ciasullo, was seriously injured and sidelined for several months by a car bomb. Soon afterward, a bomb planted in Alfred "Allie" Calabrese's car killed an innocent man: Frank Pircio, of Collinwood, died while moving Calabrese's Lincoln Continental before getting his own car out of their shared driveway. This began a longstanding war between Licavoli's Cleveland crime family and Greene's Celtic Club. In 1976 alone, 36 bombs exploded around the Cleveland area, which was soon given the moniker "Bomb City, U.S.A." The ATF tripled its staffing in northeast Ohio in order to handle the bomb investigations. A suspected bombmaker, Martin Heidtman, was arrested but was released for lack of evidence. Rick Porrello reported in his book, To Kill The Irishman, that Greene, using bombs or bullets, killed at least eight of the Mafia hit men sent to assassinate him. Final days Media personality After the Waterloo Road bombing failed to kill him, Greene played up the stories of the Mafia's failed assassination attempts to his benefit. His bravado and flamboyant behaviour only added to his growing aura of invincibility and power in the urban legends of the Cleveland criminal underworld. Greene granted interviews to local television stations; for a newspaper photographer, posed proudly in front of a boarded-up window of his destroyed apartment building; and during a televised interview said to one television reporter, The luck of the Irish is with me and I have a message for those yellow maggots. That includes the payers and the doers. The doers are the people who carried out the bombing. They have to be eliminated because the people who paid them can't afford to have them remain alive. And the payers are going to feel great heat from the FBI and the local authorities ... And let me clear something else up. I didn't run away from the explosion. Someone said they saw me running away. I walked away. In response to the reporter's assertion that, like a cat, Greene had nine lives, Greene said, "I am an Irish Catholic. I believe that the Guy upstairs pulls the strings, and you're not going to go until he says so. It just wasn't my time yet." In another televised interview, Greene denied any knowledge of the underworld war. He said, "I have no axe to grind, but if these maggots in this so-called Mafia want to come after me, I'm over here by the Celtic Club. I'm not hard to find." Assassination On May 17, 1977, Greene's longtime ally John Nardi was killed by a bomb, planted by Pasquale Cisternino and Ronald Carabbia. After Nardi was murdered, Licavoli arranged a ceasefire with Greene, hoping to catch him off-guard and then have him killed. Shortly after their meeting, Greene muscled in on a large West Side gambling operation originally run by Nardi. Greene offered a percentage to Licavoli, who declined it. On October 6, 1977, Greene went to a dental appointment at the Brainard Place office building in Lyndhurst, Ohio. Members of the Mafia had tapped his phone and knew about the appointment. After Greene had visited a dentist and left the office building, he approached his car. The automobile parked next to his exploded, killing Greene instantly. The car bomb was believed to have been planted by a hitman known as Ray Ferritto. Greene's remains were cremated on October 8, 1977, and he was buried at Calvary Cemetery in Cleveland. Aftermath Ray Ferritto was arrested in relation to Greene's murder. Ferritto implicated Jimmy Fratianno in the planning of the murder, and Fratianno was indicted for charges related to the bombing. Fearing for his safety, Fratianno agreed to become a government witness against the Mafia. In return for his testimony, he pleaded guilty to the murder charges and received a five-year prison sentence, of which he served 21 months. In 1980, after testifying for the government that led to the racketeering convictions of five reputed Mafia figures, Fratianno entered the federal Witness Protection Program. In popular culture Rick Porrello, a former Cleveland-area police lieutenant, wrote To Kill The Irishman: The War that Crippled the Mafia (1998), about Greene's engagement with the Mafia. He won a national non-fiction award for the book. Porrello's book was adapted as a movie first entitled The Irishman: The Legend of Danny Greene. The biopic Kill the Irishman (2011), which loosely chronicles Greene's life, was directed by Jonathan Hensleigh, stars Ray Stevenson as Greene, and received favorable reviews. The Law & Order season 11 episode, "Brother's Keeper", is based on Greene's case. References English, T.J. Paddy Whacked: The Untold Story of the Irish-American Gangster. Regan Books, 2005. External links Danny Greene: The Most Influential Mobster You've Never Heard Of by Rick Porrello Danny Greene at the Crime Library Kill the Irishman: The real story behind the movie about Danny Greene (timeline) 1933 births 1977 deaths 1977 murders in the United States Gangsters from Cleveland American trade union officials convicted of crimes American gangsters American crime bosses Federal Bureau of Investigation informants United States Marine Corps non-commissioned officers People murdered by the Cleveland crime family Murdered American gangsters of Irish descent People murdered in Ohio Deaths by car bomb in the United States Saint Ignatius High School (Cleveland) alumni Irish-American culture in Ohio People convicted of embezzlement
5264394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie%20Lester	Ronnie Lester	Ronnie Lester (born January 1, 1959) is a retired American basketball player and basketball executive. Lester was an NCAA All-American at the University of Iowa, leading Iowa to the 1980 NCAA Final Four. Lester was a member of the 1979 USA Basketball team that won the gold medal in the 1979 Pan-American Games. Lester was the No. 10 overall selection in the first round of the 1980 NBA draft. After an injury-filled career, which included winning an NBA title with the 1985 Los Angeles Lakers, Lester worked as a scout for the Lakers, and eventually became the team's assistant general manager. After 24 years in the Lakers organization, with seven NBA titles, Lester served as a scout for the Phoenix Suns from 2011 to 2015. Early life Born in Canton, Mississippi, Lester grew up in a public housing project in Chicago, Illinois. Growing up in the Stateway Gardens housing project near Comiskey Park in Chicago, Lester was raised by his single mother Nadine, along with his with three sisters. Lester attended Dunbar Vocational High School, graduating in 1976. High school career Lester started on the varsity team at Dunbar High School of the Chicago Public League as a 5'6" sophomore. In between his sophomore and junior year, Lester grew to 6'2". He averaged ten points and ten assists per game in his junior campaign. As a senior, Lester averaged 27.0 points per game, playing alongside teammate Ken Dancy, who was a future 1980 NBA draft pick. Lester led the Dunbar Mighty Men to the Chicago Public League Championship playoffs, where they lost 75–60 to Morgan Park High School, with University of Illinois recruit Levi Cobb. At the beginning of his senior in high school, colleges had shown little interest, until University of Iowa coach Lute Olson and others began seeing his talents during his senior season. Olson was the first to recognize Lester's abilities and began recruiting him. "As a junior in high school, we had two 20-point scorers. I may have averaged 10 points that season because I needed to get them the ball," Lester said. "The next season those guys had left and I was scoring close to 25 points a game. Iowa was the first school to show a big interest in recruiting me," said Lester. Lester ultimately chose Iowa after being recruited by Arizona, Creighton, Louisville, Nebraska and Texas-El Paso. Said Lester of Olson and Iowa: "They stuck by me and made me feel I was their number one option." Every Friday after practice in Iowa City, Olson, accompanied sometimes by his wife Bobbi, would drive to Chicago to visit Lester. "He lived in an area that probably not a lot of people wanted to go into and visit with him and his mom," Olson said in 2015, recalling his recruiting of Lester. "My recruiting visit felt good (at Iowa)," Lester recalled. "I met all the players that I would be playing with and those guys were really warm and welcoming to me. I knew I had a chance to play as a freshman. I didn't want to go somewhere where I sat and couldn't play the first year." Lester made a recruiting visit to the University of Arizona "It was after the visit here and he had already made up his mind that (Iowa) is where he wanted to go to school," Olson recalled. "His mom said Ronnie called from Tucson and said 'I don't want to go here, they have funny looking trees.' He was talking about the Saguaro Cactus. I'm glad he didn't like funny-looking trees." Collegiate and USA Basketball career (1976-1980) After Basketball Hall of Fame coach Lute Olson recruited him to Iowa, Lester made his presence felt immediately after arriving on campus in Iowa City, Iowa. He started as a freshman and played a key role in Iowa's successes over his four seasons. At Iowa, Lester would earn All-American honors in 1979, First Team All-Big Ten honors in 1978 and 1979, lead the Iowa Hawkeyes to a share of the 1979 Big Ten title and to the Final Four of the 1980 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament. Starting for Iowa as a freshman, Lester made an immediate impact, averaging 13.4 points, 3.6 assists and 2.4 rebounds in 1976–1977. Iowa finished 18–9, as Lester was second on the team in scoring, behind Bruce "Sky" King's 21.0 points, and he led the Hawkeyes in assists. As a sophomore in 1977–1978 Lester averaged 19.9 points, 6.0 assists and 2.5 rebounds, as Iowa finished 12–15 with a young team. Lester joined Magic Johnson, Michigan State; Walter Jordan, Purdue; Mike McGee, Michigan; Kelvin Ransey, Ohio State and Mychal Thompson, Minnesota on the All–Big Ten First Team. In 1978–1979, Lester averaged 18.7 points, 5.3 assists and 2.3 rebounds as a junior, as Iowa finished 20–8. Iowa captured the Big 10 Championship and advanced to the 40–team 1979 NCAA Division I Basketball Tournament, eventually won by Big Ten rival Michigan State with Magic Johnson over Indiana State with Larry Bird. Lester was named First Team All–Big 10 for the second consecutive year, along with Joe Barry Carroll, Purdue; Magic Johnson, Michigan State; Greg Kelser, Michigan State; Kelvin Ransey, Ohio State and Mike Woodson, Indiana. Lester was named All–American Second Team (AP) and All-American Third Team (NABC, UPI). Team USA (1979) Lester represented the US as a member of the 1979 Team USA that went 9–0 and won the gold medal in the Pan-American Games. Lester averaged 10.7 points in the tournament, scoring 20 points against the Virgin Islands and 14 against Cuba. The team was coached by Bobby Knight and assistant Mike Krzyzewski. The roster included Hall of Famers in Isiah Thomas, Kevin McHale and Ralph Sampson, as well as Mike Woodson, Kyle Macy, Ray Tolbert, Danny Vranes and Michael Brooks. 1980 Final Four team In 1979–1980, the Iowa team made the 48–team NCAA tournament with an 18–8 record (10-8, 4th in the Big 10), despite playing a good portion of the season without Lester, who suffered a knee injury in the seventh game of the season. Lester averaged 14.8 points and 4.2 assists on the season, in which his talents and subsequent injuries were on display. Iowa was playing the University of Dayton in the championship game of the Dayton Classic on Dec. 22 with a 7–0 record and won the game, 61–54, but lost Lester for much of the rest of the regular season on a play with 7 minutes remaining in the game. "It was a play in the open court," Lester recalled of his first knee injury. "There was one guy back on defense, and I was trying to beat him to the basket. I got past him, or even with him, when I pushed off with my leg to put the ball up. I got a little push to my back, and my knee buckled. I was examined on the floor by a physician and he thought I should have surgery. But, when I got back to Iowa City, it was decided otherwise. I came back later, but hurt the knee again in practice, and wound up playing just a few Big Ten games. It was the first time I'd been hurt to the extent that I couldn't play up to my capabilities." While Lester was sidelined, the Iowa team faced further injuries and adversity. With Lester injured and unable to play, fellow guard Kenny Arnold remained in line–up, playing the entire season with a broken right thumb, while leading the team in total points and assists as a right–handed player. Future NBA player, freshman Bobby Hanson broke a bone in his left hand and played with the injury, while fellow freshman Mark Gannon was lost for most of the season with a knee injury. At the time of his injury, Iowa was undefeated and ranked among the top ten teams in the nation. Aside from players, Iowa lost assistant coach Tony McAndrews who had been severely injured in a plane crash during the season and did not return that season. Lester's knee improved and he returned for the end of the regular season, with Iowa having lost three of its previous four games. Iowa had been so decimated by injures, the team, which relied mostly on six players in Lester's absence, was labeled the "Fabulous Few." Steve Waite (8.0 points, 5.9 rebounds, 1.0 assists), North Carolina transfer Steve Krafcisin (12.3 points, 6.4 rebounds, 1.6 assists), Vince Brookins (13.5 points, 3.5 rebounds, 4.3 assists) and Kevin Boyle (11.8 points, 6.2 rebounds, 3.1 assists) provided key play, along with Arnold (13.5 points, 3.5 rebounds, 4.3 assists) and Hanson (5.6 points, 2.0 rebounds). Lester led Iowa to victories over Michigan, at Michigan and at the Iowa Fieldhouse over Illinois in the season finale, to leave Iowa with an 18–8 record. Lester's #12 jersey was retired by Iowa in a ceremony at the finale against Illinois. With an 18–8 record, Iowa received an at–large bid and a #5 seed in the East Regional of the 48–team 1980 NCAA Division I Basketball Tournament. Lester had 17 points and 8 assists as Iowa beat Virginia Commonwealth 86–72 in the opening round. Lester then had 17 points and four assists in just 28 minutes, as Iowa defeated North Carolina State and coach Norm Sloan 77–64 in the sweet sixteen. In the elite eight, Iowa faced #1 seed Syracuse under coach Jim Boeheim, with Louis Orr and Danny Schayes. With Lester having seven assists and nine points on only 10 shots, Iowa had five other players in double digits as they defeated Syracuse 88–77. In the East Regional Final against the Georgetown Hoyas, Iowa trailed by as many in 14 points in the second half. However, they came back to defeat Coach John Thompson's squad, led by Sleepy Floyd, 81–80. Lester had eight points and nine assists, taking just seven shots, with his playmaking and distribution helping Iowa to shoot 31 of 51 (60.8%) for the game, along with making 19 of 20 free throws. Iowa won on a dramatic last second basket and free–throw by Steve Waite (15 points) to advance to the Final Four. In the NCAA National Semi–Final, Lester injured his knee 12 minutes into the game, after scoring 10 of Iowa's first 12 points on 4 for 4 shooting and 2 for 2 from the line. It was his final collegiate play. Lester did not return as Iowa fell to eventual NCAA champion Louisville 80–72. When Olson was asked about Iowa's chances to win the NCAA Tournament had Lester not been injured, "My feeling was yes, I feel we could have won," Olson said. "That was a fun team to coach." Overall, Iowa was 15–1 with Lester fully in the lineup and 8–9 in his absence. "I would have liked to have played and see what happened, but those things happen," Lester said of his injury in the Final Four. "We had really high-caliber young men," Olson reflected about the 1980 Final Four team. "We had a great leader in Ronnie, even though he would say about three words a month. It was a high-character group, a group that was really together. It was all about the team, it wasn't about individuals. That's what made them really, really special." “It was frustrating getting hurt from the beginning and missing half my senior year,” Lester said of the Final Four season. “It’s a team game. Our guys rallied to win some big games that year to stay in contention. For me personally, it was frustrating. But we had great team success and that’s what it’s about, winning and losing as a team.” College summary Even after the continued success Lute Olson enjoyed at the University of Arizona (including four Final Four appearances, a National Championship, with players such as Mike Bibby, Gilbert Arenas, and Jason Terry), Olson regards Lester as the best player he ever coached. Hall of Famer Earvin "Magic" Johnson, who played at Michigan State University, once called Lester the toughest opponent he ever faced in the Big Ten. “I remember one game in Jenison Fieldhouse,” Johnson added in 1985. “I think Ronnie scored 26 points in the last 20 minutes. It was one of the greatest games I’ve ever seen played. He was definitely tough. I told him that then. He could stop on a dime and shoot a jumper. He was a total, complete basketball player.” “I just wanted to be the best player I could be,” Lester said of his Iowa career. “I wanted to work hard, get the most out of myself, and do my part to help the team win. The Big Ten was one of the best conferences at that time, and while we may not have always been the most talented team on the floor, we won games because it’s a team game. That’s what I’m most proud of — winning a Big Ten championship, going to the NCAA Tournament and going to the Final Four. That took a team effort.” Overall, Lester finished his 99–game Iowa career with 1675 total points and 480 total assists and averages of 16.9 points, 4.8 assists and 2.3 rebounds, while shooting 47% from the field and 77% from the line. NBA career Lester was drafted in the first round of the 1980 NBA draft by the Portland Trail Blazers. He was immediately traded to the Chicago Bulls, where he played four seasons. In 1985 and 1986 Lester was a member of the Los Angeles Lakers, winning an NBA championship in the first of those two seasons. Of his six seasons as a player in the NBA, four were shortened by the recurring knee injury and his minutes were limited. Chicago Bulls (1980-1984) On June 10, 1980, Lester was drafted by the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round (10th pick) of the 1980 NBA draft. Later on draft day, Lester was traded by the Trail Blazers with a 1981 first–round draft pick (Al Wood was later selected) to the Chicago Bulls for Kelvin Ransey and a 1981 first–round draft pick (Darnell Valentine was later selected). The Chicago Bulls had indicated that they wanted Lester before the draft. Other teams were scared off by his knee injury and he dropped down to number 10. The Bulls and general manager Rod Thorn finalized the trade with Portland. As a rookie in 1980–1981, still recovering from his knee injury suffered in the 1980 NCAA Final Four, Lester underwent knee surgery on November 3, 1980, and the Bulls re–signed veteran Ricky Sobers to replace him in the lineup. Lester returned at the end of the regular season, and played in eight games overall. Lester averaged 3.8 points in 10.4 minutes per game under coach Jerry Sloan, as the Bulls finished 45–37. In the Eastern Conference playoffs, the Bulls defeated the New York Knicks, 2–0, before losing to the eventual 1981 NBA Champion Boston Celtics, 4–0. Against the Knicks, Lester played 8 minutes total in the two games. Lester averaged 4.3 points, 1.5 rebounds and 1.0 assists in the Celtics series. In 1981–1982, Sloan (19–32) was replaced by general manager Rod Thorn (15–15) as Bulls coach during the season, as Chicago finished 34–48 and Lester had his best professional season. Playing alongside Artis Gilmore, David Greenwood, Reggie Theus, Larry Kenon, Orlando Woolridge and Ricky Sobers, Lester played in 75 games, averaging 11.6 points, 4.8 assists and 2.8 rebounds in 30.0 minutes. Paul Westhead became coach in 1982–1983 and the Bulls finished 24–58. Lester played in 65 games, averaging 8.1 points, 5.1 assists and 2.6 rebounds in 22.1 minutes. Under Coach Kevin Loughery, the Bulls finished 27–55 in 1983–1984. Playing in 43 games, with Quintin Dailey, Sidney Green and Ennis Whatley joining the Bulls, Lester averaged 5.4 points, 3.9 assists and 1.1 rebounds in 16.0 minutes per game. Los Angeles Lakers (1984–1986) On November 16, 1984, Lester was waived by the Chicago Bulls. On November 28, 1984, Lester signed as a free agent with the Los Angeles Lakers. Lester would spend the next 24 seasons with the Lakers organization in various capacities, being a part of seven NBA Championships: one as a player, three as a scout, and three as assistant general manager. In 1984–1985, serving as the backup to Magic Johnson, whom he had played against at Michigan State, Lester averaged 2.8 points and 2.5 assists in 32 games as the Lakers won the NBA Championship. In the 1985 NBA Finals, which the Lakers won 4–2 over the Boston Celtics, Lester played six minutes in two games. The 1985–1986 season was Lester's last as a player. Lester played in 27 games, averaging 2.5 points, 2.0 assists in 8.2 minutes. The Lakers were defeated by the Houston Rockets in the Western Conference Finals. On October 2, 1986, the Lakers traded Lester to the Seattle SuperSonics for cash considerations. Lester was waived by the Super Sonics on October 25, 1986. Overall, in 250 NBA games over five seasons, Lester averaged 7.3 points, 4.0 assists and 1.9 rebounds in 19 minutes per game. Of his NBA career, Lester said, "Playing in the NBA wasn't fun for me because of the knee. I couldn't play the way I wanted because of the swelling and stiffness in the knee. I just couldn't do the things I did before." NBA executive career In the 1987-88 NBA season, Lester began working for the Lakers organization as a scout and later served as the team's assistant general manager through the 2010–2011 season. In 2011, The Lakers gave him the option of signing a one–year contract for the same pay, or a three–year deal at a 30 percent pay cut. Lester did neither. "I guess I'm just a little disappointed how it all has come to an end," he explained. "I'm not angry at anyone. Probably disappointed more than anything." "Anytime you move on from something you've been there a long time, there's some sadness to it. But they say change is good too, so we'll see what comes of it." As a member of the Los Angeles Lakers' front office, he won six NBA championships and 10 Western Conference championships. Lester was the Lakers’ assistant general manager from 2001 to 2011 under general manager Mitch Kupchak, a span in which they won four NBA championships. He previously served as a scout for the Lakers from 1987 to 2001. Lester was a scout and "master evaluator" for the Phoenix Suns from 2011 to 2015. Personal life Lester purchased a condominium for his mother when he first signed with the Chicago Bulls. Later, he purchased an apartment building in which both he and his mother lived. In 2009, Lester donated $100,000 to the University of Iowa Foundation. He requested that the training room in Carver-Hawkeye Arena be named after longtime (1972–2012) Iowa athletic trainer John Streif. Lester said, “John Streif has been a terrific friend to me for more than 30 years. He has worked tirelessly to support me and numerous other athletes for over four decades now. His dedication to the Hawkeyes is legendary, and I’m honored to name the training room for him." Said John Streif of Lester: ""He was certainly very well blessed with the physical basketball tools the Lord gave him," Streif said. "He was probably one of the greatest basketball players ever at Iowa, if not the greatest. He was always there, always dependable. He never wanted any recognition. He just operated in a quiet, behind-the-scenes manner. He was friendly not only with me, the trainer, but with the student managers. He still keeps in touch with us." Streif also noted that Lester was responsible for one of the most emotional experiences of his life. "Ronnie's mother had brought him up in a high-rise near Comiskey Park in Chicago," Streif recalled. "One of the first things he wanted to do when he signed a professional basketball contract was invest in another home for her. He found a condominium and, out of the blue, called me. One day he called to say, 'John, I'm going to move my mom. Do you want to come help?' I did, and I'm not sure I've done a more rewarding thing in athletics. Seeing his mother move to the place Ronnie got for her was a very emotional thing. She was a special lady." In 2015 and 2016, Lester and Lute Olson returned to the University of Iowa together. In 2016 they watched an Iowa victory over Iowa State and met with the Iowa team, former teammates, fans and media. In 2017, Lester was named one of the "100 Best Illinois High School Basketball Players Ever" by the Chicago Tribune. Lester is divorced and has a daughter. Today, Lester lives in Florida, where he is "semi-retired." Kenny Arnold Over time, Lester, Lute Olson, his Iowa teammates and fans contributed to help Kenny Arnold. Arnold was Iowa's overall leading average scorer and assist leader for the Final Four Iowa squad in 1980. Arnold was first diagnosed with brain cancer in 1985, and his healthcare needs have spanned decades. In 2005, Lester flew to Chicago and drove Arnold to a 25-year reunion event in Iowa City. Later in 2005, Lute Olson arranged for Arnold to be flown to Arizona to be examined and treated at the facilities where Olson's late wife Bobbi had once undergone cancer treatment. Teammates Lester and Mike "Tree" Henry accompanied Arnold on the successful hospital visit. Henry, a fellow Chicago native and Arnold's good friend since college, helped Arnold by overseeing a foundation established to help with Arnold's expenses. Arnold's Iowa basketball "brothers," call themselves "Teammates for Life." In 2017, Lester hosted two separate events for the Kenny Arnold Foundation. Arnold died in April 2019 at the age of 59. Honors In 1980, Lester's #12 was retired by the University of Iowa. Lester was inducted into the University of Iowa Athletics Hall of Fame in 1995. Lester was inducted into the Des Moines Sunday Register's Iowa Sports Hall of Fame. References External links NBA stats @ basketballreference.com - Des Moines Register Article 1994 Home \| Kenny Arnold Foundation \| You Can Help Save Lives! 1959 births Living people African-American basketball players All-American college men's basketball players American men's basketball players Basketball players at the 1979 Pan American Games Basketball players from Chicago Basketball players from Mississippi Chicago Bulls players Dunbar Vocational High School alumni Iowa Hawkeyes men's basketball players Los Angeles Lakers players Medalists at the 1979 Pan American Games Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States Pan American Games medalists in basketball People from Canton, Mississippi Point guards Portland Trail Blazers draft picks 21st-century African-American people 20th-century African-American sportspeople
5264608	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore%20Slingers	Singapore Slingers	The Singapore Slingers are a Singaporean professional basketball team that currently compete in the ASEAN Basketball League. The Slingers were known as the JobStreet.com Singapore Slingers between 2009 and 2014, due to sponsorship ties with JobStreet.com. The Slingers formerly competed in Australia's National Basketball League (NBL), becoming the first – and so far, the only – Asia-based club to compete in the NBL when they joined at the start of the 2006–07 NBL season. They withdrew from the competition in July 2008, with their decision influenced by the financial costs of travelling. They subsequently competed in the "Singapore Challenge Series", where they played against a range of teams from the Philippines, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Australia. In October 2009, the Slingers were one of the inaugural teams that began competition in the ASEAN Basketball League. From their inception in 2006 until 2014, the Slingers played their home games at the Singapore Indoor Stadium. Ahead of the 2014 ABL season, the Slingers moved into the OCBC Arena. In November 2016, the Singapore Slingers and StarHub have announced a partnership that will see the pay TV operator become the Official Broadcast Partner of the Singapore Slingers for three years. In the 2019–20 ABL season, Singtel became the Official Broadcast Partner of the Singapore Slingers. History 1979–2002: Canberra Cannons The franchise originated as the Canberra Cannons from 1979 to 2002, an Australian team representing the nation's capital city, Canberra. Initially playing at the Canberra Showgrounds before moving into the 5,200-seat AIS Arena (nicknamed "The Palace" as it was the largest and most modern arena in the league from 1979 to 1983) in 1980, the Cannons competed in the National Basketball League and won 3 championships in 1983, 1984 and 1988. The Cannons were one of the original ten NBL clubs, competing in the league's very first season in 1979 where they reached the championship game with a 13–5 record, but fell at the final hurdle, losing to the St Kilda Saints 94–93 in the Grand Final. The Cannons failed to make the playoffs over the next few seasons but won their first NBL championship in 1983 where they downed the defending champion West Adelaide Bearcats 75–73 in the Grand Final. Australian national team Point guard, Adelaide born Phil Smyth, joined the team in 1983 led the NBL in steals and assists. Smyth was also named to his second straight All-NBL First Team as well as winning his second straight NBL Best Defensive Player Award while Jamie Kennedy was named as the NBL's Rookie of the Year. The title was retained in 1984, when the Cannons beat the Brisbane Bullets 84–82 in the Grand Final. Smyth had another big season, being named to the All-NBL First Team for the third straight year. Canberra made the playoffs for the next three seasons but would fall to the Bullets in the semi-final each time, though Bob Turner did win the club's first NBL Coach of the Year Award in 1985. Championship glory eluded the Cannons until 1988, when they beat the North Melbourne Giants 2–1 in a best-of-three championship series. Smyth was once again was named to the All-NBL First Team after leading the league in three-point percentage, free-throw percentage and steals, and was also named NBL's Best Defensive Player for the third time, while 7'0" (213 cm) American import center Willie Simmons led the league with 3.6 blocks per game. North Melbourne exacted their revenge in 1989, beating the Cannons 2–0 in the Grand Final series. 1989 would prove to be the last NBL Grand Final the Cannons would appear in. The Cannons failed to make the playoffs again until 1992, where they were eliminated in the first round by the eventual champions, the South East Melbourne Magic. The club's greatest player Phil Smyth left the team after 10 seasons and returned home to join the Adelaide 36ers from 1993 and the Cannons would not reach the playoffs again until 1996, making the semi-finals before being eliminated by the Melbourne Tigers 2–1. Canberra again made the finals in 1997, but were eliminated in the first round 2-1 by the North Melbourne Giants. Financial problems dogged the club in the late 1990s and the team finally succumbed to its money woes in December 2002. The club managed to play all its remaining games of the 2002–03 NBL season, but were unable to hold on to their star players, including C. J. Bruton, the son of then-coach Cal Bruton and all of their imports. Canberra finished with an 11–19 record and the team was bought by a consortium that moved the team to Newcastle. 2003–2006: Hunter Pirates After relocating to Newcastle, the new owners renamed the franchise the Hunter Pirates, keeping with the Cannons' maritime battlers theme. The Pirates played their home games at the 4,658 seat Newcastle Entertainment Centre. In its first season as the Pirates, the team came last after winning only two games. The Pirates' coach, Bruce Palmer who had coached North Melbourne to its 1989 Grand Final win over Canberra, was also controversially fired partway into the season and was replaced by his assistant coach, former Melbourne Tigers championship forward Dave Simmons. In the 2004–05 NBL season, former Perth Wildcats, Australian Boomers and Australian Institute of Sport coach Dr. Adrian Hurley was employed as coach. A mostly-retooled team produced much better results, finishing 8th with a 15–17 record. The Pirates made the NBL Playoffs only to be eliminated by the Brisbane Bullets in the opening round. Hurley would quit at the end of the 2005–06 season after the Pirates were beaten by the Cairns Taipans in the playoffs. The club had plans to move from the Entertainment Centre to a new stadium to be built at the Stockland Supercentre out at Glendale in the next few years but this never eventuated. The Pirates withdrew from the NBL at the end of the 2005–06 season due to financial difficulties and their inability to secure a major sponsor, and the club's NBL licence was put up for sale. Pirates snap NBL losing streak It was revealed on NBN News that, in an effort to remain in the competition, the club had considered turning itself into a non-profit organisation, thereby able to access various grants. In the end, the Pirates' licence was sold to a Singapore consortium, who renamed the club as the Singapore Slingers and began competing in the 2006–07 season NBL > News. 2006–2008: Singapore Slingers in the NBL Although the Slingers had relocated to Singapore before the start of the 2006–07 NBL season, they still played occasional home games in Newcastle. The Slingers home venue would be the 12,000 seat Singapore Indoor Stadium. The re-branding of the club was the brainchild of NBL stalwart and former Canberra dual-championship winning coach Bob Turner who took over as the Slingers' CEO after the handover. The NBL believed the club would open the league to wider audiences and greater revenue. However, due to the distance involved, the team agreed to cover the travel expenses of all the teams which played them in Singapore. The club averaged crowds of only 3,500 at its home games during the season. In July 2008, following their second season in the NBL, the Slingers withdrew from the league due to the dramatic increase in international travel costs. The Slingers determined that the future focus of the team needed to be on participating in competitions within its local region in Asia rather than weekly games in Australia and New Zealand. 2008–2009: First Singapore Challenge Series Following their exit from the NBL, the Slingers organised and took part in the Singapore Challenge Series, a round of friendly matches played at the Singapore Indoor Stadium against a number of Pan-Asia Pacific basketball clubs such as Indonesian Basketball League champions Satria Muda Britama, the Darwin All-Stars, a team made up of a majority of professional players originating from Darwin as well as Air21 Express from the PBA. The series ended in January 2009. Formation of the ASEAN Basketball League On 1 September 2009, it was announced that the Slingers would be one of six founding teams of the new ASEAN Basketball League which tipped off on 10 October 2009. The other five teams were the Brunei Barracudas, the Kuala Lumpur Dragons, the Philippine Patriots, Satria Muda BritAma from Indonesia and the Thailand Tigers. It was also revealed that the driving force behind the realisation of the league was Tony Fernandes, the founder of AirAsia. Upon their confirmation of entry in the inaugural ABL season, the Slingers announced that they had secured contracts with Singaporean players Pathman Matialakan and Hong Wei Jian for the new season, as well as Filipino point guard Al Vergara. 2009: Second Singapore Challenge Series As part of their pre-season training for the ABL, the Slingers organised a second edition of the Singapore Challenge in September 2009, choosing to play four single-match games against PBA sides Coca-Cola Tigers, Ginebra Kings and San Miguel Beermen, as well as Smart Gilas Pilipinas, the national basketball team of the Philippines. The 2009 Singapore Challenge saw the Slingers come away with a 2–2 record, beating the Tigers and the Beermen while falling to Smart Gilas and Ginebra. 2009–2011: Competing in the ABL Prior to their first game in the ABL, the Slingers' import player Kyle Jeffers was named as the co-captain for the team's maiden ASEAN Basketball League season, alongside local player Michael Wong. The opening night of the Slingers' ABL campaign saw them beat the Brunei Barracudas 87–69 on 18 October 2009. Homegrown talent Wong Wei Long scored a season high of 14 points in that game, sinking 4 three-pointers. Pathman Matialakan, the first Asian and Singaporean to ever play in the NBL when the Slingers were still competing in Australia, became the first local Slinger to score in the ABL with a layup. Kyle Jeffers also collected a record 20 rebounds in the same game while Hong Wei Jian wowed the crowd with two dunks in the 4th quarter. The Slingers did well in the first season of the ABL, finishing in 2nd place with a 15–10 record behind the Philippine Patriots. The team also managed to reach the semi-finals of the 2010 ABL Playoffs but were beaten 2-1 by Satria Muda BritAma. After the 2009–10 ABL Season concluded, coach Frank Arsego announced that he would be departing the club after spending two years in Singapore. Singaporean Neo Beng Siang, who was assistant coach to Arsego during the 2009–10 ABL Season, was chosen to take charge of the team from the 2010–11 ABL Season onwards. Finishing the 2010–11 regular season in 4th place with a 7–8 record, the Slingers managed to reach the semi-finals of the 2011 ABL Playoffs for the second season straight but lost 2–1 to eventual champions Chang Thailand Slammers. The 2010–10 season also saw local star Hong Wei Jian retiring from professional basketball after tearing his anterior cruciate ligament and fracturing his knee. The formulative years of the ABL saw local players such as Wong Wei Long, Desmond Oh and Lim Shengyu rising to prominence. While fans saw numerous changes in the Slingers' foreign import roster, American centre Kyle Jeffers and Filipino point guard Al Vergara were regulars in the team, re-contracting with the Slingers on several occasions. The Slingers became the first team to cross the 100-point mark in ABL history when they beat the Brunei Barracudas 102–61 on 9 January 2011. All players from the Slingers squad managed to get onto the scoreboard with Leo Avenido leading with 23 points and 4 assists. Tan Chin Hong was the player who scored the Slingers' 100th point. 2014 season The 2014 ABL pre-season saw the Slingers secure a big name in the form of ex-NBA player Hassan Adams, who turned out for the New Jersey Nets in the 2006–07 NBA Season and the Toronto Raptors in the 2008–09 NBA Season. Adams impressed the crowd with a game-high 21 points in the Slingers' season opening game against new entrant Laskar Dreya South Sumatra at the OCBC Arena but struggled with his fitness and health and played sparingly after that. After he sustained a hip injury in a road game loss to Hi-Tech Bangkok City in Bangkok, Adams sat out of the Slingers' next three games, watching from the sidelines as the Slingers went on to win all three against Saigon Heat, Laskar Dreya and Indonesia Warriors. Adams was then officially released on 11 August 2014 after it was confirmed by the team's medical staff that he would be sidelined for 4 to 8 weeks due to his injury. The Slingers played their following game against the Westports Malaysia Dragons without a replacement for Adams in the foreign import slot and fell to a 59–85 defeat at the MABA Stadium in Kuala Lumpur. The following game saw the Slingers exacting revenge on the Dragons with a 77-68 scoreline in Singapore, a match which also saw Australian import Adam Becis turning out for the Slingers on a one match contract. Becis, who plays for the Singapore Supras in the Pro-Am Singapore Basketball League, turned out to be a shrewd signing as he scored 12 points during the game, including a three-pointer which overturned the score to 54–52 in the Slingers' favour at the end of the third period. On 19 August 2014, the Slingers announced that they had signed former Saigon Heat and Barangay Ginebra San Miguel forward Dior Lowhorn to fill up the empty world import slot. Lowhorn led the Slingers with 18 points in his first game but failed to stop the team from falling 54–65 to the Indonesia Warriors at home in a game which also saw rookie Russell Low score 10 points for the Slingers. A key player for the Singapore Youth National Team during the inaugural Youth Olympic Games held in Singapore in 2010, as well as the Singapore Men's National Team which won the bronze medal at the 2013 Southeast Asian Games, Low was drafted into the team after completing his National Service. The next game saw the Slingers bounce back from defeat with a 77–62 win against Laskar Dreya at the Hi-Test Arena in Batam on 25 August 2014. Lowhorn chalked up an impressive 28 points and 10 rebounds while Kyle Jeffers posted 19 points. Wong Wei Long added a further 14 points for the Slingers to top off a performance which improved the Slingers' record to 6-4 and allowing them to climb up to third position in the league standings. On 31 August 2014, the Slingers ended Hi-Tech Bangkok City's undefeated run with a dramatic 78–75 victory in overtime. The game saw Dior Lowhorn score a season high 35 big points which included a three-pointer from the baseline in the dying seconds of the fourth quarter that sent the game into overtime. The game also saw Wong Wei Long finish with 16 points while Al Vergara added 11 points and 9 assists off the Slingers' bench. Team captain Kyle Jeffers was injured in the same match when he fell awkwardly while competing for a rebound in the third quarter and had to be stretchered off. The Slingers subsequently announced on 9 September 2014 that Jeffers had been placed on the injured reserve list while former Saigon Heat centre Justin Howard had been brought in as a replacement. Prior to signing for the Slingers, Howard played two games in August 2014 for the Indonesia Warriors as a temporary replacement for the injured Chris Ellis. A 79–65 victory over the Saigon Heat in Singapore on 1 October 2014 saw the Slingers inch closer to a playoff berth with Howard putting in a big performance, finishing with 24 points and 20 rebounds. Lowhorn added 20 points and 9 rebounds while Wong added 14 points. Desmond Oh, who started at point guard also contributed 7 points, 9 rebounds and 5 assists to help the Slingers improve to an 11–6 record. The game was also notable as the Slingers were dressed in a one-off, all pink ensemble for their 3rd annual Cancer Awareness Game. The pink jerseys were later auctioned off with 100% of the proceeds donated directly to the Singapore Cancer Society. Home arenas The Slingers currently plays at the 3,000 seats OCBC Arena which opened in 2014 located at Kallang. In 2013, the Singapore Sports Hub and OCBC Bank announced that OCBC Group will become the largest sponsorship partner of the Singapore Sports Hub and will have naming rights to the OCBC Arena. From 2006 to 2014, the Singapore Slingers played their home games at the 12,000 seats Singapore Indoor Stadium. During the 2006–08 NBL seasons, it was the highest capacity stadium among the other stadiums. Season by season NBL season by season (2006–2008) ABL season by season (2009–present) As of the end of the 2023 season *Note: Season cancelled due to COVID-19 pandemic. Current roster This is the lineup of the Slingers for the 2023 ABL season. Depth chart Notable Imports Brad Davidson Larry Davidson Blagoj Janev Ben Knight Shane McDonald Ben Melmeth Darren Ng Luke Schenscher Aaron Trahair Pero Vasiljevic Eban Hyams Lee Seung-jun Jeremy Kench Leonidez Avenido Junjun Cabatu Jayson Castro Don Dulay Phillip Morrison Al Vergara Hassan Adams Christopher Vaughn Canta Marquin Chandler Chris Charles John Fields Louis Graham Rod Grizzard Mike Helms Justin Howard Kyle Jeffers Rashad Jones-Jennings Michael LeBlanc Donald Little Donald Rashaad Singleton Marcus Skinner Jerran Young Marcus Elliott Notable Singaporeans Koh Meng Koon Michael Wong Wai Sian Lim Prasad Sadasivan Marcus Ng Pathman Matialakan Hong Wei Jian Steven Khoo Mitchell Frederick Folkoff Damien Goh Teck Beng Shengyu Lim Wei Long Wong Desmond Oh Leon Kwek Teo Chun Hoe Ng Han Bin Delvin Goh Russel Low Coaches Gordon McLeod (2006–08) Frank Arsego (2009–10) Neo Beng Siang (2010–present) References External links Official Website Asean Basketball League Website ASEAN Basketball League teams Slingers Defunct National Basketball League (Australia) teams Basketball teams established in 2006 2006 establishments in Singapore Diaspora sports clubs in Australia
5264802	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom	1980 in the United Kingdom	Events from the year 1980 in the United Kingdom. Incumbents Monarch – Elizabeth II Prime Minister – Margaret Thatcher (Conservative) Parliament – 48th Events January 2 January – Workers at British Steel Corporation go on a nationwide strike over pay called by the Iron and Steel Trades Confederation, which has some 90,000 members among British Steel's 150,000 workforce, in a bid to get a 20% rise. It is the first steelworks strike since 1926. 19 January – The first UK Indie Chart is published in Record Business. 20 January – The British record TV audience for a film is set when some 23,500,000 viewers tune in for the ITV showing of the James Bond film Live and Let Die (1973). 21 January – is beached at Brighton. 28 January – Granada Television airs a controversial edition of World in Action on ITV, in which it alleges that Manchester United F.C. chairman Louis Edwards has made unauthorised payments to the parents of some of the club's younger players and has made shady deals to win local council meat contracts for his retail outlet chain. February 14 February – Margaret Thatcher announces that state benefit to strikers will be halved. 14–23 February – Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York, United States, and win one gold medal (Robin Cousins for figure skating). 17 February – British Steel Corporation announces that more than 11,000 jobs will be axed at its plants in Wales by the end of next month. 25 February The First episode of the popular political sitcom Yes Minister is broadcast on BBC2. Manchester United chairman Louis Edwards dies from a heart attack at the age of 65, just weeks after allegations about his dealings in connection with the football club and with his retail outlet chain. March 10 March – An opinion poll conducted by the Evening Standard suggests that six out of 10 Britons are dissatisfied with Margaret Thatcher's Conservative government, who now trail Labour (still led by James Callaghan, the former prime minister) in the opinion polls. 19–20 March – Radio Caroline, the pirate radio station, is forced to cease transmission when , the ship on which it is based, runs aground and sinks off the Thames Estuary. 25 March The British Olympic Association votes to defy the government by sending athletes to the Olympic Games to be held in Moscow, USSR in the summer. Robert Runcie enthroned as Archbishop of Canterbury. 26 March – The budget raises tax allowances and duties on petrol, alcohol and tobacco. 31 March British Leyland agrees to sell the MG cars factory at Abingdon to a consortium headed by Aston Martin-Lagonda when the plant closes this Autumn. National Heritage Act sets up the National Heritage Memorial Fund. March – Vauxhall, launches the Astra, a front-wheel drive small family hatchback which replaces the recently discontinued Viva and is based on the latest Opel Kadett. Although the car is currently produced in West Germany and Belgium, there are plans for British production to commence at the Ellesmere Port plant in Cheshire next year. April 1 April The steelworkers' strike is called off. Britain's first official naturist beach is opened to the public in Brighton. 2 April – 1980 St Pauls riot in Bristol. 3 April – Education Act institutes the Assisted Places Scheme (free or subsidised places for children attending fee-paying independent schools based on results in the schools' entrance examination and means tests), gives parents greater powers on governing bodies and over admissions, and removes local education authorities' obligation to provide school milk and meals. 4 April – Alton Towers Resort is opened by Madame Tussauds in Staffordshire as a theme park. 10 April – The UK reaches an agreement with Spain to reopen its border with Gibraltar. 18 April – Zimbabwe becomes independent of the United Kingdom. 22 April – Unemployment stands at a two-year high of more than 1.5million. 29 April – Filmmaker Sir Alfred Hitchcock dies aged 80 at his home in Los Angeles, only one month after his last public appearance. 30 April – The Iranian Embassy Siege begins. A six-man terrorist team from the Democratic Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Arabistan captures the Embassy of Iran in Prince's Gate, Knightsbridge, central London, taking 26 hostages. May 1 May – British Aerospace privatised. 3 May – Liverpool win the Football League First Division title for 12th time. 5 May – The SAS storm the Iranian Embassy building, killing 5 out of the 6 terrorists. One hostage is killed by the terrorists before the raid and one during it, but the remainder are freed. The events are broadcast live on television. 10 May – West Ham United, of the Second Division, win the FA Cup for the third time in its history with a surprise 1–0 victory over First Division Arsenal in the final at Wembley Stadium. Trevor Brooking scores the only goal of the game to make West Ham United the third team from the Second Division to have won the trophy in the last eight years. As of 2021, West Ham are the last team from outside the top division to have won the FA Cup. 16 May – Inflation has risen to 21.8%. 27 May – Inquest into the death of New Zealand born teacher Blair Peach (who was killed during a demonstration against the National Front last year) returns a verdict of misadventure, resulting in a public outcry. 28 May – Nottingham Forest retain the European Cup with a 1–0 win over Hamburger SV, the West German league champions, in Madrid. The winning goal is scored by Scotland international John Robertson. The European Cup has now been won by an English club for the fourth successive year, as Liverpool won it for two consecutive years before Forest's first victory last year. June June British Leyland launches its Morris Ital range of family saloons and estates which are a reworking of the nine-year-old Marina that was one of Britain's most popular cars during the 1970s. Production is expected to finish by 1984 when an all-new front-wheel drive model is added to the range and sales begin on 1 August, the same day that the new W-registered cars go on sale. The UK economy slides into recession. 6 June – Two Malaysian men are jailed for 14 years after being found guilty of running a drug smuggling ring in London which generated millions of pounds. 12 June – Gail Kinchen (a pregnant 16-year-old) and her unborn baby are accidentally shot dead by a police marksman who enters the Birmingham flat where her boyfriend David Pagett is holding her hostage at gunpoint. 16 June – Murder of Patsy Morris, a 14-year-old schoolgirl from Isleworth found dead on Hounslow Heath. Her murder remains unsolved although in 2008 it is revealed that she was the childhood girlfriend of serial killer Levi Bellfield, responsible for the Murder of Milly Dowler. 17 June – Secretary of State for Defence Francis Pym reveals to the House of Commons that US nuclear cruise missiles are to be located at RAF Greenham Common in Berkshire and the disused RAF Molesworth base in Cambridgeshire. 19 June – Gunmen attack the British embassy in Iraq; three unknown attackers are shot dead by Iraqi security forces. 23 June – Insider trading in shares becomes illegal under United Kingdom company law. 24 June – Unemployment is announced to have reached a postwar high of 1,600,000. 26 June – The Glasgow Central by-election is held, with Labour retaining its hold on the seat despite a swing of 14% to the Scottish National Party. 30 June – The pre-decimal sixpence coin is withdrawn from circulation. July 1 July – MG's Abingdon car factory looks set to close completely this Autumn as Aston Martin fails to raise the funds to buy it from British Leyland. 8 July – Miners threatening to strike demand a 37% pay increase, ignoring pleas from Margaret Thatcher to hold down wage claims. 10 July – Alexandra Palace in London gutted by fire. 19 July–3 August: Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Olympics in Moscow and win 5 gold, 7 silver and 9 bronze medals. 22 July – Unemployment has hit a 44-year high of nearly 1.9 million. 24 July – Actor, singer and comedian Peter Sellers dies aged 54 of heart failure in London, shortly after dining with his fellow Goons Harry Secombe and Spike Milligan. 29 July – Margaret Thatcher announces the introduction of Enterprise Zones as an employment relief effort in some of regions of Britain which have been hardest hit by deindustrialisation and unemployment. August 11 August Margaret Thatcher visits the Harold Hill area of East London to hand of the keys to the 12,000th council tenants in Britain to buy their home under the right to buy scheme. However, she is met by jeering from neighbours of the family. Tyne and Wear Metro opens on Tyneside after 6 years construction, with the first phase between Haymarket in Newcastle and Whitley Bay. 16 August – 37 people die as a result of the Denmark Place fire, arson at adjacent London nightclubs. 28 August – Unemployment now stands at 2 million for the first time since 1935. Economists warn that it could rise to up to 2.5million by the end of next year. September 1 September – Ford launches one of the most important new cars of the year, the third generation Escort which is a technological innovation in the small family car market, spelling the end of the traditional rear-wheel drive saloon in favour of the front-wheel drive hatchback and estate that follows a trend in this sector of car which is being repeated all over Western Europe. It will go on to be Britain's best-selling car of the decade starting from 1982. 9 September – Bibby Line's Liverpool-registered ore-bulk-oil carrier sinks with the loss of all 44 crew south off Japan in Typhoon Orchid following structural failure. At 91,655 gross tons, she is the largest UK-registered ship ever lost. 11 September – Chicago mobster Joseph Scalise with Arthur Rachel commit the Marlborough diamond robbery in London. The following day, they are arrested in Chicago after getting off a British Airways flight in the city; however, the 45-carat stone is never found. 12 September – Consett Steelworks in Consett, County Durham closes with the loss of 4500 jobs, instantly making it the town with the highest rate of unemployment in the UK. 13 September – Hercules, a bear which had gone missing on a Scottish island filming a Kleenex advertisement, is found. 21 September – First CND rally at RAF Greenham Common. 24 September – 34-year-old Singapore born doctor Upadhya Bandara is attacked and injured in Headingley, Leeds; the Yorkshire Ripper is believed to have been responsible. October 3 October – The 1980 Housing Act comes into effect, giving council house tenants of three years' standing in England and Wales the right to buy their home from their local council at a discount. 6 October – Deregulation of express coach services. 8 October – British Leyland launches the Austin Metro, a small three-door hatchback which makes use of much of the Mini's drivetrain and suspension, including its 998 cc and 1275 cc engines. The Mini will continue to be produced alongside the Metro at Longbridge in Birmingham which was recently expanded to accommodate Metro production. 10 October – Margaret Thatcher makes her "The lady's not for turning" speech to the Conservative Party conference after party MP's warn that her economic policy was responsible for the current recession and rising unemployment. 15 October James Callaghan, ousted as Prime Minister by the Conservative victory 17 months ago, resigns as Labour Party leader after four and a half years. Former Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, 86, criticises Margaret Thatcher's economic policies, claiming that she has "got the wrong answer" to the economic crises which she inherited from Labour last year. Her economic policies are also criticised by union leaders, who blame her policies for rising unemployment and bankruptcies, and warn that this could result in civil unrest. 17 October – Elizabeth II makes history by becoming the first British monarch to make a state visit to the Vatican. 22 October – Lord Thomson announces that The Times and Sunday Times will be closed down within five months unless a buyer is found. 24 October – MG car production ends after 56 years with the closure of the plant in Abingdon, Oxfordshire, where more than 1.1 million MG cars have been built since it opened in 1924. 28 October – Margaret Thatcher declares that the government will not give in to seven jailed IRA terrorists who are on hunger strike in the Maze Prison in hope of winning prisoner of war status. November 5 November – Theresa Sykes, a 16-year-old Huddersfield mother of a young baby, is wounded in a hammer attack near her home in the town. The Yorkshire Ripper is believed to be responsible. 10 November – Michael Foot is elected Leader of the Labour Party. 13 November – George Smith, a security guard, is shot dead when the van he is guarding is intercepted by armed robbers in Willenhall, West Midlands. 17 November – University student Jacqueline Hill, aged 20, is murdered in Headingley, Leeds. On 19 November, police investigating the case establish that she is probably the 13th woman to be killed by the Yorkshire Ripper. 23 November – Despite the economy now being in recession and the government's monetarist economic policy to tackle inflation being blamed for the downturn, the government announces further public spending cuts and taxation rises. December 8 December – Ex-Beatle John Lennon, 40, is shot dead in New York. 10 December – Frederick Sanger wins his second Nobel Prize in Chemistry, jointly with Walter Gilbert, "for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids". 14 December – Thousands of music fans hold a 10-minute vigil in Liverpool for John Lennon. 18 December – Michael Foot's hopes of becoming prime minister in the next general election are given a boost by an MORI poll which shows Labour on 56% with a 24-point lead over the Conservatives. 23 December – American animated special Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer airs on ITV for the last time until 2020 when it airs on December 26. 26 & 28 December – Sightings of unexplained lights near RAF Woodbridge Suffolk, which become known as the Rendlesham Forest incident, the most well-known claimed UFO event in Britain. 28 December – The Independent Broadcasting Authority award contracts for commercial broadcasting on ITV. TV-am is awarded the first ever breakfast TV contract, and is set to go on air by 1983. Undated Inflation has risen to 18% as Margaret Thatcher's battle against inflation is still in its early stages. The economy contracts throughout the year, shrinking by 4% overall with the greatest decline occurring in the second quarter of the year at 1.8%. Britain becomes self-sufficient in oil. Transcendental Meditation movement community established in Skelmersdale. Publications Douglas Adams' novel The Restaurant at the End of the Universe, second of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy "trilogy". Julian Barnes' first novel Metroland. Anthony Burgess's novel Earthly Powers. The Church of England's Alternative Service Book. William Golding's novel Rites of Passage, first of the To the Ends of the Earth trilogy. David Lodge's novel How Far Can You Go?. Iris Murdoch's novel Nuns and Soldiers. Barry Unsworth's novel Pascali's Island. Benjamin Zephaniah's first poetry collection Pen Rhythm. Births 1 January – Richie Faulkner, rock guitarist (Judas Priest) 2 January - Kemi Badenoch, politician 8 January – Sam Riley, actor 18 January – Estelle, singer 19 January – D Double E, grime MC 20 January Jenson Button, racing driver Matthew Tuck, singer/songwriter and frontman for Bullet for My Valentine 21 January – Nicky Booth, boxer (died 2021) 30 January – Leilani Dowding, English 'Page 3' model and television celebrity 31 January – Clarissa Ward, television journalist 5 February – Jo Swinson, Scottish politician, leader of the Liberal Democrats (UK) 10 February Matt Irwin, photographer (died 2016) Ralf Little, footballer and actor Steve Tully, footballer 22 February – Martin Garratt, footballer (died 2014) 2 March – Chris Barker, footballer (died 2020) 13 March – Linda Clement, Scottish field hockey player 21 March – John Hinds, Northern Irish motorcycle race doctor, antitheist and lecturer (died 2015) 23 March – Russell Howard, English comedian, television and radio presenter 24 March – Amanda Davies, sports presenter 28 March – Angela Rayner, Labour politician 29 March – Andy Scott-Lee, Welsh singer (3SL) and Pop Idol (series 2) contestant 3 April – Suella Braverman, Conservative politician, Home Secretary 8 April Ben Freeman, actor Cheryl Valentine, Scottish field hockey midfielder 15 April – Natalie Casey, English actress 25 April – Lee Spick, snooker player (died 2015) 28 April - Bradley Wiggins, cyclist 2 May – Zat Knight, English footballer 8 May – Michelle McManus, Scottish singer, winner of Pop Idol (series 2) and television host 9 May – Kate Richardson-Walsh, English field hockey player 12 May – Rishi Sunak, Conservative politician, Prime Minister 22 May – Lucy Gordon, actress and model (died 2009) 30 May – Steven Gerrard, footballer 1 June Martin Devaney, footballer Oliver James, actor 2 June – Richard Skuse, rugby player 4 June – Philip Olivier, actor 10 June Jovanka Houska, chess master James Walsh, singer-songwriter, guitarist and pianist 11 June Ernie Cooksey, footballer (died 2008) Michael Lockett, soldier (died 2009) 12 June – Adam Kay, writer and doctor 14 June – Alexandra Aitken, English citizen, environmental campaigner, model, actress, artist and socialite 22 June – Charlene White, television presenter and newsreader 23 June – Jessica Taylor, singer (Liberty X) 29 June – Katherine Jenkins, mezzo-soprano 1 July – Ricky Champ, actor 7 July – Jim McMahon, politician 8 July – Nikesh Shukla, author 18 July Gareth Emery, trance producer and DJ Tasmin Lucia-Khan, television news presenter Scott James Remnant, engineer 19 July – Michelle Heaton, English singer (Liberty X) 28 July – Leo Houlding, English rock climber 3 August – Hannah Simone, British-Canadian actress 19 August Adam Campbell, actor Darius Campbell Danesh, Scottish singer-songwriter and actor (died 2022 in the United States) 23 August – Joanne Froggatt, English actress of stage 28 August – Rachel Khoo, chef, writer and broadcaster 6 September – Kerry Katona, TV presenter and pop star (Atomic Kitten) 11 September – Anthony Carrigan, academic (died 2016) 12 September – Kevin Sinfield, English rugby league player 5 October – James Toseland, English motorcycle racer 13 October – Scott Parker, English football player and manager 14 October – Ben Whishaw, actor 26 October – Khalid Abdalla, Scottish-born actor 28 October – Alan Smith, footballer 12 November – Charlie Hodgson, English rugby union player 18 November - Mathew Baynton, English actor 19 November Andrew Copson, businessman Adele Silva, actress 6 December – Steve Lovell, footballer 7 December – John Terry, footballer 8 December – Nick Nevern, actor and director 15 December Neil McDermott, actor Sergio Pizzorno, guitarist and songwriter 16 December – Michael Jibson, actor, voice over artist, writer and director 18 December – Neil Fingleton, actor and basketball player (died 2017) 20 December Steve Coast, entrepreneur, founder of OpenStreetMap Ashley Cole, footballer Fitz Hall, footballer 21 December – Louise Linton, Scottish actress, wife of Steven Mnuchin 25 December – Laura Sadler, television actress (died 2003) Deaths 6 January – Raymond Mays, racing car driver and businessman (born 1899) 11 January – Barbara Pym, novelist (born 1913) 18 January – Sir Cecil Beaton, photographer (born 1904) 27January – Sir Eric Wyndham White, British administrator and economist, first Director-General of the GATT (born 1913) 4 February – Edith Summerskill, physician, feminist, Labour politician and campaigner (born 1901) 9 February – Tom Macdonald, journalist and novelist (born 1900) 17 February – Graham Sutherland, artist (born 1903) 1 March – Dixie Dean, football player (born 1907) 7 March – John Illingworth, yachtsman, yacht designer and naval officer (born 1903) 18 March – Ludwig Guttmann, neurologist and pioneer of paralympic games (born 1899 in Germany) 6 April – John Collier, writer (born 1901) 8 April – Bill Eastman, army officer (born 1911) 19 April – Tony Beckley, character actor (born 1927) 26 April – Cicely Courtneidge, actress (born 1893) 27 April – John Culshaw, British recording producer and musicologist (b. 1924) 29 April – Alfred Hitchcock, film director (born 1899) 7 May Isla Cameron, actress (b. 1930) Margaret Cole, politician (b. 1893) 8 May – Geoffrey Baker, English field marshal (b. 1912) 14 May – Hugh Griffith, actor (born 1912) 18 May – Ian Curtis, post-punk musician and singer (Joy Division) (born 1956) 25 May – George West, Anglican missionary (born 1893) 7 June – Elizabeth Craig, writer (born 1883) 12 June – Sir Billy Butlin, founder of Butlins holiday camps (born 1899 in South Africa) 20 June – Amy Clarke, mystical poet, writer and teacher (born 1892) 23 June – John Laurie, actor (born 1897) 1 July – C. P. Snow, novelist and physicist (born 1905) 4 July – Gregory Bateson, anthropologist, anthropologist, social scientist, linguist, semiotician and cyberneticist (b. 1904) 7 July – Reginald Gardiner, actor (born 1903) 24 July – Peter Sellers, comic actor (born 1925) 26 July – Kenneth Tynan, theatre critic (born 1927) 20 August – Dame Lucy Sutherland, historian, academic (born 1903 in Australia) 22 August – Norman Shelley, actor (born 1903) 24 August – Yootha Joyce, actress (born 1927) 5 September – Adrian Bell, farmer, writer and crossword compiler (born 1901) 25 September – John Bonham, drummer (Led Zeppelin) (born 1948) 6 October – Hattie Jacques, comic actress (heart attack) (born 1922) 4 November – Johnny Owen, boxer (born 1956) 8 November – Valerie Myerscough, mathematician and astrophysicist (born 1942) 19 November – E. J. Bowen, chemist (born 1898) 22 November – Norah McGuinness, painter and illustrator (born 1901) 26 November – Rachel Roberts, actress (suicide) (born 1927) 3 December – Oswald Mosley, leader of the British Union of Fascists (born 1896) 8 December John Lennon, pop singer-songwriter and guitarist (The Beatles) (murdered in the United States) (born 1940) Charles Parker, radio documentary producer (born 1919) 25 December – Fred Emney, comic performer (born 1900) See also List of British films of 1980 References Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom United Kingdom
5264993	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correspondence%20law%20school	Correspondence law school	A correspondence law school is a school that offers legal education by distance education, either by correspondence or online by use of the internet, or a combination thereof. China Distance legal education in China is available through Beijing Foreign Studies University through a partnership with Spirit of Law School of Law. There are three courses available: Certificate, Diploma and LLM (Masters of Law) in International and Chinese Law. These are in English and aimed at international law and non-law professionals. These are officially awarded by the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Justice of the People's Republic of China. Germany Distance legal education in Germany is available through FernUniversität Hagen, a public university similar to the British Open University. The graduates receive LLB or LLM degrees. Specialized LLB degrees in business law are available through five universities of applied sciences: Hamburger Fernhochschule, Fachhochschule Nordhessen, Europäische Fernhochschule Hamburg, Fachhochschule Südwestfalen, and Hochschule Niederrhein. South Africa Distance legal education is an acceptable method to become a lawyer in South Africa, and is available through the University of South Africa (UNISA). United Kingdom Distance legal education in the United Kingdom is accepted by the Law Society of England and Wales as a qualifying law degree and one of the possible ways to become a solicitor or a barrister. Several institutions offer basic legal education (leading to the LLB degree), the oldest of which is the University of London External System. Numerous universities in the UK offer LLB degrees through distance education today, including the Open University. In several other countries influenced by the British legal heritage, legal education can be obtained through distance education, including South Africa (through UNISA) and Australia. United States The only state that offers an ability to practice law via successful completion of a mandated 4 years of law school through either a correspondence or online law school is California. Once a law student has successfully completed their first year of law school, Business and Professions Code section 6060 requires the student to take and pass the First Year Law Student Examination, commonly known as the "BABY BAR," within the first three attempts of becoming eligible. If student fails to do so, all law school education beyond year one will be ignored by the state, the student must pass this exam before becoming a lawyer if they have obtained their entire degree online, or by correspondence law school. In the United States, non-ABA approved law schools and online/correspondence schools have lower bar passage rates than ABA-approved and traditional brick and mortar law schools. History Early years Law school study by correspondence has existed in the United States since 1890 when Sprague Correspondence School of Law (which eventually merged with Blackstone Institute, and later was known as Blackstone School of Law) was established by William C. Sprague in Detroit, Michigan. Among the school’s early graduates was Antoinette D. Leach, early Sprague Law Correspondence Law School graduate and first woman attorney in Indiana, who in 1893 became the first woman admitted by the Indiana Supreme Court to practice law in Indiana. Later, in 1908, La Salle Extension University was founded in Chicago by Jesse Grant Chapline. It operated until 1982. Those schools and others (including American Correspondence School of Law of Chicago; Columbian Correspondence College of Law in Washington D.C.; New York Correspondence School of Law in New York; and others) were innovative for the time in providing many poor, working-class, women, and ethnic minorities educational opportunities. Among the La Salle Extension University graduates who went on to make contributions in law and politics are governors Harold J. Arthur and Eurith D. Rivers, Senator Craig L. Thomas, U.S. Representatives John S. Gibson and William T. Granahan, and African-American leaders Arthur Fletcher, Jessie M. Rattley, and Gertrude Rush. Present day Northwestern California University School of Law is the oldest existing correspondence law school in the United States. It was founded in 1982 and began presenting its correspondence program entirely online in 2002. It is the first online law school to offer Internet based and faculty led videoconferencing sessions for students for some courses. In 1996, Abraham Lincoln University began a hybrid in-class and correspondence approach to law school, designed to offer scheduling flexibility to students, before adding an online component in 2004. The first law school to offer a degree program completely online was Concord Law School, the law school of Purdue University Global (the online division for Purdue University), which started in 1998. As of 2006 Concord is the largest of the seven distance learning law schools. Concord graduated its first class in November 2002. The California School of Law, founded in 2007, is the first law school to utilize synchronous technology in all courses. Such technology provides direct communication between professors and students in live “real time” virtual classrooms. Correspondence and online legal education in California Unlike other distance learning education institutions in the United States, law schools form a distinct subset of graduate institutions because of the unique requirements necessary to become a lawyer. The State Bar of California is currently the only state authority that "registers" and regulates distance learning law schools. Graduates of correspondence and distance learning schools registered with the State Bar of California can sit for the California bar exam. Those who pass the California bar exam and meet the other requirements of California may practise law in California, as well as practise federal law (such as immigration law, etc.) in all states. The other states have varying rules for graduates of the correspondence and distance learning law schools registered with the California State Bar. California State Bar law school registration Distance legal education in California is made up of "correspondence" and "distance learning" or online law schools. The California State Bar website defines two classes of such schools: "Correspondence law schools" – which "conduct instruction primarily by correspondence". They include: American International School of Law (Irvine) California Southern University (Irvine) International Pacific School of Law (Los Angeles) MD Kirk School of Law (Los Angeles) Northwestern California University School of Law (Sacramento) Oak Brook College of Law and Government Policy (Fresno) Taft Law School (Santa Ana) University of Honolulu School of Law (Modesto) "Distance learning [or Online] schools" – which "conduct instruction and provide interactive classes primarily by technological means." They include: Abraham Lincoln University School of Law (Los Angeles) American Heritage University of Southern California (San Bernardino) American Institute of Law (Torrance) California School of Law (Santa Barbara)] Concord Law School at Purdue University Global (Los Angeles) St. Francis School of Law (Redwood City) Use of Socratic Method Traditional law schools in the United States teach by the question and answer Socratic or casebook method. Law schools using online technology are able to teach by this method through use of the Internet in live audio sessions. In this teaching method, students are assigned case opinions and statutes to read and brief before each class session. This pre-class preparation is followed by in-class (and on-line) presentations by the students. Law schools use the Socratic Method to teach students how to analyze and make legal arguments, how to properly read and brief cases and how to prepare for the pressures and rigors of a legal practice. Synchronous and asynchronous online technologies It is generally accepted that a crucial part of the Socratic Method process involves students being questioned by the professors, with follow-up questions. It is believed that such pedagogy helps prepare the students for the rigors of law practice, as well as teaching them how to engage in the type of analysis necessary to perform well on state bar attorney licensing exams. Utilization of the Socratic Method pedagogy by online law schools in the traditional “interactive” direct question and answer format occurs through audio broadcast over the Internet of live sessions with professors calling on students and receiving immediate responses. There are two types of available technologies for online legal education, synchronous and asynchronous. "Asynchronous technology” is a mode of online delivery in which the professors and students are not together at the same time and in which students receive course materials and access recorded lectures on their own schedule. Message board forums, e-mail exchanges, text messaging and recorded video are examples of asynchronous technology. This method of instruction has the advantage that the students need not be committed to be present for classes at set days and hours. At one online law school using asynchronous technology, students may pose questions to the professors by text messaging or email, which the professors usually answer by text messaging or email within 48 hours. Also at this school, during their lectures professors may pose questions to the students, which the students answer by text messaging or emails. “Synchronous technology” is a mode of online delivery where all participants are "present" and engaging simultaneously with each other at the same time. Web conferencing is an example of synchronous technology. This method of instruction has the advantage for online law schools that there is immediate “give and take” interaction in the questioning, answering, discussions and debates by and between the students and professors. At one online law school using synchronous technology, students and professors “sign in” on the internet to a secure “virtual classroom” and engage in immediate give and take oral discussion and debate of the law, utilizing the Socratic Method in the classic way. Accreditation and acceptance of credentials Critics of distance learning law schools have noted that graduates of online law schools face some disadvantages, including (initial) ineligibility in some states to take the bar exam outside of California. Correspondence and distance learning law schools are not accredited by the American Bar Association (ABA) or state bar examiners, even if they are registered with the California State Bar or licensed to confer academic degrees by relevant state education departments. Graduates of correspondence and distance learning law schools that are registered with the State Bar of California can sit for the California bar exam. The other states have varying rules for graduates of correspondence and distance learning law schools registered with the California State Bar: (a) a few states allow such graduates to immediately sit for the bar exams after graduation; (b) some states allow such graduates to sit for the bar exam immediately after passing the California Bar Exam; (c) several states allow graduates of correspondence and distance learning law schools to sit for the bar exams after passing the California Bar Exam and then gaining experience as an attorney: and (d) some states do not allow such graduates to ever sit for their bar exams. Proponents of such exclusions argue that without ABA accreditation, there is no effective way to check that a law school meets minimum academic standards and that its graduates are prepared to become attorneys. The ABA stated in a 2003 policy document, "Neither private study, correspondence study or law office training, nor age or experience should be substituted for law-school education." Concord Law School Dean Barry Currier maintains optimism regarding the acceptance of online law school degrees, saying that "once people see what we do over time, the degrees will be accepted." William Hunt, Dean of The California School of Law has noted that online schools have the ability to utilize the Socratic Method pedagogy as it is used at traditional law schools. Others have noted that the ABA's position on online and correspondence law schools is motivated more by a desire to exercise monopoly power and to protect traditional law schools' exclusivity. Law professor Michael Froomkin made a similar point, "The losers in the new era of legal education will be second- and third-tier institutions that lack name recognition and its concomitant prestige, and their faculties ... They will either have to become discount law schools, or go online themselves." Graduates of California online schools have commenced legal actions in order to sit for the bar exam in their home states. Mel Thompson, a 2005 graduate of the West Coast School of Law, attempted to sue the ABA and the Connecticut Bar Examining Committee, alleging that Connecticut's refusal to let him sit for the bar exam violated due process, equal protection, and served as an "arbitrary" and unlawful restraint on trade. Thompson's grievance did not succeed and in 2007 his suit was dismissed. In 2007 Ross Mitchell, a 2004 graduate of Concord Law School, filed suit against the Massachusetts Board of Bar Examiners. Mitchell's suit was more successful than Thompson's; in 2008 the state’s Supreme Judicial Court granted Mitchell permission to take the Massachusetts bar exam. In 2009 Mitchell passed the bar and became the first online law school graduate sworn into the state bar of Massachusetts. California Bar Examination statistics Statistics for the California Bar Examation and First-Year Law Students' Examination ("Baby Bar"), including those for correspondence law schools and distance learning law schools, are provided by the California State Bar. The data show much lower bar passage rates for California-Accredited law schools than for ABA approved law schools. Consumer (student) protection A concern in US distance education is the existence of diploma mills and schools which engage in fraudulent practices. In 1994, the St. Petersburg (Florida) Times published information about a Rev. James Kirk who opened a diploma mill calling it LaSalle University in Slidell, Louisiana, which, while being investigated by Louisiana authorities, "contend[ed] it [was] exempt from licensing because even though it offers degrees in engineering and law, it is a religious institution." In response to the historically low bar passage rate of students graduating from unaccredited law schools, including correspondence/online schools, the California State Legislature passed legislation in 2007 transferring oversight authority of unaccredited law schools from the Bureau for Private Postsecondary and Vocational Education (which oversees non-law education), to the State Bar. See also Lists of law schools – Worldwide listing Reading law References Further reading Robert J. Salzer, "Comment: Juris Doctor.com: Are Full-Time Internet Law Schools the Beginning of the End For Traditional Legal Education?", 12 CommLaw Conspectus 101 (2004) Nick Dranias, "Past the Pall of Orthodoxy: Why the First Amendment Virtually Guarantees Online Law School Graduates Will Breach the ABA Accreditation Barrier", 111 Penn St. L. Rev. 863 (2007) Steve Sheppard, "Casebooks, Commentaries, and Curmudgeons: An Introductory History of Law in the Lecture Hall", 82 Iowa L. Rev. 547 (1997) (on the Socratic method) Bruce A. Kimball, "The Proliferation of Case Method Teaching in American Law Schools: Mr. Langdell's Emblematic 'Abomination,' 1890-1915", History of Education Quarterly, Vol. 46, No. 2, p. 192, Jun. 2006 (on the casebook and Socratic methods) Daniel C. Powell, "Five Recommendations to Law Schools Offering Legal Instruction over the Internet", 11 J. Tech. L. & Pol'y 285 (2006). Robert E. Oliphant, "Will Internet Driven Concord University Law School Revolutionize Traditional Law School Teaching?", 27 Wm. Mitchell L. Rev. 841 (2000) Stephen M. Johnson, "www.lawschool.edu: Legal Education in the Digital Age", Wis. L. Rev. 85 (2000) External links ABA-CLE Career Resource Center Committee of Bar Examiners: California Law Schools Law schools Distance education
5265014	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mister%20Terrific%20%28Michael%20Holt%29	Mister Terrific (Michael Holt)	Michael Holt is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. He is the second character to take up the Mister Terrific mantle. Echo Kellum portrayed a version of the character renamed Curtis Holt in the CW Arrowverse series Arrow, from the fourth to the final eighth season. Edi Gathegi will play the character in the 2025 film Superman: Legacy, set in the DC Universe (DCU). Publication history Michael Holt was created by John Ostrander and Tom Mandrake and first appeared in Spectre (vol. 3) #54 (June 1997). Fictional character biography At a very young age, Michael Holt shows remarkable intelligence, reading comprehension and ability to assimilate the works of Aage Bohr, Albert Einstein, Max Planck and Richard Feynman, the pantheon of theoretical physics. Michael grows up with his mentally challenged older brother, Jeffrey, whom he loved dearly. When Jeffrey dies at the age of 12, Michael is devastated. Holt displays "a natural aptitude for having natural aptitudes", as he calls it, easily picking up and retaining complex skills and abilities that others spend their entire lives perfecting. Before he begins his career as a superhero, he already possesses 14 Ph.Ds (two in engineering and physics—including doctorates and master's degrees in law, psychology, chemistry, political science, computer science, rocket science, and mathematics)—is a self-made multi-millionaire with a high tech firm called Cyberwear (subsequently sold to Waynetech), and is a gold medal-winning Olympic decathlete. The accidental deaths of his wife and unborn child are a devastating blow to Holt. He considers himself responsible for the accident as he made his wife late for church by arguing with her about the value of religion. While contemplating suicide, he is met by the Spectre (Jim Corrigan), who tells him about Terry Sloane, the Golden Age superhero known as Mister Terrific. Inspired by Sloane's life story, he takes the name Mister Terrific and later joins the current Justice Society of America (JSA), eventually serving as its chairman. Initially, he wears ordinary clothes and a leather jacket with Sloane's "Fair Play" emblem on the back. Later, he switches to a T-shaped mask composed of electronic nanites, a black and white costume with red trim, and a collarless jacket in the same colors (the black sections of tunic and jacket forming a "T") with "Fair Play" written on the sleeves and "Terrific" across the back. For a time, he acts as spokesperson for Tylerco and consults for the company on industrial espionage and security matters in exchange for it helping fund a youth center Terrific has started. Holt has a friendly rivalry with Batman, his opposite number in the Justice League of America (in his identity as Bruce Wayne, Batman owns Holt's business). Holt has encountered Sloane twice through time travel, with Sloane expressing pride in having so worthy a successor. Holt has been noted as the most intelligent member of the JSA in its history, surpassing his predecessor. He is also known as the third-smartest person in the world, and this notion now appears to be widespread within the DC Universe. Justice Society of America chairmanship During a conflict over leadership of the Justice Society between former chairman Hawkman and then-current chairman Sand, Terrific is elected as the JSA's new chairman by his teammates, despite not actively seeking the office. He serves in this capacity until the team disbands following the Infinite Crisis. Mr. Terrific currently remains a member of the reformed Justice Society of America. He resumed his chairmanship from the last incarnation of the team, but his leadership responsibilities in Checkmate eventually prompt him to relinquish the position to Power Girl. Infinite Crisis Mr. Terrific is part of the team assembled by Batman for an attack on the Brother Eye satellite responsible for controlling the OMACs. He plays a critical role as his invisibility to technology allows him to reach the satellite's propulsion system, sending it crashing to Earth. During this time, he meets and befriends another African American superhero—Black Lightning. One Year Later In the "One Year Later" storyline, Holt is still a member of the JSA, and he has also become part of the United Nations Security Council's intelligence agency, Checkmate. He holds the position of White King's Bishop initially, but when the previous White King (Alan Scott) is forced to resign, he becomes Checkmate's new White King, complicating his relationship with Sasha Bordeaux, Checkmate's Black Queen. He has also given up his chairman position, which has been taken over by Power Girl. Mr. Terrific has also established an ill-defined mentorship with Firestorm over the missing year; the specifics of their meeting are yet to be documented. Holt is forced to face his issues with faith once again when the JSA confront Gog, a God of the Second World. Not only is Gog incapable of hearing Terrific due to his lack of faith, but during a trip to the Earth-Two of the new multiverse, Holt encounters his Earth-Two counterpart, who is now a devout believer after having a religious experience on the day his wife survived her accident. Final Crisis During the Final Crisis of Humanity, the war between Darkseid and the human world, Mister Terrific, along with Cheetah and Snapper Carr, are left trapped in the ruins of Checkmate headquarters, unable to get past the brainwashed metahuman, and caring for Sasha, who prefers using her OMAC programming to shut down her bodily functions rather than falling prey to the Anti-Life Equation. Forcefully waking up Sasha, thus condemning her, Michael Holt has no choice but to activate a new OMAC population, programmed to obey him rather than Brother Eye, and to protect the last few humans against the new Justifiers. Death and return In Justice Society of America vol. 3 series, Mr. Terrific takes over the research, just as the low-level villain Tapeworm appears on the news, taking hostages and demanding that Wildcat show himself. All-American Kid and King Chimera must remain in the brownstone, Mister Terrific retreats to his lab, and the rest of the team leaves to help Wildcat. All-American Kid goes into the lab and stabs Mister Terrific in the back, pretending to have been mind controlled. Justice Society members arrive back at headquarters to discover Mr. Terrific has been attacked, and Dr. Mid-Nite tends to his wounds. In the end, Mister Terrific succumbs to his injuries and Alan Scott reports that he has died. However, Scott is able to use the power of the Green Flame to slow down time around Mister Terrific's body in the hopes that he can be healed before brain death occurs. Michael is restored to life by the magic of the new Doctor Fate, and attacks All-American Kid, revealing that he is actually the teenage psychopath known as Kid Karnevil, and subdues him. For a short time during his recovery, Michael is forced to use a wheelchair, although he still finds time to upgrade Mister America's whip. The New 52 In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Mister Terrific received a self-titled ongoing series written by Eric Wallace and drawn by Roger Robinson. Holt begins sporting a new costume designed by Cully Hamner. He is also in a relationship with Karen Starr. On January 12, 2012, DC announced that it would be ending six of the lowest selling New 52 titles in April, replacing them with six different titles in the revamp's second wave. Mister Terrific was cancelled with issue #8 in April 2012. The series ends with Mister Terrific being displaced to a parallel universe where he continues to appear in the Earth-2 series. DC Rebirth In 2016, DC Comics implemented another relaunch of its books called "DC Rebirth" which restored its continuity to a form much as it was prior to "The New 52". In Dark Days: The Forge, Mister Terrific returns to Prime Earth as Batman unveils a containment unit in The Lunar Batcave bearing the Plastic Man logo, and suggests it is time to release him. Mister Terrific stumbles upon Simon Stagg's plot to open a portal to the Dark Multiverse with Metamorpho transmutated to Nth Metal. While trying to get Simon Stagg to close the portal with the help of Plastic Man, Mister Terrific is sucked in to the portal with Plastic Man and Metamorpho as Plastic Man shields them from the Dark Multiverse energy. Upon arriving on a lifeless world, they encounter Phantom Girl who has been trapped in her intangible form and had no knowledge of sending a signal. When the four of them find a computer in the gut of a dead giant creature, they are greeted by a hologram of Tom Strong who states that they are needed to save the universe. Mister Terrific, Plastic Man, and Metamorpho learn from Phantom Girl that she was stuck in intangible form since she was a child. After the four of them made it back to their world, Mister Terrific tries to leave the three of them at Simon Stagg's compound only to be drawn back to them. Due to the effects of the Dark Multiverse energy, Mister Terrific concludes that they can't go their separate ways due to this bond. Mister Terrific was able to come up with a compromise with Simon Stagg by investigating the bond at his facility. This leads to Mister Terrific to find the Tom Strong that sent left the message and find out how to get untethered by the dark energy. In the "Watchmen" sequel "Doomsday Clock," Mister Terrific was seen with the Justice Society after Doctor Manhattan undid the experiment that erased the Justice Society and the Legion of Super-Heroes. In "The New Golden Age", Mister Terrific talked with the Justice Society about what has changed following their fight with Per Degaton. Stargirl arrived with Boom and the Hourman android. Mister Terrific was with Green Lantern and the Hourman android look at the pictures of the Lost Children where it is mentioned that most of their mentors and/or family members are long dead. He suggests that they go with Stargirl's idea for a Young Justice Society the moment everyone returns. Upon meeting Terry Sloane's sidekick Quiz Kid, Mister Terrific gets Quiz Kid his own place. Though Quiz Kid does pitch some ideas to Mister Terrific about his T-Spheres. Religious beliefs While being held captive by Onimar Synn on an adventure with the Justice Society on Thanagar, Holt first expresses his disbelief in souls and that he is uncomfortable with the notion of reincarnation after witnessing the return of teammate Hawkman. Holt states, "when my wife, Paula, was killed in a car accident ... she was gone. I didn't feel her 'soul' around me. Didn't feel anything". He later elaborates on this by explaining that his lack of faith extends back prior to his wife's death, and states that he blames himself for her death as he delayed her going to church because the two of them argued about the merits of faith. Holt believes that she would have avoided the accident if she had not been arguing with him. He acknowledges the irony of this given such factors as the Spectre's role in his origin, and his encounter with the likes of the Spirit King, but he still maintains his skepticism about faith and religion. After a near-death experience where he sees his wife and unborn child (whom he decides to name 'Terry' after the original Mister Terrific), Holt's atheism is shaken and he agrees to attend a church service with teammate Doctor Mid-Nite. However, this attempt to find religion apparently is not satisfying as Holt is also seen getting into a theological discussion with Ragman during the Infinite Crisis (Ragman is Jewish while Mr. Terrific describes himself as an atheist). When asked if he has faith in anything, Terrific answered, "Sure I do. I've got faith in my team." During Thy Kingdom Come, when Power Girl is sent back to the Earth-2 pre-Crisis universe, she meets her world's Michael Holt, who is ironically a priest after he has a religious experience. During the same storyline, 'our' Holt told Doctor Mid-Nite that he feels that his issues with faith actually stem from his own inability to understand it, confessing that he wants to believe but something inside him will not let him. Powers, abilities, and equipment Holt is described as having "a natural aptitude for having natural aptitudes"; picking up complicated skills quickly and retaining them, such as performing emergency surgery on teammate Alan Scott after reading about the procedure in a medical textbook and subsequently becoming Dr. Mid-Nite's assistant. As Holt himself put it, "everyone has a talent... Mine is learning." Holt is also known as the third-smartest man on Earth. He is aided by his "T-Spheres", floating robotic spheres with multiple functions, holographic projection, projecting laser grids, and recording, communication, linking with and manipulating other electronic devices, from satellites to electronic locks. They allow Terrific to fly by bearing his weight, and can be used as weapons, both by exploding with enough force to send Shazam flying back, generating powerful electric charges, and strike as flying, projectile weapons. They respond to his mental and vocal commands. He once described them as "curious" about something, implying that they possess an artificial intelligence. He is invisible to nearly to all forms of electronic detection (except infrared and sonar). Despite a claim to Black Lightning in Infinite Crisis that "I've got one superpower: I'm invisible to technology," in all other instances this ability is tied to nanotechnology woven into his specially designed "T-Mask" (which is molecularly bonded to his face and can appear and disappear at will) and costume. Mr. Terrific was apparently the only superhero whom the OMACs could not detect. The only exception to his invisibility, however, is that of the Red Tornado, who, for reasons yet unknown, is capable of seeing Terrific despite being an android. Red Tornado's status as a sentient wind elemental merely occupying an android body likely explains his ability to see Holt. Through his mask, Holt can change instantaneously into costume and back again. His mask also protects his face from chemicals. The mask works in conjunction with an earpiece to act as a communications system, and also doubles as an encephalic broadcaster, picking up aggregate thought waves, allowing him to communicate with his T-Spheres, and even project a speaking hologram of himself, even if he is injured or too weak to speak. The mask can also form and transmit images on low- or high-band light frequencies visible to his teammate Doctor Mid-Nite. He is a black belt in 6 different martial arts disciplines and an Olympic Gold Medalist in the decathlon. Holt is also a polymath who has specialized in multiple fields of medicine, engineering, and science. He possesses fourteen Ph.Ds (two of which are in engineering and physics). Along with teammate and friend Doctor Mid-Nite and Batman, Mister Terrific is one of the three main superheroes with medical training in the DC Universe. Although it is not known if he has an M.D., he did participate in the autopsy of Sue Dibny in Identity Crisis. Holt is also polyglot, though the extent of this hasn't been revealed. He has been shown to speak the languages of the fictional nations of Kahndaq and Bialya. Given Holt's propensity for learning, it is likely that he speaks several other languages as well. Other versions Earth-2 In 2008, an alternate version of Michael Holt from a new Earth-2 appeared in DC stories. This version is a college professor, who has a religious experience after his wife is nearly killed in an accident. This version of Paula Holt is merely left in a coma rather than dying immediately. While contemplating suicide after spending three months trying unsuccessfully to find a cure, he saves another man who is preparing to jump off the same bridge, takes him to a church that was the nearest illuminated building, and the man he saves prays for him. After his wife regains consciousness the following day, this Michael Holt went on to become a devout Christian. He helps the Power Girl of New Earth to return home. When the Justice Society arrives on Earth-2, Professor Holt confronts his counterpart Michael Holt from New-Earth. Professor Holt introduces the Justice Society to his wife, Paula, although New-Earth Michael just introduces himself as Mister Terrific rather than reveal his true name. Flashpoint In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, Mister and Missus Terrific are framed for unknown crimes when they discover Outsider's illicit schemes, and are attempting to assassinate him. Mister and Missus Terrific are both killed by Outsider's guardian statue. DCEASED Mister Terrific appears in the DCeased one-shot comic "A Good Day to Die". Holt attempts to find a cure by analysing Apokolips and using magic. When neither of those options are viable, Holt reveals a final option; time travel. With the help of Booster Gold, Terrific and other heroes manage to find the location of Booster's time machine. He is stopped by Waverider and soon after is disemboweled by Big Barda while trying to save John Constantine. In other media Television Michael Holt / Mister Terrific appears in Justice League Unlimited, voiced by Michael Beach. This version is a member of the Justice League who eventually becomes their mission coordinator after J'onn J'onzz resigns from active duty. Michael Holt appears in the Beware the Batman episode "Hunted", voiced by Gary Anthony Williams. This version is a businessman. A character based on Michael Holt / Mister Terrific named Curtis Holt appears in Arrow, portrayed by Echo Kellum. Introduced in the fourth season as a member of Palmer Technologies, Curtis is in a relationship with a man named Paul, the creator of the T-spheres, and a fan of the Green Arrow. In the fifth season, Curtis joins "Team Arrow" in their vigilantism, taking the name "Mister Terrific" in honor of his favorite wrestler, Terry Sloane. In the sixth season, Curtis starts an online business and breaks off from Team Arrow to form a separate group with Dinah Drake and Rene Ramirez. In the seventh and eighth seasons, Curtis leaves Star City to work at Washington D.C., though he returns to help Team Arrow combat the Ninth Circle and Grant Wilson, help the Green Arrow locate a weapon capable of killing the Monitor, rescue William Clayton, and attend Green Arrow's funeral after he dies averting the Crisis. Michael Holt / Mister Terrific appears in Justice League Action, voiced by Hannibal Buress. This version is the self-proclaimed third-smartest person in the world, a former child prodigy, and college roommate of Martin Stein. Film An alternate universe incarnation of Michael Holt / Mister Terrific named Mister Horrific makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths as a minor member of the Crime Syndicate under Superwoman's command. An alternate universe incarnation of Michael Holt appears in Justice League: Gods and Monsters, voiced by Arif S. Kinchen. This version is a scientist involved with Lex Luthor's "Project Fair Play", a contingency program meant to counter their universe's Justice League if necessary. After three of their fellow scientists are killed, Holt and the remaining scientists attempt to regroup, but they are killed by the Metal Men. Michael Holt / Mister Terrific appears in Justice League vs. the Fatal Five, voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson. This version is an associate of the Justice League. Michael Holt / Mister Terrific appears in Injustice, voiced by Edwin Hodge. Michael Holt / Mister Terrific will appear in the DC Universe (DCU) film Superman: Legacy, portrayed by Edi Gathegi. Video games Michael Holt / Mister Terrific makes a cameo appearance in Injustice: Gods Among Us via the Watchtower stage. Curtis Holt / Mister Terrific appears as a playable character in Lego DC Super-Villains via the "DC TV Super-Heroes" DLC pack. Miscellaneous Michael Holt appears in Smallville Season 11: Chaos #3. This version is a billionaire, the CEO of HoltCorp, and an associate of Bruce Wayne and Ted Kord. Merchandise Michael Holt / Mister Terrific received a figure in the DC Universe Classics line. Michael Holt / Mister Terrific received a figure in the Target-exclusive Justice League Unlimited line. References External links World of Black Heroes: Mister Terrific (Michael Holt) Biography DCComics.com's Origin of Mister Terrific DCDP: Mister Terrific (Michael Holt) African-American superheroes Characters created by John Ostrander Comics characters introduced in 1997 DC Comics martial artists DC Comics scientists Fictional surgeons Fictional Olympic competitors
5265371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block%2037	Block 37	108 North State Street, also known as Block 37, is a development located in the Loop community area of downtown Chicago, Illinois. It is located on the square block bounded clockwise from the North by West Randolph Street, North State Street, West Washington Street and North Dearborn Street that is known as "Block 37", which was its designated number as one of the original 58 blocks of the city. Above-ground redevelopment is complete, but work stopped on an underground CTA station when the station was only partially complete. The previous buildings on the block were demolished in 1989 for a hotly contested redevelopment plan under the then Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley. The debates included the demolition of the Chicago Landmark McCarthy Building, which proceeded after the Illinois Supreme Court decided private preservation groups did not have standing to challenge the city's decision. Once the site was cleared, the initial redevelopment plan fell through, as did several subsequent plans. Mills Corporation broke ground in 2005, but had been in financial difficulty in the past. This reputation and changing financial climate caused a delay in 2006 as contractors feared not getting paid. In November 2009, the developer was declared in default and CB Richard Ellis was named receiver. The project was inherited by Joseph Freed and Associates LLC. However, Bank of America foreclosed on the property in 2011 and sold it in 2012 to CIM Group. The three new buildings were completed by 2016. Site In 1829, the legislature appointed commissioners to locate a canal and layout the surrounding town. The commissioners employed James Thompson to survey and plat the town of Chicago, which at the time had a population of less than 100. Historians regard the August 4, 1830, filing of the plat as the official recognition of a municipality known as Chicago. Block 37 is one of the city's original 58 blocks in the layout of the town. Due to Block 37's central location in the Loop, between the State Street retail district, the city/county government complex, and the Randolph Street theater district, its history is a microcosm of the city's history. Even before the Chicago Fire, the block was home to one of Chicago's largest theaters. During the late 19th century, tall office buildings proliferated on the block. By 1970, the block was densely developed with 11 buildings, housing theaters, offices, a YMCA, and retailers like grocery store Stop & Shop. On June 14, 1973, Mayor Richard J. Daley announced a broad urban renewal initiative centered on the North Loop theater district. Over the ensuing 16 years, numerous private developers, notably the Rubloff Company and JMB Realty, planned large mixed-use developments on the site, with a mall along State Street and hotels and office towers above. Property assembly was facilitated by Mayor Harold Washington's creation of the North Loop tax increment financing district in 1983, which gave the urban renewal effort a steady revenue stream and eminent domain authority. The modern-day Block 37 is flanked to the west by the Richard J. Daley Center and to the east by the former Marshall Field and Company Building. It is part of the central business district that includes Chicago City Hall and the James R. Thompson Center (the State of Illinois office building) within 2 blocks. Design Buildings According to original plans, the complex was to be composed of three united structures: a 21-story residential condominium tower called 108 North State Condominium Tower at North State Street and West Randolph Street; a 20-story hotel tower called 108 North State Hotel Tower at West Randolph Street and North Dearborn Street; and a 17-story tower called CBS Broadcast Center at North State Street and West Washington Street (for WBBM-TV, CBS 2). At one point, there was talk that the hotel tower has been abandoned in favor of a second residential tower, though later plans indicated that the hotel tower was still anticipated. These structures rise above lower level retail space, with an eclectic mix of shopping, entertainment, and dining in its lower retail floors. In November 2008, the city proposed financing to enable Loews Hotels to build a 354-room hotel. Architecturally, the main floor features transparent cornered project facades and clear glass street level views. The multiple structures feature approximately of retail, entertainment and dining space, and of office space. The 38-story Marquee at Block 37, also known as 25 West Randolph Street, was completed in 2016 with 690 residential units. Transit facilities The design that broke ground in 2005 included a superstation that would connect the tracks of and serve passengers on both the CTA Blue Line and CTA Red Line, enabling direct transfers. The planned project included a downtown station for train service to both Chicago airports: O'Hare via Blue Line trains and Midway via the Orange Line trains (connecting via Red Line subway tracks). The cost of the station was estimated at $213 million. The City of Chicago and the Chicago Transit Authority were to pay $173 million, and the Mills Corporation (the initial developer) was to pay for the rest. Cost overruns and delays forced the city of Chicago and the Chicago Transit Authority to pay about $100 million to cover already-incurred costs, and the CTA canceled the project, partly because it did not have the estimated $1.5 billion that would be needed to create express airport service (as opposed to slow local train service using existing tracks and stations). In the end, about $400 million was spent on construction on the shell of a station, plus $40 million in mothballing costs. In November 2009, progress in construction of the commercial and residential buildings allowed the Block 37 portion of the Chicago Pedway to open between the Lake station on the Red Line and the Washington/Dearborn station on the Blue Line. Because this only connected the unpaid areas of the stations, farecard holders paid the standard $0.25 transfer fare to use this connection. In May 2013, the CTA made this transfer free. After the failure of the CTA superstation project, the city began investigating the possibility of a privately constructed airport express service using Block 37 as the downtown endpoint. The city announced in June 2018, that The Boring Company had won a contest to negotiate a contract to construct a high-speed rapid transit link to O'Hare, dubbed Chicago Express Loop, using twin tunnels and electric vehicles based on the Tesla Model X. Funding for construction and operation would be provided completely by the company, and the system would reduce travel time to O'Hare to about 12 minutes. History Block 37 Block 37 was demolished in 1989, after Mayor Richard M. Daley approved its demolition to erect a multi-use skyscraper with retail, hotel, office, and residential spaces. This prompted much public consternation; the McCarthy Building, a Chicago Landmark, was even stripped of landmark status over the objection of preservationists and public interest groups in order for the block to be cleared. Block 37 was a nearly vacant city block from 1989 until 2005 after several attempts at redevelopment failed due to Chicago politics and insufficient funding of several past developers. The single remaining building from the pre-1989 Block 37 architecture is an active Commonwealth Edison transformer building that distributes power to a great portion of the Loop. Maggie Daley's nonprofit, After School Matters, started as Gallery37 in the summer of 1991, where the organization set up tents to provide visual arts classes to teenagers. The organization moved from Block 37 when development began, and now operates in a nearby building named "Gallery 37 Center for the Arts" on Randolph Street, a few blocks east of its original home. In 1987, Chicago Mayor Harold Washington approved a $24 million subsidy to FJV Venture to develop Block 37. There were a series of subsequent alternate redevelopment plans. Among the prior redevelopment plans for the block were the original Block 37 Towers, for which the original block was demolished and which included a 47-story tower designed by Murphy/Jahn, Inc. Another failed plan was a Solomon Cordwell Buenz plan including a 711-foot 66-story residential tower and a 12-story Marriott Hotel towering over a 4-story retail base. This had followed the 39-story Kohn Pedersen Fox Associates design scheduled for 2004 completion. The developments fell through, which put the property back into the city's possession. In 2002, the city initiated a competition for the development rights to the property. In 2004, the city sold the property to Mills Corp. at a $20 million loss. Mills sold the development rights to Joseph Freed and Associates in 2005, when the city committed $42 million in tax-increment funding. In 2007, the city learned the development was $150 million over budget. The complex was originally being developed by commercial real estate developer Mills Corporation, best known for its ownership of numerous super-regional shopping malls. However, Joseph Freed and Associates LLC has inherited the development rights. The Mills Corporation Corporate difficulties Mills' troubles began in November 2005, with revelations of large losses on failed projects, a cash crunch and a U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission investigation into its accounting. The SEC inquiry was upgraded to a formal investigation in March 2006. The reclassification as a formal investigation allows for the use of additional techniques such as subpoenas. On April 6, 2007, Simon Property Group, Inc. announced the joint acquisition of Mills Corporation along with Farallon Capital Management for $25.25 per share of common stock. Block 37 troubles In March 2006, contractors halted construction because of fears that they would not be paid. This caused Morningstar to reconsider their lease commitment. As a result, the value of the project declined, which made the resale of the project rights difficult. Mills was close to a deal with German investment firm, Deutsche Immobilien Fonds A.G. prior to the difficulties. DIFA had outbid Chicago developer Golub & Co., which then became the frontrunner. Golub, an international real estate investment company headquartered in Chicago, has closed on the office space portion of the project. Mills eventually sold the retail space rights to Chicago developer Joseph Freed & Associates, who had previously purchased the nearby Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building (located at 1 South State Street) that closed in early 2007. By 2007, Golub and Mills were in a legal entanglement over certain leases to Morningstar for . Golub claimed Mills knew the measurements of the floors actually totalled although they contracted for . Golub claimed a Morningstar affiliate "...induced Morningstar to agree in the lease to be bound by an after-the-fact re-measurement of the space." Additionally, Golub claimed that Mills has acted without Daley administration authorizations for plans such as elimination of a proposed hotel in favor of a second apartment tower, as required by an agreement between Golub and Mills. In addition, Golub had sued over the residential portion of the project, which was given to Freed. Golub claimed to have accepted the office space part of the project at a low profit with the expectation of making a larger profit on the residential portion. The subsequent court ruling allowed Mills to terminate its contract with Golub to develop the project's two residential towers and to sell the residential portion of the Block 37 project in the Loop to developer Joseph A. Freed & Associates LLC. 2009 foreclosure Lenders, including Bank of America, moved to foreclose on the retail and transit portion of the mixed-use development on October 19, 2009, because Joseph Freed and Associates ran out of money. Freed technically defaulted in March. With cost overruns exceeding $34 million as of August 25, Freed owed $128.5 million on a $205 million construction loan, according to a lawsuit filed in Cook County Circuit Court. On November 3, the developer announced it had landed 13 new tenants to open within the succeeding few months. On November 20, a circuit court judge stripped Freed of the development rights and turn the responsibility over to CB Richard Ellis. On the same day a partial occupancy permit for the underground pedway connecting the Red Line and the Blue Line as well as the first floor retail space was granted. Freed claimed that the loan payments were current and that the default was based on a technicality. Freed was found personally liable for $6.8 million of the cost on December 30, 2009. As receiver, CB Richard Ellis was scheduled to file a status report with the court December 8 and a full report, including financials, on January 15, 2010. Disputes over insurance delayed the handover of development rights, which finally happened in late January 2010. In March 2011, Bank of America acquired the $206 million property with a credit bid of $100 million at a sheriff's foreclosure sale. Then in February 2012, CIM Group was expected to close on a negotiated purchase of the entire 305,000-square-foot shopping center from Bank of America Corp. CIM did not actually close on the purchase until April 2012. Progress Phase I construction The Mills Corporation purchased the property for the project from the city on November 11, 2005. Phase I of the project, the groundbreaking, began formally on November 15, 2005. This followed winning the competition to be master developer and having their plan approved by the city. The Mills Corporation has letters of intent from CBS 2 Chicago Broadcast Center, Boggi Milano, Sisley, Andrew's Ties, Banana Republic, Rosa Mexicano, David Barton Gym and new concepts by Steve Lombardo, creator of Gibson's Steakhouse and Hugo's Frog Bar, and Steven Foster, creator of Lucky Strike Lanes in Hollywood as future tenant commitments. Morningstar, Inc. has signed a lease to occupy about 210,000 square feet (20,000 m2) across eight floors, making it the largest tenant in the office tower. In April 2005, Mills had announced a lease commitment with WBBM-Channel 2 for about 100,000 square feet (10,000 m2) of space for offices and a showcase television studio. In February 2008, developer Joseph Freed & Associates announced Club Monaco, a Muvico Entertainment LLC theatre, a David Barton Gym, a Rosa Mexican restaurant, a coffee shop and a yet-to-be-named Lettuce Entertain You Enterprises Inc. restaurant will be located in the State Street complex. In June 2008, Puma confirmed it is opening a two-level flagship store on Block 37. Also, the Muvico Theatre was reported to have an eight screen multiplex. In October 2008, Spanish clothing store Zara signed a lease for Block 37 along with German athletic-wear company Puma athletic wear and British clothing label Ben Sherman. Other confirmed retailers include clothier Steve Madden, Godiva Chocolatier, sporting apparel seller Lululemon Athletica Inc., hair and skin products retailer Aveda as well as body and bath products retailer Sabon. Other stores rumored to be considering Block 37 at that time were Apple Computer and Crate & Barrel home furnishings Phase II construction On July 31, 2006, the retail and CTA construction began. The retail portion entails the construction of the CBS 2 Broadcast Center building at North State Street and West Washington Street. The building will also serve as the corporate headquarters of Morningstar, Inc. This 17-story building will be in height. After a series of previous failures on this project, this marks the first time redevelopment has gone past ground breaking to the construction phase. The first phase of construction (Phase II) had been contracted to be completed by March 2008. This would enable Morningstar, Inc. to move before its early 2009 lease expiration at its location on 225 W. Wacker Drive. However, financial troubles caused delays that necessitated Morningstar—who had intended to occupy over half of the building—seek lease proposals from other downtown office towers. Morningstar would have suffered holdover penalties and other damages if it were unable to move before its lease expires. Morningstar was hesitant to pursue other opportunities because their lease at 108 North State Street was at a below market price in the low $20s/square foot. On June 11, 2008, the CTA board was scheduled to hear the city's plan of a three-phase bailout of the construction of the rapid transit station under block 37. The plan included $20 million in additional tax increment financing. This comes on top of an extra $60–70 million in excess of its budgeted amount that the CTA had been forced to expend. The building developer, Joseph Freed & Associates, has agreed to accept $19 million of cost overruns. This round of assistance only covers costs that have been incurred to date. No further funds have been committed and the station's development is being halted until such funds arise. The original budget was $213 million ($173 from CTA) and the costs-to-date had been $320 million. The costs had run $150 million over budget at that time, and the city was seeking private investment. Construction finally began on the third building, the hotel and residences in the end of 2009. You Are Beautiful During construction, 100 local artists created cutout woodblock letters to place on the temporary construction wall. They were posted on the wall adjacent to the temporary pedestrian walkway next to the construction site. The phrase " You Are Beautiful" was spelled out in various languages. Completion In September 2008, the mixed-use 16-story building held its ribbon cutting ceremony. The CBS studio includes a outside video display. Morningstar moved its global headquarters into the building. The structure also had the world's first luxury coworking space, with 100 individual workspaces for rent on the 15th floor in a space that includes a spa, pool hall, recording studio, graphic design shop, audio-visual board room, penthouse suites and concierge. The shopping center includes Bebe, Coach and J.Crew. Lettuce Entertain You, who also operates the food court at Water Tower Place, operates a cafe, food court and market. The top floor was to be occupied by Muvico Theaters, who pulled out in 2009. The David Barton Gym, the first and largest tenant of the Block 37 project, also withdrew from the project. The reason the gym opted out was the delayed opening of the mall, which is scheduled for fall 2009 opening rather than fall 2008 as scheduled. In March 2009, Apple Inc. also withdrew from its leasing agreement, and less than a month later it signed an agreement to develop a new storefront in the Clybourn Corridor on property bounded by North Avenue, Halsted Street and Clybourn Avenue. After Apple backed out of its lease, Lululemon backed out of its lease to be located next to Apple. Other March 2009 tenant signings included Chicago's haberdashery Bigsby & Kruthers, Sunglass Hut, crystal jewelers Swarovski, Starfruit Cafe, and Fast-casual eatery Tahini. Also, in the face of declining advertising revenue, CBS sought to sublease part of its studio. On November 20, 2009, the underground pedway connecting the Blue Line and the Red Line opened. The following day Steve Madden shoes, opened the first retail establishment in the structure. As of February 2012, the theatre, food court and gym had not opened and were no longer planned. The building remained only 26 percent occupied at that time due to hesitance by retailers to commit to leases while lender Bank of America and developer Joseph Freed battled in bankruptcy court. Apartment building In 2014, CIM began moving forward with adding a rental residential tower atop Block 37. In March 2014, rumors began that an apartment building exceeding 500 units was being planned. On September 11, CIM issued a press release that it had obtained permits for a 34-story, 690-unit apartment tower, which Crain's Chicago Business described as "the biggest apartment tower the Loop has seen in decades". The official commencement of the glass-walled project was on October 29 with expected completion by Summer 2016 to include amenities such as outdoor pool and spa, plus a rooftop spa and fitness center. At the time the retail spaces were only 52 percent occupied. The apartment building construction eliminated the plans to build a hotel atop the structure. The apartment building construction coincided with plans to bring an 11-screen AMC Theatres dine-in movie theater to the building. The 4th floor AMC theater opened its doors on December 17, 2015 as scheduled as the Loop's only major chain movie theatre. The theatre is Chicago's first Dine-In Theatre in which patrons order food by the touch of a button from their seats. On June 1, 2016, the 38-story, 690-unit Marquee at Block 37 opened at 25 West Randolph St., marking the conclusion of construction at Block 37. CIM and its partner in the project, Canadian firm Morguard, attempted to put the building for sale in 2017 at $414 million. After no one offered to buy 25 West Randolph St., the companies refinanced the building in late 2017 with a $225 million mortgage, of which $110 million was used to repay a $110 million loan that funded construction. The developers then placed the building for sale again in 2019 at a cost of $300 million. Morguard bought out CIM's stake in November 2019. Northwestern Mutual provided the $165 million loan for Morguard to buy out CIM's stake. Gallery References External links Pictorial block 37 information block 37 construction webcam Buildings and structures under construction in the United States Buildings and structures in Chicago Chicago Transit Authority Shopping malls in Chicago Residential condominiums in Chicago Skyscraper office buildings in Chicago CBS television studios Food halls Proposed skyscrapers in the United States Richard M. Daley
5265708	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20participation	Public participation	Public participation, also known as citizen participation or patient and public involvement, is the inclusion of the public in the activities of any organization or project. Public participation is similar to but more inclusive than stakeholder engagement. Generally public participation seeks and facilitates the involvement of those potentially affected by or interested in a decision. This can be in relation to individuals, governments, institutions, companies or any other entities that affect public interests. The principle of public participation holds that those who are affected by a decision have a right to be involved in the decision-making process. Public participation implies that the public's contribution will influence the decision. Public participation may be regarded as a form of empowerment and as vital part of democratic governance. In the context of knowledge management the establishment of ongoing participatory processes is seen by some in the facilitator of collective intelligence and inclusiveness, shaped by the desire for the participation of the whole community or society. Public participation is part of "people centred" or "human centric" principles, which have emerged in Western culture over the last thirty years, and has had some bearings of education, business, public policy and international relief and development programs. Public participation is advanced by the humanist movements. Public participation may be advanced as part of a "people first" paradigm shift. In this respect public participation may challenge the concept that "big is better" and the logic of centralized hierarchies, advancing alternative concepts of "more heads are better than one" and arguing that public participation can sustain productive and durable change. Some legal and other frameworks have developed a human rights approach to public participation. For example, the right to public participation in economic and human development was enshrined in the 1990 African Charter for Popular Participation in Development and Transformation. Similarly major environmental and sustainability mechanisms have enshrined a right to public participation, such as the Rio Declaration. By field Art Budgeting Participatory budgeting is a process of democratic deliberation and decision-making, in which ordinary city residents decide how to allocate part of a municipal or public budget. Participatory budgeting is usually characterized by several basic design features: identification of spending priorities by community members, election of budget delegates to represent different communities, facilitation and technical assistance by public employees, local and higher level assemblies to deliberate and vote on spending priorities, and the implementation of local direct-impact community projects. Participatory budgeting may be used by towns and cities around the world, and has been widely publicised in Porto Alegre, Brazil, were the first full participatory budgeting process was developed starting in 1989. Development In economic development theory, there is a school of participatory development. The desire to increase public participation in humanitarian aid and development has led to the establishment of a numerous context-specific, formal methodologies, matrices, pedagogies and ad hoc approaches. These include conscientization and praxis; Participatory action research (PAR), rapid rural appraisal (RRA) and participatory rural appraisal (PRA); appreciation influence control analysis (AIC); "open space" approaches; Objectives Oriented Project Planning (ZOPP); vulnerability analysis and capacity analysis. Environment and sustainable development In recent years public participation has become to be seen as a vital part of addressing environmental problems and bringing about sustainable development. In this context the limits of solely relying on technocratic bureaucratic monopoly of decision making, and it is argued that public participation allows governments to adopt policies and enact laws that are relevant to communities and take into account their needs. Public participation is recognised as an environmental principle, see Environmental Principles and Policies, and has been enshrined in the Rio Declaration. Heritage Around the globe experts work closely with local communities. Local communities are crucial stakeholders for heritage. Consultation with local communities is acknowledged formally in cultural management processes. They are necessary for defining the significance of a cultural place/site, otherwise you run the risk to oversee many values, focusing on “experts’” views. This has been the case in heritage management until the end of the 20th century. A paradigm shift started with the Burra Charter by ICOMOS Australia in 1979 and was later developed by the work of the GCI around 2000. Today, so called “value-led conservation” is at the base of heritage management for WH sites: establishing stakeholders and associated values is a fundamental step in creating a Management Plan for such sites. The concept of stakeholders has widened to include local communities. Various levels of local government, research institutions, enterprises, charitable organisations, and communities are all important parties. Activities such as knowledge exchange, education, consultation, exhibitions, academic events, publicity campaigns, among others are all effective means for local participation. For instance, local charities in Homs, Syria have been undertaking several projects with local communities to protect their heritage. A conservation programme in Dangeil, Sudan, has used social and economic relationship with the community to make the project sustainable over the long term. In Australia, Indigenous communities increasingly have stewardship of conservation and management programs to care for, monitor and maintain their cultural heritage places and landscapes, particularly those containing rock art. Media Public policy In some countries public participation has become a central principle of public policy making within democratic bodies, policies are rendered legitimate when citizens have the opportunity to influence the politicians and parties involved. In the UK and Canada it has been observed that all levels of government have started to build citizen and stakeholder engagement into their policy-making processes. Situating citizens as active actors in policy-making can work to offset government failures by allowing for reform that will better emulate the needs of citizens. By incorporating citizens, policies will reflect everyday needs and realities, and not the machinations of politicians and political parties. This may involve large-scale consultations, focus group research, online discussion forums, or deliberative citizens' juries. There are many different public participation mechanisms, although these often share common features (for a list over 100, and a typology of mechanisms, see Rowe and Frewer, 2005). Public participation is viewed as a tool, intended to inform planning, organising or funding of activities. Public participation may also be used to measure attainable objectives, evaluate impact, and identify lessons for future practice. In Brazil's housing councils, mandated in 2005, citizen engagement in policy drafting increased effectiveness and responsiveness of government public service delivery. All modern constitutions and fundamental laws contain and declare the concept and principle of popular sovereignty, which essentially means that the people are the ultimate source of public power or government authority. The concept of popular sovereignty holds simply that in a society organized for political action, the will of the people as a whole is the only right standard of political action. It can be regarded as an important element in the system of the checks and balances, and representative democracy. Therefore, the people are implicitly entitled even to directly participate in the process of public policy and law making. In the United States public participation in administrative rulemaking refers to the process by which proposed rules are subject to public comment for a specified period of time. Public participation is typically mandatory for rules promulgated by executive agencies of the US government. Statutes or agency policies may mandate public hearings during this period. Science Other Public trust In recent years loss of public trust in authorities and politicians has become a widespread concern in many democratic societies.The relationship between citizens and local governments has weakened over the past two decades due to shortcomings in public service delivery. Public participation is a regarded as one potential solution to the crisis in public trust and governance, particularly in the UK, Europe, and other democracies. Establishing direct citizen participation can increase governance's effectiveness, legitimacy, and social justice. The idea is that public should be involved more fully in the policy process in that authorities seek public views and participation, instead of treating the public as simply passive recipients of policy decisions. The underlying assumption by political theorists, social commentators, and even politicians is that public participation increase public trust in authorities, improving citizen political efficacy, enhancing democratic ideals and even improving the quality of policy decisions. However, the assumed benefits of public participation in restoring public trust are yet to be confirmed. Citizen participation is only sustained if citizens support it and if their involvement is actively supported by the governing body. Accountability and transparency Public participation may also be viewed as accountability enhancing. The argument being that public participation can be a means for the participating communities to hold public authorities accountable for implementation. In the United Kingdom citizens are used to ensure the fair and humane detention of prisoners. Volunteers comprise the Independent Monitoring Board that reports on the fair and humane detention of prisoners and detainees. Many community organizations are composed of affluent middle-class citizens with the privilege and the time to participate. It is well documented that low-income citizens face difficulty organizing themselves and engaging in public issues. Obstacles like: finding affordable childcare, getting time off of work, and access to education in public matters exacerbate the lack of participation by low-income citizens. To foster greater participation of all social groups, vanguard privileged classes work to bring in low-income citizens through collaboration. The organizations establish an incentive for participation through accessible language and friendly environments. This allows for an atmosphere of consensus between middle and lower-income citizens. Critical interpretations The concept and practice of public participation has been critiqued, often using Foucauldian analytical frameworks. Such accounts detail how participation can be a method of capturing community activity into regimes of power and control although it has also been noted that capture and empowerment can co-exist. In 1990 practitioners established the International Association for Public Practitioners in order to respond to the increasing interest in the practice, and in turn established the International Association for Public Participation (IAP2). The practice is well established globally and the International Association of Public Participation now has affiliate organizations across the globe. Public participation in environmental governance With growing complexities of the environmental issues, public participation has come to the fore in academic analysis concerning the contemporary debates about environmental governance. There have emerged a number of arguments in favor of a more participatory approach, which stress that public participation is a crucial element in environmental governance that contributes to better decision making. It is recognised that environmental problems cannot be solved by government alone. Participation in environmental decision-making effectively links the public to environmental governance. By involving the public, who are at the root of both causes and solutions of environmental problems, in environmental discussions, transparency and accountability are more likely to be achieved, thus secures the democratic legitimacy of decision-making that good environmental governance depends on. Arguably, a strong public participation in environmental governance could increase the commitment among stockholders, which strengthens the compliance and enforcement of environmental laws. GIS can provide a valuable tool for such work (see GIS and environmental governance). In addition, some opponents argue that the right to participate in environmental decision-making is a procedural right that "can be seen as part of the fundamental right to environmental protection". From this ethical perspective, environmental governance is expected to operate within a framework coinciding the "constitutional principle of fairness (inclusive of equality)", which inevitably requires the fulfillment of "environmental rights" and ultimately calls for the engagement of public. Further, in the context of considerable scientific uncertainties surrounding environmental issues, public participation helps to counter such uncertainties and bridges the gap between scientifically-defined environmental problems and the experiences and values of stakeholders. Through joint effort of the government and scientists in collaboration with the public, better governance of environment is expected to be achieved by making the most appropriate decision possible. Although broad agreements exist, the notion of public participation in environmental decision-making has been subject to a sustained critique concerning the real outcome of participatory environmental governance. Critics argue that public participation tends to focus on reaching a consensus between actors who share the same values and seek the same outcomes. However, the uncertain nature of many of the environmental issues would undermine the validity of public participation, given that in many cases the actors come to the table of discussion hold very different perceptions of the problem and solution which are unlikely to be welded into a consensus due to the incommensurability of different positions. This may run the risk of expert bias, which generates further exclusion as those who are antagonistic to the consensus would be marginalised in the environmental decision-making process, which violates the assumed advantage of participatory approach to produce democratic environmental decisions. This raises the further question of whether consensus should be the measure of a successful outcome of participation. As Davies suggests, participative democracy could not guarantee the substantive environmental benefits 'if there are competing views of what the environment should be like and what it is valuable for'. Consequently, who should be involved at what points in the process of environmental decision-making and what is the goal of this kind of participation become central to the debates on public participation as a key issue in environmental governance. Citizen science Citizen science is a coined term commonly used to describe the participation of non-scientists in scientific research. Greater inclusion of non-professional scientists in policy research is important. It is academia's responsibly to facilitate the "democratization of policy research". This has several benefits: having citizens involved in not just the contribution of data, but also the framing and development of research itself. The key to success in applying citizen science to policy development is data which is "suitable, robust, and of a known quality for evidence-based policy making". Barriers to applying citizen science to policy development include a lack of suitability between the data collected and the policy in question and skepticism regarding the data collected by non-experts. Right to public participation Reporting and evaluating public participation and involvement Reporting and evaluating methods of public participation and involvement in across multiple disciplines and languages has been an ongoing challenge, making it difficult to assess effectiveness. Some novel tools for reporting involvement, engagement and participation across disciplines using standardised terminology have been developed. For example, a beta version of Standardised Data on Initiatives (STARDIT) was published in 2022, using Wikidata to encourage consistent terminology across languages to describe the tasks of involvement, the methods, communication modes and any impacts or outcomes from involvement. STARDIT has already been used by a number of organisations to report initiatives, including Cochrane, Australian Genomics 'Guidelines For Community Involvement In Genomics Research', NIHR funded research projects, La Trobe University's Academic and Research Collaborative in Health (ARCH), citizen science projects and the Wiki Journals. See also References Government Articles containing video clips Participation Participatory democracy
5265794	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simcha%20Jacobovici	Simcha Jacobovici	Simcha Jacobovici (; born April 4, 1953) is a Canadian-Israeli journalist, New York Times best-selling author and documentary filmmaker. Biography Simcha Jacobovici's parents were Holocaust survivors from Iași, Romania. He was born April 4, 1953, in Petah Tikva, Israel. In 1962, the family relocated to Canada. He earned a B.A. in philosophy and political science (with honors) from McGill University and an M.A. in International Relations from the University of Toronto. From 2015 to 2018 he was an Adjunct Professor of religious studies at Huntington University, Greater Sudbury, Ontario. Film career Jacobovici is a three-time Emmy winner for Outstanding Investigative Journalism. His filmmaking awards include a Certificate of Special Merit from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, a Gold Medal from the International Documentary Festival of Nyon, two US CableACE Awards, a Royal Television Society Award, two Gemini Awards, an Alfred I. duPont–Columbia University Award, two Gold Dolphins from the Cannes Corporate Media & TV Awards, a Jack R. Howard Award from the Scripps Howard Awards for In-Depth National and International Coverage, the Norman Bethune Award from the Canadian Medical Association for Excellence in International Health Reporting and, from the Overseas Press Club of America, two Edward R. Murrow Awards and a Carl Spielvogel Award. In 2017, he was awarded the Gordon Sinclair Award, Canada's highest achievement in Broadcast Journalism, from the Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television. As an early advocate of airlifting Ethiopian Jews to Israel, he wrote an op-ed piece on the subject for New York Times and made his first documentary, Falasha: Exile of the Black Jews (1983). The Economist credited Jacobovici's documentary as one of the factors leading to the 1984–85 Israeli airlift of Ethiopian Jews to Israel. Jacobovici's film on the Arab–Israeli conflict, Deadly Currents (1991), won the Genie Award for Best Documentary, a gold medal at the International Documentary Festival of Nyon, and was the runner-up for the Peace Prize at the 1991 Berlin Film Festival and was the only documentary screened in both Israeli army bases and Palestinian Refugee Camps. Jacobovici has made three documentaries with James Cameron, The Exodus Decoded (2005), The Lost Tomb of Jesus (2007) and Atlantis Rising (2016). Working with Samuel L. Jackson and LaTanya Richardson Jackson, in 2020 Jacobovici completed the 6 part series Enslaved: The Lost History of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (CBC, Epix, BBC, Fremantle) as Showrunner/Series Director. Enslaved is the most comprehensive television series ever made on the subject. It tells the epic and tragic story using a modern day quest for sunken slave ships as the springboard to the larger narrative.Enslaved is being broadcast in 147 countries garnering record ratings and outstanding reviews. Enslaved was nominated for two NAACP Image Awards, including Best Director and Series and won 3 Canadian Screen Awards. It won a "Buzzie" for Best Historical Series at the World Congress of Science and Factual Producers. It was also honored for Outstanding Achievement by the Impact Doc Awards and was named Best Documentary at the International Filmmaker Festival in London. As part of their anti-racism campaign, Enslaved has been screened in the United Nations and the European Parliament. Paris Match has called Enslaved "One small step for man…One giant leap for civil rights!" His 2022 book, Enslaved: The Sunken History of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, written with Sean Kingsley, with a preface by Brenda Jones, was published by Pegasus in New York and distributed by Simon & Schuster worldwide. He is presently (2022–2023) Showrunner/Series Director on The Science of Avatar, a 4-part non-scripted series for Disney+/National Geographic. Controversies Several of Jacobovici's films have sparked controversies. The 1994 film, The Plague Monkeys resulted in the closure of a level 4 lab in Toronto, Canada. James, Brother of Jesus highlighted an ossuary in the private collection of an Israeli antiquities collector, Oded Golan. Golan was accused of forging part of the inscription on a 2,000-year-old bone box/ossuary. Jacobovici and Hershel Shanks (founding editor of Biblical Archaeology Review), stood by their story. In 2012, after 7 years in an Israeli court, Golan was exonerated. His most controversial claim is the identification of a tomb in Jerusalem as that of Jesus of Nazareth and his family in the Talpiot Tomb. In 2008, a conference made up of renowned scholars took place in Jerusalem to discuss the thesis of Jacobovici’s film. By the end, a minority of scholars backed the thesis, another minority rejected it and the majority argued that the subject has to be studied further. The proceedings of the conference were published by James H. Charlesworth under the name The Tomb of Jesus and His Family? Exploring Ancient Jewish Tombs Near Jerusalem’s Walls (Eerdmans) (2013). Investigative archaeology Over the past decades, Jacobovici has engaged in what he calls "investigative archaeology". In 2012, Jacobovici investigated a Second Temple-era burial cave in Armon Hanatziv with a camera mounted on a robotic arm. Along with James Tabor, he claimed that the 2,000-year-old cave may be the burial site of disciples of Jesus. Such identification has been rejected by many scholars. Jacobovici hosted three seasons of The Naked Archaeologist on VisionTV in Canada and The History Channel in the United States. In 2013, the series began to be broadcast on the Israel Broadcast Authority (IBA) Channel 1. The series can be streamed on Amazon and YouTube. A reboot is scheduled for 2023. Jacobovici has written analysis pieces for The New York Times, International Herald Tribune, The Globe and Mail, Los Angeles Times and other newspapers. At times, he blogs on SimchaJTV, The Times of Israel, The Jerusalem Post and The Huffington Post. Most recently, Jacobovici published a magazine article in the Smithsonian Magazine on the transatlantic slave trade (October 17, 2022). Jacobovici has been interviewed on numerous television shows like Anderson Cooper 360, Larry King Live, ABC Nightline, The Oprah Winfrey Show, NBC Today Show and ABC Good Morning America. Books Jacobovici is also the co-author of two e-books; "Michelangelo's Angels and Demons" and "The James Revelation", published by Zoomerbooks, as a companion to his television series "Biblical Conspiracies". Filmography Director Enslaved: The Lost History of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (Epix, CBC, Fremantle, 2020) Atlantis Rising (National Geographic/Discovery, 2017) Bride of God (Science Channel/VisionTV, 2014) The Jesus Discovery/The Resurrection Tomb Mystery (2012) Secrets of Christianity/Decoding the Ancients (2010) The Lost Tomb of Jesus (2007) Charging the Rhino (2007) The Naked Archaeologist (2006–2010) The Exodus Decoded (2005) James, Brother of Jesus (2003) The Struma (2001) Quest for the Lost Tribes (1998) Hollywoodism: Jews, Movies & the American Dream (1997) Expulsion and Memory: Descendants of the Hidden Jews (1996) Bones of Contention (1993) Deadly Currents (1991) Falasha: Exile of the Black Jews (1983) Producer Enslaved: The Lost History of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (2020) The Good Nazi (2019) Tales from the Organ Trade (2013) Living in the Time of Jesus (2010) Yummy Mummy (2005) Sex Slaves/The Real Sex Traffic (2005) Impact of Terror (2004) Tell It Like It Is (2003/04) Penn & Teller’s Magic and Mystery Tour (2000) Pandemic: Case of the Killer Flu (1999) Frozen Hearts (1999) Jesus in Russia: An American Holy War (1996) The Selling of Innocents (1996) Ebola: Inside an Outbreak/The Plague Fighters (1996) The Plague Monkeys (1994) Bones of Contention (1993) AIDS in Africa (1990) Selected awards Canadian Screen Awards, Best History Documentary Program or Series; Barbara Sears Award for Best Editorial Research; Best Photography Documentary or Factual, 2021 World Congress of Science & Factual Producers Buzzie, Best History Program – Long Format, 2020 Impact DOCS Award, Outstanding Achievement/Award of Excellence: Documentary Feature/Award of Excellence: Cinematography/Award of Excellence: History, Biographical, 2020 NAACP Image Awards, Outstanding Documentary, television, Nomination, 2020 NAACP Image Awards, Outstanding Directing in a Documentary, Television or Motion Picture, 2020 London International Filmmakers Festival, Best Feature Documentary, 2020 Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television, Gordon Sinclair Award, 2017 Canadian Association of Journalists Award, Open Broadcast Feature, 2015 Donald Brittain Award for Best Documentary, Canada, 2015, 1997 Edward R. Murrow Award, Overseas Press Club of America, 2014, 2007, 2006 Jack R. Howard Award for Television/Cable In-Depth National and International Coverage, USA, 2014 Norman Bethune Award, Excellence in International Health Reporting, Canadian Medical Association Media Awards, 2014 Gold Award, WorldMedia Festival, Hamburg, Germany 2014 Gold Dolphin, Cannes Corporate Media & TV Awards, France, 2014, 2013 Raven Award, Best Feature Documentary, USA 2013 Special Jury Prize, Nevada International Film Festival, USA, 2013 Best Documentary, Tenerife International Film Festival, Canary Islands, 2013 Banff Rockie Award, Best Social and Humanitarian Program, Canada, 2013 Gold WorldMedal, Most Innovative Production, New York Festivals, USA, 2013 International Golden Panda Nomination, Sichuan TV Festival, China, 2013, 2012 Cine Golden Eagle Award, USA, 2011, 2010 Wilbur Award for Best Documentary, USA, 2010, 2007 Special Jury Prize, Brussels Archaeological Film Festival, 2009 Gemini, Best Host, Canada, Nomination, 2007 Emmy Award, Outstanding Investigative Journalism, USA, 2007, 1997, 1995 British Broadcast Award, Best Documentary Programme, U.K., 2006 Royal Television Society Award, U.K., 2006 BAFTA, Best Single Documentary, U.K., Nomination, 2006 Bulldog Award for Best Documentary, Televisual Magazine, U.K., 2006 Grand Award, Best of the Festival, Best News Program, New York Film Festivals, 2006 Gold Special Jury Award, Worldfest-Houston, 2005 Carl Spielvogel Award, Overseas Press Club, New York, USA, 2005, 2004 Best Documentary, Portland International Film Festival, USA, 2002 Best Science/Technology/Environment Documentary, Hot Docs International Documentary Festival, Canada, 2000 Best Documentary, Jerusalem Film Festival, 1998 Best History Documentary, Hot Docs International Documentary Festival, Canada, 1998 Best Writing, Hot Docs International Documentary Festival, Canada, 1998 Silver Nymph, Monte Carlo Television Festival, 1997 Gemini Award, Best Science Award, Canada, 1997 Gold Plaque, Chicago International Television Awards, 1997 Best Social Documentary, Hot Docs International Documentary Festival, Canada, 1997 Alfred I. duPont Award, Columbia University, 1997 Best Science/Technology/Environment Documentary, Hot Docs International Documentary Festival, 1997 Best Science, Technology, Nature/Environment Documentary, Gemini Awards, 1997 Cable Ace Award, National Academy of Cable Programming, USA, 1997, 1995, 1992 Freddie Award, American Medical Association, 1997 President's Award, Awards of Excellence in Educational Programming, 1996 Golden Sheaf Award, Yorkton Film Festival, 1996 Grand Prize, Visions du Reel, Nyon, 1992 Best Feature Length Documentary, Genie Awards, Canada, 1992 Gold Hugo, Documentary Feature Film, USA, 1992 Gold Hugo, Best Social/Political Documentary, USA, 1990 Certificate of Special Merit, The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, 1985 Best Film, HemisFilm Festival, San Antonio, Texas, USA, 1985 Selected documentaries and television programs Enslaved: The Lost History of the Transatlantic Slave Trade Enslaved: The Lost History of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (6x1 hr) documents 400 years of human trafficking from Africa to the "New World". Over 12 million Africans were sold into slavery. At least two million died en route. Led by Hollywood icon and human rights activist, Samuel L. Jackson, Enslaved tracks Diving With a Purpose (DWP), a collaborating organization of the National Association of Black Scuba Divers, as they locate six sunken slave ships. These efforts serve as springboards to their telling of the stories of the ideology, economics and politics of slavery. It's also a story of resistance, accomplishment and hope. Atlantis Rising In 2016, Jacobovici directed a documentary about Atlantis for the National Geographic Channel; its executive producer was James Cameron. Shot in several places in the Mediterranean (Greece, Sardinia, Malta, Santorini) such as Spain (Cádiz, Huelva, Sevilla, Jaén, Ciudad Real, Badajoz as well as in other undersea places in the Gulf of Cádiz) and the Azores. It premiered on January 29, 2017, on the National Geographic Channel (US) and at National Geographic Spain as "El Resurgir de la Atlántida" on March 5, 2017. Finding Atlantis Jacobovici was involved as executive producer in the production of a documentary that was shown in March 2010 on the National Geographic Channel. He claimed that Atlantis had been found in Spain, and he said that evidence which was found by University of Hartford Professor Richard Freund included the unearthed emblem of Atlantis and he also said that "Tarshish is Atlantis itself". The Naked Archaeologist The television show The Naked Archaeologist was produced for VisionTV in Canada and History International in the US and was hosted and prepared by Jacobovici and Avri Gilad. The show ultimately reviewed biblical stories and then tried to find proof for them by exploring the Holy Land looking for archaeological evidence, making personal inferences and deductions and interviewing scholars and experts. After its original run on VisionTV, it was picked up in the U.S. by The History Channel and its sister network, History International. The episode "A Nabatean by Any Other Name" won the Special Jury Prize at the 8th International Archaeological Film Festival in Brussels. The Lost Tomb of Jesus The documentary The Lost Tomb of Jesus was co-produced and first broadcast on the Discovery Channel and Vision TV in Canada on March 4, 2007, covering the discovery of the Talpiot Tomb. It was directed by Jacobovici and produced by Felix Golubev and Ric Esther Bienstock, and James Cameron served as executive producer. It was released in conjunction with a book on the same subject, The Jesus Family Tomb, issued in late February 2007 and co-authored by Jacobovici and Charles R. Pellegrino. The documentary and book's claims have been rejected by the overwhelming majority of scholars. The Exodus Decoded The Exodus Decoded, a 2006 History Channel documentary, was created by Jacobovici and the producer/director James Cameron. It explores evidence for the biblical account of the Exodus. Its claims and methods were widely criticized by Biblical scholars and mainstream scientists. Jacobovici suggests that the Exodus took place around 1500 BC, during the reign of Pharaoh Ahmose I, and that it coincided with the Minoan eruption. In the documentary, the biblical plagues of Egypt are explained as having resulted from that eruption and a related limnic eruption in the Nile Delta. While much of Jacobovici's archaeological evidence for the Exodus comes from Egypt, some comes from Mycenae on Mainland Greece, such as a gold ornament that somewhat resembles the Ark of the Covenant. Impact of Terror The 2004 documentary, produced by Jacobovici and directed by Tim Wolochatiuk, is about Israeli victims of terrorism who were struggling to cope in the aftermath of the August 2001 Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing in Jerusalem. Quest for the Lost Tribes In the 2003 wide-ranging documentary, Jacobovici goes on a worldwide search for the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel and states that there are actually only nine tribes because the remnant of the tribe of Dan was confirmed to be the Beta Israel of Ethiopia. Travelling from western Europe to China and India, Jacobovici finds tantalizing evidence which proves that the "lost tribes" are, like the tribe of Dan, really not lost. The tribe of Dan is the only original tribe of Israel which is not included in the Book of Revelation's list of tribes that are sealed. The Struma The 2002 documentary, directed by Jacobovici, tells the story of , a small ship chartered to carry Jewish refugees from Axis-allied Romania to Mandatory Palestine during World War II. Ten people were let off the ship in Istanbul, including a woman who had just had a miscarriage, and one man who was the representative of the Mobil Oil Company in Romania and was helped by Mobil's representative in Turkey, Vehbi Koc. Koc asked the favour of the Istanbul Chief of Police, Sabri Caglayangil, who later became a Minister of the Interior. On February 23, 1942, with her engine inoperable and her refugee passengers aboard, Turkish authorities towed Struma from Istanbul Harbour through the Bosphorus back to the Black Sea, where they set her adrift without food, water or fuel. Within hours, on the morning of February 24, she was torpedoed and sunk by the , killing at least 768 men, women and children and possibly as many as 791, 785 of whom were Jews. The documentary won the Audience Award at the Portland International Film Festival for best documentary. Expulsion and Memory: Descendants of the Hidden Jews In the 1996 documentary, Jacobovici studies the Crypto-Jews of New Mexico and tiny populations of Jewish descendants in Spain and Portugal, known as nuevos Cristianos ("new Christians"). He explores the Jewish ancestry of the New Mexican Hispanic families now living in New Mexico and finds that many of them have always been aware of their Jewish heritage. Falasha: Exile of the Black Jews In the 1983 documentary Falasha: Exile of the Black Jews, Jacobovici tells the story of Ethiopian Jews, also called Falasha (strangers) and properly known as Beta Israel''. According to the documentary, the group was conquered by neighbouring tribes in the 17th century and suffered persecution. References External links Associated Producers Ltd. Associated Producers Ltd. – Simcha Jacobovici Official Site for The Lost Tomb of Jesus Simcha Jacobovici honors his father Simcha Jacobovici Interview 1953 births Living people Canadian documentary film directors 21st-century Canadian male writers Canadian Orthodox Jews Canadian people of Romanian-Jewish descent Israeli emigrants to Canada Israeli Orthodox Jews Jewish Canadian writers Pseudoarchaeologists Pseudohistorians People from Petah Tikva News & Documentary Emmy Award winners 21st-century Canadian non-fiction writers Directors of Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners for Best Documentary Film Historical theories and materials on the Exodus Jewish Canadian filmmakers Canadian Screen Award winning journalists
5265813	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centralia%20mine%20fire	Centralia mine fire	The Centralia mine fire is a coal-seam fire that has been burning in the labyrinth of abandoned coal mines underneath the borough of Centralia, Pennsylvania, United States, since at least May 27, 1962. Its original cause and start date are still a matter of debate. It is burning at depths of up to over an stretch of . At its current rate, it could continue to burn for over 250 years. Due to the fire, in the 1980s Centralia was mostly abandoned. There were 1,500 residents at the time the fire is believed to have started, but as of 2017 it has a population of 5 and most of the buildings have been demolished. Background On May 7, 1962, the Centralia Council met to discuss the approaching Memorial Day and how the town would go about cleaning up the Centralia landfill, which was introduced earlier that year. The 300-foot-wide, 75-foot-long () pit was made up of a 50-foot-deep () strip mine that had been cleared by Edward Whitney in 1935, and came very close to the northeast corner of Odd Fellows Cemetery. There were eight illegal dumps spread about Centralia, and the council's intention in creating the landfill was to stop the illegal dumping, as new state regulations had forced the town to close an earlier dump west of St. Ignatius Cemetery. Trustees at the cemetery were opposed to the landfill's proximity to the cemetery but recognized the illegal dumping elsewhere as a serious problem and envisioned that the new pit would resolve it. Pennsylvania had passed a precautionary law in 1956 to regulate landfill use in strip mines, as landfills were known to cause destructive mine fires. The law required a permit and regular inspection for a municipality to use such a pit. George Segaritus, a regional landfill inspector who worked for the Department of Mines and Mineral Industries (DMMI), became concerned about the pit when he noticed holes in the walls and floor, as such mines often cut through older mines underneath. Segaritus informed Joseph Tighe, a Centralia councilman, that the pit would require filling with an incombustible material. Fire Plan and execution The town council arranged for cleanup of the strip mine dump, but council minutes do not describe the proposed procedure. DeKok surmises that the process—setting it on fire—was not specified because state law prohibited dump fires. Nonetheless, the Centralia council set a date and hired five members of the volunteer firefighter company to clean up the landfill. A fire was ignited to clean the dump on May 27, 1962, and water was used to douse the visible flames that night. However, flames were seen once more on May 29. Using hoses hooked up from Locust Avenue, another attempt was made to douse the fire that night. Another flare-up in the following week (June 4) caused the Centralia Fire Company to once again douse it with hoses. A bulldozer stirred up the garbage so that firemen could douse concealed layers of the burning waste. A few days later, a hole as wide as and several feet high was found in the base of the north wall of the pit. Garbage had concealed the hole and prevented it from being filled with incombustible material. It is possible that this hole led to the mine fire, as it provided a pathway to the labyrinth of old mines under the borough. Evidence indicates that, despite these efforts to douse the fire, the landfill continued to burn; on July 2, Monsignor William J. Burke complained about foul odors from the smoldering trash and coal reaching St. Ignatius Church. Even then, the Centralia council still allowed the dumping of garbage into the pit. Clarence "Mooch" Kashner, the president of the Independent Miners, Breakermen, and Truckers union, came at the invitation of a council member to inspect the situation in Centralia. Kashner evaluated the events and called Gordon Smith, an engineer of the Department of Mines and Mineral Industries (DMMI) office in Pottsville. Smith told the town that he could dig out the smoldering material using a steam shovel for $175. A call was placed to Art Joyce, a mine inspector from Mount Carmel, who brought gas detection equipment for use on the swirling wisps of smoke now emanating from ground fissures in the north wall of the landfill pit. Tests concluded that the gases seeping from the large hole in the pit wall and from cracks in the north wall contained carbon monoxide concentrations typical of coal-mine fires. Escalation The Centralia Council sent a letter to the Lehigh Valley Coal Company (LVCC) as formal notice of the fire. It is speculated that the town council decided that hiding the true origin of the fire would serve better than alerting the LVCC of the truth, which would most likely end in receiving no help from them. In the letter, the borough described the starting of a fire "of unknown origin during a period of unusually hot weather". Preceding an August 6 meeting at the fire site which would include officials from the LVCC and the Susquehanna Coal Company, Deputy Secretary of Mines James Shober Sr. expected that the representatives would inform him they could not afford mounting a project that would stop the mine fire. Therefore, Shober announced that he expected the state to finance the cost of digging out the fire, which was at that time around $30,000 (roughly ). Another offer was made at the meeting, proposed by Centralia strip mine operator Alonzo Sanchez, who told members of council that he would dig out the mine fire free of charge as long as he could claim any coal he recovered without paying royalties to the Lehigh Valley Coal Company. Part of Sanchez's plan was to do exploratory drilling to estimate the scope of the mine fire, which was most likely why Sanchez's offer was rejected at the meeting. The drilling would have delayed the project, not to mention the legal problems with mining rights. At the time, state mine inspectors were in the Centralia-area mines almost daily to check for lethal levels of carbon monoxide. Lethal levels were found on August 9, and all Centralia-area mines were closed the next day. Early remediation attempts First excavation project Pressed at an August 12 meeting of the United Mine Works of America in Centralia, Secretary of Mines Lewis Evans sent a letter to the group on August 15 that claimed he had authorized a project to deal with the mine fire, and that bids for the project would be opened on August 17. Two days later, the contract was awarded to Bridy, Inc., a company near Mount Carmel, for an estimated $20,000 (roughly ). Work on the project began August 22. The Department of Mines and Mineral Industries (DMMI), who originally believed Bridy would need only to excavate of earth, informed them that they were forbidden from doing any exploratory drilling in order to find the perimeter of the fire or how deep it was, and that they were to strictly follow plans drawn up by the engineers who did not believe that the fire was very big or active. The size and location of the fire was, instead, estimated based on the amount of steam issuing from the landfill rock. Bridy, following the engineering team plan, began by digging on the northern perimeter of the dump pit rim and excavated about outward to expand the perimeter. However, the project was ultimately ineffective due to multiple factors. Intentional breaching of the subterranean mine chambers allowed large amounts of oxygen to rush in, greatly worsening the fire. Steve Kisela, a bulldozer operator in Bridy's project, said that the project was ineffective because the inrush of air helped the fire to move ahead of the excavation point by the time the section was drilled and blasted. Bridy was also using a shovel, which was considered small for the project. Furthermore, the state only permitted Bridy's team to work weekday shifts which were eight hours long and only occurred during the day time; commonly referred to as "first shift" in the mining industry. At one point, work was at a standstill for five days during the Labor Day weekend in early September. Finally, the fire was traveling in a northward direction which caused the fire to move deeper into the coal seam. This, combined with the work restrictions and inadequate equipment, greatly increased the excavation cost. Bridy had excavated of earth by the time the project ran out of money and ended on October 29, 1962. Second excavation project On October 29, just prior to the termination of the Bridy project, a new project was proposed that involved flushing the mine fire. Crushed rock would be mixed with water and pumped into Centralia's mines ahead of the expected fire expansion. The project was estimated to cost $40,000 (roughly ). Bids were opened on November 1, and the project was awarded to K&H Excavating with a low bid of $28,400 (roughly ). Drilling was conducted through holes spaced apart in a semicircular pattern along the edge of the landfill. However, this project was also ineffective due to multiple factors. Centralia experienced an unusually heavy period of snowfall and unseasonably low temperatures during the project. Winter weather caused the water supply lines to freeze. Furthermore, the rock-grinding machine froze during a windy blizzard. Both problems inhibited timely mixture and administration of the crushed-rock slurry. The DMMI also worried that the of flushing material would not be enough to fill the mines, thus preventing the bore holes from filling completely. Partially filled boreholes would provide an escape route for the fire, rendering the project ineffective. These problems quickly depleted funds. In response, Secretary Evans approved an additional $14,000 (roughly ) to fund this project. Funding for the project ran out on March 15, 1963, with a total cost of $42,420 (roughly ). On April 11, steam issuing from additional openings in the ground indicated that the fire had spread eastward as far as , and that the project had failed. Third project A three-option proposal was drawn up soon after that, although the project would be delayed until after the new fiscal year beginning July 1, 1963. The first option, costing $277,490, consisted of entrenching the fire and back-filling the trench with incombustible material. The second, costing $151,714, offered a smaller trench in an incomplete circle, followed by the completion of the circle with a flush barrier. The third plan was a "total and concerted flushing project" larger than the second project's flushing and costing $82,300. The state abandoned this project in 1963. Later remediation projects David DeKok began reporting on the mine fire for The News-Item in Shamokin beginning in late 1976. Between 1976 and 1986, he wrote over 500 articles about the mine fire. In 1979, locals became aware of the scale of the problem when a gas-station owner, then-mayor John Coddington, inserted a dipstick into one of his underground tanks to check the fuel level. When he withdrew it, it seemed hot. He lowered a thermometer into the tank on a string and was shocked to discover that the temperature of the gasoline in the tank was . Beginning in 1980, adverse health effects were reported by several people due to byproducts of the fire: carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and low oxygen levels. Statewide attention to the fire began to increase, culminating in 1981 when a 12-year-old resident named Todd Domboski fell into a sinkhole wide by deep that suddenly opened beneath his feet in a backyard. He clung to a tree root until his cousin, 14-year-old Eric Wolfgang, saved his life by pulling him out of the hole. The plume of hot steam billowing from the hole was measured as containing a lethal level of carbon monoxide. Possible origins A number of competing hypotheses have arisen about the source of the Centralia mine fire. Some of them claim that the mine fire started before May 27, 1962. David DeKok says that the borough's deliberate burning of trash on May 27 to clean up the landfill in the former strip mine ignited a coal seam via an unsealed opening in the trash pit, which allowed the fire to enter the labyrinth of abandoned coal mines beneath Centralia. Joan Quigley argues in her 2007 book The Day the Earth Caved In that the fire had in fact started the previous day, when a trash hauler dumped hot ash or coal discarded from coal burners into the open trash pit. She noted that borough council minutes from June 4, 1962, referred to two fires at the dump, and that five firefighters had submitted bills for "fighting the fire at the landfill area". The borough, by law, was responsible for installing a fire-resistant clay barrier between each layer of trash in the landfill, but fell behind schedule, leaving the barrier incomplete. This allowed the hot coals to penetrate the vein of coal underneath the pit and light the subsequent subterranean fire. In addition to the council minutes, Quigley cites "interviews with volunteer firemen, the former fire chief, borough officials, and several eyewitnesses" as her sources. Another hypothesis is that the fire was burning long before the alleged trash dump fire. According to local legend, the Bast Colliery coal fire of 1932, set alight by an explosion, was never fully extinguished. In 1962, it reached the landfill area. Those who adhere to the Bast Theory believe that the dump fire is a separate fire unrelated to the Centralia mine fire. One man who disagrees is Frank Jurgill Sr., who claims he operated a bootleg mine with his brother in the vicinity of the landfill between 1960 and 1962. He says that if the Bast Colliery fire had never been put out, he and his brother would have been in it and killed by the gases. Centralia councilman Joseph Tighe proposed a different hypothesis: that Centralia's coal fire was actually started by an adjacent coal-seam fire that had been burning west of Centralia's. His belief is that the adjacent fire was at one time partially excavated, but it nonetheless set alight the landfill on May 27. Another hypothesis arose from the letter sent to the Lehigh Valley Coal Company by the Centralia Council in the days after the mine fire was noticed. The letter describes "a fire of unknown origin [starting] on or about June 25, 1962, during a period of unusually hot weather". This may make a reference to the hypothesis of spontaneous combustion being the reason for the start of the landfill fire, a hypothesis accepted for many years by state and federal officials. Aftermath In 1984, Wilkes-Barre Representative Frank Harrison proposed legislation, which was approved by Congress which allocated more than $42 million for relocation efforts (equivalent to $ million in ) Most of the residents accepted buyout offers. A few families opted to stay despite urgings from Pennsylvania officials. In 1992, Pennsylvania governor Bob Casey invoked eminent domain on all properties in the borough, condemning all the buildings within. A subsequent legal effort by residents to have the decision reversed failed. In 2002, the U.S. Postal Service revoked Centralia's ZIP code, 17927. In 2009, Governor Ed Rendell began the formal eviction of Centralia residents. By early 2010, only 5 occupied homes remained, with the residents determined to stay. In lawsuits, the remaining residents alleged that they were victims of "massive fraud", "motivated primarily by interests in what is conservatively estimated at hundreds of millions of dollars of some of the best anthracite coal in the world". In July 2012, the last handful of residents in Centralia lost their appeal of a court decision upholding eminent domain proceedings and was ordered again to leave. State and local officials reached an agreement with the seven remaining residents on October 29, 2013, allowing them to live out their lives there, after which the rights of their properties will be taken through eminent domain. The Centralia mine fire also extended beneath the town of Byrnesville, a few miles to the south. The town had to be abandoned and leveled. The Centralia area has now grown to be a tourist attraction. Visitors come to see the smoke and/or steam on Centralia's empty streets and the abandoned portion of PA Route 61, popularly referred to as the Graffiti Highway. As of April 2020, efforts began to cover up Graffiti Highway by the private owner of the road. The abandoned highway was covered with dirt in April 2020, generally blocking public access to the road. Increased air pressure induced by the heat from the mine fires has interacted with heavy rainfalls in the area that rush into the abandoned mines to form Pennsylvania's only geyser, the Big Mine Run Geyser, which erupts on private property in nearby Ashland. The geyser has been kept open as a means of flood control. The fire and its effects were featured in 2013 on America Declassified on the Travel Channel, and on Radiolab's Cities episode. The film Silent Hill draws on these events, although the film is based in West Virginia. See also Carbondale mine fire Darvaza gas crater Jharia Laurel Run mine fire New Straitsville mine fire References External links History of Columbia County, Pennsylvania Environmental disasters in the United States Fires in Pennsylvania Persistent natural fires Columbia County, Pennsylvania Disasters in Pennsylvania
5266241	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern%20liberalism%20in%20the%20United%20States	Modern liberalism in the United States	In United States politics, modern liberalism is a form of social liberalism that is one of two current major political factions in the United States. It combines ideas of civil liberty and equality with support for social justice. Economically, modern liberalism supports government regulation on private industry and opposes corporate monopolies. It opposes cuts to the social safety net, while simultaneously promoting income-proportional tax reform policies to reduce deficits. It supports a role for government in reducing economic inequality, increasing diversity, providing access to education, ensuring healthcare, regulating economic activity, and protecting the natural environment. This form of liberalism took shape in the 20th century as the voting franchise and other civil rights were extended to a larger class of citizens, most notably among African Americans and women. Major examples of modern liberal policy programs include the New Deal, the Fair Deal, the New Frontier, the Great Society, the Affordable Care Act, and the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. In the first half of the 20th century, both major American parties had a conservative and a liberal wing. The conservative northern Republicans and Southern Democrats formed the conservative coalition which dominated the Congress in the pre-Civil Rights era. As northern Democrats began to support civil rights and organized labor, white voters and politicians in the formerly "Solid South" became more Republican. Since the 1960s, the Democratic Party has been considered liberal and the Republican Party has been considered conservative. As a group, "liberals" are referred to as left or center-left and "conservatives" as right or center-right. Starting in the 21st century, there has also been a sharp division between liberals who tend to live in denser, more heterogeneous urban areas and conservatives who tend to live in less dense, more homogeneous rural communities, with suburban areas largely split between the two. Since the 2000 election, blue and red have been the party colors of the Democrats and Republicans respectively, in contrast to the use of blue for conservatism and red for socialism in the rest of the Western world. Overview The modern liberal philosophy strongly endorses public spending on programs such as education, health care and welfare. Important social issues during the first part of the 21st century include social justice, economic inequality (wealth and income), voting rights for minorities, affirmative action, reproductive and other women's rights, support for LGBT rights, and immigration reform. Modern liberalism took shape during the 20th century, with roots in Theodore Roosevelt's Square Deal and New Nationalism, Woodrow Wilson's New Freedom, Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal, Harry S. Truman's Fair Deal, John F. Kennedy's New Frontier and Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society. Modern liberals oppose conservatives on most but not all issues. Although historically related to social liberalism and progressivism, the current relationship between liberal and progressive viewpoints is debated. Modern liberalism is typically associated with the Democratic Party while modern conservatism is typically associated with the Republican Party. In 1941, Franklin D. Roosevelt defined a liberal party in the following terms: In 1960, John F. Kennedy defined a liberal as follows: Keynesian economic theory has played an important role in the economic philosophy of modern liberals. Modern liberals generally believe that national prosperity requires government management of the macroeconomy in order to keep unemployment low, inflation in check and growth high. They also value institutions that defend against economic inequality. In The Conscience of a Liberal, Paul Krugman writes: "I believe in a relatively equal society, supported by institutions that limit extremes of wealth and poverty. I believe in democracy, civil liberties, and the rule of law. That makes me a liberal, and I'm proud of it". Modern liberals often point to the widespread prosperity enjoyed under a mixed economy in the years since World War II. They believe liberty exists when access to necessities like health care and economic opportunity are available to all and they champion the protection of the environment. American versus European usage of liberalism Today, liberalism is used differently in different countries. One of the greatest contrasts is between the usage in the United States and usage in Europe. According to Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. (writing in 1956), "[l]iberalism in the American usage has little in common with the word as used in the politics of any European country, save possibly Britain". In Europe, liberalism usually means what is sometimes called classical liberalism, a commitment to limited government, laissez-faire economics and unalienable individual rights. This classical liberalism sometimes more closely corresponds to the American definition of libertarianism, although some distinguish between classical liberalism and libertarianism. In the United States, the general term liberalism almost always refers to modern liberalism, a more social variant of classical liberalism. In Europe, this social liberalism is closer to European social democracy, although the original form is advocated by some liberal parties in Europe as well as with the Beveridge Group faction within the Liberal Democrats, the Liberals, the Danish Social Liberal Party, the Democratic Movement and the Italian Republican Party. Demographics of American liberals A 2005 Pew Research Center study found that liberals were the most educated ideological demographic and were tied with the conservative sub-group of the enterprisers for the most affluent group. Of those who identified as liberal, 49% were college graduates and 41% had household incomes exceeding $75,000, compared to 27% and 28% as the national average, respectively. Liberalism has become the dominant political ideology in academia, with 44–62% identifying as liberal, depending on the exact wording of the survey. This compares with 40–46% liberal identification in surveys from 1969 to 1984. The social sciences and humanities were most liberal whereas business and engineering departments were the least liberal; even in the business departments, however, liberals outnumbered conservatives by two to one. This feeds the common question of whether liberals are on average more educated than conservatives, their political counterparts. Two Zogby surveys from 2008 and 2010 affirm that self-identified liberals tend to go to college more than self-identified conservatives. Polls have found that young Americans are considerably more liberal than the general population. As of 2009, 30% of the 18–29 cohort was liberal. In 2011, this had changed to 28%, with moderates picking up the two percent. A 2015 Gallup poll found that socially liberal views have consistently been on the rise in the United States since 1999. As of 2015, there is a roughly equal number of socially liberal Americans and socially conservative Americans (31% each) and the socially liberal trend continues to rise. In early 2016, Gallup found that more Americans identified as ideologically conservative (37%) or moderate (35%) rather than liberal (24%), but that liberalism has slowly been gaining ground since 1992, standing at a 24-year high. 21st century issues In early 21st century political discourse in the United States, liberalism has come to include support for reproductive rights for women, including abortion, affirmative action for minority groups historically discriminated against, multilateralism and support for international institutions, support for individual rights over corporate interests, support for universal health care for Americans (with a single-payer option), support for LGBTQ+ rights and marriage equality, and opposition to tax cuts for the rich. History Historian and advocate of liberalism Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. had explored in-depth the heritage of Jacksonian democracy in its influence on Franklin D. Roosevelt. Robert V. Remini, the biographer of Andrew Jackson, also said: Jacksonian Democracy, then, stretches the concept of democracy about as far as it can go and still remain workable. ... As such it has inspired much of the dynamic and dramatic events of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in American history—Populism, Progressivism, the New and Fair Deals, and the programs of the New Frontier and Great Society to mention the most obvious. In 1956, Schlesinger said that liberalism in the United States includes both a laissez-faire form and a government intervention form. He holds that liberalism in the United States is aimed toward achieving equality of opportunity for all, but it is the means of achieving this that changes depending on the circumstances. He says that the "process of redefining liberalism in terms of the social needs of the 20th century was conducted by Theodore Roosevelt and his New Nationalism, Woodrow Wilson and his New Freedom, and Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal. Out of these three reform periods there emerged the conception of a social welfare state, in which the national government had the express obligation to maintain high levels of employment in the economy, to supervise standards of life and labor, to regulate the methods of business competition, and to establish comprehensive patterns of social security". Some make the distinction between American classical liberalism and the new liberalism, better known as social liberalism. Progressive Era The progressive movement emerged in the 1890s and included intellectual reformers typified by sociologist Lester Frank Ward and economist Richard T. Ely. They transformed Victorian liberalism, retaining its commitment to civil liberties and individual rights while casting off its advocacy of laissez-faire economics. Ward helped define what would become the modern welfare state after 1933. These often supported the growing working-class labor unions and sometimes even the socialists to their left. The Social Gospel movement was a Protestant intellectual movement that helped shape liberalism, especially from the 1890s to the 1920s. It applied Christian ethics to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as economic inequality, poverty, alcoholism, crime, racial tensions, slums, unclean environment, child labor, inadequate labor unions, poor schools and the danger of war. Lyndon B. Johnson's parents were active in the Social Gospel and had a lifetime commitment to it, for he sought to transform social problems into moral problems. This helps explain his longtime commitment to social justice as exemplified by the Great Society and his commitment to racial equality. The Social Gospel explicitly inspired his foreign-policy approach to a sort of Christian internationalism and nation building. In philosophy and education, John Dewey was highly influential. In 1900–1920, liberals called themselves progressives. They rallied behind Republicans led by Theodore Roosevelt and Robert M. La Follette as well as Democrats led by William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson to fight corruption, waste and big trusts (monopolies). They stressed ideals of social justice and the use of government to solve social and economic problems. Settlement workers such as Jane Addams were leaders of the liberal tradition. There was a tension between sympathy with labor unions and the goal to apply scientific expertise by disinterested experts. When liberals became anti-Communist in the 1940s, they purged leftists from the liberal movement. Political writer Herbert Croly helped to define the new liberalism through The New Republic magazine and numerous influential books. Croly presented the case for a planned economy, increased spending on education and the creation of a society based on the "brotherhood of mankind". His highly influential 1909 book The Promise of American Life proposed to raise the general standard of living by means of economic planning. Croly opposed aggressive unionization. In The Techniques of Democracy (1915), he also argued against both dogmatic individualism and dogmatic socialism. The historian Vernon Louis Parrington in 1928 won the Pulitzer Prize for Main Currents in American Thought. It was a highly influential intellectual history of America from the colonial era to the early 20th century. It was well written and passionate about the value of Jeffersonian democracy and helped identify and honor liberal heroes and their ideas and causes. In 1930, Parrington argued: "For upwards of half a century creative political thinking in America was largely western agrarian, and from this source came those democratic ideas that were to provide the staple of a later liberalism". In 1945, historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. argued in The Age of Jackson that liberalism also emerged from Jacksonian democracy and the labor radicalism of the Eastern cities, thereby linking it to the urban dimension of Roosevelt's New Deal. Liberal Republicans With its emphasis on a strong federal government over claims of state's rights, widespread entrepreneurship and individual freedom against the property rights of slave owners, Abraham Lincoln's presidency laid much of the groundwork for future liberal Republican governance. The Republican Party's liberal element in the early 20th century was typified by Theodore Roosevelt in the 1907–1912 period, although Roosevelt was more conservative at other points. Other liberal Republicans included Senator Robert M. La Follette and his sons in Wisconsin (from about 1900 to 1946) and Western leaders such as Senator Hiram Johnson in California, Senator George W. Norris in Nebraska, Senator Bronson M. Cutting in New Mexico, Congresswoman Jeannette Rankin in Montana and Senator William Borah in Idaho from about 1900 to about 1940. They were generally liberal in domestic policy as they supported unions and much of the New Deal. However, they were intensely isolationist in foreign policy. This element died out by the 1940s. Starting in the 1930s, a number of mostly Northeastern Republicans took modern liberal positions regarding labor unions, spending and New Deal policies. They included Governor Harold Stassen of Minnesota, Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York, Governor Earl Warren of California, Senator Clifford P. Case of New Jersey, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., of Massachusetts, Senator Prescott Bush of Connecticut (father of George H. W. Bush), Senator Jacob K. Javits of New York, Governor and later Senator Mark Hatfield of Oregon, Senator John Sherman Cooper of Kentucky, Senator George Aiken of Vermont, Governor William Scranton of Pennsylvania and Governor George Romney of Michigan. The most notable of them all was Governor Nelson Rockefeller of New York. While the media often called them Rockefeller Republicans, the liberal Republicans never formed an organized movement or caucus and lacked a recognized leader. They promoted economic growth and high state and federal spending while accepting high taxes and much liberal legislation, with the provision they could administer it more efficiently. They opposed the Democratic big city machines while welcoming support from labor unions and big businesses alike. Religion was not high on their agenda, but they were strong believers in civil rights for African-Americans and women's rights and most liberals were pro-choice. They were also strong environmentalists and supported higher education. In foreign policy, they were internationalists, throwing their support to the moderate Dwight D. Eisenhower over the conservative leader Robert A. Taft in 1952. They were often called "the Eastern Establishment" by conservatives such as Barry Goldwater. The Goldwater conservatives fought this establishment, defeated Rockefeller in the 1964 primaries and eventually retired most of its members, although some such as Senator Charles Goodell and Mayor John Lindsay in New York became Democrats. As President, Richard Nixon adopted many of the liberals' positions regarding the environment, welfare and the arts. After Congressman John B. Anderson of Illinois bolted the party in 1980 and ran as an independent against Reagan, the liberal Republicans element faded away. Their old strongholds in the Northeast and West Coast are now mostly held by Democrats. New Deal President Franklin D. Roosevelt came to office in 1933 amid the economic calamity of the Great Depression, offering the nation a New Deal intended to alleviate economic desperation and joblessness, provide greater opportunities and restore prosperity. His presidency was the longest in American history, lasting from 1933 to 1945 and marked by an increased role for the federal government in addressing the nation's economic and social problems. Work relief programs provided jobs, ambitious projects such as the Tennessee Valley Authority were created to promote economic development and a social security system was established. The Roosevelt administration was assisted in its endeavors by progressives in Congress, with the congressional midterm elections of 1934 returning a more radical House of Representatives that was prepared to support progressive, new liberal measures. Also, while “during the Seventy-Third Congress, the House had been considered the more progressive body, now, in the new Seventy-Fourth, the senate was the more progressive chamber. Democrats added nine pro-New Deal senators, including Missouri’s Harry S. Truman, who pledged 100 percent cooperation to President Roosevelt and his policies.” As noted by J. Richard Piper: As the "new" liberalism crystallized into its dominant form by 1935, both houses of Congress continued to provide large voting majorities for public policies that were generally dubbed "liberal". Conservatives constituted a distinct congressional minority from 1933 to 1937 and appeared threatened with oblivion for a time. Conservative strength in Congress was diminished following the 1936 midterm elections. In the Senate there were now 28 conservatives, at least 8 to 10 less than at the end of the 1935 session. A similar situation existed in the House, with one study noting that “Roughly 30 Democrats who had already openly criticized many aspects of the New Deal returned. Together with some 80 conservative Republicans, they formed a conservative voting bloc of roughly 110, again slightly less than in 1935.” As noted by one source, a liberal Congress existed for much of Roosevelt's presidency: "We recognize that the best liberal legislature in American history was enacted following the election of President Roosevelt and a liberal Congress in 1932. After the mid - term congressional election setbacks in 1938, labor was faced with a hostile congress until 1946. Only the presidential veto prevented the enactment of reactionary anti-labor laws." The Great Depression seemed over in 1936, but a relapse in 1937–1938 produced continued long-term unemployment. Full employment was reached with the total mobilization of the United States economic, social and military resources in World War II. At that point, the main relief programs such as the WPA and the CCC were ended. Arthur Herman argues that Roosevelt restored prosperity after 1940 by cooperating closely with big business, although when asked "Do you think the attitude of the Roosevelt administration toward business is delaying business recovery?", the American people in 1939 responded "yes" by a margin of more than 2-to-1. The New Deal programs to relieve the Great Depression are generally regarded as a mixed success in ending unemployment. At the time, many New Deal programs, especially the CCC, were popular. Liberals hailed them for improving the life of the common citizen and for providing jobs for the unemployed, legal protection for labor unionists, modern utilities for rural America, living wages for the working poor and price stability for the family farmer. Economic progress for minorities, however, was hindered by discrimination, an issue often avoided by Roosevelt's administration. Relief, recovery and reform The New Deal consisted of three types of programs designed to produce relief, recovery and reform: Relief was the immediate effort to help the one-third of the population that was hardest hit by the depression. Roosevelt expanded Herbert Hoover's Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) work relief program and added the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the Public Works Administration (PWA) and starting in 1935 the Works Progress Administration (WPA). Also in 1935, the Social Security Act (SSA) and unemployment insurance programs were added. Separate programs such as the Resettlement Administration and the Farm Security Administration were set up for relief in rural America. Recovery was the goal of restoring the economy to pre-Depression levels. It involved greater spending of government funds in an effort to stimulate the economy, including deficit spending, dropping the gold standard and efforts to increase farm prices and foreign trade by lowering tariffs. Many programs were funded through a Hoover program of loans and loan guarantees, overseen by the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC). Reform was based on the assumption that the depression was caused by the inherent instability of the market and that government intervention was necessary to rationalize and stabilize the economy and to balance the interests of farmers, businesses and labor. Reform measures included the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), regulation of Wall Street by the Securities Exchange Act (SEA), the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) for farm programs, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) insurance for bank deposits enacted through the Glass–Steagall Act of 1933 and the 1935 National Labor Relations Act (NLRA), also known as the Wagner Act, dealing with labor-management relations. Despite urgings by some New Dealers, there was no major antitrust program. Roosevelt opposed socialism in the sense of state ownership of the means of production and only one major program, namely the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), involved government ownership of the means of production (that is power plants and electrical grids). The conservatives feared the New Deal meant socialism and Roosevelt noted privately in 1934 that the "old line press harps increasingly on state socialism and demands the return to the good old days". Race The New Deal was racially segregated as blacks and whites rarely worked alongside each other in New Deal programs. The largest relief program by far was the WPA which operated segregated units as did its youth affiliate the NYA. Blacks were hired by the WPA as supervisors in the North. Of 10,000 WPA supervisors in the South, only 11 were black. In the first few weeks of operation, CCC camps in the North were integrated. By July 1935, all the camps in the United States were segregated and blacks were strictly limited in the supervisory roles they were assigned. Kinker and Smith argue that "even the most prominent racial liberals in the New Deal did not dare to criticize Jim Crow". Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes was one of the Roosevelt administration's most prominent supporters of blacks and was former president of the Chicago chapter of the NAACP. When Senator Josiah Bailey, Democrat of North Carolina, accused him in 1937 of trying to break down segregation laws, Ickes wrote him to deny it: I think it is up to the states to work out their social problems if possible, and while I have always been interested in seeing that the Negro has a square deal, I have never dissipated my strength against the particular stone wall of segregation. I believe that wall will crumble when the Negro has brought himself to a high educational and economic status. ... Moreover, while there are no segregation laws in the North, there is segregation in fact and we might as well recognize this. The New Deal's record came under attack by New Left historians in the 1960s for its pusillanimity in not attacking capitalism more vigorously, nor helping blacks achieve equality. The critics emphasize the absence of a philosophy of reform to explain the failure of New Dealers to attack fundamental social problems. They demonstrate the New Deal's commitment to save capitalism and its refusal to strip away private property. They detect a remoteness from the people and indifference to participatory democracy and call instead for more emphasis on conflict and exploitation. Foreign policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt In international affairs, Roosevelt's presidency until 1938 reflected the isolationism that dominated practically all of American politics at the time. After 1938, he moved toward interventionism as the world hurtled toward war. Liberals split on foreign policy as many followed Roosevelt while others such as John L. Lewis of the Congress of Industrial Organizations, historian Charles A. Beard and the Kennedy Family opposed him. However, Roosevelt added new conservative supporters such as Republicans Henry Stimson (who became his Secretary of War in 1940) and Wendell Willkie (who worked closely with Roosevelt after losing to him in the 1940s election). Anticipating the post-war period, Roosevelt strongly supported proposals to create a United Nations organization as a means of encouraging mutual cooperation to solve problems on the international stage. His commitment to internationalist ideals was in the tradition of Woodrow Wilson, except that Roosevelt learned from Wilson's mistakes regarding the League of Nations. For instance, Roosevelt included Republicans in shaping foreign policy and insisted the United States have a veto at the United Nations. Liberalism during the Cold War American liberalism of the Cold War era was the immediate heir to Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal and the somewhat more distant heir to the progressives of the early 20th century. Rossinow (2008) argues that after 1945 the left-liberal alliance that operated during the New Deal years split apart for good over the issue of Communism. Anti-Communist liberals led by Walter Reuther and Hubert Humphrey expelled the far-left from labor unions and the New Deal coalition and committed the Democratic Party to a strong Cold War policy typified by NATO and the containment of Communism. Liberals became committed to a quantitative goal of economic growth that accepted large near-monopolies such as General Motors and AT&T while rejecting the structural transformation dreamed of by earlier left-liberals. The far-left had its last hurrah in Henry A. Wallace's 1948 third-party presidential campaign. Wallace supported further New Deal reforms and opposed the Cold War, but his campaign was taken over by the far-left, and Wallace retired from politics in disgust. Most prominent and constant among the positions of Cold War liberalism were the following: Support for a domestic economy built on a balance of power between labor (in the form of organized unions) and management (with a tendency to be more interested in large corporations than in small business). A foreign policy focused on containing the Soviet Union and its allies. The continuation and expansion of New Deal social welfare programs (in the broad sense of welfare, including programs such as Social Security). An embrace of Keynesian economics. By way of compromise with political groupings to their right, this often became in practice military Keynesianism. In some ways, this resembled what in other countries was referred to as social democracy. However, American liberals never widely endorsed nationalization of industry like European social democrats, instead favoring regulation for public benefit. In the 1950s and 1960s, both major American political parties included liberal and conservative factions. The Democratic Party included the Northern and Western liberals on one hand and the generally conservative Southern whites on the other. Difficult to classify were the Northern big city Democratic political machines. The urban machines had supported New Deal economic policies, but they faded with the coming of prosperity and the assimilation of ethnic groups. Nearly all collapsed by the 1960s in the face of racial violence in the cities The Republican Party included the moderate-to-liberal Wall Street and the moderate-to-conservative Main Street. The more liberal wing, strongest in the Northeast, was far more supportive of New Deal programs, labor unions and an internationalist foreign policy. Support for anti-Communism sometimes came at the expense of civil liberties. For example, ADA co-founder and archetypal Cold War liberal Hubert Humphrey unsuccessfully sponsored in 1950 a Senate bill to establish detention centers where those declared subversive by the President could be held without trial. Nonetheless, liberals opposed McCarthyism and were central to McCarthy's downfall. In domestic policy during the Fifth Party System (1932–1966), liberals seldom had full control of government, but conservatives never had full control in that period either. According to Jonathan Bernstein, neither liberals nor Democrats controlled the House of Representatives very often from 1939 through 1957, although a 1958 landslide gave liberals real majorities in both houses of Congress for the first time in twenty years. However, Rules Committee reforms and others were carried out following this landslide as liberals saw that House procedures "still prevented them from using that majority". The conservative coalition was also important (if not dominant) from 1967 through 1974, although Congress had a liberal Democratic majority from 1985 to 1994. As also noted by Bernstein, "there have only been a handful of years (Franklin D. Roosevelt's first term, 1961-1966, Jimmy Carter's presidency, and the first two years of Clinton's and Barack Obama's presidencies) when there were clear, working liberal majorities in the House, the Senate and the White House". A number of progressive laws were also approved during the course of the Fifth Party System. Harry S. Truman's Fair Deal Until he became president, liberals generally did not see Harry S. Truman as one of their own, viewing him as a Democratic Party hack. However, liberal politicians and liberal organizations such as the unions and Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) supported Truman's liberal Fair Deal proposals to continue and expand the New Deal. Alonzo Hamby argues that the Fair Deal reflected the vital center approach to liberalism which rejected totalitarianism, was suspicious of excessive concentrations of government power, and honored the New Deal as an effort to achieve a progressive capitalist system. Solidly based upon the New Deal tradition in its advocacy of wide-ranging social legislation, the Fair Deal differed enough to claim a separate identity. The depression did not return after the war and the Fair Deal faced prosperity and an optimistic future. The Fair Dealers thought in terms of abundance rather than depression scarcity. Economist Leon Keyserling argued that the liberal task was to spread the benefits of abundance throughout society by stimulating economic growth. Agriculture Secretary Charles F. Brannan wanted to unleash the benefits of agricultural abundance and to encourage the development of an urban-rural Democratic coalition. However, the "Brannan Plan" was defeated by his unrealistic confidence in the possibility of uniting urban labor and farm owners who distrusted rural insurgency. The conservative coalition of Northern Republicans and Southern Democrats in Congress effectively blocked the Fair Deal and nearly all liberal legislation from the late 1930s to 1960. The Korean War made military spending the nation's priority. Under Truman, the number of Federal grant programmes more than doubled to 71. In the 1960s, Stanford University historian Barton Bernstein repudiated Truman for failing to carry forward the New Deal agenda and for excessive anti-Communism at home. 1950s Combating conservatism was not high on the liberal agenda, for the liberal ideology was so intellectually dominant by 1950 that the literary critic Lionel Trilling could note that "liberalism is not only the dominant but even the sole intellectual tradition ... . [T]here are no conservative or reactionary ideas in circulation". Most historians see liberalism in the doldrums in the 1950s, with the old spark of New Deal dreams overshadowed by the glitzy complacency and conservatism of the Eisenhower years. Adlai Stevenson II lost in two landslides and presented few new liberal proposals apart from a suggestion for a worldwide ban on nuclear tests. As Barry Karl noted, Stevenson "has suffered more at hands of the admirers he failed than he ever did from the enemies who defeated him". Many liberals bemoan the willingness of Democratic leaders Lyndon B. Johnson and Sam Rayburn to collaborate in Congress with Eisenhower and the commitment of the AFL–CIO unions and most liberal spokesmen such as Senators Hubert Humphrey and Paul Douglas to anti-Communism at home and abroad. They decry the weak attention most liberals paid to the nascent civil rights movement. Liberal coalition Politically, starting in the late 1940s there was a powerful labor–liberal coalition with strong grassroots support, energetic well-funded organizations and a cadre of supporters in Congress. On labor side was the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) which merged into the AFL–CIO in 1955, the United Auto Workers (UAW), union lobbyists and the Committee on Political Education (COPE) which organized turnout campaigns and publicity at elections. Walter Reuther of the UAW was the leader of liberalism in the labor movement and his autoworkers generously funded the cause. The main liberal organizations included the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the American Jewish Congress (AJC), the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights (LCCR), the National Committee for an Effective Congress (NCEC) and the Americans for Democratic Action (ADA). Key liberal leaders in Congress included Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, Paul Douglas of Illinois, Henry Jackson of Washington, Walter Mondale of Minnesota and Claude Pepper of Florida in the Senate Leaders in the House included Representatives Frank Thompson of New Jersey, Richard Bolling of Missouri and other members of the Democratic Study Group. Although for years they had largely been frustrated by the conservative coalition, the liberal coalition suddenly came to power in 1963 and were ready with proposals that became central to the Great Society. Humphrey's liberal legacy is bolstered by his early leadership in civil rights, and undermined by his long support of the Vietnam War. His biographer Arnold Offner says he was, "the most successful legislator in the nation’s history and a powerful voice for equal justice for all." Offner states that Humphrey was: A major force for nearly every important liberal policy initiative....putting civil rights on his party’s and the nation’s agenda [in 1948] for decades to come. As senator he proposed legislation to effect national health insurance, for aid to poor nations, immigration and income tax reform, a Job Corps, the Peace Corps, the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, and the path breaking 1963 Limited Test Ban Treaty....[He provided] masterful stewardship of the historic 1964 Civil Rights Act through the Senate. Intellectuals Intellectuals and writers were an important component of the coalition at this point. Many writers, especially historians, became prominent spokesmen for liberalism and were frequently called upon for public lectures and for popular essays on political topics by magazines such as The New Republic, Saturday Review, The Atlantic Monthly and Harpers. Also active in the arena of ideas were literary critics such as Lionel Trilling and Alfred Kazin, economists such as Alvin Hansen, John Kenneth Galbraith, James Tobin and Paul Samuelson as well as political scientists such as Robert A. Dahl and Seymour Martin Lipset and sociologists such as David Riesman and Daniel Patrick Moynihan. Representative was the historian Henry Steele Commager, who felt a duty to teach his fellow citizens how liberalism was the foundation of American values. He believed that an educated public that understands American history would support liberal programs, especially internationalism and the New Deal. Commager was representative of a whole generation of like-minded historians who were widely read by the general public, including Allan Nevins, Daniel Boorstin, Richard Hofstadter and C. Vann Woodward. Perhaps the most prominent of all was Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., whose books on Andrew Jackson and on Roosevelt and the Kennedy brothers as well as his many essays and his work with liberal organizations and in the White House itself under Kennedy emphasized the ideological history of American liberalism, especially as made concrete by a long tradition of powerful liberal Presidents. Commager's biographer Neil Jumonville has argued that this style of influential public history has been lost in the 21st century because political correctness has rejected Commager's open marketplace of tough ideas. Jumonville says history now comprises abstruse deconstruction by experts, with statistics instead of stories and is now comprehensible only to the initiated while ethnocentrism rules in place of common identity. Other experts have traced the relative decline of intellectuals to their concern race, ethnicity and gender and scholarly antiquarianism. Great Society: 1964–1968 The climax of liberalism came in the mid-1960s with the success of President Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–1969) in securing congressional passage of his Great Society programs, including civil rights, the end of segregation, Medicare, extension of welfare, federal aid to education at all levels, subsidies for the arts and humanities, environmental activism and a series of programs designed to wipe out poverty. Under Johnson's leadership, as noted by one study, “more than 200 new Federal programmes of grants to States, cities, counties, school districts, local communities and charities were authorized.” According to historian Joseph Crespino: It has become a staple of twentieth-century historiography that Cold War concerns were at the root of a number of progressive political accomplishments in the postwar period: a high progressive marginal tax rate that helped fund the arms race and contributed to broad income equality; bipartisan support for far-reaching civil rights legislation that transformed politics and society in the American South, which had long given the lie to America’s egalitarian ethos; bipartisan support for overturning an explicitly racist immigration system that had been in place since the 1920s; and free health care for the elderly and the poor, a partial fulfillment of one of the unaccomplished goals of the New Deal era. The list could go on. As recent historians have explained: Gradually, liberal intellectuals crafted a new vision for achieving economic and social justice. The liberalism of the early 1960s contained no hint of radicalism, little disposition to revive new deal era crusades against concentrated economic power, and no intention to fan class passions or redistribute wealth or restructure existing institutions. Internationally it was strongly anti-Communist. It aimed to defend the free world, to encourage economic growth at home, and to ensure that the resulting plenty was fairly distributed. Their agenda-much influenced by Keynesian economic theory-envisioned massive public expenditure that would speed economic growth, thus providing the public resources to fund larger welfare, housing, health, and educational programs. Johnson was rewarded with an electoral landslide in 1964 against conservative Barry Goldwater which broke the decades-long control of Congress by the conservative coalition. However, the Republicans bounced back in 1966 and as the Democratic Party splintered five ways Republicans elected Richard Nixon in 1968. Faced with a generally liberal Democratic Congress during his presidency, Nixon used his power over executive agencies to obstruct the authorization of programs that he was opposed to. As noted by one observer, Nixon "claimed the authority to 'impound,' or withhold, money Congress appropriated to support them". Nevertheless, Nixon largely continued the New Deal and Great Society programs he inherited. Conservative reaction would come with the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980. In addition, throughout the Sixties and Seventies Congresses dominated by the Democrats carried out a range of social initiatives. According to one study, "Democrats at both ends of Pennsylvania Avenue between 1961 and 1969, and persisting Democratic majorities thereafter, did not so much extend the range of New Deal social programmes as take wholly new initiatives in urban, social, transportation, and educational policy which their successors have been obliged to defend politically and fiscally.” Also, "Congresses dominated by Democrats (and often liberals) between 1964 and 1977 passed a panoply of environmental, health, safety, labour, product standards and civil rights laws and regulations.” Liberals and civil rights Cold War liberalism emerged at a time when most African-Americans, especially in the South, were politically and economically disenfranchised. Beginning with To Secure These Rights, an official report issued by the Truman White House in 1947, self-proclaimed liberals increasingly embraced the civil rights movement. In 1948, President Truman desegregated the armed forces and the Democrats inserted a strong civil rights plank or provision in the Democratic Party platform. Black activists, most prominently Martin Luther King Jr., escalated the bearer agitation throughout the South, especially in Birmingham, Alabama during the 1963 Birmingham campaign, where brutal police tactics outraged national television audiences. The civil rights movement climaxed in the March on Washington in August 1963, where King gave his dramatic "I Have a Dream" speech, culminating in the events of the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches. The activism put civil rights at the very top of the liberal political agenda and facilitated passage of the decisive Civil Rights Act of 1964 which permanently ended segregation in the United States and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 which guaranteed blacks the right to vote, with strong enforcement provisions throughout the South handled by the federal Department of Justice. During the mid-1960s, relations between white liberals and the civil rights movement became increasingly strained as civil rights leaders accused liberal politicians of temporizing and procrastinating. Although President Kennedy sent federal troops to compel the University of Mississippi to admit African-American James Meredith in 1962 and civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. toned down the 1963 March on Washington at Kennedy's behest, the failure to seat the delegates of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party at the 1964 Democratic National Convention indicated a growing rift. President Johnson could not understand why the rather impressive civil rights laws passed under his leadership had failed to immunize Northern and Western cities from rioting. At the same time, the civil rights movement itself was becoming fractured. By 1966, a Black Power movement had emerged. Black Power advocates accused white liberals of trying to control the civil rights agenda. Proponents of Black Power wanted African-Americans to follow an ethnic model for obtaining power, not unlike that of Democratic political machines in large cities. This put them on a collision course with urban machine politicians. On its most extreme edges, the Black Power movement contained racial separatists who wanted to give up on integration altogether—a program that could not be endorsed by American liberals of any race. The mere existence of such individuals (who always got more media attention than their actual numbers might have warranted) contributed to white backlash against liberals and civil rights activists. Liberals were latecomers to the movement for equal rights for women. Generally, they agreed with Eleanor Roosevelt that women needed special protections, especially regarding hours of work, night work and physically heavy work. The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) had first been proposed in the 1920s by Alice Paul and appealed primarily to middle-class career women. At the Democratic National Convention in 1960, a proposal to endorse the ERA was rejected after it met explicit opposition from liberal groups including labor unions, AFL–CIO, American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Americans for Democratic Action (ADA), American Federation of Teachers, American Nurses Association, the Women's Division of the Methodist Church and the National Councils of Jewish, Catholic, and Negro Women. Neoconservatives Some liberals moved to the right and became neoconservatives in the 1970s. Many were animated by foreign policy, taking a strong anti-Soviet and pro-Israel position as typified by Commentary, a Jewish magazine. Many had been supporters of Senator Henry M. Jackson, a Democrat noted for his strong positions in favor of labor and against Communism. Many neoconservatives joined the administrations of Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush and attacked liberalism vocally in both the popular media and scholarly publications. However, the rise of Trumpism from 2016 on shifted the Republican coalition away from consistent agreement with neoconservative foreign policy positions. Neoconservatives became a prominent force in the Never Trump movement, with some such as Bill Kristol and Jennifer Rubin reconciling with modern liberals and the realigning Democratic coalition. Under attack from the New Left Liberalism came under attack from both the New Left in the early 1960s and the right in the late 1960s. Kazin (1998) says: "The liberals who anxiously turned back the assault of the postwar Right were confronted in the 1960s by a very different adversary: a radical movement led, in the main, by their own children, the white "New Left". This new element, says Kazin, worked to "topple the corrupted liberal order". As Maurice Isserman notes, the New Left "came to use the word 'liberal' as a political epithet". Slack (2013) argues that the New Left was more broadly speaking the political component of a break with liberalism that took place across several academic fields, namely philosophy, psychology and sociology. In philosophy, existentialism and neo-Marxism rejected the instrumentalism of John Dewey; in psychology, Wilhelm Reich, Paul Goodman, Herbert Marcuse and Norman O. Brown rejected Sigmund Freud's teaching of repression and sublimation; and in sociology, C. Wright Mills rejected the pragmatism of Dewey for the teachings of Max Weber. The attack was not confined to the United States as the New Left was a worldwide movement with strength in parts of Western Europe as well as Japan. For example, massive demonstrations in France denounced American imperialism and its helpers in Western European governments. The main activity of the New Left became opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War as conducted by liberal President Lyndon B. Johnson. The anti-war movement escalated the rhetorical heat as violence broke out on both sides. The climax came in sustained protests at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. Liberals fought back, with Zbigniew Brzezinski, chief foreign policy advisor of the 1968 Humphrey campaign, saying the New Left "threatened American liberalism" in a manner reminiscent of McCarthyism. While the New Left considered Humphrey a war criminal, Nixon attacked him as the New Left's enabler—a man with "a personal attitude of indulgence and permissiveness toward the lawless". Beinart concludes that "with the country divided against itself, contempt for Hubert Humphrey was the one thing on which left and right could agree". After 1968, the New Left lost strength and the more serious attacks on liberalism came from the right. Nevertheless, the liberal ideology lost its attractiveness. Liberal commentator E. J. Dionne contends: "If liberal ideology began to crumble intellectually in the 1960s it did so in part because the New Left represented a highly articulate and able wrecking crew". Liberals and the Vietnam War While the civil rights movement isolated liberals from their erstwhile allies, the Vietnam War threw a wedge into the liberal ranks, dividing pro-war hawks such as Senator Henry M. Jackson from doves such as 1972 presidential candidate Senator George McGovern. As the war became the leading political issue of the day, agreement on domestic matters was not enough to hold the liberal consensus together. In the 1960 presidential campaign, John F. Kennedy was liberal in domestic policy, but conservative on foreign policy, calling for a more aggressive stance against Communism than his opponent Richard Nixon. Opposition to the war first emerged from the New Left and from black leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr. By 1967, there was growing opposition from within liberal ranks, led in 1968 by Senators Eugene McCarthy and Robert F. Kennedy. After Democratic President Lyndon Johnson announced in March 1968 that he would not run for re-election, Kennedy and McCarthy fought each other for the nomination, with Kennedy besting McCarthy in a series of Democratic primaries. The assassination of Kennedy removed him from the race and Vice President Hubert Humphrey emerged from the disastrous 1968 Democratic National Convention with the presidential nomination of a deeply divided party. Meanwhile, Alabama Governor George Wallace announced his third-party run and pulled in many working-class whites in the rural South and big-city North, most of whom had been staunch Democrats. Liberals led by the labor unions focused their attacks on Wallace while Nixon led a unified Republican Party to victory. Richard Nixon The chaos of 1968, a bitterly divided Democratic Party and bad blood between the New Left and the liberals gave Nixon the presidency. Nixon rhetorically attacked liberals, but in practice enacted many liberal policies and represented the more liberal wing of the Republican Party. Nixon established the Environmental Protection Agency by executive order, expanded the national endowments for the arts and the humanities, began affirmative action policies, opened diplomatic relations with Communist China, starting the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks to reduce ballistic missile availability and turned the war over to South Vietnam. He withdrew all American combat troops by 1972, signed a peace treaty in 1973 and ended the draft. Regardless of his policies, liberals hated Nixon and rejoiced when the Watergate scandal forced his resignation in 1974. While the differences between Nixon and the liberals are obvious—the liberal wing of his own party favored politicians such as Nelson Rockefeller and William Scranton and Nixon overtly placed an emphasis on law and order over civil liberties, with Nixon's Enemies List being composed largely of liberals—in some ways the continuity of many of Nixon's policies with those of the Kennedy–Johnson years is more remarkable than the differences. Pointing at this continuity, New Left leader Noam Chomsky (himself on Nixon's enemies list) has called Nixon "in many respects the last liberal president". The political dominance of the liberal consensus even into the Nixon years can best be seen in policies such as the successful establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency or his failed proposal to replace the welfare system with a guaranteed annual income by way of a negative income tax. Affirmative action in its most quota-oriented form was a Nixon administration policy. The Nixon War on Drugs allocated two-thirds of its funds for treatment, a far higher ratio than was to be the case under any subsequent President, Republican or Democrat. Additionally, Nixon's normalization of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China and his policy of détente with the Soviet Union were probably more popular with liberals than with his conservative base. An opposing view offered by Cass R. Sunstein in The Second Bill of Rights (Basic Books, 2004, ) argues that through his Supreme Court appointments Nixon effectively ended a decades-long expansion of economic rights along the lines of those put forward in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948 by the United Nations General Assembly. Labor unions Labor unions were central components of liberalism, operating through the New Deal coalition. The unions gave strong support to the Vietnam War, thereby breaking with the blacks and with the intellectual and student wings of liberalism. From time to time, dissident groups such as the Progressive Alliance, the Citizen-Labor Energy Coalition and the National Labor Committee broke from the dominant AFL–CIO which they saw as too conservative. In 1995, the liberals managed to take control of the AFL–CIO under the leadership of John Sweeney of the Service Employees International Union (SEIU). Union membership in the private sector has fallen from 33% to 7%, with a resulting decline in political weight. In 2005, the SEIU, now led by Andy Stern, broke away from the AFL–CIO to form its own coalition, the Change to Win Federation, to support liberalism, including Barack Obama's policies, especially health care reform. Stern retired in 2010. Regardless of the loss of numbers, unions have a long tradition and deep experience in organizing and continue at the state and national level to mobilize forces for liberal policies, especially regarding votes for liberal politicians, a graduated income tax, government spending on social programs, and support for unions. They also support the conservative position of protectionism. Offsetting the decline in the private sector is a growth of unionization in the public sector. The membership of unions in the public sector such as teachers, police and city workers continues to rise, now covering 42% of local government workers. The financial crisis that hit American states during the recession of 2008–2011 focused increasing attention on pension systems for government employees, with conservatives trying to reduce the pensions. Environmentalism A new unexpected political discourse emerged in the 1970s centered on the environment. The debates did not fall neatly into a left–right dimension, for everyone proclaimed their support for the environment. Environmentalism appealed to the well-educated middle class, but it aroused fears among lumbermen, farmers, ranchers, blue collar workers, automobile companies and oil companies whose economic interests were threatened by new regulations. As a result, conservatives tended to oppose environmentalism while liberals endorsed new measures to protect the environment. Liberals supported the Wilderness Society and the Sierra Club and were sometimes successful in blocking efforts by lumber companies and oil drillers to expand operations. Environmental legislation limited the use of DDT, reduced acid rain and protected numerous animal and plant species. Within the environmental movement, there was a small radical element that favored direct action rather than legislation. By the 21st century, debates over taking major action to reverse global warming by and dealing with carbon emissions were high on the agenda. Unlike Europe, where green parties play a growing role in politics, the environmental movement in the United States has given little support to third parties. End of the liberal consensus During the Nixon years and through the 1970s, the liberal consensus began to come apart and the 1980 election of Ronald Reagan as president marked the election of the first non-Keynesian administration and the first application of supply-side economics. The alliance with white Southern Democrats had been lost in the Civil Rights era. While the steady enfranchisement of African-Americans expanded the electorate to include many new voters sympathetic to liberal views, it was not quite enough to make up for the loss of some Southern Democrats. A tide of conservatism rose in response to perceived failures of liberal policies. Organized labor, long a bulwark of the liberal consensus, was past the peak of its power in the United States and many unions had remained in favor of the Vietnam War even as liberal politicians increasingly turned against it. In 1980, the leading liberal was Senator Ted Kennedy, who challenged incumbent President Jimmy Carter for the Democratic Party presidential nomination because Carter's failures had disenchanted liberals. Kennedy was decisively defeated, and in turn Carter was defeated by Ronald Reagan. Historians often use 1979–1980 to date a philosophical realignment within the American electorate away from Democratic liberalism and toward Reagan Era conservatism. However, some liberals hold a minority view that there was no real shift and that Kennedy's defeat was merely by historical accident caused by his poor campaign, international crises and Carter's use of the incumbency. Abrams (2006) argues that the eclipse of liberalism was caused by a grass-roots populist revolt, often with a fundamentalist and anti-modern theme, abetted by corporations eager to weaken labor unions and the regulatory regime of the New Deal. The success of liberalism in the first place, he argues, came from efforts of a liberal elite that had entrenched itself in key social, political and especially judicial positions. These elites, Abrams contends, imposed their brand of liberalism from within some of the least democratic and most insulated institutions, especially the universities, foundations, independent regulatory agencies and the Supreme Court. With only a weak popular base, liberalism was vulnerable to a populist counter-revolution by the nation's democratic or majoritarian forces. Bill Clinton administration and the Third Way The term Third Way represents various political positions which try to reconcile right-wing and left-wing politics by advocating a varying synthesis of centre-right economic and left-leaning social policies. Third Way was created as a serious re-evaluation of political policies within various center-left progressive movements in response to the ramifications of the collapse of international belief in the economic viability of the state economic interventionist policies that had previously been popularized by Keynesianism and the corresponding rise of popularity for neoliberalism and the New Right. It supports the pursuit of greater egalitarianism in society through action to increase the distribution of skills, capacities, and productive endowments, while rejecting income redistribution as the means to achieve this. It emphasizes commitment to balanced budgets, providing equal opportunity combined with an emphasis on personal responsibility, decentralization of government power to the lowest level possible, encouragement of public-private partnerships, improving labor supply, investment in human development, protection of social capital and protection of the environment. In the United States, Third Way adherents embrace fiscal conservatism to a greater extent than traditional social liberals and advocate some replacement of welfare with workfare and sometimes have a stronger preference for market solutions to traditional problems (as in pollution markets) while rejecting pure laissez-faire economics and other libertarian positions. The Third Way style of governing was firmly adopted and partly redefined during the presidency of Bill Clinton. With respect to Presidents, the term Third Way was introduced by political scientist Stephen Skowronek, who wrote The Politics Presidents Make (1993, 1997; ). Third Way Presidents "undermine the opposition by borrowing policies from it in an effort to seize the middle and with it to achieve political dominance. Think of Nixon's economic policies, which were a continuation of Johnson's "Great Society"; Clinton's welfare reform and support of capital punishment; and Obama's pragmatic centrism, reflected in his embrace, albeit very recent, of entitlements reform". After Tony Blair came to power in the United Kingdom, Clinton, Blair and other leading Third Way adherents organized conferences in 1997 to promote the Third Way philosophy at Chequers in England. In 2004, several veteran Democrats founded a new think tank in Washington, D.C. called Third Way which bills itself as a "strategy center for progressives". Along with the Third Way think tank, the Democratic Leadership Council are also adherents of Third Way politics. The Third Way has been heavily criticized by many social democrats as well as anarchists, communists, socialists and democratic socialists in particular as a betrayal of left-wing values. The Democratic Leadership Council shut down in 2011. Commenting on the Democratic Leadership Council's waning influence, Politico characterized it as "the iconic centrist organization of the Clinton years" that "had long been fading from its mid-'90s political relevance, tarred by the left as a symbol of 'triangulation' at a moment when there's little appetite for intra-party warfare on the center-right". Specific definitions of Third Way policies may differ between Europe and the United States. Return of protest politics Republican and staunch conservative George W. Bush won the 2000 president election in a tightly contested race that included multiple recounts in the state of Florida. The outcome was tied up in courts for a month until reaching the Supreme Court. In the controversial ruling Bush v. Gore case on December 9, the Supreme Court reversed a Florida Supreme Court decision ordering a third recount, essentially ending the dispute and resulting in Bush winning the presidency by electoral vote, although he lost the popular vote to Democrat and incumbent Vice President Al Gore. Bush's policies were deeply unpopular amongst American liberals, particularly his launching of the Iraq War which led to the return of massive protest politics in the form of opposition to the War in Iraq. Bush's approval rating went below the 50% mark in AP-Ipsos polling in December 2004. Thereafter, his approval ratings and approval of his handling of domestic and foreign policy issues steadily dropped. Bush received heavy criticism for his handling of the Iraq War, his response to Hurricane Katrina and to the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse, NSA warrantless surveillance, the Plame affair and Guantanamo Bay detention camp controversies. Polls conducted in 2006 showed an average of 37% approval ratings for Bush which contributed to what Bush called the thumping of the Republican Party in the 2006 midterm elections. When the financial system verged on total collapse during the 2008 financial crisis, Bush pushed through large-scale rescue packages for banks and auto companies that some conservatives in Congress did not support and led some conservative commentators to criticize Bush for enacting legislation they saw as not conservative and more reminiscent of New Deal liberal ideology. In part due to backlash against the Bush administration, Barack Obama, seen by some as a liberal and progressive, was elected to the presidency in 2008, the first African-American to hold the office. With a clear Democratic majority in both Houses of Congress, Obama managed to pass a $814 billion stimulus spending program, new regulations on investment firms and a law to expand health insurance coverage. Led by the Tea Party movement, the Republicans won back control of one of the two Houses of Congress in the 2010 midterm elections. In reaction to ongoing financial crisis that began in 2008, protest politics continued into the Obama administration, most notably in the form of Occupy Wall Street. The main issues are social and economic inequality, greed, corruption and the undue influence of corporations on government—particularly from the financial services sector. The Occupy Wall Street slogan "We are the 99%" addresses the growing income inequality and wealth distribution in the United States between the wealthiest 1% and the rest of the population. Although some of these were cited by liberal activists and Democrats, this information did not fully become a center of national attention until it was used as one of the ideas behind the movement itself. A survey by Fordham University Department of Political Science found the protester's political affiliations to be overwhelmingly left-leaning, with 25% Democrat, 2% Republican, 11% Socialist, 11% Green Party, 12% Other and 39% independent. While the survey also found that 80% of the protestors self-identified as slightly to extremely liberal, Occupy Wall Street and the broader Occupy movement has been variously classified as a "liberation from liberalism" and even as having principles that "arise from scholarship on anarchy". During a news conference on October 6, 2011, President Obama said: "I think it expresses the frustrations the American people feel, that we had the biggest financial crisis since the Great Depression, huge collateral damage all throughout the country ... and yet you're still seeing some of the same folks who acted irresponsibly trying to fight efforts to crack down on the abusive practices that got us into this in the first place". Obama was re-elected President in November 2012, defeating Republican nominee Mitt Romney and sworn in for a second term on January 20, 2013. During his second term, Obama promoted domestic policies related to gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting and called for full equality for LGBT Americans while his administration filed briefs which urged the Supreme Court to strike down the Defense of Marriage Act of 1996 and California's Proposition 8 as unconstitutional. The shooting of Michael Brown and death of Eric Garner led to widespread protests (particularly in Ferguson, where Brown was shot) against perceived police militarization more generally and alleged police brutality against African-Americans more specifically. Criticism Since the 1970s, there has been a concerted effort from both the left and right to color the word liberal with negative connotations. As those efforts succeeded more and more, progressives and their opponents took advantage of the negative meaning to great effect. In the 1988 presidential campaign, Republican George H. W. Bush joked about his opponent's refusal to own up to the "L-word label". When Michael Dukakis finally did declare himself a liberal, the Boston Globe headlined the story "Dukakis Uses L-Word". Conservative activists since the 1970s have employed liberal as an epithet, giving it an ominous or sinister connotation while invoking phrases like "free enterprise", "individual rights", "patriotic" and "the American way" to describe opponents of liberalism. Historian John Lukacs noted in 2004 that then-President George W. Bush, confident that many Americans regarded liberal as a pejorative term, used it to label his political opponents during campaign speeches while his opponents subsequently avoided identifying themselves as liberal. During the presidency of Gerald Ford, First Lady Betty Ford became known for her candid and outspoken liberal views in regard to the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), pro-choice on abortion, feminism, equal pay, decriminalization of certain drugs, gun control and civil rights. She was a vocal supporter and leader in the women's movement and Ford was also noted for bringing breast cancer awareness to national attention following her 1974 mastectomy. Her outspoken liberal views led to ridicule and opposition from the conservative wing of the Republican Party and by conservative activists who referred to Ford as "No Lady" and thought her actions were unbecoming of a First Lady in an increasingly conservative Republican Party. Ronald Reagan's ridicule of liberalism is credited with transforming the word liberal into a derogatory epithet that any politician seeking national office would avoid. His speechwriters repeatedly contrasted "liberals" and "real Americans". For example, Reagan's then-Secretary of the Interior James G. Watt said: "I never use the words Republicans and Democrats. It's liberals and Americans". Reagan warned the United States of modern secularists who condoned abortion, excused teenage sexuality, opposed school prayer and attenuated traditional American values. His conviction that there existed a single proper personal behavior, religious worldview, economic system and proper attitude toward nations and peoples not supporting American interests worldwide is credited by comparative literature scholar Betty Jean Craige with polarizing the United States. Reagan persuaded a large portion of the public to dismiss any sincere analyses of his administration's policies as politically motivated criticisms put forth by what he labeled a liberal media. When George H. W. Bush employed the word liberal as a derogatory epithet during his 1988 presidential campaign, he described himself as a patriot and described his liberal opponents as unpatriotic. Bush referred to liberalism as "the L-word" and sought to demonize opposing presidential candidate Michael Dukakis by labeling Dukakis "the liberal governor" and by pigeonholing him as part of what Bush called "the L-crowd". Bush recognized that motivating voters to fear Dukakis as a risky, non-mainstream candidate generated political support for his own campaign. Bush's campaign also used issues of prayer to arouse suspicions that Dukakis was less devout in his religious convictions. Bush's running mate, vice presidential candidate Dan Quayle, said to Christians at the 1988 Republican National Convention: "It's always good to be with people who are real Americans". Bill Clinton avoided association with liberal as a political label during his 1992 presidential campaign against Bush by moving closer to the political center. Reactions to shift Liberal Republicans have voiced disappointment over conservative attacks on liberalism. One example is former governor of Minnesota and founder of the Liberal Republican Club Elmer L. Andersen, who commented that it is "unfortunate today that 'liberal' is used as a derogatory term". After the 1980s, fewer activists and politicians were willing to characterize themselves as liberals. Historian Kevin Boyle explains: "There was a time when liberalism was, in Arthur Schlesinger's words 'a fighting faith'. ... Over the last three decades, though, liberalism has become an object of ridicule, condemned for its misplaced idealism, vilified for its tendency to equivocate and compromise, and mocked for its embrace of political correctness. Now even the most ardent reformers run from the label, fearing the damage it will inflict". Republican political consultant Arthur J. Finkelstein was recognized by Democratic political consultants for having employed a formula of branding someone as a liberal and engaging in name-calling by using the word liberal in negative television commercials as frequently as possible such as in a 1996 ad against Representative Jack Reed: "That's liberal. That's Jack Reed. That's wrong. Call liberal Jack Reed and tell him his record on welfare is just too liberal for you". Democratic candidates and political liberals have sometimes shied away from the word liberal, in some cases identifying instead with terms such as progressive or moderate. George W. Bush and former Vice President Dick Cheney accused their opponents of liberal elitism, softness and pro-terrorism. Conservative political commentators such as Rush Limbaugh consistently used the word "liberal" as a pejorative label. When liberals shifted to the word "progressive" to describe their beliefs, conservative radio host Glenn Beck used "progressive" as an abusive label. Historian Godfrey Hodgson notes the following: "The word liberal itself has fallen into disrepute. Nothing is too bad for conservative bloggers and columnists—let alone radio hosts—to say about liberals. Democrats themselves run a mile from the 'L word' for fear of being seen as dangerously outside the mainstream. Conservative politicians and publicists, by dint of associating liberals with all manner of absurdity so that many sensible people hesitated to risk being tagged with the label of liberalism, succeeded in persuading the country that it was more conservative than it actually was". Labels vs. beliefs In 2008 liberal historian Eric Alterman claimed that barely 20% of Americans are willing to accept the word liberal as a political label, but that supermajorities of Americans actually favor liberal positions time and again. Alterman points out that resistance to the label liberal is not surprising due to billions of dollars poured into the denigration of the term. A 2004 poll conducted by the National Election Study found that only 35% of respondents questioned identifying as liberal compared to 55% identifying as conservative. A 2004 Pew poll found 19% of respondents identifying as liberal and 39% identifying as conservative, with the balance identifying as moderate. A 2006 poll found that 19% identified as liberal and 36% conservative. In 2005, self-identifying moderates polled by Louis Harris & Associates were found to share essentially the same political beliefs as self-identifying liberals but rejected the word liberal because of the vilification heaped on the word itself by conservatives. Alterman acknowledges political scientist Drew Westen's observation that for most Americans the word liberal now carries meanings such as "elite", "tax and spend" and "out of touch". Philosophy Free speech American liberals describe themselves as open to change and receptive to new ideas. Liberals tend to oppose the Supreme Court's Citizens United ruling in 2010 that a corporation's First Amendment right to free speech encompasses freedom to make unlimited independent expenditures for any political party, politician or lobbyist as they see fit. President Obama called it "a major victory for big oil, Wall Street banks, health insurance companies and the other powerful interests that marshal their power every day in Washington to drown out the voices of everyday Americans". Opposition to state socialism In general, liberalism opposes socialism when it is understood to mean an alternative to capitalism based on state ownership of the means of production. American liberals usually doubt that bases for political opposition and freedom can survive when power is vested in the state as it was under state-socialist regimes. In line with the "general pragmatic, empirical basis" of liberalism, American liberal philosophy embraces the idea that if substantial abundance and equality of opportunity can be achieved through a system of mixed ownership, then there is no need for a rigid and oppressive bureaucracy. Since the 1950s, some liberal public intellectuals have moved further toward the allegation that free markets can provide better solutions than top-down economic planning when appropriately regulated. Economist Paul Krugman argued that in hitherto-state-dominated functions such as nation-scale energy distribution and telecommunications marketizations can improve efficiency dramatically. He also defended a monetary policy—inflation targeting—saying that it "most nearly approaches the usual goal of modern stabilization policy, which is to provide adequate demand in a clean, unobtrusive way that does not distort the allocation of resources". These distortions are of a kind that war-time and postwar Keynesian economists had accepted as an inevitable byproduct of fiscal policies that selectively reduced certain consumer taxes and directed spending toward government-managed stimulus projects, even where these economists theorized at a contentious distance from some of Keynes's own, more hands-off, positions which tended to emphasize stimulating of business investment. Thomas Friedman is a liberal journalist who generally defends free trade as more likely to improve the lot of both rich and poor countries. Role of the state There is a fundamental split among liberals as to the role of the state. Historian H. W. Brands notes that "the growth of the state is, by perhaps the most common definition, the essence of modern American liberalism". According to Paul Starr, "[l]iberal constitutions impose constraints on the power of any single public official or branch of government as well as the state as a whole". Morality According to cognitive linguist George Lakoff, liberal philosophy is based on five basic categories of morality. The first, the promotion of fairness, is generally described as an emphasis on empathy as a desirable trait. With this social contract based on the Golden Rule comes the rationale for many liberal positions. The second category is assistance to those who cannot assist themselves. A nurturing, philanthropic spirit is one that is considered good in liberal philosophy. This leads to the third category, namely the desire to protect those who cannot defend themselves. The fourth category is the importance of fulfilling one's life, allowing a person to experience all that they can. The fifth and final category is the importance of caring for oneself since only thus can one act to help others. Historiography Liberalism increasingly shaped American intellectual life in the 1930s and 1940s, thanks in large part to two major two-volume studies that were widely read by academics, advanced students, intellectuals and the general public, namely Charles A. Beard and Mary Beard's The Rise of American Civilization (2 vol.; 1927) and Vernon L. Parrington's Main Currents in American Thought (2 vol.; 1927). The Beards exposed the material forces that shaped American history while Parrington focused on the material forces that shaped American literature. According to the Beards, virtually all political history involved the bitter conflict between the agrarians, farmers and workers led by the Jeffersonians and the capitalists led by the Hamiltonians. The Civil War marked a great triumph of the capitalists and comprised the Second American Revolution. Younger historians welcome the realistic approach that emphasized hardcore economic interest as a powerful force and downplayed the role of ideas. Parrington spoke to the crises at hand. According to historian Ralph Gabriel: Main Currents attempted to trace the history of liberalism in the American scene for citizens who were caught in a desperate predicament. It was an age in which American liberalism set the United States, through the New Deal, on a Democratic middle-of-the-road course between the contemporary extremisms of Europe, that of Communism on one hand, and of Fascism on the other. ... The style of Main Currents was powered by Parrington's dedication to the cause of humane liberalism, by his ultimate humanistic, democratic faith. He saw the democratic dreams of the romantic first half of the 19th century as the climax of an epic story toward which early Americans moved and from which later Americans fell away. Liberal readers immediately realized where they stood in the battle between Jeffersonian democracy and Hamiltonian privilege. Neither the Beards nor Parrington paid any attention to slavery, race relations, or minorities. For example, the Beards "dismissed the agitations of the abolitionists as a small direct consequence because of their lack of appeal to the public". Princeton historian Eric F. Goldman helped define American liberalism for postwar generations of university students. The first edition of his most influential work appeared in 1952 with the publication of Rendezvous with Destiny: A History of Modern American Reform, covering reform efforts from the Grant years to the 1950s. For decades, it was a staple of the undergraduate curriculum in history, highly regarded for its style and its exposition of modern American liberalism. According to Priscilla Roberts: Lively, well-written, and highly readable, it provided an overview of eight decades of reformers, complete with arresting vignettes of numerous individuals, and stressed the continuities among successful American reform movements. Writing at the height of the Cold War, he also argued that the fundamental liberal tradition of the United States was moderate, centrist, and incrementalist, and decidedly non-socialist and non-totalitarian. While broadly sympathetic to the cause of American reform, Goldman was far from uncritical toward his subjects, faulting progressives of World War I for their lukewarm reception of the League of Nations, American reformers of the 1920s for their emphasis on freedom of lifestyles rather than economic reform, and those of the 1930s for overly tolerant attitude toward Soviet Russia. His views of past American reformers encapsulated the conventional, liberal, centrist orthodoxy of the early 1950s, from its support for anti-communism and international activism abroad and New Deal-style big government at home, to its condemnation of McCarthyism. For the general public, Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. was the most widely read historian, social critic and public intellectual. Schlesinger's work explored the history of Jacksonian era and especially 20th-century American liberalism. His major books focused on leaders such as Andrew Jackson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy and Robert F. Kennedy. He was a White House aide to Kennedy and his A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House won the 1966 Pulitzer Prize. In 1968, Schlesinger wrote speeches for Robert F. Kennedy in 1968 and the biography Robert Kennedy and His Times. He later popularized the term imperial presidency, warning against excessive power in the White House as typified by Richard Nixon. Late in his career, he came to oppose multiculturalism. Thinkers and leaders See also Conservatism in the United States Economic interventionism List of American Liberals Progressive Christianity Progressive talk radio Progressivism in the United States Social liberalism References Further reading Abrams, Richard M. America Transformed: Sixty Years of Revolutionary Change, 1941–2001 (2006) Alterman, Eric, and Kevin Mattson. The Cause: The Fight for American Liberalism from Franklin Roosevelt to Barack Obama (2012) biographical approach to general survey excerpt and text search Baer, Kenneth S., Reinventing Democrats: The Politics of Liberalism from Reagan to Clinton (UP of Kansas, 2000) 361 pp Battista, Andrew. The Revival of Labor Liberalism (2008) 268 pp. Bell, Jonathan and Timothy Stanley, eds. Making Sense of American Liberalism (2012) 272pp excerpt and text search, 10 historical essays by experts Boyle, Kevin. The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism 1945–1968 (1995) on the UAW (auto workers) Brands, H. W. The Strange Death of American Liberalism (2003); brief survey of all of American history. Conn, Steven, ed. To Promote the General Welfare: The Case for Big Government (Oxford University Press; 2012) 233 pages; Cooper, John Milton The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt. (1983). online; a dual biography; covers liberal politics 1900–1920. Cronin, James, George Ross, and James Shoch, eds. What's Left of the Left: Democrats and Social Democrats in Challenging Times (Duke University Press; 2011); 413 pages; essays on how center-left political parties have fared in Europe and the U.S. since the 1970s. Diggins, John Patrick, ed. The Liberal Persuasion: Arthur Schlesinger Jr. and the Challenge of the American Past, Princeton University Press, 1997. Dionne, E. J. They Only Look Dead; Why Progressives will Dominate the Next Political Era (1996) Feingold, Henry L. American Jewish Political Culture and the Liberal Persuasion (Syracuse UP; 2014) 384 pages; traces the history, dominance, and motivations of liberalism in the American Jewish political culture, and look at concerns about Israel and memories of the Holocaust. Fink, Leon. Undoing the Liberal World Order: Progressive Ideals and Political Realities Since World War II (Columbia UP, 2022) online Gabler, Neal. Against the Wind: Edward Kennedy and the Rise of Conservatism, 1976-2009 (2022) excerpt, major scholarly biography of a leading liberal; covers the Senate years in great detail. Hamby, Alonzo. Liberalism and Its Challengers: From F.D.R. to Bush (1992), by leading historian Hamby, Alonzo L. "The Vital Center, the Fair Deal, and the Quest for a Liberal Political Economy." American Historical Review (1972): 653–678. in JSTOR Hart, Gary. Restoration of the Republic: The Jeffersonian Ideal in 21st century America (2002) by a leading Democrat Hayward, Steven F. The Age of Reagan: The Fall of the Old Liberal Order: 1964–1980 (2009), a conservative interpretation Hays, Samuel P. Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955–1985 (1987) Jumonville, Neil. Henry Steele Commager: Midcentury Liberalism and the History of the Present (1999); Professor Henry Steele Commager (1902–1998) was a prolific historian and commentator Kazin, Michael. A Godly Hero: The Life of William Jennings Bryan (2006) excerpt Kazin, Michael. What It Took to Win: A History of the Democratic Party (2022) excerpt Kramnick, Isaac and Theodore Lowi. American Political Thought (2006), textbook and reader McKee, Guian A. The Problem of Jobs: Liberalism, Race, and Deindustrialization in Philadelphia (2008) Matusow, Allen J. The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (1984), by leading historian. Nevins, Paul L. The Politics of Selfishness: How John Locke's Legacy is Paralzying America. (Praeger, 2010) Parker, Richard. John Kenneth Galbraith: His Life, His Politics, His Economics (2006); biography of a leading intellectual of the 1940s–1960s Rossinow, Doug. Visions of Progress: The Left-Liberal Tradition in America (2008) Starr. Paul. Freedom's Power: The History and Promise of Liberalism (2007), by a leading liberal scholar Stein, Herbert. Presidential Economics: The Making of Economic Policy From Roosevelt to Clinton (3rd ed. 1994) Sugrue, Thomas J. Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (2009) Willard, Charles Arthur. Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy (1996); debunks liberalism, arguing that its exaggerated ideals of authenticity, unity, and community have deflected attention from the pervasive incompetence of "the rule of experts." Wilentz, Sean. The Age of Reagan: A History, 1974–2008 (2008), by a leading liberal. Liberalism Social liberalism Modern liberalism
5266298	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinz%C3%B3n%20brothers	Pinzón brothers	The Pinzón brothers were Spanish sailors, pirates, explorers and fishermen, natives of Palos de la Frontera, Huelva, Spain. Martín Alonso, Francisco Martín and Vicente Yáñez, participated in Christopher Columbus's first expedition to the New World (generally considered to constitute the discovery of the Americas by Europeans) and in other voyages of discovery and exploration in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The brothers were sailors along the coast of Huelva, and thanks to their many commercial voyages and piracy along the coast, they were famous along the entire coast. The strategic position offered by the historic Atlantic port of Palos, from which expeditions had set forth to the African coasts as well as to the war against Portugal, for which most of the armadas set forth from this town, organized, on many occasions, by this family. Martín Alonso and Vicente Yáñez, captains of the caravels La Pinta and La Niña, respectively on Columbus's first voyage, are the best known of the brothers, but the third brother, the lesser-known Francisco Martín, was aboard the Pinta as its master. It was thanks to Martín Alonso that the seamen of the Tinto-Odiel were motivated to participate in Columbus's undertaking. He also supported the project economically, supplying money from his personal fortune. Francisco, master of the Pinta, appears to have participated in Columbus's third and fourth voyages of discovery as well as in the first, but because his name was a common one, the facts of his life cannot be easily sorted out from those of contemporaries with the same name. Vicente Yáñez, the youngest of the three brothers, besides participating in Columbus's first voyage, once Columbus's monopoly on transatlantic trade was ended, made several voyages to the Americas on his own account and is generally credited with the discovery of Brazil. Although they sometimes quarreled with Columbus, on several occasions the Pinzón brothers were instrumental in preventing mutiny against him, particularly during the first voyage. On 6 October, Martín intervened in a dispute between Columbus and the crew by proposing an altered course (which Columbus eventually accepted) and thus calmed simmering unrest. A few days later, on the night of 9 October 1492, the brothers were forced to intercede once again, and this time they proposed the compromise that if no land was sighted during the next three days, the expedition would return to Spain. On the morning of the 12th, land (there is some question of the location: see Guanahani) was in fact sighted by Juan Rodriguez Bermejo (also known as Rodrigo de Triana). The port of Palos at the end of the 15th century The Pinzón brothers lived in the era of the greatest splendor of the port town of Palos de la Frontera, participating in the majority of the activities undertaken by that port. The historic port of Palos was a river port, protected from winds and from pirate attacks, both major hazards to the ports of the time. It was located on the lower portion of the Río Tinto known then as the Canal de Palos, about from its mouth at the Atlantic and its confluence with the Odiel. The port probably grew simultaneously with the town, first as an anchorage for small vessels engaged almost exclusively in fishing on the beaches and estuaries and occasional commercial transactions to supply the small population. For many, the expression port of Palos brings to mind the present-day port with its old wharf, the muelle de la Calzadilla from which the Plus Ultra flying boat departed in 1926 to cross the Atlantic. This is not the 15th century port. The municipal ordinances of the era (Ordenanzas Municipales de Palos (1484–1521)), focused mainly on regulating the town's maritime activities never use the terms puerto (port) or muelle (wharf). The caravels of Palos "arrived at the riverbank" ("aportaban a la ribera"), where they discharged their goods and auctioned their fish. That is to say, the activities of the port were not conducted in any single place, but along the length of the bank of the Río Tinto, because of the large number of ships and relatively high volume of merchandise they had to handle. Progressively, the river became Palos's principal means of connection to the outside world and the port the axis of its relation to the surrounding towns. This maritime orientation modified the shape of the town, previously a conical area centered around the church and castle. The Calle de la Ribera ("Riverbank Street") connecting the town center to the port became the town's principal artery, and the port the authentic heart of the local economy. On the eve of Columbus's first voyage, the entire riverbank between the present-day wharfs near the center of Palos and away at La Rábida Monastery was an active port. The caravels anchored in the center of the river, where the depth was sufficient for their drafts, and paid for the rights to anchor there. From the caravels, boats and dinghies loaded or unloaded the goods "tying up to the shore" ("amarrando en la ribera"). The port had a population density similar to that to the town proper, from what we can deduce from the Ordenanza Municipal, which prohibited weapons on the riverbank because the people there were as tightly packed as in the town proper (the expression used is "tan aparejadas como en la Villa": aparejadas is nautical Spanish for something that has been furnished or supplied). Beginning in the first third of the 15th century, the port of Palos experienced continual economic growth, obtaining an importance well beyond the local area and achieving even international dimensions, as is testified by the frequent presence of English, Breton, Flemish, and Italian ships. Following in the wake of the Portuguese, the ships of Palos traveled to the Canary Islands and Guinea, with their rich fisheries and the commercial possibility of trade in gold, spices, and slaves. In the second half of the 15th century, Palos reaches a population of three thousand. The alota of Palos, a type of customs warehouse, paid the largest tribute of any such facility to the Duke of Medina Sidonia, its primacy being such that it fishermen were recruited from other towns along the coast and two residents of Palos. Juan Venegas and Pedro Alonso Cansino, were placed in charge of giving licenses to fish in the Afro-Atlantic waters from Cabo Bojador to the Río de Oro, which they leased from the Catholic Monarchs Isabella and Ferdinand. The Pinzón family of Palos The Pinzón family were one of the leading families of 14th-century Palos. The family may have come originally from the Kingdom of Aragón, but arrived in Andalusia either from la Montaña (now Cantabria) or from Asturias. According to some historians, this surname could have been a corruption of Espinzas or Pinzas ("tweezers"). Others say that the true family name was Martín, a widespread name with a long tradition in the area, the name of their grandfather, a sailor and diver in Palos, who was dubbed Pinzón when he went blind; that, combined with his hobby of singing gave him the nickname Pinzón, the Spanish word for chaffinch, because owners of chaffinches sometimes blinded them, supposedly making them sing more beautifully. His son, also a sailor named Martín Pinzón, was the father of the three Pinzón brothers. Their mother was named Mayor Vicente, so the three were full brothers and bore the surnames Pinzón and Vicente (see Spanish naming customs). Martín Alonso Pinzón Martín Alonso Pinzón (c. 1441 – c. 31 March 1493) was the oldest of the brothers, and captain of the Pinta on Columbus's first voyage. It appears that at quite a young age he shipped out on a locally based caravel as a grumete (cabin boy). His home, now the Casa Museo de Martín Alonso Pinzón, was on the old royal road to the Monastery of La Rábida. Martín's family contracted a marriage with a resident of the locality named María Álvarez. They had five children: two sons—Arias Pérez and Juan Pinzón, who participated in several expeditions to the Americas—and three daughters—Mayor, Catalina, and Leonor. Leonor, the youngest, suffered frequent attacks of what was then called "gota coral" and would now be called epilepsy. His nautical experience and his leadership remained patent in the 1508–1536 lawsuits known as the pleitos colombinos, where the witnesses indicated him as the leader of the comarca (a region comparable to a shire). He was also famous for his battles against the Portuguese in the War of the Castilian Succession. It is probable that even while in Portugal before coming to Spain, Columbus was aware of Martín Alonso, because he was known for his participation in the war, as well as for his incursions into the Canary Islands and Guinea. He was captain of the Pinta on Columbus's first voyage and supplied half a million ("medio cuento") maravedís in coin toward the cost of the voyage. Thanks to his prestige as a shipowner and expert sailor and his fame throughout the Tinto-Odiel region, he was able to enlist the crew required for Columbus's first voyage. On 23 May 1492 the royal provision was read out to the residents of Palos, by which the Catholic Monarchs ordered that certain residents deliver two caravels to Columbus and travel with him on his voyage that he was making "by command of Their Highnesses" ("por mandado de Sus Altezas") and that the town should respect the royal decision. However, the locals did not comply. The sailors of Palos had no confidence in embarking on this adventure with Columbus, who was largely unknown to them. Independent of their greater or lesser credence in his ideas, the men of Palos found it difficult to support the Genovese sailor if he was not accompanied by a mariner known and respected in the town. The venture—risky and, above all, of uncertain profit—did not present great attractions. Opposition or indifference to Columbus's project was general. The Franciscans of the Monastery of La Rábida put Columbus in touch with Martín Alonso Pinzón. Pero Vázquez de la Frontera, an old mariner in the town—very respected for his experience, and a friend of Martín Alonso—also had an important influence on the oldest Pinzón brother deciding to support the undertaking, not only morally but also economically. Martín Alonso dismissed the vessels that Columbus had already seized based on the royal order and also dismissed the men he had enrolled, supplying the enterprise with two caravels of his own, the Pinta and the Niña, which he knew from his own experience would be better and more suitable boats. Furthermore, he traveled through Palos, Moguer and Huelva, convincing his relatives and friends to enlist, composing of them the best crew possible. He captained the caravel Pinta, from which Rodrigo de Triana was to be the first person to sight American soil. Columbus, in his diary, spoke favorably of Pinzón on several occasions. Nonetheless, after they had discovered the West Indies, the relationship between the two changed radically from 21 November 1492, when Martín Alonso separated from Columbus. Admiral Columbus launched a series of accusations of desertion against Pinzón and his brothers, including Vicente who had saved him when the Santa María was shipwrecked. Nonetheless, much of the testimony in the pleitos colombinos, as well as part of the specialized historiography and investigators, does not agree that these things happened in this manner, nor is there any accusation against Pinzón in Columbus's Letter on the First Voyage, which Columbus wrote on his return. For Martín Alonso the return voyage was lethal, as the ships suffered from a great storm, which resulted in great fatigue and exhaustion, accumulated over many days of sailing. Because of this, Martín's recurrent fevers from which he suffered reactivated and he died a few days after returning from the New World. In fact, he was taken from his ship in a stretcher and, as Columbus arrived, his friends took him to a farm that was on the boundary between Palos and Moguer. It is possible that Martín's son, Arias Pérez Pinzón, did not bring him directly to his house in Palos in order to protect him, given that Columbus had threatened him earlier. Another possibility is that this was because Martín did not get along well with Catalina Alonso, the woman who had been living with his father since he became a widower, and with whom the father would have two illegitimate children: Francisco and Inés Pinzón. According to testimony, he was brought to the La Rábida Monastery, where he died; he was entombed there, as was his wish. Francisco Martín Pinzón Francisco Martín Pinzón (c. 1445 – c. 1502) was the second of the brothers. On Columbus's first voyage he was the master (second only to the captain) of the Pinta, the first ship to sight land in the Americas. Although he was less known than his two brothers, he played a major role both in voyages of discovery and in service to the Crown. His personal and family story is confused, because several relatives shared this same name, frequently leading historians to confuse them. Nonetheless, he seems to have been married to Juana Martín and to have had at least one daughter, who we find documented as "an orphan" and "poor" ("huérfana y pobre"). With his brother Vicente, he made several voyages to Italy and Africa in service to the Crown. In November 1493, together with Juan de Sevilla, Rodrigo de Quexo, and Fernando Quintero, he led an assault on the Algerian coast. In 1496 he brought money and supplies to the Spanish troops fighting in Naples. Later, he participated in Columbus's third and fourth voyages, on the last of which, according to his companion on many voyages, Rodrigo Álvarez, he died by drowning. Vicente Yáñez Pinzón Vicente Yáñez Pinzón (c. 1462 – c. September 1514) was the youngest brother. He was captain of the Niña on the first voyage of discovery. He later made other discoveries on his own account; historians consider him the discoverer of Brazil along with his cousin Diego de Lepe. Considerably younger than his brothers, it is likely that his name Yáñez came from Rodrigo Yáñez, a bailiff (alguacil) of Palos who would then have been his godfather, according to the custom of the place. Tradition in Palos indicates that he lived on the Calle de la Ribera. From a young age, he learned the art of navigation from his oldest brother, and from adolescence he participated in combat and in military assaults, as he happened to reach this age during the War of the Castilian Succession. He married twice, first to Teresa Rodríguez, with whom he had two daughters, Ana Rodríguez and Juana González. After his final return from the Yucatán in 1509 he married Ana Núñez de Trujillo, with whom he lived in Triana (across the river from Seville), probably until his death. The first we hear of Vicente Yáñez is when he is denounced for assaults on Aragonese boats, some with his oldest brother, when he was only 15 years old. This was between 1477 and 1479, during the War of the Castilian Succession (with Portugal) in which Palos participated actively and through which its habitual shortage of grain was aggravated: its residents complained of hunger. Royal orders to various places that were supposed to supply Palos with cereals were disobeyed. The Pinzón brothers, taking on their responsibilities as natural leaders of the district, attacked caravels that were transporting mainly grain. Vicente immediately supported his brother, Martín Alonso, when Martin decided to back Columbus's undertaking. The two worked together to enlist men from the Tinto-Odiel for the risky voyage. He was chosen as captain of the Niña and distinguished himself during the voyage. This involved, among other accomplishments, helping to put down several attempts at mutiny together with his older brother. He provided support, both to Columbus and the rest of the crew, after the Santa María was wrecked. With his flagship gone, the admiral made his return voyage in the Niña, captained by Vicente, who provided all the help necessary for a successful return voyage. He made several more expeditions to the Americas, the most important being the voyage to the mouth of the Amazon which constituted the discovery of Brazil, in early 1500. That expedition was an economic failure. In 1505 he was made the governor of Puerto Rico. Later, in 1506, he returned to the Caribbean to search for a passage to the Pacific Ocean. He explored all of the Caribbean coast of Central America and the Yucatan Peninsula. According to the chronicler Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, Vicente Yáñez died in 1514, probably at the end of September. It is not known precisely where he is buried, but Oviedo states that it is somewhere in the cemetery of Triana. The Pinzón brothers and the discovery of America The participation of the Pinzón brothers was crucial to Columbus's first voyage, especially in that few were disposed to enlist with Columbus until Martín Alonso, a wealthy and famous shipbuilder in the Tinto-Odiel region, gave his support to the enterprise. Once Martín Alonso gave his support, he undertook a veritable campaign on behalf of the undertaking. His support and that of his brothers and of other distinguished families of mariners in the region served to recruit the necessary crew: sailors from Palos, Huelva, and even from beyond Andalusia. The testimony in the pleitos colombinos indicates that the Pinzón brothers, above all Martín: Among these other families, the Niño brothers of Moguer stand out: their prestige and influence brought the men of Moguer to unite around the enterprise. During the voyage of discovery, they demonstrated on several occasions their gifts as expert mariners and as leaders, in that they knew how to master the most diverse and difficult situations. For example, they were able to continue sailing, even after the damage that occurred to the Pinta when the tiller broke, before they reached the Canary Islands, and when, between 6 and 7 October 1492 Columbus was unable to reestablish discipline among the tired and discouraged crew of the Santa María, Martín Alonso with his gift of command managed to resolve the situation. Martín Alonso suggested to Columbus the change of course on 6 October 1492; A few days later, on 9 October he proposed a compromise that won a few more days from the restless crew. The course he urged brought the expedition to landfall on Guanahani on 12 October 1492. When the Santa María wrecked on 25 December, Vicente Yáñez in command of the Niña went to the rescue of those left in this difficult situation. For these and other acts, the Pinzón brothers have a very notable place in the history of the discovery of America, and are considered by historians as "co-discoverers of America", in that without their help, support, and courage, Columbus probably could not have achieved his enterprise of discovery, at least not in that time and place. Other voyages Although the oldest of the Pinzón brothers, Martín Alonso, died a few days after returning from Columbus's first voyage, that was by no means the end of the participation of the Pinzóns in voyages of discovery and other sea journeys. Francisco and Vicente made various voyages to Italy and Africa in service to the Crown. As mentioned above, in November 1493, Francisco, along with Juan de Sevilla, Rodrigo de Quexo, and Fernando Quintero, led an assault on the Algerian coast. In 1496 they brought money and supplies to the Spanish troops fighting in Naples. In 1498 he participated in Columbus's third voyage, in which for the first time the Admiral arrived on the continent of South America. Later in 1498, the Crown decided to end Columbus's monopoly on voyages of discovery. The series of voyages by other mariners are generally known as the "minor voyages" or the "Andalusian voyages" of discovery. After contracting with the crown, on 19 November 1499 Vicente left the port of Palos with four small caravels, crewed largely by his relatives and friends, among them his brother Francisco and also the famous physician of Palos Garcí Fernández, an early supporter of Columbus's first voyage. On this voyage, they discovered Brazil and the Amazon River. On 5 September 1501 the Crown signed an agreement with Vicente in which, among other things, he was named Captain and Governor of the Cabo de Santa María de la Consolación, later Cabo de Santo Agostinho. In 1502, Francisco traveled with Columbus on his fourth and final voyage; it is on this voyage he is believed to have died by drowning. Vicente continued to travel back and forth across the Atlantic to fulfill his obligations as Captain General and Governor. He also participated as one of the experts brought together by the Crown in the Junta de Navegantes in Burgos in 1508 to take up anew the subject of the search for a passage to the Spice Islands. On his final voyage, along with captain Juan Díaz de Solís, he followed the coasts of Darién, Veragua and the Gulf of Paria, now Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras and Guatemala. Not finding the desired passage, he rounded the Yucatan Peninsula and entered into the Gulf of Mexico to the extent of 23.5º north latitude, bringing about one of the first European contacts with the Aztec civilization. Upon returning from this voyage, Vicente Yáñez married for the second time and settled in Triana. In 1513 he testified against Columbus in the pleitos colombinos. In 1514 he was ordered to accompany Pedrarias Dávila to Darién, but he was not well enough and begged to be excused. That was on 14 March 1514, and it is the last primary source document in which he is mentioned. Coat of arms granted by Charles I of Spain In 1519 a petition to Charles I of Spain, headed by Juan Rodríguez Mafra, requested the grant of a coat of arms to the Pinzóns and other mariners of Palos, exposing the lamentable situation of the descendants of those mariners who had offered such service to the Crown. The king finally conceded to the Pinzóns, their descendants and family members a coat of arms consisting of a shield with three caravels, natural, on the sea; from each a hand points to an island representing the first land discovered in the New World. Around that, a border with anchors and crowns. See also Lugares colombinos List of explorers Juan de la Cosa Columbian Exchange or The Grand Exchange Notes References Online at archive.org The link is to an abridged copy on Google Books. Further reading Spanish explorers Christopher Columbus
5266592	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excalibur%3A%20A%20Novel%20of%20Arthur	Excalibur: A Novel of Arthur	Excalibur: A Novel of Arthur is a historical fiction novel by English writer Bernard Cornwell, first published in the UK in 1997. It is the third and final book in The Warlord Chronicles series, following The Winter King and Enemy of God. The trilogy tells the legend of King Arthur through the eyes of his follower Derfel Cadarn. Embittered by multiple betrayals, Arthur once again assumes responsibility for the defense of free Britain, and as the Saxons threaten imminent conquest he assembles the resistance in a valiant last effort to defeat them. Merlin attempts to summon the gods to earth, but Arthur and Derfel disrupt the ceremony, earning them Nimue's wrath. Though Arthur manages to halt the Saxon advance and repair his broken marriage, his dream of a simple life proves forever out of reach as dark forces renew their commitment to undo, once and for all, his vision of a peaceful Britain. Plot Part One: The Fires of Mai Dun Excalibur begins shortly after the end of the second novel, Enemy of God. Arthur has taken full control of Dumnonia, Guinevere is imprisoned, and Mordred, while nominally still king, has been stripped of his power as punishment for his treachery. Lancelot has joined the Saxons, while the Saxon kings Aelle and Cerdic have put aside their differences in an attempt to finally subjugate the Britons. In the wake of Guinevere's infidelity, Arthur has become a bitter man, and Derfel notices his friend is cold and distant. Arthur has persuaded Dumnonia and Powys to unite against the Saxons, and has secured the support of several Irish kingdoms by remarrying to the young Irish princess Argante, but Meurig, king of Gwent, will not send his formidable army unless he is given the throne of Dumnonia. Arthur refuses his demand, having long ago sworn an oath to preserve Mordred as the rightful king, and instead sends Derfel to try to persuade Aelle, Derfel's father, to turn against Cerdic. Though the Saxons have been murdering all British emissaries, Derfel travels to meet the Saxon kings in Lloegyr. Aelle welcomes his son but Cerdic demands Derfel's death, which Aelle settles by insisting that Derfel fight a Saxon champion in single combat. Derfel defeats Cerdic's champion Liofa but spares his life, and then parlays with Aelle, who is not fooled by Arthur's false promises and reasserts his intent to invade Dumnonia. Meanwhile, Merlin prepares a pagan rite at Mai Dun which he believes will bring the Old Gods back to Britain by gathering together the Thirteen Treasures of Britain, including Arthur's sword Excalibur, which is revealed to be the Sword of Rhydderch. Derfel is inspired when he sees the beautiful silvery skin of Olwen. He also meets Gawain, a naïve young prince of Broceliande and Arthur's nephew, whom Merlin has convinced to remained celibate under the pretense that he is destined to be the saviour of Britain. As an enormous balefire begins to burn atop Mai Dun, Arthur and Derfel suddenly realise that Merlin and Nimue have kidnapped Arthur's young son Gwydre, intending to sacrifice him as part of the ritual. They climb the burning hill and rescue Gwydre, but find that Merlin has already killed Gawain. Arthur's interruption of the ceremony earns him the hatred of many pagans in Britain, particularly Nimue, who blames him and Derfel for preventing the prophesied return of the gods. Part Two: Mynydd Baddon After a long winter of anticipation, the Saxons finally begin their invasion with a surprise attack during the pagan holiday of Beltain. Derfel scrambles to bring his small command to Corinium, where Arthur's army plans to meet the Saxon assault. Followed by refugees fleeing Dumnonia, Derfel frees Guinevere from her prison atop Ynys Wydryn and attempts to bring her and the other families to safety at Glevum, but they stumble into a Saxon regiment and are trapped on a hilltop near Aquae Sulis. Unable to escape to aid Arthur, the greatly outnumbered Britons dig in for a long siege. Derfel is impressed by Guinevere's efforts as she uses several tricks to hamper the enemy forces, winning them much needed time and confidence. Eventually, Arthur's horsemen arrive at Mount Baddon along with Sagramor and King Cuneglas of Powys and manage to win a victory over the Saxons. Arthur also succeeds in convincing Gwent to fight by appealing to Tewdric, Meurig's father, who had long ago abdicated to become a monk, with the price of Tewdric's support being that Arthur fight in the name of the Christian god. Tewdric briefly reclaims his throne from his son and leads Gwent's thousand spears in battle against the Saxons. During a respite in the fighting, Cuneglas is drawn into single combat with Liofa, Cerdic's champion, but is killed, costing Arthur his staunchest ally and Derfel a man he considered a brother. Despite assistance from Tewdric, the Saxons still outnumber the British and, despite their heavy losses, they are likely to win the battle. However, just as the British brace for a third assault, Culhwch and Irish king Oengus mac Airem arrive with fresh spearmen. Merlin spurs a horse to charge the Saxon line with Gawain's corpse as the rider, terrifying the Saxons into believing a ghoul is attacking them. The Saxons are overwhelmed and routed, and Cerdic flees with his army in ruins while Aelle's remaining forces are surrounded. Aelle asks his son to give him a warrior's death and Derfel obliges, despite fearing his mother's prophecy that he would kill his father. He buries Aelle with honor according to the Saxon rites and spares the lives of his men. Lancelot is caught hiding in a clump of debris on a riverbank, and Derfel forces him to accept a challenge to single combat; despite his cowardice, Lancelot proves to be a competent swordsman, but Derfel defeats him anyway, and has him hanged from a tree. The power of the Saxons is broken. Cerdic, now greatly weakened, is forced to retreat, and Sagramor reconquers territory in western Lloegyr. Tewdric is venerated as a saint for his actions at Mynydd Baddon and the Christians credit him with the victory. Tewdric once again renounces his throne, allowing Meurig to return to power. Lancelot goes down in legend as the greatest hero of Arthur's retinue, when in truth he was a coward, a rapist, and a traitor. Part Three: Nimue's Curse Guinevere explains to Derfel that Arthur's price for gaining Gwent's support at Mynydd Baddon was giving up his power and forever abstaining from British politics. As this is what Arthur had always wanted, he agreed, and now leaves Derfel and Sagramor as the leaders of Dumnonia's army: though Mordred is still king, Derfel will command the spears in Dumnonia itself, while Sagramor will watch the border with the Saxons. Arthur and Guinevere have also agreed to move to Silurian Isca, where Meurig can keep an eye on him. Although Guinevere admits that it was not what she wanted for herself and Arthur, she still loves Arthur and wants to be with him. Arthur avoids insulting the Irish by proposing that his recent bride, Oengus mac Airem's daughter Argante, be remarried to Mordred. Arthur and Guinevere rebuild their marriage in Isca, hoping to finally live a simple, peaceful life with their son Gwydre, though they are accompanied by a warband as Arthur still has enemies. As Isca remains under Meurig's rule, Arthur becomes one of his tax collectors and soon comes to be known as the Governor of Siluria, using his warband to resolve disputes between Silurian chieftains and to repel raids from Demetia. With Cuneglas' death, Powys descends into chaos as several chieftains proclaim themselves king in opposition to the deceased ruler's son, Perddel. Eventually, Perddel's fractured kingdom is invaded by Diwrnach, the Irish king of Lleyn. Arthur takes his own warriors north to confront this new enemy and, after forcing him from Powys, he tracks Diwrnach along the Dark Road which leads to Ynys Mon and destroys his army. Diwrnach himself drowns during the battle and Arthur successfully reclaims Leodegan's lost kingdom of Henis Wyren, fulfilling the oath he had sworn to the deceased king. In the years following the Saxon defeat at Mynydd Baddon, Mordred grows to become a skilled warrior and attracts a following of outlaws and mercenaries to join him in raids, first against what remains of the Saxons, reclaiming lands which become Dumnonia's new border in the east, and later in Broceliande against Clovis and the Franks. In Dumnonia, Derfel attempts to live up to Arthur's legacy by enforcing Mordred's justice with help from Issa, his former second-in-command, who is now a warlord with his own band of warriors. However, his efforts are undermined by Mordred's wife, Queen Argante, and Bishop Sansum, who has become the king's chief counsellor. Both take to reversing the rulings proclaimed by Derfel and replacing the magistrates he appoints in exchange for money. Many in Dumnonia begin to hope that Mordred will die fighting, which would pave the way for a new king to ascend to the throne. Though Arthur refuses the throne, his son Gwydre, being Uther's grandson, has a strong claim and appears poised to succeed Mordred. Making the situation worse for Mordred, his wife seems unable to conceive a child, despite frequent visits from the king (and rumours that she has been sharing her bed with palace guards). In contrast, Gwydre and his wife Morwenna (Derfel and Ceinwyn's eldest daughter) have two children, Arthur-bach and Seren. Gwydre is eager to take the throne because he believes that he can be a better king than Mordred, and Arthur, Derfel, Sagramor and Issa all support him. When a messenger arrives claiming that Mordred has been mortally wounded and is besieged by a Frankish army, Derfel tries to avoid a succession dispute and goes to Arthur, who prepares his army to place Gwydre on the throne. Derfel returns to Dumnonia in order to rendezvous with Issa, but finds Issa's men brutally slaughtered, along with countless other innocents. Derfel is taken prisoner by Amhar and Loholt, Arthur's two bastard sons, who have joined Mordred's army. He is brought before Mordred, who had faked his injuries and now plans to take revenge on both Derfel and Arthur. Derfel learns that Issa has been killed and that Sagramor was defeated. Sansum has also been imprisoned for plotting to have Meurig seize the Dumnonian throne once Mordred dies. With help from Guinevere's bard Taliesin, who charms Mordred's men to sleep with his singing, Derfel escapes with Sansum and kills Amhar in the process. Derfel returns to Isca to find Ceinwyn has suddenly become deathly ill. When Olwen comes to find him, he follows her to the far north of Britain to meet Nimue, who explains that she has cursed Ceinwyn, causing her sickness, and will only remove it if Derfel gives her Arthur's sword and Arthur's son. Determined to stop at nothing to return the Old Gods to Britain, Nimue plans to use both to complete the ritual that was interrupted at Mai Dun. She has also captured Merlin and tortured him into madness, intent on extracting the most powerful Druidic secrets from his mind. In his last moment of sanity, Merlin tells Derfel that he has arranged a 'last enchantment' for him and Arthur, as they were the two men he loved most in the world. However, he refuses to lift Nimue's curse, saying that a part of him still wants her to succeed where he had failed. Having nowhere else to turn, Derfel goes to Morgan, now a Christian, who reluctantly agrees to remove the curse with her old pagan magic if Derfel will convert to Christianity and take an oath to serve her husband, Sansum. To complete Morgan's ritual, Derfel's hand is cut off. Part Four: The Last Enchantment Ceinwyn recovers and converts to Christianity with Derfel, pledging to follow her man wherever he goes. With Mordred's army now marching on Isca, Arthur resolves to reunite his warband with Sagramor's men so that he can fight Mordred on even terms in Dumnonia. Because Meurig refuses to let Arthur's soldiers pass through his kingdom, which surrounds Isca, they are forced to cross the Severn Sea to reach Dumnonia, which also compels them to leave behind their horses. Carrying Gwydre's banner, Arthur and his army hire a small fleet of boats and begin to sail to Dumnonia but, before they can escape, Nimue catches up with them. She kills Merlin as a sacrifice to the sea god Manawydan to destroy the fleet. A violent storm sinks Arthur's entire fleet, with only his own ship reaching shore. Realizing they no longer have the strength to oppose Mordred and his army, the survivors flee to Camlann, on the southern coast of Dumnonia, where Merlin has arranged for a ship to take them across the sea to safety in Armorica. At the last minute, they are joined by Sagramor and the last of his warriors. But Mordred has followed Sagramor and now comes for Arthur, determined to end the greatest threat to his rule by killing both him and Gwydre. In the brutal battle that follows, Arthur meets Mordred on the battlefield and kills him, but is seriously wounded during the fight. As the battle seems to turn in favour of Mordred's remaining warriors, an unexpected combatant arrives: the army of Gwent has come to take Dumnonia's throne for Meurig. To save Arthur and Gwydre from the latest pretender to the throne, Derfel sends them away on the ship arranged by Merlin, along with Guinevere, Morwenna, and his grandchildren Arthur-bach and Seren. Derfel insists on remaining behind to honour his oath to Morgan and serve Sansum. Ceinwyn decides to stay with him, reminding him of her own oath to always remain with him. As Meurig's forces finish off the remnants of Mordred's army, Nimue arrives to claim Gwydre and Excalibur, but Derfel casts the sword into the sea, ending Nimue's hopes of bringing back the Old Gods as Arthur's ship sails away into a cloud of mist. Derfel explains that that was the last time he ever saw Arthur, and that no one has seen him since. Derfel's narration The novel also completes the arc of Derfel's narration of the series, as he has been writing Arthur's tale as a monk under the guise of writing a translation of a Christian Gospel in the Saxon tongue. After the Battle of Camlann, Derfel and Ceinwyn go north with Sansum to a monastery in Powys, where Derfel is protected from the bishop's wrath by King Perddel and, later, by his son, Brochvael. The latter's wife, Igraine, was raised with romantic tales of Arthur and his knights. She asks Derfel to write his story and provides him with the means to do it, protecting him from Sansum's suspicions. This serves as the frame story throughout the series. Despite an apparent conversion to Christianity reflected in his writings, Derfel secretly retains his faith in the Old Gods and, when Ceinwyn dies, he secretly burns her body to allow her soul to join their family and friends in the Otherworld. He describes in his story his own desire to be burnt upon his death rather than given a Christian burial and hopes that Igraine will grant him his desired funeral. By the time he has finished writing his story, the situation in Britain has taken a turn for the worse. Following Meurig's conquest of Dumnonia, Saxons continued to arrive in Lloegyr and Cerdic has now rebuilt his forces. In the present day, the Saxons have apparently overrun the combined forces of Gwent and Dumnonia and, as the novel ends, they are threatening Powys. Sansum returns the sword Hywelbane to Derfel so that he can defend their monastery against the approaching Saxons. Derfel secretly hopes that they will kill him and that he will cross the bridge of swords to reach Arthur, his family, and their friends in the Otherworld. Characters Derfel Cadarn – Protagonist and narrator, a loyal warrior of Arthur. Aelle – A Saxon king trying to take Britain, and Derfel's father. Killed by his son at the Battle of Mynydd Baddon. Arthur – Son of Uther, protector of Mordred, and famed warlord of Dumnonia. Ceinwyn – Derfel's common-law wife, princess of Powys. Cerdic – A Saxon king and Aelle's ally in the war to conquer Britain. Cuneglas – King of Powys and ally of Arthur. Killed at Mynydd Baddon by Cerdic's champion, Liofa. Culhwch – Arthur's cousin and commander of his guard after he moves to Isca. Killed at the Battle of Camlann. Galahad – Lancelot's half-brother, a Christian and friend of Derfel. Guinevere – Princess of Henis Wyren and wife of Arthur. Issa – Derfel's former second-in-command who becomes a warlord of Dumnonia after Mynydd Baddon. Killed by Mordred's forces for being an ally of Arthur and Derfel. Lancelot – Exiled former prince of Benoic, now allied with the Saxons against his fellow Britons. Executed by Derfel by hanging after the Battle of Mynydd Baddon. Merlin – Lord of Avalon, a revered Druid priest. Killed by Nimue as a sacrifice to destroy Arthur's escaping fleet. Meurig – King of Gwent. Mordred – King of Dumnonia. Killed by Arthur in single combat during the Battle of Camlann. Nimue – Druid priestess and Derfel's former lover, who desperately tries to bring the old gods back to Britain. Sagramor – Arthur's Numidian commander. Killed at the Battle of Camlann. Sansum – Treacherous bishop of Dumnonia. Taliesin – A Druidic bard. Release details 1997, United Kingdom, Michael Joseph , 2 October 1997, hardcover 1st edition 1998, United States, St. Martins Press , 1 June 1998, hardcover 1998, United Kingdom, Penguin Books , 1 October 1998, paperback 1999, United States, St. Martin's Griffin , 16 July 1999, paperback Reception 1998 British novels The Warlord Chronicles Michael Joseph books
5267121	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Danzan-ry%C5%AB%20techniques	List of Danzan-ryū techniques	The Danzan Ryu lists differ in concept from the Kodokan Judo lists in that the techniques are taught in kata form in some applicable context, rather than simply demonstrating and enumerating a single technique. Deashi Hayanada, for example, is not a single technique, but a combination of Deashi Harai (foot sweep) and Tenada Shime (cross arm bar). Emphasis on randori may vary greatly from one dojo to the next. There are multiple romanizations, and many arts have more than one name. This article will attempt to represent the commonly used romanization variants. In addition, not all sources agree on the correct kanji (Japanese characters) for each technique or list. The alternative renderings are noted. The romanization was not agreed to until 1957. The earlier spellings are now archaic. Some kanji are also no longer common and not searchable (e.g. Danchu or Bitei). The rank requirements for Danzan Ryu are not standardized, and may vary from dojo to dojo or even from instructor to instructor. However, the curriculum is divided into three levels: , , and . Many of the techniques are considered Kuden – to be transmitted orally and never written down. Each of the Okuden scrolls corresponds to a level of teaching license: Shinen-no-Maki was commemorated by the award of the Mokuroku, or catalogue scroll, listing the history of the art along with the Shoden and Chuden techniques. This is the basic instructor level and is equivalent to second-degree blackbelt. Shin'yō-no-Maki corresponds to the fully licensed instructor (Kyoshi) level and is equivalent to fourth – or fifth-degree blackbelt. Shinjin-no-Maki (post Pearl Harbor attack) was commemorated by the award of the Kaiden-no-Sho, or certificate of complete transmission (menkyo kaiden). This corresponds to the master instructor (Shihan / Professor) level of traditional jujutsu. Yawara – Shoden level Hand Techniques/Gentle Arts, 20 Techniques Katate Hazushi Ichi – "Single Hand Escape #1" – escape from an outside hand grab Katate Hazushi Ni – "Single Hand Escape #2" – escape from an inside hand grab Ryōte Hazushi – "Both Hands Escape" – escape from a double wrist grab Morote Hazushi – "All Hands Escape or Multiple Hands Escape" – escape from two hands grabbing one wrist. Yubi Tori Hazushi – "Digit (finger) Escape" – escape from a finger hold/grab Momiji Hazushi " Maple leaf Escape" – escape from a front choke Ryo Eri Hazushi – "Both Lapel Escape" – escape from a double lapel grab Yubi Tori – "Digit (finger) Technique" – finger lock on the sensitive third finger Moroyubi Tori – "All Digit (finger) Technique" – come-along all fingers hold Katate Tori – "Single Hand Technique" – one hand wrist lock Ryōte Tori – "Both Hand Technique" – double wrist lock Tekubi Tori Ichi – "Hand Neck (wrist) Technique One" – wrist lock from an outside hand grab Tekubi Tori Ni – "Hand Neck (wrist) Technique Two" – thumb lock from an inside hand grab. Imon Tori – "Clothing Seizure" – break hand from a chest push (衣紋捕) Ryōeri Tori – "Both Lapel Technique" – break and wrist lock from a two-handed lapel grab Akushu Kote Tori – "Handshake Forearm (curling) technique" – wrist and thumb lock from a handshake Akushu Ude Tori – "Handshake Arm technique" – arm bar from a handshake Akushu Kotemaki Tori – "Handshake Forearm (curling) Rolling Technique" – arm bar and wrist lock from a handshake Kubi Nuki Shime – "Neck Hug Constriction" – escape from a side headlock Hagai Shime – "Wing Constriction" – full nelson taken after avoiding a blow Nage Te –Shoden level also called Nage no Kata: Throwing Arts, 20 Techniques Deashi Harai – Advanced foot sweep Sasae-ashi – Stopping leg Okuri Harai – Sending sweep Soto Gama – Outside sickle Uchi Gama – Inside sickle Soto Momo Harai – Outer thigh sweep Uchi Momo Harai – Inner thigh sweep Ogoshi – Major hip Utsuri Goshi – Changing hip throw Seoi Nage – Back carry throw Ushiro Goshi – Rearward hip Seoi Goshi – Back carry hip Tsurikomi Goshi – Lifting angle hip Harai Goshi – Sweeping hip Hane Goshi – Springing hip Uki Otoshi – Floating drop Makikomi – Rolling angle Kane Sute – Crab sacrifice Tomoe Nage – Comma throw Yama Arashi – Mountain Storm Shime Te –Shoden level also called Shime no Kata: Constriction Arts, 25 Techniques Eri Gatame – Collar Pin Kata Gatame – Shoulder Pin Juji Gatame – Cross Pin Shiho Gatame – Four corners Pin Sankaku Gatame – Three angle (triangle) Pin Ushiro Gatame – Rearward Pin Namijuji Shime – Normal Cross Constriction Gyakujuji Shime – Opposite Cross Constriction Ichimonji Shime – Single line Constriction Tsukkomi Shime – Thrusting angle Constriction Hadaka Hime Ichi – Naked Constriction #1 Hadaka Shime Ni – Naked Constriction #2 Hadaka Shime San – Naked Constriction #3 Dakikubi Shime – Embrace Neck Constriction Osaegami Shime – Grabbing Hair Constriction Kote Shime – Forearm (curling) Constriction Tenada Shime – Hand blade Constriction Do Shime – Body Constriction {which causes Compressive asphyxia} Ashi Garami Shime – Leg Entangle Constriction Ashi Nada Shime – Leg Blade Constriction Ashi Yubi Shime – Leg Digit (toe) Constriction Momojime – Thigh Constriction Shika no Issoku Shime – Foot of Deer Constriction Shidare Fuji Shime – Big toe Hanging wisteria Constriction Tatsumaki Shime – Wind roll (Tornado) Constriction Yonenbu no Kata – Shoden level Form for the Children's Section, 15 Techniques Deashi Harai or Deashibarai – advance foot sweep Sasae-ashi – retard (stopping) leg Okuriharai or Okuribarai – Sending sweep Soto Gama – Outside sickle Uchi Gama – Inside sickle Soto Momo Harai or Sotomomobarai – Outer thigh sweep Uchi Momo Harai or Uchimomobarai – Inner thigh sweep O Goshi – Major hip throw Seoinage – Back carry throw Seoi Goshi – Back carry hip throw Tsuri Komi Goshi – Lifting angle hip throw Harai Goshi – Sweeping hip throw Hane Goshi – Springing hip throw Makikomi – rolling angle Tomoe Nage – Swirl throw Oku no Te – Chuden level also called Oku no Kata: Interior (secret) techniques, 25 Techniques Deashi Hayanada – Advancing Leg Quick combination blade Ogoshi Hayanada – Major Loin Quick combination blade Seoi Hayanada – Back-carry Quick combination blade Sumi Gaeshi – Corner Accepting reversal Norimi – Riding the body Mizu Kuguri – Underwater dive Mae Yama Kage – Forward Mountain Shadow Komi Iri – Swept along entry Kote Gaeshi – Forearm (curling) accepting reversal Sakanuki – Sloping draw Gyakute Nage – Opposite hand throw Hon Tomoe – Together comma Katate Tomoe – Single hand comma Shigarami or Teshigarami – Arm entanglement Gyakute Shigarami – Opposite hand arm entanglement Kote Shigarami – Forearm arm entanglement Ko Guruma – Minor wheel Tora Nage – Tiger throw Tora Katsugi – Tiger Shoulder carry Arashi Otoshi – Storm drop Hiki Otoshi – Pulling drop Kine Katsugi – Pestle shoulder carry Kin Katsugi – Testicle shoulder carry Kazaguruma – Wind Wheel Jigoku Otoshi – Hell drop Kiai no Maki – Chuden level Scroll of Spirit Yell, 24 Techniques –-( AJJF Board of Professors includes a number of additional techniques under this heading. See below)– Includes weapons techniques, and a variety of oral teachings (kuden) Waribashi Ori – Split chopstick fold Karatake Wari – Chinese bamboo split Harage Ishi Wari – Abdomen lifting stone split Shiraha Watari – Naked blade transit Tessen No Maki Katate Hazushi – single hand escape Mune Dori – Chest Dynamic technique Miken Wari – Forehead split Uchikomi Dome – Stop a strike Katate Ori – Single-hand fold Katsura Wari – Judas tree split Tanto No Maki Hibara Hazushi – Flank escape Katate Hazushi – Single-hand escape Tsukkomi Hazushi – Thrust escape Ryote Dome – Stop with both hands Daito No Maki Ryote Dome- Both Hand Immediate Stop Nukimi Dome – Stop a draw Shiraha Dori – Naked blade hold Suso Harai or Susobarai – Hem sweep Bo No Maki Hanbo Uchikomi Dori – Hold from strike with a 3 ft staff Rokushaku Bo Furi – Six-foot staff swing Mune Gatame – Chest pin Shiho Gatame – Four direction pin Futari Shime or Ninin Shime or Nininjime – two-man constriction Furo Shime or Furojime – Bathtub strangle Shichinin Shime or Shichininjime – seven-man constriction Tanju No Maki Gan Hazushi or Me Hazushi – Face or Eye escape Mune Hazushi – Chest Escape Hibara Hazushi – Flank escape The following were added to Tanju no Maki by AJJF: Ushiro Hazushi Ichi – Rear Escape #1 Ushiro Hazushi Ni – Rear Escape #2 Mawari Hazushi – Turning Escape Further additions to Kiai No Maki by AJJF in 1976 included the following additional techniques: Keri Te Tombogeri – Dragonfly kick Kin Geri – Testicle Kick – (In the AJJF Kin Geri is the terminology used, even though the three kicks in the curriculum target the knee, groin, and solar plexus with a front kick) Yoko Geri – Side kick Mawashi Geri – Roundhouse Kick Ryo-ashi Geri – Double foot kick Mae Tobi Geri – Front flying kick Uke Te Jodan Uke – Upper-level Block Nagashi Uke – Flowing Block Shuto Uke – Knife Hand Block Gedan Uke – Lower-level Block Atemi Atemi Ichi – Strike One (Side of jaw) Atemi Ni – Strike Two (Upward palm strike to chin) Atemi San – Strike Three (Upward palm strike to nose) Atemi Yon – Strike Four (Side of head above ear) Kasumi Dori – Seized by Haze (grazing knife-hand/forearm strike to side of neck) Hibara Uchi – Flank Strike (elbow to floating ribs/liver) Sui Getsu – Moon in the Water (Uppercut to solar plexus) Hon Getsu – True Moon (downward punch to bladder) Kin Geri – Testicle Kick (knee to groin) Hanbo no Maki Ganseki Otoshi Garami – Stone-drop Entanglement Oni Kudaki – Demon Smash Ashi Kujiki – Leg Crush Ashi Gatame – Leg Pin Bo Gaeshi _ Staff Reversal Koku – Empty Goshinjutsu – Chuden level Self-Defense Techniques: 28 techniques added by the AJJF Board of Professors, and modified periodically by them. Other DZR groups may not recognize this as a separate list, but instead may practice these techniques as common variations of techniques found in other lists. Formerly called Jokyu Yawara, Advanced Yawara, or Ladies' Yawara. Based on the original Fujin Goshin no Maki. Kata Eri Hazushi – Single collar escape Katate Tori Ni – Single hand Technique #2 Katate Tori San – Single hand Technique #3 Katate Tori Shi – Single hand Technique #4 Imon Tori Ni – Insignia Technique #2 Kata Mune Dori – Single chest Technique Ude Tori – Arm Technique Genkotsu Ude Tori – Gripping with the fist arm technique Ude Gyaku Ichi – Arm opposite #1 Ude Gyaku Ni – Arm opposite #2 Ninen Yubi Tori – Second Man Digit (finger) Technique (formerly called Ninin Kotegarami) Kata Eri Tori – Single Collar Technique Ushiro Gyaku – Rearward Opposite Kata Hagai – Single wing Tekubi Shigarami – Wrist Shoulder entanglement Genkotsu Otoshi – Gripping with the fist drop Hongyaku Ichi – Basic Opposite #1 Hongyaku Ni – Basic Opposite #2 Ushiro Daki Nage – Rear Embrace throw Mae Daki Nage Ichi – Front Embrace throw #1 Mae Daki Nage Ni – Front Embrace throw #2 Kata Guruma – Shoulder wheel Hiza Garami – Knee entanglement (formerly called Hiki-otoshi Ichi) Mae Osaegami Nage – Forward Gripping Hair Throw Ushiro Osaegami Nage – Rear Gripping Hair Throw Kesa Nage – Across the Shoulder (as a scarf) Throw Ashi Garami-Leg Entanglement Sannen Nage – Third Man throw (called Sannin Hazushi by Prof. Law and listed in his Shinin Notes; previously included by AJJF in Shinin no Maki with same name as noted below) Fujin Goshin no Maki – Chuden level Women's Self Defense Scroll, 35 Techniques 1. Katate Hazushi Ichi – Single hand Escape #1. 2. Katate Hazushi Ni – Single hand Escape #2. 3. Morote Hazushi – Many hand Escape. 4. Ryote Hazushi – Double hand Escape. 5. Kata Eri Hazushi – Single Collar Escape. 6. Ryo Eri Hazushi – Double Collar Escape. 7. Momiji Hazushi Ichi – Maple tree Escape #1. 8. Momiji Hazushi Ni – Maple tree Escape #2. 9. Momiji Hazushi San – Maple tree Escape #3. 10. Ushiro Daki Nage – Rear Embrace Throw. 11. Mae Daki Nage Ichi – Front Embrace Throw #1. 12. Mae Daki Nage Ni – Front Embrace Throw #2. 13. Mae Daki Hazushi – Front Embrace Escape. 14. Ninin Hazushi – Second Man Escape. 15. Genkotsu Otoshi – Gripping with the Fist Drop. 16. Osaegami Nage – Grabbing Hair Throw. 17. Akushu Kote Tori – Handshake Forearm (curling) Technique. 18. Akushu Ude Tori – Handshake Arm-lock. 19. Akushu Kotemaki Tori – Handshake Forearm-winding Technique. 20. Katate Tori Ichi – Single hand Technique #1. 21. Katate Tori Ni – Single hand Technique #2. 22. Imon tori – Insignia Technique. 23. Daki kubi Tori – Embrace head Technique. 24. Yubi Tori Hazushi – Digit (finger) Technique Escape. 25. Yubi Tori – Digit (finger) Technique. 26. Moro Yubi Tori – Many Digit (finger) Technique. 27. Ryote Tori – Both Hand Technique. 28. Tekubi Tori – Wrist Technique. 29. Hagai Tori – Wing Technique. 30. Shoto Hibara Hazushi – Knife Spleen Escape. 31. Shoto Kata Hazushi – Knife Shoulder Escape. 32. Shoto Tsukkomi Hazushi – Knife Thrusting Angle Escape. 33. Tanju Mune Hazushi – Pistol Chest Escape. 34. Tanju Gan Hazushi – Pistol Eye Escape. 35. Tanju Hibara Hazushi – Pistol Spleen Escape. Fusegi Jutsu – Chuden level Self Defense Techniques Katate Hazushi Ichi - "Single Hand Escape one"- Escape and hold from outside wrist grip Kata Te Hazushi Ni - "Single Hand Escape two"- Escape and hold from an inside wrist grip Momiji Hazushi - "Maple leaf Escape" - Double arm break from front strangle Moro Te Hazushi - "Many Hand Escape" - Double arm break from front strangle Imon Tori - "Insignia Techniques"- Knee takedown from chest push Akushu Ude Hazushi and Tori - "Handshake Arm Escape and Technique"- Escape and leg kick from armbar Akushu Kote Hazushi and Tori Ichi - "Handshake Forearm Curling Escape and Technique one" - Backward thumb flex from handshake Akushu Kote Hazushi and Tori Ni - "Handshake Forearm Curling Escape and Technique two" - Forward thumb flex from handshake Akushu Kote Hazushi and Tori San - "Handshake Forearm Curling Escape and Technique three" - Thumb control from handshake Hagai Shime Hazushi - "Pinion Constriction Escape" - Escape from full nelson Ushiro Daki Nage - "Rearward Hug Throw" - Seoi Nage, strike from rear bear hug Mae Daki Nage Ichi - "Forward Hug Throw one" - Nerve escape from front bear hug, arms free Mae Daki Nage Ni - "Forward Hug Throw two" - Head butt, knee strike from front bear hug, arms pinned Genkotsu Otoshi - "Gripping with the Fist Drop" - Dakikubi from a double punch Kata Gatame Ichi - "Shoulder Pin one" - Shoulder lock taking head to mat from punch Kata Gatame Ni - "Shoulder Pin two" - Kotemaki Tori from an overhead club, finish with O Soto Gari Kabe Shime - "Wall Constriction" - Ichi Monji against a wall Genkotsu Ude Tori - "Gripping with the Fist Arm Technique" - Wrap arm, strike, sweep and bar on ground from punch Genkotsu Gyaku - "Gripping with the Fist Opposite" - Wrap arm, hammerlock and choke Ude Tori - "Arm Technique" - Arm bar on your shoulder from punch Akushu Ude Nage - "Handshake Arm Throw" - Arm break, whip from handshake Ogoshi Ude Tori - "Great Hip Arm Technique" - Throw O Goshi, sit and break arm Ude Hazushi Ogoshi - "Arm Escape Great Hip" - Throw O Goshi from armbar across waist Genkotsu Komi Iri - "Gripping with the Fist Swept Along Entry" - Legbar takedown, apply Komi Iri Hadaka Shime Ni and Hazushi - "Naked Constriciton two and Escape" - Choke from Seoi Nage, drop on head Club take away - Throw Makikomi, break arm from overhead club strike Keisatsu Gijutsu – Chuden level also called Keisatsu Torite: Police Arrest Techniques Katate Hazushi Ichi – "Single Hand Escape #1" – escape from an outside hand grab Katate Hazushi Ni – "Single Hand Escape #2" – escape from an inside hand grab Ryōte Hazushi – "Both Hands Escape" – escape from a double wrist grab Morote Hazushi – "Many Hands Escape or Multiple Hands Escape" – escape from two hands grabbing one wrist Momiji Hazushi " Maple leaf Escape" – escape from a front choke Ryōeri Hazushi – "Both Lapel Escape" – escape from a double lapel grab Yubi Tori Hazushi – "Digit (finger) Escape" – escape from a finger hold/grab Yubi Tori – "Digit (finger) Technique" – finger lock on the sensitive third finger Moro Yubi Tori – "Many Digit (finger) Technique" – come-along all fingers hold Katate Tori – "Single Hand Technique" – one hand wrist lock Ryōte Tori – "Both Hand Technique" – double wrist lock Akushu Kote Tori – "Handshake Forearm (curling) technique" – wrist and thumb lock from a handshake Akushu Ude Tori – "Handshake Arm technique" – arm bar from a handshake Akushu Kotemaki Tori – "Handshake Forearm (curling) Rolling Technique" – arm bar and wrist lock from a handshake Imon Tori – "Insignia Technique" – break hand from a chest push Tekubi Tori Ichi – "Hand Neck (wrist) Technique One" – wrist lock from an outside hand grab Tekubi Tori Ni – "Hand Neck (wrist) Technique Two" – thumb lock from an inside hand grab Ryōeri Tori – "Both Lapel Technique" – break and wrist lock from a two-handed lapel grab Kubi Nuki Shime – "Neck Hug Constriction" – escape from a side headlock Hagai Shime – "Wing Constriction" – full nelson taken after avoiding a blow Kata Mune Tori Ni - "Shoulder Chest Technique Two"- Lapel grab and punch defense Genkotsu Ude Tori Ni - "Gripping with the Fist Arm Technique Two"- Armbar from a punch Ude Gyaku San - "Arm Opposite Three"- Shoulder and neck hold from front Ude Gyaku Shi - "Arm Opposite Four"- Shoulder and neck hold from rear Ninnen Kote Garami - "Second man Forearm (curling) Entanglement"- Two man come-along hold Sunnen Kote Garami - "Third man Forearm (curling) Entanglement"- Three man come-along hold Kataeri Tori Ni - "Single Collar Technique Two"- Armbar from lapel hold Ushiro Gyaku Ni - "Rearward Opposite Two"- Extended rear armbar Mae Gyaku- "Front Opposite"- Extended front armbar Kote Shigarami - "Forearm (curling) Arm Entanglement"- Punch to Kotemaki pin with one hand Kote Gyaku - "Forearm (curling) Opposite"- Reverse arm dislocation Kata Hagai - "Shoulder Wing"- Standing Kata Gatame Tekubi Shigarami Ni - "Hand-neck (wrist) Arm Entanglement Two- Wrist come-along hold Genkotsu Otoshi Ni - "Gripping with the fist Drop Two"- Punch takedown art, fist drop Hung Gyaku Ni - Arm-swing from a punch Ushiro Daki Nage Ni - "Rearward Embrace Throw Two"- Throw from a rear bear hug Ushiro Daki Nage San - "Rearward Embrace Throw Three"- Throw from a rear bear hug Mae Daki Nage Ni - "Forward Embrace Throw Two"- Throw from a front bear hug Kata Guruma - "Shoulder Wheel"- Punch to figure four and pile driver Hiki Otoshi - "Pulling Drop"- Throw and lock arm in leg Gyaku Shigarami - "Opposite Arm Entanglement"- Throw and hold with one foot Ushiro Nage - "Rearward Throw"- A rear throw Osaegami Nage Ni - "Grabbing Hair Throw Two"- Takedown (Imon Tori) from hair grab Kasumi Dori - "Three in a row Dynamic technique"- Block punch and hit side of neck Atemi Ichi - "Strike the body One"- Block punch and hit side of jaw Atemi Ni - "Strike the body Two" -Block punch and hit side of chin Atemi San - "Strike the body Three"- Block punch and hit side of nose Atemi Shi - "Strike the body Four"- Block punch and hit side of head Ken Keri - "Sword Kick"- Block punch and knee to groin Hibara Uchi - "Spleen Inside"- Block punch and hit armpit Sui Getsu - "Water Moon"- Solar plexus blow Denko - "Electrical flash"- Combination of blows Hon Getsu - "Together Moon"- Naval Blow Momo Shime- "Thigh Constriction"- Nerve at thigh Yubi Tori Shime Ichi - "Digit (finger) Technique Constriction One"- Nerve and thumb and index finger Yubi Tori Shime Ni - "Digit (finger) Technique Constriction Two"- Nerve and thumb and index finger base, palm Kesuri Yubi - Nerve between middle and ring finger Kosi Katari - Nerve between ring and little finger Tekubi Ichi - "Hand neck (wrist) One"- Nerve at wrist, anterior of arm Tekubi Ni - "Hand neck (wrist) Two"- Nerve at wrist, posterior Ude Ori - "Arm Weaving"- Nerve above wrist, arm-break Ninode Tori - Nerve above elbow Kata Tori - "Shoulder Technique"- Nerve at shoulder Ude Tori Shime - "Arm Technique Constriction"- Nerve in arm near elbow Keri Age - "Kick Rising"- Nerve at calf Sumi Age - "Corner Rising"- Nerve at shin Do Mike - "Torso Body Scarf"- Nerve at side of neck Mune - "Chest"- Nerve at front of neck Kubi - "Neck"- Nerve at chin Ni - "Two"- Nerve at eyelids Kata - "Shoulder"- Nerve at shoulder So - "Thought"- Nerve at shoulder blade Konbou Katate Ori - "Club Single hand Weaving"- Club arm hold Konbou Mune Dori - "Club Chest Dynamic technique"- Collarbone breaking art Konbou Kata Uchi - "Club Shoulder Inside"- Hit nerve at side of neck Konbou Kau Tori - Club hand hold Konbou Sui Getsu Otoshi - "Club Water Moon Drop"- Drop uke with solar plexus blow Konbou Ude Ori - "Club Arm Weaving"- Club arm break Konbou Waki Uchi Dori - "Club Armpit Inside Dynamic technique"- Side paralyzing art Konbou Sui Getsu Kin - "Club Water Moon Groin"- Solar plexus and groin blow Konbou Kasumi Dori - "Club Three in a row Dynamic technique"- Club takedown art Konbou Uchikomi Hiza Nage - Club Inside Angle Knee Throw"- Miss swing for head, Hiza nage, leg lock Tanto Hibara Hazushi - "Knife Spleen Escape"- Side slash escape Tanto Kata Hazushi - "Knife Shoulder Escape"- Overhead stab escape Tanto Tsukkomi Hazushi Ichi - "Knife Thrusting Angle Escape One"- Thrusting stab escape 1 Tanto Tsukkomi Hazushi Ni - "Knife Thrusting Angle Escape Two"- Thrusting stab escape 2 Tanto Ryote Hazushi - "Knife Both hands Escape"- Upward stab escape Tanju Kata Hazushi - "Pistol Shoulder Escape"- Shoulder level escape Tanju Mi Hazushi - "Pistol Body Escape"- Eye level escape Tanju Hibara Hazushi - "Pistol Spleen Escape"- Side escape Tanju Ushiro Hazushi - "Pistol Rearward Escape"- Rear escape Bin Kata Hazushi - "Bottle Shoulder Escape"- Bottle overhead strike Bin Hibara Hazushi - "Bottle Spleen Escape"- Bottle side swing Bin Tsukkomi Hazushi- Bottle Thrusting Angle Escape"- Bottle straight jab Fuetsu Kata Hazushi Ni - "Axe Shoulder Escape Two"- Axe overhead strike Fuetsu Hibara Hazushi Ni - "Axe Spleen Escape Two"- Axe side swing Fuetsu Sune Harai Hazushi - "Axe Shin Sweep Escape"- Axe leg cut Shinen no Maki – Okuden level Scroll of the Spirit Man. The AJJF at one time included an additional (36th) technique (Sannin Hazushi), but no longer does so. It is now included in Goshinjutsu (see above). Isami Tsuki Nage – Forward entering Thrusting Throw Obi Hane Goshi – Belt Springing Hip Tsurikomi Taoshi – Lifting Angle Throwdown Momiji Nage – Maple leaf Throw Gyaku Hayanada – Opposite Quick combination blade Hiza Nage – Knee Throw Osaekomi Gyakute Tori – Gripping angle opposite hand Technique Kobushi Shime – Fist Constriction Kesa Hazushi – Across the shoulders (as a scarf) Escape Kubi Shime Tomoe Gyakute – Neck Constriction Comma Opposite hand Ninin Nage – Second person Throw Gyakute Gaeshi – Reverse hand Accepting technique Hiza Ori Nage – Knee Weaving Throw Gyaku Hagai – Opposite Wing Ushiro Kan Nuki – Rearward Rigid Embrace Mae Kan Nuki – Forward Rigid Embrace Hikitate Tori Shime – Measure (from head to floor in seiza) Technique Constriction Ude Garami – Arm Entanglement Ebi Shime – Shrimp Constriction Ushiro Ebi Shime – Rearward Shrimp Constriction Gyaku Eri – Opposite Collar Ushiro Nage – Rearward Throw Ude Shigarami Shime – Arm Shoulder Entanglement Constriction Ashi Kan Nuki – Leg Rigid Embrace Kesa Koroshi – Across the shoulders (as a scarf) Killing Handou Shime – Quick reaction Constriction Ashi Gyaku – Leg Opposite Kabe Shime – Wall Constriction Ashi Karami Tori – Leg Entanglement Constriction Nidan Gaeshi – Two Level Accepting reversal Satsuma Shime – Pillar (or police) Constriction Tataki Komi – Striking Angle Ushiro Nage Tori – Rearward Throw Technique Saru Shigarami – Monkey Shoulder Entanglement Sandan Gaeshi – Three Level Accepting reversal Shinyo no Maki – Okuden level Scroll of the Yang Spirit Gyaku Hizaguruma – Opposite Knee Wheel Tsuki Hazushi Kotemaki – Thrusting Escape Forearm rolling Tsukkomi Dome and Gaeshi – Thrusting Angle Immediate stop and Accepting reversal Sune Shime – Lower leg Constriction Saru Shime – Monkey Constriction Tobi Tsuki Tenada – Flying Thrusting Hand blade Obi Otoshi – Belt Drop Sennin Kage – Sailor Shadow Mune Dori – Chest Dynamic technique Tsurigane Otoshi – Swallow Drop Inazuma – Lightning Denkō – Electrical flash Kasumi Dori – Three in a row Dynamic technique Shishi Otoshi – Lion Drop Tawara Gaeshi – Rice bale Accepting reversal Tonbo Gaeshi – Dragonfly Accepting reversal Keri Komi – Kicking Angle Ryuko – Dragon & Lion Haya nawa – Quick combination Rope Katate Tai Atari – Single hand Body Strike Tsuki mi – Thrusting Body Atemi – Strike the Body Zozu Kurawase – Literally: Elephant to deal a Blow Tora Nirami – Tiger Stare Kiai Dori – Fighting spirit (shouting) Dynamic technique Senryu Tomoe – Stopping technique Comma Yuki Chigai – Going along different paths Munen Muso or Munen Musow – No thought, no conceptions Shingen no Maki – Okuden level Scroll of the Original Mind. Ten To or Tento Riyo Mou or Ryomo Kasumi Cho Tou or Choto Jin Chiu or Jinchu Matsukaze Gebi Murasame Shichu or Hichu Danchu Kyosen aka Kyoto Suigetsu- Solar plexus Myo Sho Kiyoin or Kyoin Tsukikage Inatsuma or Inazuma Hoka (Soto) Shiyaku Zawa Uchi Shiyaku Zawa Yakou or Yako Sen Riyu or Senryu Uchi Kibisu Kouri or Kori In Nou or Inno Doku Ko or Dokko Kaychiu or Keichu Mikazuki Kyoin aka Waki Kage Wan Sho Kyo Shin Haya Uchi Gan Ka Sori or Kusanagi Do Ko Katsu Satsu or Kassatsu Myo Jo Kappō – Koden level Resuscitation Techniques, 11 Techniques originally taught by Professor Okazaki and later augmented in 1969 by Robert Reish to 35 techniques. The original 11 techniques include: Hon Katsu (basic restoration) Ura Katsu (reverse restoration) Tanden Katsu (abdomen restoration) Nodo Katsu (mental depression restoration) Dekishi Katsu (drowning restoration) Hanaji Tome (nosebleed stop restoration) Kin Katsu (testicle blow restoration) Se Katsu (main restoration) Ashi Katsu (foot restoration) Kubi Kappō (hanging restoration) No Kappō (head restoration) Note that the names of the 11 "original" techniques varied between different students of Professor Okazaki. The above names are the most commonly used. Seifukujutsu – Betsuden level Restoration Therapy 52 Techniques and Long-Life Massage Taught as a separate tradition (betsuden) even to non-practitioners of Danzan Ryu. Curriculum Order The Yawara list is almost always taught as the first list in a curriculum, given its overall usefulness. The first seven techniques, consisting of escapes from simple grips, were once referred to as Te Hodoki (untying of hands), and were the first things taught to a prospective student. While learning the Te Hodoki, the individual's character was observed and assessed, and the teacher would decide whether or not to accept him as a student. Yawara instruction is usually integrated with instruction in breakfalls (sutemi/ukemi), and (once the student can fall safely) with the first techniques of the Nage Te list. Following this comes the rest of Nage Te, Shime Te, Goshinjutsu (Jokyu Yawara) and Oku-no-Te, by the time a student is roughly brown belt. The Kiai no Maki Techniques are generally taught as the student approaches the black belt level, in addition to some or all of Shinin-no-Maki. Shin'yō-no-Maki and Shinjin-no-Maki are not introduced until after the black belt has been attained, in most schools. Seifukujutsu, Kappo, meditation techniques, Randori, massage, first aid, and nerve strikes may also be integrated into the curriculum at varying levels, depending on the instructor. References External links Jujutsu Lists of judo techniques

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