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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring%20laser
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Ring laser
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Ring lasers are composed of two beams of light of the same polarization traveling in opposite directions ("counter-rotating") in a closed loop.
Ring lasers are used most frequently as gyroscopes (ring laser gyroscope) in moving vessels like cars, ships, planes, and missiles. The world's largest ring lasers can detect details of the Earth's rotation. Such large rings are also capable of extending scientific research in many new directions, including the detection of gravitational waves, Fresnel drag, Lense-Thirring effect, and quantum-electrodynamic effects.
In a rotating ring laser gyroscope, the two counter-propagating waves are slightly shifted in frequency and an interference pattern is observed, which is used to determine the rotational speed. The response to a rotation is a frequency difference between the two beams, which is proportional to the rotation rate of the ring laser (Sagnac effect). The difference can easily be measured.
Generally however, any non reciprocity in the propagation between the two beams leads to a beat frequency.
Engineering applications
There is a continuous transition between ring lasers for engineering application and ring lasers for research (see Ring Lasers for Research). Rings for engineering have begun to incorporate a vast variety of materials as well as new technology. Historically, the first extension was the use of fiber optics as wave guides, obviating the use of mirrors. However, even rings using the most advanced fiber working in its optimal wavelength range (e.g. SiO2 at 1.5 μm) have vastly higher losses than square rings with four high-quality mirrors. Therefore, fiber optic rings suffice only in high rotation rate applications. For example, fiber optic rings are now common in automobiles.
A ring can be constructed with other optically active materials that are able to conduct a beam with low losses. One type of ring laser design is a single crystal design, where light reflects around inside the laser crystal so as to circulate in a ring. This is the "monolithic crystal" design, and such devices are known as "non-planar ring oscillators" (NPROs) or MISERs. There are also ring fiber lasers. Since typically the achievable quality factors are low, such rings cannot be used for research where quality factors above 1012 are sought and are achievable.
History
Shortly after the discovery of the laser, a seminal paper by Rosenthal appeared in 1962, which proposed what was later called a ring laser. While the ring laser shares with regular (linear) lasers features like extreme monochromaticity and high directivity, it differs in its inclusion of an area. With the ring laser, one could distinguish two beams in opposite directions. Rosenthal anticipated that the beam frequencies could be split by effects that affected the two beams in different ways. Although some may consider Macek et al. has built the first large ring laser (1 meter × 1 meter), the US patent office has decided the first ring laser was built under Sperry scientist, Chao Chen Wang, (see US Patent 3,382,758) based on the Sperry laboratory records. Wang showed that simply rotating it could generate a difference in the frequencies of the two beams (Sagnac). An industry focusing on smaller ring laser gyros emerged, with decimeter-sized ring lasers. Later it was found that any effect that affects the two beams in nonreciprocal fashion produces a frequency difference, as Rosenthal anticipated. Tools to analyze and construct rings were adapted from regular lasers, including methods to calculate the signal-to-noise ratio and to analyze beam characteristics. New phenomena unique to rings appeared, including lock-in, pulling, astigmatic beams, and special polarizations. Mirrors play a much greater role in ring lasers than in linear lasers, leading to the development of particularly high quality mirrors.
The resolution of large ring lasers has dramatically improved, as a result of a 1000-fold improvement in the quality factor (see Table 1). This improvement is largely a result of the removal of interfaces that the beams need to traverse as well as the improvements on technology which allowed a dramatic increase in measurement time (see section on Line Width). A 1 m × 1 m ring built in Christchurch, New Zealand in 1992 was sensitive enough to measure the Earth's rotation, and a 4 m × 4 m ring built in Wettzell, Germany improved the precision of this measurement to six digits.
Construction
In ring lasers, mirrors are used to focus and redirect the laser beams at the corners. While traveling between mirrors, the beams pass through gas-filled tubes. The beams are generally generated through local excitation of the gas by radio frequencies.
Critical variables in the construction of a ring laser include:
1. Size: Larger ring lasers can measure lower frequencies. The sensitivity of large rings increases quadratically with size.
2. Mirrors: High reflectivity is important.
3. Stability: The assembly must be attached to or built within a substance that changes minimally in response to temperature fluctuations (e.g. Zerodur, or bedrock for extremely large rings).
4. Gas: HeNe generates beams with the most desirable features for large ring lasers. For gyros, in principle any material that can be used to generate monochromatic light beams is applicable.
The laser beam: theoretical tools
For a ring as a measuring tool, Signal/Noise ratio and line widths are all-important. The signal of the ring as a rotation detector is used, whereas the all-pervasive white, quantum noise is the fundamental noise of the ring. Rings with a low quality factor generate additional low frequency noise. The standard matrix methods for the beam characteristics — curvature and width — are given, as well as the Jones calculus for polarization.
Signal-to-noise ratio
The following equations can be used to calculate the signal-to-noise ratio, S/N for rotation.
The signal frequency is
S = Δfs = 4,
where is the area vector, is the rotation rate vector, λ is the vacuum wavelength, L is the perimeter. (For complicated geometries like nonplanar rings or figure-8 rings, the definitions
and L = are to be used.)
The noise frequencies are
N = ,
where is the one-sided power spectral density of quantum noise, h is Planck's constant, f is the laser frequency, P includes all power losses of the laser beams, and Q is the quality factor of the ring.
Line width
Ring Lasers serve as frequency measuring devices. As such, single Fourier components, or lines in frequency space are of major importance in ring outputs. Their widths are determined by the prevailing noise spectra. The major noise contribution is typically white quantum noise If this noise is the only one present, the rms-line width sigma is obtained by corrupting the signal (represented by a δ function) with this noise in the interval 0-T. The result is:
P should be maximized but kept below the level that generates additional modes. Q can largely be increased by avoiding losses (e.g. improving the quality of the mirrors). T is only limited by the stability of the device. T reduces the line width by the classic T−1/2 for white noise.
For low-Q rings, an empirical relation for 1/f noise has been ascertained, with the one-sided frequency power spectral density given by , with A≃4. It is notoriously difficult to reduce line width in the presence of this noise.
To decrease the line width further, long measurement times are necessary. A measurement time of 243 days reduced the σ to 50 nHz in the Grossring.
Beam characteristics
The beam in ring lasers is typically excited by High-Frequency excitation of a laser gas. Although it has been shown that ring lasers can be excited in all kinds of modes, including microwave-related modes, a typical ring laser mode has a Gaussian, closed shape, given proper adjustment of mirror position The analysis of beam properties (curvature radius, width, position of waists, polarization) is done with matrix methods, where the elements of the closed beam circuit, mirrors and distances in between, are given 2 × 2 matrices. The results are distinct for circuits with n mirrors. Typically, there are n waists. For stability, there has to be at least one curved mirror in the circuit. Out-of-plane rings have circular polarization. The choice of mirror radii and mirror separation is not arbitrary.
Curvature radius and width
The beam has a spot size w:
,
where is the peak field of the beam, E is the field distribution, and r is the distance off beam center.
The mirror sizes have to be chosen large enough to ensure that only very small portions of the gaussian tails are to be cut off, such that the calculated Q (below) is maintained.
The phase is spherical with radius of curvature R. It is customary to combine radius of curvature and spot size into a complex curvature
.
The ring design uses a matrix M1 =
for a straight section and
M2 =
for a mirror of focus length f.
The relation between mirror radius RM and focus length f is for oblique incidence at angle θ, in plane:
,
for oblique incidence at angle θ, perpendicular to the plane:
,
resulting in astigmatic beams.
The matrices have
.
A typical design of a rectangular ring has the following form:
(for the equivalent rays where r = distance of equivalent ray from the axis, r’ = the slope against the axis).
Note that in order for the ray to close on itself, the input column matrix has to equal the output column. This round-trip matrix is actually called ABCD matrix in the literature.
The requirement that the ray is to be closed is therefore .
Propagation of complex curvature
The complex curvatures qin and qout in a section of a beam circuit with
the section matrix is
.
In particular, if the matrix above is the round-trip matrix, the q at that point is
,
or
.
Note that it is necessary that
to have a real spot size (Stability Criterion). The width is generally less than 1 mm for small lasers, but it increases approximately with . For calculation of beam positions for misaligned mirrors, see
Polarization
The polarization of rings exhibits particular features: Planar rings are either s-polarized, i.e. perpendicular to the ring plane, or p-polarized, in the plane; non-planar rings are circularly polarized. The Jones calculus is used to calculate polarization. Here, the column matrix
signifies the electric field components in-plane and off-plane. To study further the transition from planar rings to non-planar rings, reflected amplitudes rp and rs as well as phase shifts upon mirror reflection χp and χs are introduced in an extended mirror matrix
. Also, if the reference planes change, one needs to refer the E-vector after reflection to the new planes with the rotation matrix
.
Analysis of a skew-square ring by the Jones calculus yields the polarization in a ring. (A skew-square ring is a plane square ring where one mirror is lifted out of the plane of the other mirrors by a (dihedral) angle θ and tilted accordingly.) Following the Jones’ vector around the closed circuit, one gets
(Note that the polarization at the end of the loop has to equal the polarization at the start). For small loss differences
and small phase shift differences
, the solution for
is
, where
.
If the dihedral angle θ is large enough, i.e. if
, the solution of this equation is simply
, i.e. a definitely non-planar beam is (left-handed or right-handed) circularly (not elliptically) polarized. On the other hand, if
(a planar ring), the formula above results in p or s reflection (linear polarization). A planar ring, however, is invariably s-polarized because the losses of the multilayer mirrors used are always less in s-polarized beams (at the so-called “Brewster angle”, the reflected p-component even vanishes). There are at least two interesting applications:
1. The Raytheon ring laser. The fourth mirror is elevated by a certain amount over the plane of the other three. The Raytheon ring laser works with four circular polarizations, where now the difference of the differences represents twice the Sagnac effect. This configuration is in principle insensitive to drift. The scheme of detection is also more immune to stray light etc. Raytheon's use of a Faraday element to split internal frequencies introduces however optical 1/f noise and renders the device non-optimal as a gyro.
2. If the fourth mirror is suspended such that it can rotate around a horizontal axis, the appearance of
is extremely sensitive to the mirror's rotation. In a reasonable arrangement, an angular sensitivity of
±3 picoradian or 0.6 microarcsecond is estimated. With a mass suspended on the rotatable mirror, a simple gravitational wave detector can be constructed.
Lock-in and pulling
These are new phenomena in rings. The lock-in frequency fL, is the frequency at which the difference between the beam frequencies becomes so small that it collapses, synchronizing the two counterrotating beams. Generally, if the theoretical frequency difference is ft, the actual signal frequency f is
.
This equation says that even slightly above lock-in, there is already a reduction in frequency (i.e. pulling) relative to the theoretical frequency. In the presence of several satellites, only the major signal is pulled. The other satellites have their proper, non-pulled, frequency separation from the major signal. This opens the way to classic precision side-band spectroscopy as is known in microwaves, except that the ring laser has side bands down to nHz.
When the dependence on perimeter L is taken into account for large rings, the relative difference between theoretical output frequency ft and actual output frequency f is inversely proportional to the fourth power of L:
.
This is a huge advantage of large rings over small ones. As an example, small navigational gyros have lock-in frequencies on the order of 1 kHz. The first large ring had a lock-in frequency of about 2 kHz, and the first ring that could measure the Earth's rotation rate had a lock-in frequency of about 20 Hz.
The cavity
The quality factor Q of the cavity, as well as the time duration of the measurement, determines the achievable frequency resolution of a ring to a large extent. The quality factor depends largely on the reflection properties of the mirrors. For high quality rings, reflectivities larger than 99.999% (R = 1-10 ppm) are indispensable. At this time, the main limitation of mirrors is the extinction coefficient of the evaporated high-index material TiO2. The size and shape of the cavity as well as the presence of interfaces also influence the quality factor.
Quality factor Q
It is quite important for large rings to increase the quality factor Q, because it appears as 1/Q2 in the expression for noise.
Definition of Q:
.
Since the operating frequency
of the ring is given (474 THz), it remains to increase the circulating energy in the ring W and decrease the power losses dW/dt as much as possible. W is obviously proportional to the length of the ring, but must be limited to avoid multimodes. The power losses dW/dt however can be vastly decreased. The ensuing decreased signal output power is not critical, as modern silicon detectors have low noise, and for very low signals photomultipliers are used.
The power loss can be minimized by increasing the reflectivity of the mirrors to as close to 1 as possible and by eliminating other, spurious, sources of power loss, for example the inaccuracy of mirror curvature. Any interfaces or apertures that would decrease the quality factor of the ring are avoided. The whole ring is filled with a HeNe mixture of suitable partial pressures (up to a few hundred Pascal), to achieve lasing and good suppression of multiple pairs of modes. (Typically, the HeNe lasing gas at 633 nm is used; attempts for an argon ring laser failed.) Further, the lasing is excited with radio frequency to easily adjust the amplitude to just below the appearance of the second pair of modes. The Rayleigh scattering of the HeNe gas is, at this time, negligible.
For mirrors of proper curvature (spherical shape is acceptable) and equal reflectances r, the quality factor is
.
This equation gives rise to formidable quality factors. For a 4 m x 4 m ring equipped with 1 ppm mirrors (R = 1-10−6) we would get, at 474 THz, Q = 4×1013. This quality factor produces a passive resonance line of rms = 5 Hz, which is eight orders of magnitude smaller than the atomic linewidth of the Ne line (a 1:1 mixture of the two isotopes and has a gain bandwidth of about 2.2 GHz). (Note that for example in regular pendulums the Q is of the order of 103 and in wristwatch-type quartzes it is of the order of 106.) The active ring further reduces the linewidth by several orders of magnitude, and increasing the measuring time may additionally decrease the linewidth by many orders of magnitude.
Measurement
The integral of the definition equation for Q above is:
(τ is the photon lifetime.)
Thus, Q = ωτ. This is an extremely simple equation to measure Q in large rings. The photon lifetime τ is measured on an oscilloscope, as the times are of the order of microseconds to milliseconds.
Shape of rings
In order to maximize the signal/noise ratio of a ring inside a given circle of radius r with n mirrors, a planar ring is advantageous over an equivalent nonplanar ring. Furthermore, a regular polygon has a maximal A/Ln ratio, with A/Ln =
which itself has a maximum at n = 4, hence a planar square ring is optimal.
Mirrors
It is essential for a high quality ring to use mirrors of very high reflectivity. Metallic mirror surfaces are inadequate for laser work (household Al-covered mirror surfaces are 83% reflective, Ag is 95% reflective). However, multilayer dielectric mirrors with 20–30 alternate (low L and high H index of refraction) — λ/4 layers achieve reflection losses (1 - r) of single parts per million, and an analysis shows that losses of parts per billion can be achieved, if materials technology is pushed as far as is done with fiber optics.
The losses are composed of scattering S, absorption A, and transmission T, such that 1 - r = S + A + T. Scattering is not treated here, because it is largely dependent on details of surface and interface treatment, and not easily analyzed.
r, A, and T are amenable to analysis. The losses are analyzed with a matrix method that, given the success of surface treatment and reduction of absorption, shows how many layers have to be applied to reduce transmission accordingly.
The goal is to increase the quality factor of the cavity until Rayleigh scattering of the HeNe gas in the cavity or other unavoidable loss mechanisms set a limit. For simplicity we assume normal incidence. Introducing the complex index of refraction (nh - jkh) (where nh is the real index of refraction and kh is the extinction coefficient) of the high-index material h []), and a corresponding complex index for the low-index material l [], the stack is described by two matrices:
Mr =
r = l,h, which are multiplied in pairs, according to the size of the stack:
Mh Ml MhMl..............Mh Ml.
Hereby, all calculations are strictly carried out up to the first power in the ks, assuming the materials are weakly absorbing. The final result, after the stack is matched to the incoming medium (vacuum) and to the substrate (the substrate index is ns), is:
1 - r = (4ns/nh)(nl/nh)2N + 2π(kh + kl)/(nh2 - nl2),
where the first term is the Abélès limit, the second term the Koppelmann limit. The first term can be made as small as desirable by increasing the stack, . Thus it remains to decrease the extinction coefficients. N is then an adjustable parameter to minimize the overall losses (stacks with up to 50 pairs have been published).
Large rings
The perimeter dependence of the Signal/Noise ratio is
This equation defines large rings with L >> Lcrit ≈ , where S/N becomes proportional to L2. Therefore, the sensitivity of large rings increases quadratically with size, hence the quest for ever larger Ring Lasers for Research.
In the past it was thought that only small ring lasers avoid multimode excitation. However, if signal bandwidth is sacrificed, there is no known limit to ring laser size, either theoretically or experimentally.
One of the major advantages of large rings is a quartic reduction of lock-in and pulling in large rings.
Practical rings
Ring lasers are sometimes modified to allow only one direction of propagation by placing a device into the ring which leads to different losses for different propagation directions. For instance, this could be a Faraday rotator combined with a polarizing element.
One type of ring laser design is a single crystal design, where light reflects around inside the laser crystal so as to circulate in a ring. This is the "monolithic crystal" design, and such devices are known as "non-planar ring oscillators" (NPROs) or MISERs. There are also ring fiber lasers.
Semiconductor ring lasers have potential applications in all-optical computing. One primary application is as an optical memory device where the direction of propagation represents either 0 or 1. They can maintain the propagation of light in exclusively the clockwise or counterclockwise direction as long as they remain powered.
In 2017 a proposal was published to test general relativity by means of ring lasers.
See also
Optical ring resonators
Ring laser gyroscope
Semiconductor ring laser
List of laser articles
References
Laser types
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5298667
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portraits%20by%20Vincent%20van%20Gogh
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Portraits by Vincent van Gogh
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Vincent van Gogh lived during the Impressionist era. With the development of photography, painters and artists turned to conveying the feeling and ideas behind people, places, and things rather than trying to imitate their physical forms. Impressionist artists did this by emphasizing certain hues, using vigorous brushstrokes, and paying attention to highlighting. Vincent van Gogh implemented this ideology to pursue his goal of depicting his own feelings toward and involvement with his subjects. Van Gogh's portraiture focuses on color and brushstrokes to demonstrate their inner qualities and Van Gogh's own relationship with them.
Vincent van Gogh painted portraits throughout his career from 1881 through 1890.
The Netherlands and Brussels (1881–1886)
Van Gogh was fascinated with making portraits early in his artistic career. He wrote to his brother, Theo while studying in The Hague, "I want to do a drawing that not quite everybody will understand, the figure simplified to the essentials, with a deliberate disregard of those details that do not belong to the actual character and are merely accidental." As an example, he discussed having their parents pose for a painting, but that, in capturing the character of a "poor village clergyman" or "a couple who have grown old together in love and fidelity", they may not appreciate the work, because in doing so the painting would not be an exact likeness. Even so, he considered it a "serious matter" to focus on their character, one where his approach should be trusted.
Joseph Blok
Van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo in November 1882 that he had drawn a portrait of Jozef Blok (F993), a street bookseller who was sometimes called "Binnenhof's outdoor librarian". Unlike the character studies, the work was detailed in pencil with watercolor and chalk. At this time it was rare for Van Gogh to use color, as he found it difficult to work with (see early works of Vincent van Gogh).
Peasant character studies
In November 1882, Van Gogh began drawings of individuals to depict a range of character types from the working class. The "peasant genre" that greatly influenced Van Gogh began in the 1840s with the works of Jean-François Millet, Jules Breton, and others. In 1885, Van Gogh described the painting of peasants as the most essential contribution to modern art.
Van Gogh held laborers up to a high standard of how dedicatedly he should approach painting, "One must undertake with confidence, with a certain assurance that one is doing a reasonable thing, like the farmer who drives his plow... (one who) drags the harrow behind himself. If one hasn't a horse, one is one's own horse."
To depicting the essence of the life of the peasant and their spirit, Van Gogh lived as they lived, he was in the fields as they were, enduring the weather or long hours as they were. To do so was not something taught in schools, he noted, and became frustrated by traditionalists who focused on technique more so than the nature of the people being captured. So thoroughly engaged in living the peasant lifestyle, his appearance and manner of speech began to separate himself from others, but this was a cost he believed he needed to bear for his artistic development.
Portrait of a Woman in Blue
Portrait of a Woman with Red Ribbon
Portrait of an Old Man with Beard
Van Gogh described his sitter for this painting a "wonderful old man." It was made in Antwerp where Van Gogh hoped to bring in money to support himself by painting portraits.
Sien
Van Gogh made a series of paintings of Sien Hoornik, a prostitute whom he met and took in when he lived at The Hague. Included in the series are works of Sien's daughter, Maria, her newborn son and her mother.
Paris (1886–1888)
Alexander Reid
Agostina Segatori
Van Gogh occasionally visited Café du Tambourin run by Agostina Segatori, the subject of this painting. Previously an artist's model to Manet and Corot and others, the Naples-born Agostina saved the money she earned working as a model and opened the Italian themed Café du Tambourin in 1885, which particularly catered to artists.
The Italian Woman also called La Italienne is "without doubt" Agostina Segatori, per the Musée d'Orsay. Van Gogh introduced elements of Japanese woodcut prints in this portrait. Van Gogh creates his own style of brushstroke from Impressionism and Pointillism, in this case a "criss-cross of overlapping nervous hatching. He uses red and green in her face which he later described as a technique "to be able to express the terrible passions of humanity by means of red and green".
Etienne-Lucien Martin
The Portrait of Etienne-Lucien Martin was made of the owner of a restaurant in Paris. He allowed artists to exhibit their work. In November 1887 Van Gogh and his friends showed their works; Van Gogh did not sell a painting. Van Gogh made the painting of Martin with care and precision.
Leonie Rose Davy-Charbuy
Art dealer Pierre Firmin-Martin, a friend of Van Gogh's brother Theo, displayed some of Van Gogh's paintings. Mother by a Cradle, Portrait of Leonie Rose Davy-Charbuy was made of Martin's niece who lived with her uncle. Reflective of the family's interest in art, paintings hang in the background. In the year the painting was made Theo commented that Van Gogh done a good job painting portraits but had never asked for payment.
Nude study of a Little Girl
Père Tanguy
Portrait of Père Tanguy, painted by Vincent van Gogh in 1887, is one of three paintings of Julien Tanguy. The three works demonstrate a progression in Van Gogh's artistic style since arriving in Paris. The first painting is somber and the composition is simple. In the second painting Van Gogh introduces his Japanese prints. The last and most advanced in style, skill and color reflects integration of Japanese, Impressionist, and other influences of the Parisian artist community. The painting conveys a sense of serenity that Van Gogh seeks for himself. This last painting of Tanguy is in the Musée Rodin, Paris.
Père Tanguy was a Breton who was exiled and pardoned after taking part in the Paris Commune. When Vincent van Gogh knew him, he owned a small artist's supply shop. The shop was an important to the painters of the era. Impressionist painters in Paris were commonly found in Père Tanguy's shop. Painters like Cézanne, Pissarro, and Gauguin, as well as their paintings, frequented the shop. Van Gogh painted a few portraits of Père Tanguy. This specific portrait was painted in the winter of 1887-88.
Portrait of a Man
Portrait of a Man with a Moustache
Portrait of a Woman
Portrait of a Woman, Facing Right
The Smoker
Woman Sitting in the Grass
Arles (1888–1889)
Van Gogh went to Arles for the sun, color and country lifestyle but more than anything else "what I really hope to do is paint a good portrait."
Doctor Rey
According to Doiteau and Leroy, one day Van Gogh wanted to present a painting he had just finished to Dr. Rey. But the doctor refused the gift, so Van Gogh offered the painting to the pharmacist of the hospital just passing by, a Mr Rousseau. He, too, refused and so the next passer-by, the administrator of the hospital, was offered the painting – and he, a certain Mr Neuvière, is said to have accepted.
Rey later reminisced: "When I saw that he outlined my head entirely in green (he had only two main colors, red and green), that he painted my hair and my mustache--I really did not have red hair--in a blazing red on a biting green background, I was simply horrified ..."
The Ginoux Family
Marie Ginoux, born Jullian (or Julien) in Arles (June 8, 1848 - August 2, 1911), and her husband Joseph (1835–1906) married February 2, 1866, and ran the Café de la Gare, at 30 Place Lamartine.
La Mousmé
La Mousmé was painted by Vincent van Gogh in 1888 while living in Arles, which Van Gogh dubbed "the Japan of the south". Retreating from the city, he hoped that his time in Arles would evoke in his work the simple, yet dramatic expression of Japanese art. Inspired by Pierre Loti's novel Madame Chrysanthème and Japanese artwork, Vincent painted La Mousmé, a well-dressed Japanese girl.
The Zouave
Van Gogh, excited to have a model for a portrait, worked on the portraits of a Zouave in June 1888 in Arles. Van Gogh described him as a boy, with a small face, large neck and intense eyes. A half-length portrait was made of the tanned man with bright colors he called a "savage combination of incongruous tones". The Zouave's uniform was blue with red-orange braids, a red cap and two yellow stars on his chest, all placed against the background of a green door and orange bricks. Unsatisfied with the painting, he called it "ugly and unsuccessful", but thought the challenge might expand his artistic skill. Van Gogh also made a drawing, of which he was not particularly pleased, and a painting of the Zouave against a white wall.
Head of a Girl
This portrait, and The Zouave, was one of the two portraits by van Gogh in 1888 of anonymous subjects, that he sent to his Australian artist friend John Russell. Like The Zouave, Van Gogh compared his subject to an animal. He called the girl "a dirty mudlark".
The Lover: Paul-Eugène Milliet
Paul-Eugène Milliet was a 2nd Lieutenant at the 3rd Zouave Regiment which had quarters at the Caserne Calvin located on Boulevard des Lices in Arles. Vincent van Gogh gave him drawing lessons, and in return Milliet took a roll of paintings by Van Gogh to Paris, when in mid August he was passing the French capital on his way to the North, where Milliet spent his holidays. On his return to Arles, at the end of September 1888, Milliet handed over a batch of Ukiyo-e woodcuts and other prints selected by Vincent's brother Theo from their collection. In the days that followed Vincent executed this portrait of Milliet.
In the first version of Van Gogh's Bedroom in Arles, executed in October 1888, Milliet's portrait is shown hanging to the right of the portrait of Eugène Boch.
Decades later, when Milliet had retired to the 7th arrondissement in Paris, his memories of Van Gogh were recorded by Pierre Weiller, at this time living on lease in a building owned by Milliet, and published in 1955, after Milliet's death.
The Mudlark
Girl with Ruffled Hair (The Mudlark) was painted by Van Gogh when he lived in Arles. The work resides at Musée des Beaux-Arts, La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland (F535). See also Paintings of Children (Van Gogh series).
Old Woman of Arles
Van Gogh's Old woman of Arles was made soon after he arrived in Arles. He wrote to his brother Theo, "I believe that there are real opportunities for portraiture here. While people here are enormously ignorant of painting in general, when it comes to their own appearance and their own lives, they are much more artistic than in the North."
One-eyed Man
The One-eyed Man is a portrait of a patient at the Saint-Paul asylum in Saint-Rémy. Van Gogh used sweeping brushstrokes in the painting made with green in the background, the man's coat and touches in his face. In the hospital Van Gogh found that in the presence of other patients he became more calm about his mental state. In a letter to his mother he wrote, "At the moment I am working on a portrait of one of the patients here. It is odd that if one is with them for a time, and has grown used to them, one no longer thinks them mad."
Since Van Gogh was not in Saint-Paul's until 1889, possibly the patient and artwork that Van Gogh referred to in the letter to his mother was about Portrait of a Patient.
Paul Gauguin
The Poet: Eugène Boch
Eugène Boch (1855–1941) was a Belgian painter, born in Saint-Vaast, Hainaut, who was the younger brother of Anna Boch, a founding member of Les XX. Born into a wealthy dynasty of manufacturers of fine china and ceramics, still active today under the firm of Villeroy & Boch, Eugène Boch enrolled in the private atelier of Léon Bonnat in Paris, in 1879. Since 1882, when Bonnat closed his atelier, he studied at the atelier of Fernand Cormon. Paintings of him were admitted to the Salon in 1882, 1883 and 1885. In June 1888, he was introduced by Dodge MacKnight to Vincent van Gogh.
The portrait was executed in the first days of September 1888, a few days before Boch's departure. In the first version of Van Gogh's Bedroom, executed in October 1888, this portrait is shown hanging to the left of the portrait of Paul-Eugène Milliet. Arranged this way, both portraits may have formed part of the Décoration for the Yellow House.
When Eugène Boch died in 1941, he bequeathed The Poet (that is Van Gogh's title for his portrait of Eugène Boch, which Boch received from Johanna van Gogh-Bonger as a present in July 1891) to the Louvre.
Portrait of the Artist's Mother
Portrait of the Artist's Mother is a painting Vincent van Gogh made in 1888 of his mother, Anna Carbentus van Gogh, from a black-and-white photograph. In September 1888, Van Gogh, answering to a letter of his sister Wil who had told him of a recent photograph of their mother, asked for a print. About a week later he received it, but "troubled by the black," sat down to paint a copy based on this likeness: Van Gogh's initial introduction to art was through his mother, an amateur artist. After years of strained relationship with family members, Van Gogh excitedly shared some of his works his mother would cherish most, those of flowers and natural settings. In this painting of his mother, Van Gogh captures her dignified, proud nature.
Van Gogh made the painting, Memory of the Garden at Etten, to depict an older woman who he envisioned as his mother and a younger woman in a plaid shawl to represent his sister Wil and the lovely gardens of the Netherlands. In a letter to his sister Wil, Van Gogh said he had "an impression of you like those in Dicken's novels."
The Roulin Family
The Roulin Family is group of portrait paintings that Vincent van Gogh executed in Arles in 1888 and 1889 of Joseph, his wife Augustine and their three children: Armand, Camille and Marcelle. This series is unique in many ways. Although Van Gogh loved to paint portraits, it was difficult for financial and other reasons for him to find models. So, finding an entire family that agreed to sit for paintings, in fact for several sittings each was a bounty. Joseph Roulin became a particularly good, loyal and supporting friend to Van Gogh during his stay in Arles. To represent a man he truly admired was important to him. The family, with children ranging in age from four months to seventeen years, also gave him the opportunity to produces works of individuals in several different stages of life. Rather than making photographic-like works, Van Gogh used his imagination, colors and themes artistically and creatively to evoke desired emotions from the audience.
Le Facteur: Joseph Roulin
While Van Gogh was living in Arles, Joseph Roulin was working at the railway station, both places close to their lodgings: Roulin and his family in a dead-end street, and Van Gogh just around the corner, at 2 Place Lamartine - and both frequented the Café run by the Ginoux couple, some footsteps further; there Van Gogh had lodged, before he moved to the Yellow House. Roulin was married to Augustine. They had three children: Armand, Camille and Marcelle. Van Gogh painted each of Roulin's family members several times between 1888 and 1889.
While in Arles, Vincent van Gogh became friends with the postman. Van Gogh painted several portraits of Roulin and his family. Roulin's “silent gravity and tenderness,” and his “strangely pure and touching” voice inspired Van Gogh to paint him, commemorating their friendship.
Augustine
Augustine Roulin was born on 9 October 1851 in Lambesc and died on 5 April 1930. After her husband had posed for several works with Van Gogh, Augustine sat for Van Gogh and Paul Gauguin in the Yellow House the two men shared. During the sitting, she kept her gaze on Gauguin, possibly for reassurance because, according to her daughter, she was not comfortable in the presence of Van Gogh.
La Berceuse (Augustine)
In addition to the mother-daughter works where Marcelle is visible, Van Gogh also created several La Berceuse works where Augustine rocked her unseen cradle by a string.
Van Gogh labeled the group of work La Berceuse meaning "our lullaby or the woman rocking the cradle."
Armand
Armand Roulin, the eldest son, was born on 5 May 1871 in Lambesc, and died on 14 November 1945. He was 17 years of age when portrayed by Van Gogh.
Camille
Camille Roulin, the middle child, was born in Lambesc in southern France, on 10 July 1877, and died on 4 June 1922. When his portrait was painted, Camille was eleven years of age. The Van Gogh Museum painting shows Camille's head and shoulders. Yellow brush strokes behind him are evocative of the sun.
Marcelle
Marcelle Roulin, the youngest child, was born on 31 July 1888, and four months old, when Van Gogh made her portraits. She was painted three times by herself and twice on her mother's lap.
Madame Roulin's husband, the postman, was good friends with Vincent van Gogh while they were both in Arles. The portrait of Madame Roulin and her baby was painted through November and December 1888.
Vieux Paysan: Patience Escalier
Patience Escalier was a gardener and a shephard by trade, and his portrait the result of Van Gogh's desire to paint an older peasant who resembled his father in features.
There are two versions of this portrait. One held by the Norton Simon Museum in Pasadena, California, and the other in the private collection of Philip Niarchos.
Saint-Rémy-en-Provence (1889–1890)
The Trabuc Family
François Trabuc, who was the chief orderly at Saint-Paul, and his wife, Jeanne both sat for van Gogh. François Trabuc had a look of "contemplative calm" which van Gogh found interesting in spite of the misery he had witness at Saint-Paul and a Marseilles hospital during outbreaks of cholera. He wrote to Theo of Trabuc's character, a military presence and "small keen black eyes". If it were not for his intelligence and kindness, his eyes could seem like that of a bird of prey.
Portrait of a Patient
While in Saint-Paul, Van Gogh wrote of other patients and their support for one another, "Though here there are some patients very seriously ill, the fear and horror of madness that I used to have has already lessened a great deal. And though here you continually hear terrible cries and howls like beasts in a menagerie, in spite of that people get to know each other very well and help each other when their attacks come on."
Auvers-sur-Oise (1890)
The Gachet Family
Portrait of Dr. Gachet is one of the most famous paintings by Dutch artist Vincent van Gogh of Dr. Paul Gachet, who cared for the artist in his last months. In 1990, it fetched a record price at auction, selling for $82.5 million ($75 million, plus a 10 percent buyer's commission).
Dr. Gachet was an amateur painter and engraver. Vincent van Gogh went to the doctor for medical care. Van Gogh saw himself in the doctor; like himself, he saw in Dr. Gachet “the heart-broken expression of our time.” Similar to many of van Gogh's portraits, the painting is a study not of the physical features of the man, but of the inner qualities of the doctor's personality.
Adeline Ravoux
Portrait of Adeline Ravoux was painted by Vincent van Gogh in 1890.
The twelve-year-old Adeline Ravoux was the daughter of Arthur-Gustave Ravoux, whose inn is where Van Gogh lodged in Auvers-sur-Oise. She later wrote a memoir of Van Gogh's stay with them. She witnessed Van Gogh's return to the inn after the fatal incident where he shot himself: "Vincent walked bent, holding his stomach, again exaggerating his habit of holding one shoulder higher than the other. Mother asked him: " M. Vincent, we were anxious, we are happy to see you to return; have you had a problem?" He replied in a suffering voice: "No, but I have…" he did not finish, crossed the hall, took the staircase and climbed to his bedroom. I was witness to this scene. Vincent made on us such a strange impression that Father got up and went to the staircase to see if he could hear anything." See also Paintings of Children (Van Gogh series).
A sheet of figure studies F1652r has at its upper left the profile of a young girl recognizably Adeline Ravoux. The young girl seen from behind to the left is assumed to be her as well. She is thought to appear in a number of other paintings, including especially F819 Two Ladies Walking in a Landscape. The sheet fetched $480,000 at a Christie's sale in 2007.
Child with Orange
See also Paintings of Children (Van Gogh series).
Girl in White
Girl in White also known as Young Girl Standing Against a Background of Wheat and Woman in a Cornfield was painted by Vincent van Gogh in 1890 in Auvers-sur-Oise, France, during the last months of his life. Girl in White has been part of the Chester Dale Collection in the National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C. since 1963.
Little Arlesienne
The Little Arlesienne (Head of a Girl) is found at the Kröller-Müller Museum. See also Paintings of Children (Van Gogh series).
Young Peasant Woman with Straw Hat
Peasant Woman Against a Background of Wheat is an 1890 painting by Vincent van Gogh. Van Gogh went on to paint several versions of this painting. The painting has changed hands several times. In 1997, Stephen Wynn paid $47.5 million for the painting. On October 7, 2005, it was announced that Stephen Wynn had sold the painting along with Gauguin's Bathers to Steven A. Cohen for more than $100 million.
Two Children
Two Young Girls, also called Two Children is owned by Musée d'Orsay, Paris. Another version of Two Children is part of a private collection (F784). See also Paintings of Children (Van Gogh series).
Young Man with Cornflower
The Young Man with Cornflower was made in June 1890 in Auvers. See also Paintings of Children (Van Gogh series).
See also
List of works by Vincent van Gogh
Resources
Notes
References
Van Gogh Face to Face: The Portraits, with contributions by Roland Dorn, George S. Keyes, Joseph J. Rishel with Katherine Sachs, George T. M. Shackelford, Lauren Soth, Judy Sund, and a chronology by Katherine Sachs, Detroit Institute of Arts & Thames and Hudson, 2000
See also
List of works by Vincent van Gogh
Self-portraits by Vincent van Gogh
Paintings of Children (Van Gogh series)
External links
Père Tanguy, Vincent van Gogh, on the official website of the Musée Rodin.
The Harvesters , Vincent van Gogh, on the official website of the Musée Rodin.
Eugene Boch.com - website on Van Gogh´s friend painted as the poet
Van Gogh, paintings and drawings: a special loan exhibition, a fully digitized exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries, which contains material on these portraits (see index)
Series of paintings by Vincent van Gogh
1880s paintings
van Gogh
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Marina Bay Sands
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Marina Bay Sands is an integrated resort fronting Marina Bay in Singapore and a landmark of the city. At its opening in 2010, it was deemed the world's most expensive standalone casino property at S$8 billion (US$6.88 billion). The resort includes a 2,561-room hotel, a convention-exhibition centre, the The Shoppes at Marina Bay Sands mall, a museum, a large theatre, "celebrity chef" restaurants, two floating crystal pavilions, art-science exhibits, and the world's largest atrium casino with 500 tables and 1,600 slot machines. The complex includes three towers topped by the Sands Skypark, a skyway connecting with a capacity of 3,902 people and a infinity swimming pool, set on top of the world's largest public cantilevered platform, which overhangs the north tower by . The 20-hectare resort was designed by Moshe Safdie architects.
The resort is owned by Las Vegas Sands in agreement with the Singaporean authorities. Marina Bay Sands was originally set to open in 2009, but its construction faced delays caused by escalating costs of material and labour shortages from the outset exacerbated by the global financial crisis. This pressured Las Vegas Sands to delay its projects elsewhere to complete the integrated resort. Its owner decided to open the integrated resort in stages, and it was approved by the Singapore authorities. The resort and SkyPark were officially opened on 23 and 24 June 2010 as part of a two-day celebration, following the casino's opening on 27 April that year. The SkyPark opened the following day. The theatre was completed in time for the first performance of Riverdance on 30 November. The indoor skating rink, which uses artificial ice, opened to a performance by Michelle Kwan on 18 December. The ArtScience Museum opened to the public and the debut of a 13-minute light, laser and water show called Wonder Full on 19 February 2011 marked the full completion of the integrated resort.
The opening of Marina Bay Sands was held on 17 February 2011. It also marked the opening of the seven celebrity chef restaurants. The last portion of the Marina Bay Sands, the floating pavilions, were finally opened to the public when the two tenants, Louis Vuitton and Pangaea Club, opened on 18 and 22 September 2011, respectively.
Marina Bay Sands is set to have a fourth tower constructed by 2028, at an estimated cost of S$4.5 billion (US$3.3 billion). The expansion plan was announced in early April of 2022, with the new tower containing 1000 hotel rooms and an adjoining concert venue with seating for 15,000 guests.
Background
Marina Bay Sands is one of two winning proposals for Singapore's first integrated resorts, the other being the Resorts World Sentosa, which incorporates a family-friendly Universal Studios Theme Park (Universal Studios Singapore). The two large-scale resorts were conceived to meet Singapore's economic and tourism objectives for the next decade and will have 30-year casino licenses, exclusive for the first ten years.
Bidders were assessed based on four criteria: tourism appeal and contribution, architectural concept and design, development investment, and strength of the consortium and partners.
On 27 May 2006, Las Vegas Sands (LVS) was declared the winner with its business-oriented resort. LVS submitted its winning bid on its own. Its original partner City Developments Limited (CDL), with a proposed 15% equity stake, pulled out of the partnership in the second phase of the tender process. CDL's CEO, Kwek Leng Beng said his company's pullout was a combination of factors—such as difficulties in getting numerous companies he owns to comply in time, as well as reluctance of some parties to disclose certain private information in probity checks required by the Singapore government. However, Kwek was retained as an advisor for Sands' bid.
Investment
Las Vegas Sands initially committed to invest S$3.85 billion in the project, not including the fixed S$1.2 billion cost of the site itself. With the escalating costs of materials, such as sand and steel, and labour shortages owing to other major infrastructure and property development in the country, Sheldon Adelson placed the total cost of the development at S$8.0 billion as of July 2009.
Las Vegas Sands declared the undertaking as "one of the world's most challenging construction projects and certainly the most expensive stand-alone integrated resort property ever built". It expected the casino to generate at least $1 billion in annual profit. Two months after the initial phased opening, the casino was attracting around 25,000 visitors daily, about a third being Singaporeans and permanent residents who paid a $150 daily entry levy or $3,000 for annual unlimited access. Half a million gamblers passed through the casino in June 2010. In the third quarter of 2012, the revenues of the Marina Bay Sands fell almost 28 per cent from a year earlier.
For the economy, Marina Bay Sands was projected to stimulate an addition of $2.7 billion or 0.8% to Singapore's Gross Domestic Product by 2015, employing 10,000 people directly and 20,000 jobs being created in other industries.
On 3 April 2019, Sands announced a $3.3 billion expansion of its Marina Bay Sands property in Singapore. The expansion will include the construction of a fourth hotel tower containing 1,000 luxury suites and a 15,000-seat arena.
As the development of Marina Bay Sands was perceived as critical in Singapore's urbanization efforts, a fixed price was set for the land. This was a departure from the government auctioning off the land to the highest bidder. Bidders were instead assessed holistically on factors such as the design of the Marina Bay Sands and the amenities it would offer.
Design and construction
The resort is designed by Moshe Safdie, who says it was initially inspired by card decks. The prominent feature of the design is the three hotel towers, which has 2,500 rooms and suites, and a continuous lobby at the base links the three towers. The casino has a four-storey central atrium with four levels of gaming and entertainment in one space. In addition to the hotel and the casino, other buildings include a ArtScience Museum, and a convention centre with of space, capable of accommodating up to 45,000 people. The resort's architecture and major design changes along the way were also approved by its feng shui consultants, the late Chong Swan Lek and Louisa Ong-Lee. Aedas were responsible for employing all consultants and for developing, co-ordinating and implementing the design. The structural engineering for the project was handled by Arup with Parsons Brinckerhoff the MEP engineers. The main contractor was Ssangyong Engineering and Construction.
The three towers are broader at the base and narrow as they rise. Each tower has two asymmetric legs, with a curved eastern leg leaning against the other, creating a significant technical challenge in its construction. Substantial temporary structures were necessary to support the legs of the tower while they were under construction, and required real-time monitoring for continual assessment and analyses in the course of their erection.
A distinctive feature of the hotel is the SkyPark, a three-acre park on top of the building with swimming pools, gardens, and jogging paths. The structure bridges all three towers with a segment cantilevered off the north tower. The hull of the SkyPark was pre-fabricated off-site in 14 separate steel sections and then assembled on top of the towers. There are four movement joints beneath the main pools, designed to help them withstand the natural motion of the towers, and each joint has a unique range of motion. The total range of motion is . In addition to wind, the hotel towers are also subject to settlement in the earth over time, so engineers built and installed custom jack legs to allow for future adjustment at more than 500 points beneath the pool system. This jacking system is important primarily to ensure the infinity edge of the pool continues to function properly.
Opening
Marina Bay Sands was originally planned to be completed in a single phase in 2009, but rising construction costs and the financial crisis forced the company to open it in phases. The first phase's preview opening was further delayed until 27 April 2010, and the official opening was pushed back to 23 June 2010. The rest of the complex remained under construction and was opened after a grand opening on 17 February 2011.
On 27 April 2010, Marina Bay Sands had the first of a planned 3 to 4 phase openings. The casino, parts of the conference hall, a segment of the Shoppes, 963 hotel rooms and the event plaza were opened at the auspicious time of 3:18 p.m as part of the "preview opening".
The Inter-Pacific Bar Association (IPBA) held the first conference at Marina Bay Sands Convention Centre on 2–5 May 2010, but the event was marred by uncompleted facilities and power failure during a speech. IPBA withheld payment of S$300,000 and was consequently sued by Marina Bay Sands. In June IPBA counter-sued, describing the venue as a "complete disaster" and that its earlier payments had been imposed by "duress, fear and force". An "amicable settlement" with undisclosed terms was announced in August.
On 23 June 2010, the resort had its official opening with a "2-day celebration"; this includes the Sands SkyPark, the Event Plaza along Marina Bay, more shops, additional dining options and nightlife offerings, and the rest of the hotel rooms. First day events included a "World Championship Climb" on the glass facade of the building to the SkyPark, with seven teams of 21 top rock climbers from around the world competing, and an evening concert for 4,000 invited guests and customers, featuring one international rapper such as Kelly Rowland and one national contemporary R&B such as Sylvia Ratonel. The SkyPark was opened on the second day at 2 p.m., with about 2,000 adult tickets costing S$20 each sold.
The Sands theatre was completed in time for the first performance by Riverdance on 30 November 2010. The ArtScience Museum opened its doors to the public at 10 am on 19 February 2011. The musical The Lion King made its debut on 3 March 2011. The floating pavilions were opened when the tenants Louis Vuitton and Pangaea Club finished their refurbishment and opened on 18 September 2011 and 22 September 2011, respectively. The Lion King ran its last show on 30 October 2011.
Facilities
Marina Bay Sands has three 55-storey hotel towers which were topped out in July 2009. The three towers are connected by a 1 hectare roof terrace, Sands SkyPark. The observation deck provides panoramic views across the bay.
In front of the three towers include a Theatre Block, a Convention and Exhibition Facilities Block, as well as the Casino Block, which have up to 1,000 gaming tables and 1,400 slot machines. To enter the casino, Singaporeans and Permanent Residents (PRs) have to pay a SGD$150 fee for a one time entry and a S$2000 fee for an annual pass. The fee was changed on 4 April 2019 to SGD$150 for a one-time visit and S$3000 for yearly visits.
The ArtScience Museum is constructed next to the three blocks and has the shape of a lotus. Its roof is retractable, providing a waterfall through the roof of collected rainwater when closed in the day and laser shows when opened at night. In front of the Event Plaza is Wonder Full, a light and water show that is the largest in Southeast Asia and was produced by Laservision. The ArtScience Museum and Wonder Full show opened on 17 February 2011.
The SkyPark has the world's longest elevated swimming pool, with a vanishing edge (a concept called an infinity pool) located above ground. The pools are made up of of stainless steel and can hold of water. The SkyPark also has rooftop nightclubs such as Lavo (New York, Vegas) and Cé La Vi, gardens, hundreds of trees and plants, and a public observatory deck on the cantilever with 360-degree views of the Singapore skyline. The SkyPark is accessible only to hotel guests for security reasons.
The Shoppes is the main shopping mall at Marina Bay Sands, with close to of retail space with over 300 stores and F&B outlets, featuring boutiques such as Ralph Lauren, Chanel, Cartier, Prada, Gucci, Hermès, Emporio Armani, Chopard, Valentino, Dior, Dunhill, Vertu, Miu Miu, Saint Laurent Paris, Salvatore Ferragamo, Montblanc, Blancpain, Vera Wang Bride, an Hermès watch boutique, and Herve Leger.
A canal runs through the length of the Shoppes, in the same style as The Venetian in Las Vegas. Sampan rides on the canal are available for guests and shoppers at the shopping mall, similar to the gondola rides available in the Venetian. Also housed within the Shoppes are six of the ten Celebrity Chef restaurants—Bread Street Kitchen (by Gordon Ramsay), Cut (by Wolfgang Puck), Waku Ghin (by Tetsuya Wakuda), Pizzeria and Osteria Mozza (by Mario Batali), Long Chim (by David Thompson) and DB Bistro & Oyster Bar (by Daniel Boulud).
The north side of the Shoppes contained an ice skating rink, which used artificial ice. In 2017, it was replaced with a digital art exhibit.
There are two Crystal Pavilions. Despite a brief legal dispute in June 2011, it was decided that one of the Pavilions will house two nightclubs—Avalon and Pangaea. In addition, the second Pavilion houses the world's largest Louis Vuitton boutique, in addition to being on a floating island, at , which is connected to the portion of the boutique in the Shoppes via an underwater tunnel. Both Pavilions opened in 2011 just before the 2011 Formula One season came to the Marina Bay Street Circuit. The Pavilion vacant by Avalon and Pangaea will be taken over by Singapore's third Apple Store—Apple Marina Bay Sands in 2020. Their third store in Singapore feature the company's first store that sits on water and one that is of spherical design.
The Sands Theatre seats 2,155 people, and has hosted shows such as The Lion King, Cirque Éloize, A. R. Rahman's Jai Ho, and Wicked. Next to the theatre is a skating rink (synthetic ice) measuring .
Moshe Safdie designed an Art Path within the resort, incorporating installations by five artists including Zheng Chongbin, Antony Gormley and Sol LeWitt. The pieces are meant to play on environmental influences including light, water and wind, integrating art with architecture.
Attraction
Wonder Full is a nighttime multimedia show displayed by Marina Bay Sands. It is designed by the Australian multimedia company Laservision and incorporated various Laservision technology such as the Stella Ray. The show starts off with a single drop of water, representing the birth of life. It later stages through important stages of a person's life such as childhood, development through age and adulthood.
Transportation
Mass Rapid Transit (MRT)
Bayfront (Circle and Downtown Lines)
Public buses
Services 97/97e, 106, 133, 502/502A, 518/518A
Water taxi
From Grand Copthorne Water Front, Raffles Landing Side, Boat Quay, River Side Point and Robertson Quay
Controversy
Marina Bay Sands was reportedly under investigation by the US Department of Justice over whether there were breaches of anti-money laundering regulations.
In late 2011, Marina Bay Sands had a dispute with Madam Choo Hong Eng, on whether she could obtain a big sum of money, which a slot machine had shown that she had won on 18 October 2011. The jackpot in question was SGD$416,721.12. A casino manager claimed that it was a machine error. Upon negotiation, the casino offered to give her a car which was worth SGD$258,962 instead. Ms Choo appointed a lawyer to demand that Marina Bay Sands pay her the whole sum. Several days later, the casino agreed to pay her that amount. The Singaporean government department - Casino Regulatory Authority, condemned the casino for failing to keep its machine operating properly. The mass media reported that Ms Choo had donated the whole of her winning to charities instead of keeping it to herself.
In 2011, the Marina Bay Sands resort publicized lucky punters on its webpages. The Singapore government noticed that and said it would take action against the company, according to the rule that casino operators in that country are prohibited from publicizing the winnings of patrons. The online information in question was subsequently removed.
About one month before Marina Bay Sands opened, Reuters reported that Sands had links with Hong Kong criminal organizations operating in Macau, according to court documents of a case of attempted murder. Several male gangsters of the criminal group Wo Hop To, were put in jail for that case. Witnesses testified that the mastermind was Mr Cheung Chi-tai, who operates a VIP room related to the murder attempt in the casino of Sands Macau. Mr Cheung is also a leader of the same criminal group. This raised concern in opposition parties like the National Solidarity Party and the mass media, in Singapore.
In popular culture
The towers of the Marina Bay Sands have made multiple televised appearance on various franchises of The Amazing Race including the fourth season of the Asian edition of The Amazing Race, the first season of the Australian edition of The Amazing Race, the second season of the Israeli edition of The Amazing Race, and the twenty-fifth season of the original American edition of The Amazing Race, all of which featured a tightrope walking task between two of the resort's towers. The SkyPark served as the finishing line for the first season of the British show Race Across the World.
A partially destroyed version of the structure was featured in the 2015 video game Call of Duty: Black Ops 3, which takes place 10 years after a biochemical disaster rendered most of Singapore's eastern half inhospitable.
It was featured in the 2015 movie Hitman: Agent 47, as it appears along with Gardens by the Bay.
The trailer of the 2016 movie Independence Day: Resurgence has a scene depicting the destruction of the property after being caught in the gravitational pull of a hovering alien spacecraft. It was also featured in the 2018 film Crazy Rich Asians, both in scenic B-roll of Singapore, as well as a setting towards the end of the film. Both the completed and partially destroyed versions of the structure are featured in the 2019 animated film Detective Conan: The Fist of Blue Sapphire, in the opening, various parts of the film, and the end credits.
In the videogame Mario Kart Tour the first version of the Singapore Speedway track involves the racers riding a platform to the top of the Marina Bay Sands and driving across the infinity pool, where various Goombas in inner tubes are part of the obstacles. A later version of the track has the racers getting on top of the science art museum and jumping from the top. The track returns as DLC content for Mario Kart 8 Deluxe as the final track of the Boomerang Cup and it combines all three versions of the original track, including the pool and museum areas.
Gallery
See also
Future developments in Singapore
List of tallest buildings in Singapore
Architecture of Singapore
Similar towers
The Gate (Shams Abu Dhabi), building in Abu Dhabi
References
Notes
Further reading
Discusses the engineering behind the project.
External links
Las Vegas Sands press release on winning integrated resort bid
Safdie Designing Ambitious Resort in Singapore (Architectural Record)
Moshe Safdie and Associates | Project Details of the Marina Bay Sands
Opening Event | Laservision
2010 establishments in Singapore
Casinos completed in 2010
Hotel buildings completed in 2010
Casinos in Singapore
Tourism in Singapore
Marina Bay, Singapore
Tourist attractions in Singapore
Landmarks in Singapore
Hotels in Singapore
Resorts in Singapore
Convention centres in Singapore
Shopping malls in Singapore
Moshe Safdie buildings
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List of Back to the Future characters
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The Back to the Future film trilogy and subsequent animated series feature characters created by Robert Zemeckis and Bob Gale.
The lead character of the series is Marty McFly. During the course of the trilogy, he travels through time using a DeLorean time machine invented by his friend Emmett Brown. He also encounters the central antagonist, Biff Tannen, in several different time periods and visits his ancestors and descendants.
Main characters
Marty McFly
Martin Seamus "Marty" McFly (portrayed by Michael J. Fox in the films and voiced by him in Lego Dimensions, voiced by David Kaufman in the animated series) is the son of George McFly and Lorraine Baines McFly. Marty travels between the past and the future, encountering his ancestors and descendants. Marty and his friend Doc Brown help restore the space-time continuum while encountering Biff Tannen (or members of the Tannen clan) at various points in time.
Emmett "Doc" Brown
Doctor Emmett Lathrop "Doc" Brown (portrayed by Christopher Lloyd and voiced by him in Lego Dimensions, voiced by Dan Castellaneta in the animated series) is the inventor of the DeLorean time machine. At various points in time, Doc helps Marty restore the space-time continuum and reverse the changes that were caused by time travel.
In 2008, the character was selected by film magazine Empire as one of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time, ranking at No. 20.
George McFly
George Douglas McFly (portrayed by Crispin Glover in Back to the Future, Jeffrey Weissman in Back to the Future Part II and Back to the Future Part III, voiced by Michael X. Sommers in Back to the Future: The Game) is married to Lorraine Baines McFly and is the father of Marty, Linda and Dave. Although he is one of the main characters in the first movie, George only makes cameos in Back to the Future Part II and Back to the Future Part III.
In the first film, George is portrayed as weak and the main target of Biff Tannen's bullying. The novelization of the film expounds on George's history of weakness, describing two incidents in which he is unable to stand up for himself. In 1955, in contrast with Marty, George did not have any friends for support and was targeted not only by Biff and his gang but also other kids in school. He has a penchant for science fiction, and writes some of his own but never allows himself to share them with anyone due to his fear of rejection. In 1955, with Marty's help, he gets the courage to stand up to Biff, knocking him unconscious. As a result, he and Lorraine fall in love and George becomes popular in school for defeating Biff in a fight. In the new future, they are both married with George working as a college professor and being a successful writer who orders Biff around. In the dystopian timeline in Part II, George was murdered by Biff in 1973.
George's character was greatly reduced in the sequels, and the role was recast. Weissman wore prosthetics to resemble Glover and imitated Glover's rendering of McFly, and his scenes were spliced with shots of Glover from Back to the Future. The result was so convincing that many people were fooled by it. However, Glover did not appreciate this and sued. The lawsuit resulted in the adoption of stricter rules by the Screen Actors Guild to prevent this situation from occurring again.
Lorraine Baines-McFly
Lorraine Baines-McFly (portrayed by Lea Thompson, voiced by Aimee Miles in Back to the Future: The Game) is married to George McFly and the mother of Marty, Linda and Dave. She is the oldest daughter of Sam (George DiCenzo) and Stella (Frances Lee McCain) Baines, and sister of Milton (Jason Hervey), Sally (Maia Brewton), Toby, and Joey.
In Back to the Future, Lorraine is initially portrayed in 1985 as middle-aged and unhappy. After Marty changes the timeline, she is shown to be fit and happily married to George in 1985. In Part II, Lorraine is still happily married to George in 2015 but they are constantly disappointed in Marty for giving in to peer pressures that make his life difficult. In the alternate 1985 timeline, she is widowed and married to Biff Tannen.
Clara Clayton
Clara Clayton (portrayed by Mary Steenburgen in both Back to the Future Part III and the animated series) is married to Doc Brown and is the mother of Jules and Verne Brown.
Clara moved to Hill Valley and originally died in an accident when her wagon plummeted into Shonash Ravine, which was renamed Clayton Ravine in her memory. This later changed after Doc rescued her, with Mayor Herburt naming it Eastwood Ravine in honor of Marty's alias Clint Eastwood, remembered as a town hero who saved Clara, defeated Buford Tannen, and allegedly died trying to stop two bandits who hijacked a locomotive. The animated series reveals that Clara, along with the rest of the family, moves to the early 1990s and lives in a farmhouse outside of Hill Valley. She then became a teacher at Hill Valley Elementary School.
Jennifer Parker
Jennifer Jane Parker (portrayed by Claudia Wells in the first film and voiced by her in Back to the Future: The Game, Elisabeth Shue in the second and third film, voiced by Cathy Cavadini in the animated series) is dating Marty McFly. In 2015 as seen in Back to the Future Part II, they are married.
In 1985, Jennifer attends Hill Valley High School, along with her boyfriend Marty. In the animated series, Jennifer is enrolled to Hill Valley College with Marty after graduating high school and working part-time as a tutor. She lives with her family on a ranch, the deed to which was owned by Biff Tannen, after one of his ancestors forced Jennifer's great-great-grandfather to sign it over by holding Jennifer's great-great-grandmother hostage. In the episode "A Friend in Deed", Marty travels back in time to 1875 and sabotages the deal with help from Jules and Verne.
In the future witnessed in Back to the Future Part II, Jennifer and Marty had two children, Marlene and Marty Jr. (both played by Michael J. Fox).
Melora Hardin was initially cast in the role, to appear alongside Eric Stoltz' Marty McFly. After Stoltz was fired from the production and Michael J. Fox was brought in, Claudia Wells was cast to portray the character, as Hardin was deemed too tall to appear next to the much shorter Fox. However, Wells was not available to film the sequels for personal reasons, and the role was recast to Elisabeth Shue although Wells reprised her role as Jennifer in Back to the Future: The Game as a punk rock version of her character. Consequently, the opening scene of Back to the Future Part II was re-shot with Shue taking Wells' place, rather than using the ending of Back to the Future.
Biff Tannen
Biff Howard Tannen (portrayed by Thomas F. Wilson) is the main antagonist of the first two films, and a local bully who harassed George McFly and managed to alter history in the second film. He comes from a long line of bullies in Hill Valley, most of whom harassed members of the McFly family, including Buford "Mad Dog" Tannen (also portrayed by Wilson, in Part III), who is one of Hill Valley's outlaws during the 1880s.
McFly family
Dave McFly
David "Dave" McFly (portrayed by Marc McClure) is the eldest child of George and Lorraine McFly. In 1985, before Marty went to 1955, Dave works at Burger King, but in the post-time travel 1985, he wears a suit as a nondescript white-collar worker for an accounting firm. In a deleted scene from Part II, the alternate 1985 timeline shows that Dave is an alcoholic and a gambling addict following George's death and Lorraine's second marriage to Biff Tannen.
Linda McFly
Linda McFly (portrayed by Wendie Jo Sperber) is the middle child and only daughter of George and Lorraine McFly. In 1985 before Marty went to 1955, Linda is having boy trouble and it is unknown if she is in college or has a job. In 1985 after Marty went to 1955, Linda works in a boutique and has gained the attention of many boys.
Seamus and Maggie McFly
Seamus and Maggie McFly (portrayed by Michael J. Fox and Lea Thompson) are Irish immigrants and the paternal great-great-grandparents of Marty McFly. In Part III, Marty is befriended by Seamus and Maggie. While Maggie does not trust the "strange young man", Seamus has a familiar feeling about him and believes that helping him is the right thing to do. They have a son named William (Marty's great-grandfather). Much like his descendants, Seamus is harassed by a member of the Tannen family, Buford Tannen. He also had a brother, Martin, who was fatally stabbed prior to the film's events.
Maggie McFly is played by Lea Thompson, who also plays Marty's mother Lorraine, even though Maggie is not an ancestor of Lorraine; in a DVD commentary track for Part III, Bob Gale states that the creative team considered it important to include Thompson in the film, and he imagines that McFly men are simply "genetically predisposed" to be attracted to women who look like her.
William McFly
William "Willie" McFly (voiced by Michael J. Fox in Back to the Future: The Game) is the son of Seamus and Maggie McFly as well as Marty's great-grandfather. Baby Willie was played by Lindsay Clark. She left acting shortly after this role.
Arthur McFly and Sylvia Miskin
Arthur "Artie" McFly and Sylvia Miskin (stage name "Trixie Trotter") are Marty's paternal grandparents and George's parents introduced in Back to the Future: The Game and voiced by Michael X. Sommers and Melissa Hutchison respectively.
Marty Jr. and Marlene McFly
Marty Jr. and Marlene McFly (both portrayed by Michael J. Fox) are Marty McFly and Jennifer Parker's future son and daughter in 2015 in Part II.
Originally, 17-year-old Marty Jr. was to be arrested and sentenced to fifteen years in prison for joining a robbery initiated by Griff and his gang. Marlene attempted to help Marty Jr. break out of jail but failed and was sentenced to twenty years in a woman's prison. Doc and Marty prevented the event from ever happening.
Baines family
Sam Baines
Sam Baines was the husband of Stella Baines and the father of six children, including Lorraine, Milton, Toby, Joey, Sally, and Ellen Baines. He is the father-in-law of George McFly and the maternal grandfather of Marty, David, and Linda McFly.
Stella Baines
Stella Baines (portrayed by Frances Lee McCain) was the wife of Sam Baines and the mother of six children, including Lorraine, Milton, Toby, Joey, Sally, and Ellen Baines. She is the mother-in-law of George McFly and the maternal grandmother of Marty, David, and Linda McFly.
Milton Baines
Milton Samuel Baines (portrayed by Jason Hervey) is the second child of Sam and Stella Baines, the brother of Lorraine, Sally, Toby, Joey, and Ellen Baines, the brother-in-law of George McFly, and the uncle of David, Linda, and Marty McFly. He was 12 years old in 1955. In 1955, Milton liked to wear a coonskin cap, a fad inspired by the Davy Crockett film and television show, which Stella took off his head twice while Marty was eating dinner with the family, putting it back on both times.
Sally Baines
Sally Flora Baines (portrayed by Maia Brewton) was the third child of Sam and Stella Baines, the sister of Lorraine, Milton, Toby, Joey, and Ellen Baines, the sister-in-law of George McFly, and the aunt of David, Linda, and Marty McFly. Born in 1949, she was present when Marty McFly in 1955 had dinner with her family, but did not speak.
Toby Baines
Toby Baines was the fourth child of Sam and Stella Baines, the brother of Lorraine, Milton, Sally, Joey, and Ellen Baines, the brother-in-law of George McFly, and the uncle of David, Linda, and Marty McFly. He was born in 1951. On November 5, 1955, he sat at the dinner table with his family and Marty McFly, whom his father had hit with the car earlier that day. He remained silent while the guest was present.
Joey Baines
Joey Baines was born on August 28, 1954, to Sam and Stella Baines, and was the fifth child in the Baines family. In the early 1970s, Joey was Marty McFly's favorite uncle. Joey would allow Marty to do dangerous things, but would always be there to make sure he was all right. He spent many years in Folsom Prison. On October 25, 1985, he failed to earn his release on parole for at least the second time.
By the 21st century, USA Today ran an article on Joey Baines in their October 22, 2015 issue, titled Parole denied again, which mentioned that this was Joey's twelfth consecutive parole hearing to end in denial. He was serving a twenty-year term at Folsom for racketeering and had spent two-thirds of his life behind bars.
Ellen Baines
Ellen Baines was the sixth child of Sam and Stella Baines, the sister of Lorraine, Milton, Sally Toby, and Joey Baines, the sister-in-law of George McFly, and the aunt of David, Linda, and Marty McFly. Born in 1956 (a few months after Marty's trip to 1955), she moved to Chicago at some point prior to 1986.
Brown family
Jules and Verne Brown
Jules Eratosthenes Brown and Verne Newton Brown (portrayed by Todd Cameron Brown and Dannel Evans in Back to the Future Part III, voiced by Josh Keaton and Troy Davidson in the animated series) are the two children of Doc Brown and his wife, Clara, who named them after their favorite author Jules Verne.
The characters had minor, non-speaking roles in Back to the Future Part III but were further developed in the animated series. Jules, an introvert, mostly imitates his father's interests and mannerisms while Verne appears to be more outgoing and extroverted. Several plot points of the animated series revolve around either Jules or Verne altering history and the steps necessary to correct the damage.
In the Back to the Future game when asked about his family, Doc reveals that his sons are now teenagers and their parents are discussing what time period they should attend college at.
Copernicus
Copernicus is Doc's dog from 1955. Like his other dogs, Copernicus was used in many of Doc's experiments. When Copernicus died, he was eventually replaced by Einstein.
Einstein
Einstein (portrayed by Tiger and stuntman Dick Butler in the first film and Freddie in the other two, voiced by Danny Mann in the animated series) is Doc Brown's pet Catalan sheepdog. He later becomes one of the main characters in the animated series as the Brown family's dog.
In the first film, Doc successfully tests his time machine by placing Einstein in it and sending him one minute into the future. In the animated series, Einstein becomes anthropomorphic and smarter, helping Doc with his inventions for traveling to the past and the future.
Tannen family
Irving "Kid" Tannen
Kid Tannen (voiced by Owen Thomas) is Biff's father who only appears in the Back to the Future: The Game. Kid is a gangster who runs a local speakeasy in the 1930s Hill Valley. He, like the rest of the Tannen family, bullies the McFly family forcing Marty's grandfather Arthur to do his accounting. Kid is brought down with the help of Marty, a young version of Doc, and Arthur McFly. He later marries Edna Strickland and reforms from his criminal ways with her help.
Buford "Mad Dog" Tannen
Buford Tannen (portrayed by Thomas F. Wilson in Back to the Future Part III, Liam O'Brien in Lego Dimensions) is the main antagonist of the third film. He is the great-grandfather of Biff Tannen and the local town outlaw in 1885 Hill Valley. He was nicknamed "Mad Dog" by a newspaper reporter, due to his violent temper and propensity for drooling, a nickname Tannen greatly despises. Buford is cruel, homicidal, rude, and emotionally unstable. He displays a need for control and is brought down to childlike tantrums when he is humiliated or makes mistakes, whether it be something that happens to him or something he says or does. He is often accompanied by his gang (played by Christopher Wynne, Sean Sullivan and Mike Watson), and developed a feud with Marshal James Strickland and his deputies. Like his descendant Biff, he has a dislike for manure.
Griff Tannen
Griff Tannen (portrayed by Thomas F. Wilson in both Back to the Future Part II and in the animated series) is a grandson of Biff. He is part of a gang that also consists of Rafe "Data" Unger, Leslie "Spike" O'Malley and Chester "Whitey" Noguera. Unlike his grandfather and great-great-great-grandfather whose gangs only consisted of Caucasian males, his accomplices are one Caucasian male (Data), one Caucasian female (Spike), and one Asian-American male (Whitey).
In the animated series, Griff makes a brief cameo appearance in the episode "Solar Sailors" where his grandson, Ziff (also voiced by Wilson), is detained after he attempts to sabotage Marta McFly's space cruiser due to his hatred towards her family.
Griff's last name is never mentioned in the movie, which means he could either be the son of Biff's son Biff Jr, or the son of Biff's daughter, Tiffaney, but in the animated series, Ziff says that both he and Griff are Tannens.
Biff Tannen Jr.
In the animated series, Biff Jr. (voiced by Benji Gregory) is the son of Biff Tannen. Like his father and paternal relatives, he likes to bully and steal from children around him including Jules and Verne Brown with whom he developed a feud. In addition, Biff Jr. delights in vandalizing other people's properties. Biff Jr. lives with his father with whom he has an abusive relationship.
Strickland family
Gerald Strickland
Gerald Strickland (portrayed by James Tolkan) is the strict principal of Hill Valley High School. He is a descendant of Chief Marshal James Strickland of Hill Valley 1885. He frequently makes a great noisy show of sternly reprimanding his students for faults such as "slacking" or liquor consumption, although he himself is revealed to sneak a drink of alcohol at his desk at school.
There is a reference from Verne Brown that there is another Strickland who works at Hill Valley Elementary School as its vice principal.
James Strickland
James Strickland (portrayed by James Tolkan in Back to the Future Part III) is the chief marshal of Hill Valley in 1885 and an ancestor of Mr. Strickland. He also has an unnamed son (portrayed by Kaleb Henley).
In a deleted scene not included in the final cut, and in the movie's novelization, Strickland is killed by Buford Tannen. In the theatrical release Strickland simply remains absent for the latter half.
In the Back to the Future game, Edna Strickland in 1986 notes that James was shot and killed by Buford. Marty remarks that's a detail he doesn't remember, possibly a reference to the differences between the film and the movie novelization.
Edna Strickland
Edna Strickland (voiced by Rebcca Sweitzer) is introduced in Back to the Future: The Game where she is the sister of Gerald Strickland. She is somewhat nicer than her brother, but still set in her ways towards upholding strong morals and abolishing crime and laziness. After Marty alters her original timeline, Edna married Kid Tannen and became the stepmother of Biff Tannen.
Other characters
Marvin Berry
Marvin Berry (portrayed by Harry Waters Jr.) is an African-American jazz musician and electric guitar player whose band was hired in Back to the Future Part I to perform at the "Enchantment Under The Sea" dance. He is also the cousin of then-rising musician Chuck Berry. After injuring his hand while helping Marty McFly out of a car's trunk, Marty takes his place as guitarist in the evening's most important dance. When Marty subsequently performs Johnny B. Goode to the audience's excitement, Marvin immediately calls Chuck to introduce him to the new music style, thereby humorously implying that Chuck stole the song to further his musical career. This creates a time paradox, since Marty was playing a song made famous by Chuck Berry, before Berry wrote it, so the song either has no actual creator or Berry was essentially stealing a song from his alternate timeline self. Another theory was that Chuck was going to write it anyway, but after hearing it maybe wrote it faster.
Otis "Old Man" Peabody
Otis Peabody (portrayed by Will Hare) is the patriarch of a 1950s farmer family in Back to the Future Part I. For some obscure reason, he decided to plant pines on his land; while his plan ultimately came to no fruition, the area was decades later converted into a shopping mall named "Twin Pines Mall" as a testimony to his efforts. The town sees Peabody odd including Doc Brown, who himself has a similar reputation. When Marty McFly makes his involuntary time trip back to 1955, he ends up crashing into Peabody's shed with the DeLorean and then flattening one of his two growing pine saplings while escaping. The farmer's family believes that the time-traveling car and its driver in an NBC suit are extraterrestrial. As results, according to a headline of the newspaper Hill Valley Telegraph with Peabody being photographed in a straitjacket, he is committed to a county asylum after claiming "'space zombie' wrecked his barn," and after Marty returns to 1985, the mall is found having been (re)named "Lone Pine Mall".
Douglas J. Needles
Douglas J. Needles (portrayed by Flea in Back to the Future Part II and Back to the Future Part III) is the rival of Marty McFly in Hill Valley High School. Like his school's alumnus, Biff Tannen, Needles also has his own gang and develops a rivalry with Marty (although he doesn't outright bully him like Biff did to George and has no relation to the Tannens). He often goads Marty into doing reckless things, leveraging on Marty's fear of being labeled as a "chicken".
Goldie Wilson
Goldie Wilson (played by Donald Fullilove in the first film) is a young man working at Lou's Cafe in 1955 who goes on to become the first black Mayor of Hill Valley in the 1980s. By 1985, he creates a controversy when he plans to replace the damaged clock from the Hill Valley Courthouse's clock tower, which continues in 2015 after he left the office. A campaign poster shows the name Goldie in quotation marks, suggesting Goldie is a nickname, presumably in reference to his gold tooth.
He would also have a grandson, Goldie Wilson III (also played by Fullilove) who works as a car salesman in Back to the Future: Part II.
Match, Skinhead and 3-D
"Match" O'Malley (portrayed by Billy Zane), Joey "Skinhead" Unger (portrayed by Jeffrey Jay Cohen), and "3-D" Noguera (portrayed by Casey Siemaszko) are the three high school boys who make up Biff Tannen's gang in 1955. Their nicknames are only given in the films' novels, screenplays, and credits. Only one of their real names is mentioned in the movies – Biff refers to Skinhead as Joey in one of the 1955 scenes in Back to the Future Part II, while outside of the "Enchantment Under the Sea" dance.
In the alternate 1985, the three work in Biff's casino as his bodyguards. Each get their nickname from a distinctive character trait. Match often has a match sticking out of his mouth; Skinhead has very short, close-cropped hair; 3-D is always wearing a pair of anaglyphic 3-D glasses (a reference to the 3-D movies that were popular in the 1950s).
Spike, Data and Whitey
Leslie "Spike" O'Malley (portrayed by Darlene Vogel), Rafe "Data" Unger (portrayed by Ricky Dean Logan) and Chester "Whitey" Noguera (portrayed by Jason Scott Lee) they are high school kids who make up Griff Tannen's gang in 2015. Each one of them is also the grandchild of Biff Tannen's original gang. Spike is Match's granddaughter, Data is Skinhead's grandson, and Whitey is 3-D's grandson.
References
Text was copied from Sam Baines at Futurepedia, which is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 (Unported) (CC BY-SA 3.0) license.
Text was copied from Toby Baines at Futurepedia, which is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 (Unported) (CC BY-SA 3.0) license.
Text was copied from Milton Baines at Futurepedia, which is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 (Unported) (CC BY-SA 3.0) license.
Text was copied from Joey Baines at Futurepedia, which is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 (Unported) (CC BY-SA 3.0) license.
Text was copied from Sally Baines at Futurepedia, which is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 (Unported) (CC BY-SA 3.0) license.
Text was copied from Ellen Baines at Futurepedia, which is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 (Unported) (CC BY-SA 3.0) license.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria%20Sugden
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Victoria Sugden
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Victoria Sugden (also Barton) is a fictional character from the British soap opera Emmerdale, played since 12 October 2006 by Isabel Hodgins. As a young child, Victoria was played by Jessica Heywood until 1997, followed by Hannah Midgley from 1997 to 2006. Victoria is currently the longest serving female character on the soap. Her storylines have included surviving an explosion which she caused, being put in psychiatric care, being bullied at school, romancing with Daz Eden (Luke Tittensor), marrying Adam Barton (Adam Thomas), accidentally running over Ashley Thomas (John Middleton), coping when Adam goes on the run, falling in love with Adam's brother Matty (Ash Palmisciano) and being the victim of rape during her night out in April 2019, leading to her pregnancy as a result and giving birth to a son named Harry.
Storylines
Victoria is first introduced on 31 March 1994 after being born to Jack Sugden (Clive Hornby) and Sarah Connolly (then Madeleine Howard). When Victoria stops breathing due to a hole in her heart, she requires an operation, and later makes a full recovery. Andy Hopwood (Kelvin Fletcher) visits the farm with other children from a care home and becomes friends with Victoria's brother Robert (Christopher Smith), and the Sugdens eventually adopt him. The Sugdens struggle financially so Richie Carter (Glenn Lamont) becomes their new lodger; Sarah and Richie begin an affair and she left Jack for him, moving into Pear Tree Cottage together. Jack and Sarah (now Alyson Spiro) battle for custody of the children and Sarah wins custody of Victoria. Victoria collapses and is rushed to hospital, where she is diagnosed with a ruptured appendix. Times are difficult for the Sugdens but life is made easier by Jack's relationship with Woolpack landlady, Diane Blackstock (Elizabeth Estensen).
Victoria befriends Kayleigh Gibbs (Lily Jane Stead) at school and helps get her father, Martin Crowe (Graeme Hawley) together with Louise Appleton (Emily Symons). The girls misbehave, gatecrashing Jamie Hope's (Alex Carter) rave and starting a campaign of terror against pensioner Edna Birch (Shirley Stelfox), culminating in Edna slapping Victoria. They also tell Aaron Livesy (Danny Webb) about Carl King's (Tom Lister) one-night stand with Del Dingle (Hayley Tamaddon). Victoria (now played by Isabel Hodgins) returns from Annie in Spain, later than expected, prompting Jack and Diane to worry but returns safely. Victoria and Kayleigh go clubbing but Kayleigh leaves early. Victoria flirts with an older boy and he tries to force himself on her but Billy Hopwood (David Crellin) stops him. Billy drives her home but his brakes fail, due to Kelly Windsor (Adele Silva) sabotaging them, and they crash into a lake. Victoria almost drowns, only escaping as Jack, Andy and Daz arrive. Jack blames Billy until Victoria told him that Billy had saved her life. Victoria's fear of water returns to haunt her on a canoeing trip where she freaks out and hits her instructor, Christian Schwarz and is suspended as a result.
Victoria searches for the truth about Sarah Sugden's (Alyson Spiro) death, but nobody is willing to discuss it. Jack is evasive, but Jasmine Thomas (Jenna-Louise Coleman) shows her an article in the Hotten Courier about Sarah's death seven years earlier. She then investigates after Jack becomes more and more evasive. She tracks down Richie who tells her Jack was not responsible but she doesn't believe him and on her return to the village, she steals a can of petrol from the garage and douses the house with it, threatening to set the place alight unless the truth is told. Andy confesses but when Jack tries to clean Victoria's bloody head after a fall with water from the hot tap on a flannel, it makes the house explode. The Sugdens escape, assisted by Billy and Jonny Foster (Richard Grieve). Victoria is charged and placed in psychiatric care, which gets her bullied at school. Andy is arrested and jailed for three years but eventually freed. When Andy begins beating his ex-wife, Jo (Roxanne Pallett), Victoria refuses to have anything to do with him.
While messing around with other local teens, Victoria falls through the ice and nearly drowns. While under the water, Victoria finds a corpse which is later identified as missing police officer Shane Doyle (Paul McEwan). Annie informs the family of Jack's death in February 2009, leaving them devastated. Daz admits he will always be there for her and resultantly they begin sleeping together, despite the fact Daz is dating Scarlett Nicholls (Kelsey-Beth Crossley). Victoria is hurt when Daz decides to remain with Scarlett and tells him she is pregnant but it turns out to be a lie. Scarlett soon finds out the truth when Daz jealously attacks Aaron (now Danny Miller), after catching him and Victoria together. Victoria befriends Hannah Barton (Grace Cassidy), daughter of the new tenants at Butler's Farm but Kayleigh does not like her and begins bullying Hannah. Eventually, Victoria tires of this behaviour and cuts Kayleigh out of her life. She also makes friends with Amy Wyatt (Chelsea Halfpenny) and they soon become close friends. Alex Moss (Kurtis Stacey) the new farmhand at Butler's Farm arrives and they become a couple. Alex's incessant flirting with other women drives Victoria to dump him. When she feels she has made a mistake, Victoria tries to get Alex back but is horrified to discover he is involved with Moira Barton (Natalie J. Robb). During this time Victoria buys Betty Eagleton's (Paula Tilbrook) house on the condition that she and Alan Turner (Richard Thorp) stay on as tenants and Victoria agrees. Victoria begins a relationship with Adam Barton (Adam Thomas) but it breaks down when she find he is involved in illegal activities with Robbie Lawson (Jamie Shelton).
Victoria later provides Val Pollard (Charlie Hardwick) with a shoulder to cry on when she discovers that she may be HIV positive. Victoria tries to urge Val to tell her husband Eric (Chris Chittell), but it takes a few weeks to actually tell Eric. Victoria is later stunned when she discovers that Diane and Eric slept together after Val reveals their secret to the regulars of The Woolpack. Victoria, however, sticks up for Diane. She and Eric later rush to the scene when Val sustains a fall in the village and cuts her knee. Victoria befriends newcomer Finn Barton (Joe Gill), who reveals that he is gay and has feelings for David Metcalfe (Matthew Wolfenden), who owns the local shop. Robert (now played by Ryan Hawley) returns to the village in October with fiancée Chrissie White (Louise Marwood), her father Lawrence (John Bowe), and her teenage son Lachlan (Thomas Atkinson) in tow. Initially, Victoria is, like a majority of the village, bitter towards Robert, but as time passes, she warms to him again and comes to accept his return along with Andy. Victoria then restarts her relationship with Adam as he attempts to get her back by buying her a puppy, and cooking naked in The Woolpack kitchen. Victoria attends Robert and Chrissie's wedding, but it ends in tragedy when Andy discovers Katie's deceased body at Wylie's Farm; she had been pushed on to some loose floorboards by Robert. Victoria supports Andy as he attempts to commit suicide only hours after Katie's funeral. She pleads for him to see hope, along with Diane, Chrissie and Robert. Andy later goes to stay with the Whites at Home Farm.
Victoria is heartbroken to learn that Adam has slept with local vet Vanessa Woodfield (Michelle Hardwick), and has impregnated her. She goes on a downward spiral, and slaps Vanessa in the street when she sees her. The following day, Adam notices Victoria attempting to drive her car, knowing that she has not passed her driving test and does not have a provisional license, and tries to stop her. She does not listen, and as she drives off, she runs over Ashley Thomas (John Middleton). He appears to be fine, however, he later collapses and is comatose. Victoria is terrified she will be imprisoned, so Adam gives her a false alibi. However, Ashley's alcoholic ex-wife Laurel (Charlotte Bellamy) drunkenly announces that Ashley has died while in hospital, unaware that he is still comatose. Victoria cannot deal with her guilt and hands herself in to the police, and she is arrested. She is later released, and is delighted to hear that Ashley is alive. Ashley later learns that he now has epilepsy following the accident. Adam and Victoria rekindle their relationship and decide to run away and get married, with the help of Aaron. Robert and Andy are furious to discover this, but Adam and Victoria leave before they can stop them. Victoria is attacked at the scrapyard by Holly Barton's (Sophie Powles) drug dealer, but she fights back. A week later, Victoria accidentally sprays Finn after mistaking him as the attacker.
Victoria is scared to find a man had broken into her Diddy Diner truck, and even more so when the culprit knew her. She is shocked but pleased when the man turns out to be Hannah Barton, who had transitioned into a man and went by the name Matty Barton (Ash Palmisciano). Matty reveals that Moira was unaccepting about the change and has thrown him out. Matty makes the decision to return to Manchester, despite Victoria's offers to allow him to stay with her. She drops Matty off at the train station when Cain fails to convince him to stay. After being beaten up, Matty decides to come back and stay with Moira at Butler's farm. On a night out with her friends, Victoria is raped by Lee Posner (Kris Mochrie). She reports the rape to the police, and when his mother Wendy (Susan Cookson) arrives in the village to confront Victoria on what Wendy believes are lies, Victoria begins to leave the house less often. Wendy moves to the village with son Luke (Max Parker), she is shocked to recognise him, since the pair have flirted before. The two begin a relationship, and although she struggles due to his connection with Lee, the pair begin dating.
Characterisation
On her character profile on the ITV website, it notes that growing up, Victoria "was easily led by her peers", but nowadays, she "knows how to stand up for herself". Victoria is billed as an "honest, fun, sarcastic, out-spoken, confident" character who enjoys socialising. It adds that she is "not afraid to use her sharp wit", and that she enjoys bossing her boyfriends around, and that if Victoria had one wish, it would be for an easy life.
Development
Rape
In 2019, producers of Emmerdale announced a special episode in which they planned to "experiment with non-linear storytelling and flashbacks", where it was confirmed that multiple characters' lives will "change for good" on a night out. It was later confirmed that the episode would explore Victoria getting raped. After Victoria is raped by Lee, actress Hodgins appeared on This Morning to speak about the storyline. She stated that it has been the "grittiest" storyline she has been involved in to date, and although it was a "journey", she enjoyed being part of the story from an acting perspective. Presenter Philip Schofield asked if she felt pressure portraying a victim of rape, to which she stated that she "massively" felt it. She explained that due to the relevance of an issue-led storyline which "happens to thousands of men and women", herself and the producers had a "big responsibility" to cover it well. To prepare for the storyline, Hodgins spoke with real-life victims, who recalled their experiences with rape to the actress. She stated that they were brave for being able to share their stories with her, noting that some were similar to her character's experience. Hodgins also spoke about the lack of support that Victoria receives from Robert, stating: "She's in one of the hardest positions someone can find themselves in, and who do you need to support you? Your family. So when Robert isn't supportive, that breaks her heart. Robert's her brother, she needs him there, she wants him there." In real life, Hodgins cut her "very thick, curly, unruly hair" due to wanting a different appearance, and when she told producers, they replied that her short hair "ties in with the story". She joked that life is "so much easier" due to the shortened time spent by hairstylists on set. Hodgins told producers to make her look "as awful" as they could possibly make her in the scenes where she realises she has been raped. She stated that in that scene, she was embarrassed to cry, since she has never been given the opportunity to have overly emotional scenes on the soap. While appearing on Loose Women, Hodgins recalled: "Afterwards when [the director] said cut, I just threw a blanket over my head. They asked what's going on and I said 'I'm embarrassed'". She noted that the scenes were "challenging" for her. Hodgins also detailed that the production team had to "negotiate" what they could show of the attack, since Emmerdale is transmitted before the 9pm watershed. She explained that they wanted to "get the message across [that] it was a brutal horrendous attack", while also respecting the watershed guidelines.
Lee's mother Wendy arrives in the village to confront Victoria, as she believes that Victoria is lying. Hodgins explains that Victoria is "shocked and scared" due to Wendy's arrival, and that immediately after meeting her, "Victoria knows that Wendy is an enemy". Hodgins notes that Wendy "has got her son's interests at heart", but since her beliefs contradict Victoria's experience, she knows it will be difficult to interact with Wendy "from the off". Victoria receives defence from her friends and family, but is "left feeling a little bit shellshocked" and "crumbles" due to not expecting Wendy's confrontation. Wendy brings Lee with her, and since it is the first time she has seen him since the rape, she "feels genuine fear", especially since they know where she works and lives, and can show up at any time. Hodgins states that Victoria hates having "no control" over the situation, adding that the village being so small means that she is easy to find. A "harrowing twist" and "new trauma" for Victoria was later confirmed when it was revealed that she would discover she is pregnant with Lee's baby. Victoria decides to keep the baby, and feels that when it comes to informing Lee and Wendy, "it's none of their business". Hodgins states that Victoria is "more than happy" to raise the baby on her own, as she fears the pair will either "bully her into getting a termination", or that Lee may want to be involved. When Wendy moves to the village, Hodgins states that her character will feel "exhausted" and "frustrated" due to Wendy not allowing her to move emotionally to "the next chapter of her life". She explains that Victoria tries not to be too stressed due to her pregnancy, but that "hating someone is exhausting". Wendy's house is vandalised due to her reputation as the mother and defender of a rapist, to which Victoria feels "a little bit guilty". Due to her confrontations with Wendy and Wendy's vandalism, Victoria feels like the pair of them are "being punished" for what Lee has done. Hodgins stated: "She thinks surely the best thing to happen would be for Wendy to leave and then they can both have a nice life."
Becoming a mother
Following the decision to keep the baby, Victoria goes into labour in the episode transmitted on 31 December 2019, New Year's Eve. Prior to filming the scenes, Hodgins stated that she is finding it "nerve-wracking", accrediting her nerves to the fact she had never given birth in real life. She approached her sister, who has had two children, as well as Emmerdale co-star Charley Webb, a mother of three, for advice. Also in preparation, she used a day off from work to watch the Channel 4 documentary series One Born Every Minute, as well as birthing vlogs on YouTube. She added: "I take my hat off to anyone who's had a baby – well done, you are amazing!" Speaking about her character's maternal skills, she opined that Victoria would be a good mother, labelling her "mother earth". However, she explained that it "takes a village to raise a child", and if she shuts people out due to her rape ordeal, she may struggle to cope. She expressed her wishes for Victoria's journey with birthing to be "smooth sailing", due to her hard times in recent months, adding: "She can't take any more!" Following the scenes being filmed, Hodgins admitted that she was "exhausted". She described the filming process as "honestly the most exhausting day in [her] Emmerdale history", and stated that she went to sleep immediately after returning home. She joked that she had "earned her money that day" due to the " fake pushing, grunting and moaning". Hodgins found the birthing vlogs helpful, as it showed her that the "intense pain" of childbirth comes from within. She attempted to emulate the behaviour that she saw in the videos, since she "wanted the scenes to look real". On working with a real baby, she stated that she was not phased, since she has experience working with babies on set. However, despite her experience, she tried hard to interact with the baby as accurately as possible, so that viewers would not think "oh, she's clearly never had a baby before", as she felt that "would have detracted away from the enormous moment when Victoria meets the baby". Hodgins joked that she would miss wearing the fake baby bump, since it kept her warm in the winter, but expressed her excitement at "the next chapter" of Victoria's story.
Reception
The accident involving Victoria and Billy was nominated for "Spectacular Scene of the Year" at the 2007 British Soap Awards. At the 2009 ceremony, Hodgins was nominated for Best Young Performance, and the scene of Victoria falling through the ice won the award for Most Spectacular Scene.
References
External links
Victoria Sugden at itv.com
Emmerdale characters
British female characters in television
Fictional bartenders
Fictional chefs
Fictional orphans
Fictional victims of sexual assault
Television characters introduced in 1994
Sugden family
Barton family (Emmerdale)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holnicote%20Estate
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Holnicote Estate
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Holnicote (pronounced "Hunnicutt") in the parish of Selworthy, West Somerset, England, is a historic estate consisting of 12,420 acres (5,026 hectares) of land, much situated within the Exmoor National Park.
There have been several houses on the estate over the last 500 years. In 1705 a new mansion was built which was burned down in 1779. It was rebuilt as a hunting lodge and survived until another fire in 1851 and replaced ten years later. It became one of the centres for the Devon and Somerset Staghounds. The main building was damaged by another fire in 1941. The house and surrounding estate were given to the National Trust in 1944 by Sir Richard Thomas Dyke Acland, 15th Baronet. The house is now operated as an hotel. The surrounding land which includes Dunkery and Selworthy Beacons, and the villages and hamlets of Selworthy, Allerford, Bossington, Horner and Luccombe as well as the Dunkery and Horner Woods National Nature Reserve contains more than of footpaths and bridleways.
In the 13th and 14th centuries the estate was held by the de Holne family. During the 17th century the Staynings were lords of the manor and in the 18th descendants of FitzMartin by then known as the Martyn family had taken over. William Martin sold Holnicote to William Blackford and it descended through his family and then passed to the Dyke family. Sir Thomas Acland married into the family and added the surname to become Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, 7th Baronet and it remained in his family until the donation in 1944.
History
Early
Alternative derivations of the name Holnicote, which was spelled variously as Honecote, Hunecote or Hunecota, have been suggested. It may relate to holegn, the Anglo-Saxon word for holly. Eilert Ekwall supports the claim that places which start Holne come from the Old English holegn meaning holly, while Stephen Robinson, in his book on local place names prefers an explanation "The Honey Cottage" from the Old English honeg and cot. In the 19th century, the Rector of Selworthy, the Rev. F. Hancock, who was said to have extensively studied the place-names of his parish, preferred the old English personal name Hùn for the first element.
There are several references in the Domesday Book to Honecote, Hunnecota or Hunecota in the hundred of Carhampton. One records land held by one William of the tenant-in-chief, Roger de Corcelle; prior to the Norman Conquest, this land belonged to two theigns called Aluric and Bristeuin. Odo, son of Gamelin, held a detached portion of this land. The second record shows two nuns holding two and half virgates. The local historian and lawyer Charles Chadwyck-Healey identifies these manors with modern Holnicote, the National Archives agrees with him in their catalogue, and the Open Domesday project lists them under Holnicote, but the editors of the Victoria County History series only identify the land held by the nuns with Holnicote and state that de Corcelle's manor was actually Huntscott in Wootton Courtney.
There is scarce evidence regarding the holders of Holnicote in the period immediately after Domesday. William de Holne held the manor in the reign of Edward I. Although Chadwyck-Healey described it is "very probable" that this William de Holne is the same man recorded elsewhere with a son, Richard, whose daughter Thomasia married John, son of Walter Gofreye, the evidence is not conclusive. By the late 15th century, the Steynings family were claiming descent from the Huish and de Holne dynasties. Their origins are obscure and the earliest record of them is the will of William Steynings, which was proved in 1491. His son, Edward, died in 1524/5 and was succeeded by his son Walter; Edward Steynings's will refers to property at Holnicote. Eventually, his grandson Thomas became owner of the manor and house of Holnicote; he is listed in Crown account books as early as 1558. His younger brother, Philip (died 1588/9), succeeded him at Holnicote.
Martyn and Blackford families
The Steynings family owned Holnicote until the direct male line became extinct with the death of Charles Staynings (1622–1700). His wife, Susanna (died 1685), was a daughter of Sir Nicholas Martyn of Oxton and Steynings's heir was their nephew, William Martyn.<ref>Rev. F. Hancock, "The Ancient Chapel in the Parish of Holnicote", Proceedings of the Somersetshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, vol. 39 (1893), pp. 55–56: "The principal landowners in the parish of seem, however, to have been from time immemorial to the death of the last direct representative of the family in 1701, the of was purchased from Mr. nephew, Martin, of in South Devon, by Richard Blackford, of This family held it for two generations, and then on the death of its Infant heiress it reverted to her aunt, Elizabeth Dyke, of Pixton who brought it as her dower to the Sir Thomas Acland of the day."</ref> According to records of the Heralds' Visitations of Devon and research by the Victorian historian J. L. Vivian, this William Martyn lived in Oxton in the parish of Kenton, Devon; he was Susanna Martyn's great-nephew and died in 1710, aged 30. He sold the estate to William Blackford, a Master in Chancery. Blackford then bought the manors of Bossington and Avill, the latter from Anthony Stocker and his wife, Sarah; this estate extended from the ridge of Grabbist nearly to the sea-shore and also included land in the parishes of Dunster, Carhampton, Crowcombe, Stogumber, Timberscombe and St. Decumans. He married Elizabeth, a daughter of John Dyke of Pixton, and died in 1728. His son, William, succeeded him and married Henrietta Collet (died 1727), a daughter and co-heiress of Joseph Collet of Hertford Castle in Hertfordshire. However, he died only three years after his father. Their only daughter and heiress, Henrietta Blackford, inherited the estate as an infant, but died aged 7 in 1733. The estates were divisible upon a great-aunt, Elizabeth Dyke (died 1737), and a second cousin, Elizabeth, a daughter of Thomas Dyke of Tetton and Mary, a daughter of Elizabeth Dyke (died 1737). Later in 1733, Elizabeth Dyke (died 1737) conveyed her share in the estate to her only surviving son, Edward Dyke (died 1746) who in turn conveyed his portion to his niece in 1744, making her the sole owner of the entire estate.
Acland family
Elizabeth Dyke married Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, 7th Baronet (1722–1785) of Killerton in Devon and Petherton Park in Somerset in 1745. A prominent member of the West Country gentry, Acland was a famous staghunter who used his wife's Exmoor estates of Holnicote and Pixton as his hunting seats. He built kennels for the North Devon Staghounds and kept his own pack of dogs. He became forester or ranger of Exmoor under grant from the Crown, a title for the king's chief officer of the royal forest. According to the Victorian author, Charle Palk Collyns, he "hunted the country in almost princely style. Respected and beloved by all the countryside, he was solicited at the same time to allow himself to be returned as member of Parliament for the counties of Devon and Somerset. He preferred, however, the duties and pleasures of life in the country, where he bore without abuse the grand old name of gentleman". Although he had three of his own kennels, he had a further method of keeping hounds at Holnicote, Jury and Highercombe, whereby he made the keeping of one hound a term a stipulation of many of the tenancies he granted. In his manor of Bossington (near Holnicote) alone an estate survey of 1746–1747 lists twelve tenements let, either by Acland or Dyke, with the requirement to keep a hound.
In 1775 he handed over the mastership to the then Major Basset, and in 1779 his beloved collection of stag heads and antlers at Holnicote was lost in a fire which also destroyed the house. He declared that "he minded the destruction of his valuables less bitterly than the loss of his fine collection of stags' heads". He was known on his estates as "Sir Thomas his Honour" (as later was his son the 9th Baronet) and was renowned for his generous hospitality at Holnicote or at Pixton, whichever was closest, to all riders "in at the death", and it is said that by the architect Anne Acland that "open house was kept at Pixton and Holnicote throughout the hunting season".
Acland's eldest son died as a result of wounds aged 34. His grandson died at the age of 7 a few weeks after inheriting the baronetcy and so his second son, Thomas Dyke Acland (1752–1794), became the ninth Baronet. Like his father, he was known locally in Devon and Somerset as "Sir Thomas his Honour" and they shared a passion for staghunting. He followed him into the Mastership of the North Devon Staghounds and virtually abandoned the family's main seat of Killerton in mid-Devon to live at Holnicote and Highercombe, near Dulverton, on the north and south edges respectively of the ancient royal forest of Exmoor, renown for its herds of red deer. During the period 1785 to his death in 1794 he killed 101 stags, the heads and antlers of many of which are still displayed in the stables at Holnicote. He was a stern employer of his hunt-staff, and on one occasion when his hounds had killed several sheep, possibly belonging to his farming tenants, he ordered his huntsman "to hang himself and the whole pack".
The estate passed down through the Acland family until February 1944, when Sir Richard Dyke Acland, 15th Baronet (1906–1990) donated the Holnicote and Killerton Estates to the National Trust, comprising , which was the largest ever donation received by the National Trust.
Estate
The estate had a role, together with the Acland family's other Exmoor estate of Pixton, as a home of West Country staghunting in the 18th century. There was some controversy locally and nationally when the National Trust banned staghunting on the estate in the early 21st century.
Holnicote Estate covers more than and contains more than of footpaths and bridleways. It includes Dunkery and Selworthy Beacons, and the villages and hamlets of Selworthy, Allerford, Bossington, Horner and Luccombe as well as the Dunkery and Horner Woods National Nature Reserve. The estate also plays host to a point to point course on which many Exmoor hunts hold their meetings throughout the spring.
Dunkery Beacon is the summit of Dunkery Hill, and the highest point on Exmoor and in Somerset. The sandstone hill rises to and provides views over the surrounding moorland, the Bristol Channel and hills up to away. The site has been visited by humans since the Bronze Age with several burial mounds in the form of cairns and bowl barrows. Sweetworthy on the lower slopes is the site of two Iron Age hill forts or enclosures and a deserted medieval settlement. At the top of Selworthy Beacon is a National Trust plaque and a view of the south coast of Wales across the Bristol Channel. The South West Coast Path also climbs the hill and ends slightly shy of the summit. Its elevation is . Behind the hill, there are precipitous cliffs. Near the summit are a series of cairns, thought to be the remains of round barrows, and the Iron Age Bury Castle. The round cairns have been scheduled as an ancient monument. In the 16th century, Selworthy Beacon was the site of a beacon to warn of impending invasions. The mausoleum of Sir Thomas Dyke Acland is about from Selworthy Beacon. The hills have a deep purple colour during the summer due to the covering of heather. Ling and bell heather, gorse, sessile oak, ash, rowan, hazel, bracken, mosses, liverworts, lichens and ferns all grow here or in surrounding woodland, as well as some unique whitebeam species. Exmoor ponies, red deer, pied flycatchers, wood warblers, lesser spotted woodpeckers, redstarts, dippers, snipe, skylarks and kestrels are some of the fauna to be found here and in nearby Horner Woods. Horner Woods are also the home to 14 of the 16 UK bat species, which include barbastelle and Bechstein's bats.
Selworthy is a small village and civil parish which includes the hamlets of Bossington, Tivington, Lynch, Brandish Street and Allerford. Bossington is separated from Porlock Bay by a shingle beach, through which flows the River Horner, forming part of the Porlock Ridge and Saltmarsh Site of Special Scientific Interest. In the 1990s rising sea levels created salt marshes, and lagoons developed in the area behind the boulder bank. The village is on the South West Coast Path. Selworthy was rebuilt as a model village, to provide housing for the aged and infirm of the Holnicote estate, in 1828 by Sir Thomas Acland. Many of the other cottages, some of which are now rented out, are still thatched and are listed buildings, whose walls are painted with limewash that has been tinted creamy yellow with ochre. On the hill above the village is the whitewashed 15th-century Church of All Saints, with a 14th-century tower. One of Allerford's main attractions is the much-photographed packhorse bridge. Built as a crossing over the River Aller (from which the village gets its name), it is thought to be medieval in origin. The village is also home to Allerford House, childhood home of Admiral John Moresby, who explored the coastline of New Guinea and for whom Port Moresby, the capital city of Papua New Guinea, was named. Other features of the village include thatched cottages, a forge and an old-fashioned red telephone box. There is also a Reading Room, built by the Acland family to foster adult education. One of the thatched cottages operated as the local Primary School between 1821 and 1981 and is now a museum containing the West Somerset Rural Life Museum and Victorian School. The museum houses the West Somerset Photographic Archive.
The village of Luccombe lies at the foot of Dunkery Hill. Along with Stoke Pero and Horner it forms a civil parish. Horner is on the eastern bank of Horner Water on which there is a restored, but non-working, watermill. The river is crossed by two medieval packhorse bridges, one of which is known as Hacketty Way Bridge which is crossed by the Coleridge Way. The parish Church of St Mary has a chancel dating from about 1300, with the nave and tower being added around 1450. Stoke Pero Church has a 13th-century tower. The Dovecot at Blackford Farm is part of the estate. It was built in the 11th century and is a Grade II* listed building, and ancient monument. It was attached to a mansion house which burnt down in 1875.
Since 2009 the estate has been one of three Multi-Objective Flood Management Demonstration Schemes, funded by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, to examine how changes in the management of river catchment areas can influence the incidence and severity of flooding in the area. Beavers were re-introduced to assist flood reduction.
House and outbuildings
There have been at least four successive mansion houses at Holnicote. Limited information is available about the early buildings. One is known to have been built between 1493 and 1521, based on dendrochronology from surviving timbers. The Grade II* listed gatehouse and attached cottage were built together with a new house in the early 17th century. Following the purchase of the estate by the Blackford family in 1705, a new mansion house was built on the site of the previous structure. Only the stable block from that building survives. The house was destroyed by fire in 1779. The Acland family re-built it as a thatched hunting lodge, which was also destroyed by fire in 1851, and replaced in 1861. A kitchen extension was added in 1874. The lodge was built in the 19th century. The estate includes several cottages including Rose Bower and the 17th-century Butlers Cottage. An 18th-century Flemish bond red brick granary also exists on the estate.
Holnicote House in the 20th century
Holnicote House was donated to the National Trust by Sir Richard Thomas Dyke Acland, 15th Baronet of Killerton in Devon, whose ancestors had owned it since 1745. In 1936 the lodge became a hotel, but was badly damaged by yet another fire in 1941.
Mixed race children at Holnicote House during WW2
In 1943, Holnicote House was requisitioned by Somerset County Council, initially for use as a nursery for children evacuated from cities during World War 2. However, the council increasingly took children born to white British mothers and Black American GI fathers, possibly as an intentional policy. American GIs, including Black American troops, were stationed all over Britain, with a heavy concentration in south-west England.The children often arrived at Holnicote House as babies, some being only a few days or weeks old. This early placement is likely because at least two-thirds of the babies had married mothers. By 1948, there were 45 mixed race children of Black GIs in Somerset, of whom nearly half were placed in Holnicote House.
Somerset appears to be the only County Council which provided homes explicitly for babies born to Black GIs. As Holnicote House was used as a nursery, children were only cared for there up to the age of five, after which they were fostered, adopted or sent to homes for older children. The children who were fostered at Holnicote House tended to be cared for by young nursery nurses. Professor Lucy Bland, who interviewed over sixty children born to white mothers and Black American GI fathers for her 2019 book Britain's 'Brown Babies'', talked to five people who were raised at Holnicote House, as well as three nursery nurses who worked there. All spoke very fondly about their time there.
On 23rd August 1948, Life magazine published a feature entitled ‘The Babies They Left Behind Them’. This article, which was accompanied by a photo of children from Holnicote House, attracted international public interest in the issue of Britain’s ‘brown babies’ as the estimated 2,000 children from the relationships between Black GIs and white British women were dubbed by the Black American press.
The house is now operated as a hotel.
See also
List of National Trust properties in Somerset
Notes
References
Bibliography
Bland, Lucy (2019). Britain's 'brown babies': the stories of children born to black GIs and white women in the Second World War. Manchester University Press.
External links
Holnicote Estate information at the National Trust
National Trust properties in Somerset
Tourist attractions in Somerset
Nature reserves in Somerset
Grade II* listed buildings in West Somerset
Exmoor
Former manors in Somerset
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20High%20School%20%28New%20Jersey%29
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Elizabeth High School (New Jersey)
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Elizabeth High School (officially known as Elizabeth High School - Frank J. Cicarell Academy), is a four-year public high school located in Elizabeth, in Union County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey, serving students in ninth through twelfth grades as part of the Elizabeth Public Schools. In 2009, the school and its more than 5,000 students was split into six separate houses, each operating as an independent school with its own principal and subject of focus, including one which has retained the Elizabeth High School name. The school has been accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Elementary and Secondary Schools since 1978.
As of the 2021–22 school year, the school had an enrollment of 1,287 students and 76.0 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 16.9:1. There were 588 students (45.7% of enrollment) eligible for free lunch and 173 (13.4% of students) eligible for reduced-cost lunch.
Starting in the 2016–17 school year, both upper and lower academies of Elizabeth High School merged into the newly built Frank J. Cicarell Academy, which is located next to the Thomas Jefferson Arts Academy.
Awards, recognition and rankings
In 2015, Elizabeth High School was one of 15 schools in New Jersey, and one of nine public schools, recognized as a National Blue Ribbon School in the exemplary high performing category by the United States Department of Education.
In its 2013 report on "America's Best High Schools", The Daily Beast ranked the school 320th in the nation among participating public high schools and 25th among schools in New Jersey. The school was ranked 217th in the nation and 18th in New Jersey on the list of "America's Best High Schools 2012" prepared by The Daily Beast / Newsweek, with rankings based primarily on graduation rate, matriculation rate for college and number of Advanced Placement / International Baccalaureate courses taken per student, with lesser factors based on average scores on the SAT / ACT, average AP/IB scores and the number of AP/IB courses available to students.
The school was the 119th-ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 339 schools statewide in New Jersey Monthly magazine's September 2014 cover story on the state's "Top Public High Schools", using a new ranking methodology. The school had been ranked 148th in the state of 328 schools in 2012, after being ranked 294th in 2010 out of 322 schools listed based on school statistics prior to the split. The school had been ranked 302nd in 2008 out of 316 schools. The school was ranked 287th in the magazine's September 2006 issue, which surveyed 316 schools across the state.
Following the split, Schooldigger.com ranked the school 21st out of 381 public high schools statewide in its 2011 rankings (a decrease of 8 positions from the 2010 ranking) which were based on the combined percentage of students classified as proficient or above proficient on the mathematics (97.5%) and language arts literacy (100.0%) components of the High School Proficiency Assessment (HSPA).
History
The all-girls Battin High School and all-boys Thomas Jefferson High School were both closed at the end of the 1976–77 school year, after the Elizabeth High School complex was completed and all of the district's students, male and female, were accommodated at the new four-building facility, ending the city's status as "the only community in the state with separate public high schools for boys and girls". The $29.3 million project included renovations to Thomas Jefferson High School, which was integrated into the new complex. The Battin High School building, together with the four existing junior high schools, was repurposed as a middle school for grades six through eight. The building was the former location of "Breidt Brewing Company", which was established in 1882 and operated until Prohibition.
With over 5,279 students, Elizabeth High School had been the largest high school in the nation in terms of student population. Prior to 2010, Elizabeth High School occupied eight campuses, also known as houses: The William F. Halsey house, the John E. Dwyer house, the Thomas Jefferson house, the Thomas Edison house, the Sam E. Aboff house, the Alexander Hamilton academy, the Upper academy, and the Lower academy. In 2009, the Elizabeth Board of Education passed the "Transformation Plan", which split-up the houses that made up Elizabeth High School and made each house its own high school. The Upper and Lower academies became the new Elizabeth High School.
Almost half of each graduating class had failed to pass the standard High School Proficiency Assessment and complete required course credits, so they are funneled through a so-called Alternative High School Assessment test.
About one in four students who entered the high school dropped out.
Houses
Elizabeth High School is comprised of the following nine houses (or campuses), plus an administration building, and an indoor sports center:
Peter B. Gold Administration Building
Thomas Dunn Sports Center
William F. Halsey House
John Dwyer House
Thomas Jefferson House
Thomas A. Edison Vocational and Technical Academy
Alexander Hamilton Preparatory Academy
Frank J. Cicarell Academy
J Christian Bollwage Academy of Finance
Main Complex
Halsey House, Dwyer House, the Peter B. Gold Administration Building and Thomas Dunn Sports Center share one large building, forming the Main Complex of Elizabeth High School, most commonly known as "The Main". The Main Complex holds more students, teachers, and administrators than the other houses/campuses in the city. The Main Complex was known as the heart of Elizabeth High School.
The Main Complex is where all the Elizabeth High School extracurricular activities and sports teams are found. The building functions as a hub central as other students from the other Elizabeth High School houses come here during the after school hours. The Main Complex also holds Elizabeth High School's swimming pool where the swim team practices and meets are held. The Main Complex campus is also famous in the student body for holding a unique courtyard, being the only campus in Elizabeth High School to have one accessible to its students.
Thomas Jefferson House
Located across the street from City Hall and war monuments, Thomas Jefferson House was the school's oldest house. Built in 1928 as an all-boys high school and named for the author of the Declaration of Independence and third president of the United States, Jefferson was now a house of Elizabeth High School and the center for the district's visual and performing arts programs. This house was just a short walk away from The Main Complex campus.
Jefferson specializes teaching its students in visual arts, such as drawing, painting, and creative crafts; as well as performing arts such as dance, acting, and singing. And also extra subjects, including creative writing.
Thomas A. Edison Academy For Career & Technical Education
Thomas A. Edison Academy For Career & Technical Education was originally built as Thomas Edison High School in 1935, and the last graduating class of the high school was in 1987. Named for the great inventor who worked on many of his major contributions to the scientific and commercial world right here in New Jersey. The Thomas A. Edison Academy For Career & Technical Education was the center for vocational and technical education in the city.
Williams Field, which holds the school's football field and outdoor track and field, is adjacent to the Thomas A. Edison Academy.
J Christian Bollwage Academy of Finance
The Sam E. Aboff Alternative House was the Elizabeth High School's smallest house in terms of both population and area. It was home to troublesome students and students who are excessively absent and/or tardy. It was located less than 100 yards from the Main Complex.
In 2009, each Elizabeth High School "House" was reformed into its own high school academy. The Sam E. Aboff House became the Halsey
Academy of Finance (AOF), a branch of The Admiral William F. Halsey Jr. Leadership Academy. AOF is the location of the Halsey Business Leadership Strand. The Halsey Academy of Finance can house a total of 200 students and all four grade levels of Business Leadership students.
Halsey Academy of Finance is part of the National Academy Foundation (NAF). A number of the city's high schools have gone through the NAF's development process and received permission to establish NAF academies within their base schools. NAF academies work with local businesses and higher education institutions to prepare students for careers in fields such as technology, engineering, business and finance and hospitality. The NAF curriculum engages students through a series of career exploration courses, mentorships, internships, and many opportunities for off-campus extended classroom experiences to give the participating students a better idea of the opportunities available to them in terms of further education and career fields. All NAF courses use project-based learning techniques with an emphasis on strengthening literacy. Halsey Academy established the NAF Halsey Academy of Finance on a campus directly across the street from the main Halsey building.
Starting in the 2016–2017 school year, the Academy of Finance spun-off from Halsey and it became its own school, moving to the former location of Upper Academy, which was formerly part of Elizabeth High School
Frank J. Cicarell Academy/Upper and Lower Academy
The Upper and Lower Academies which are known as "Elizabeth High School" were established in 2006 with a curriculum that prepares students for four-year colleges. The Upper Academy building held 10th–12th grade students (upper classmen), while the Lower Academy building holds 9th graders (lower classmen). Students enrolling in these academies are encouraged to take honors and Advanced Placement-level courses. Students are required to wear school uniforms and must maintain at least a 3.0 grade point average to enroll or continue to stay in The Upper and Lower Academies.
In the 2012 "Ranking America's High Schools" issue by The Washington Post, the school was ranked 2nd in New Jersey and 79th nationwide.
In September 2016, Elizabeth High School moved into the newly constructed Frank J. Cicarell Academy, named after the Physical Education teacher who worked for the Elizabeth Public Schools and died in 2007. The location of the new high school, is located directly next to the Jefferson Arts academy. The former location of Upper Academy became the Academy of Finance, The Lower Academy is used as the Thomas Edison Academy's Annex.
In July 2021, it was decided that there would be a new Lower Academy for the upcoming 2021-22 school year at the former location of St. Genevieve School. The building would open to students on September 14, 2021, after Hurricane Ida delayed the opening.
Alexander Hamilton Preparatory Academy
Alexander Hamilton Preparatory Academy was the newest house in Elizabeth High School, accommodating lower and upper classmen, bringing a total of eight houses in Elizabeth High School, serving the largest high school population in the United States.
Alexander Hamilton Preparatory Academy integrates a curriculum with the philosophies of the Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) program.
AVID is a research-based instructional model that encourages students to prepare for and participate in a challenging college preparatory curriculum. In addition to enrolling in honors and AP level courses, students will receive academic support through a specially designed AVID elective taught by AVID-trained instructors. The rigorous curriculum prepares students for four-year colleges. Students are required to wear school uniforms during school hours.
Each student needs to establish and maintain at least a 2.0 Grade point average to enroll or continue to stay in Alexander Hamilton Preparatory Academy.
Alexander Hamilton Preparatory Academy's campus is the farthest one from Elizabeth High School's Main Complex. It is located next to Westfield Avenue, close to the borders of other towns. Hamilton Preparatory is the only house in which students must walk outside to classes. They are held in a small separate one-story adjacent building known as "The Portables", which is only a few yards away from the student cafeteria back door entrance and the main teachers' parking lot.
Hamilton became the 46th best high school in New Jersey by US News in 2012
Transformation plan
From 1979 to 2009, Elizabeth High School was one big high school composed of eight campuses (or houses). In 2009, the Elizabeth Board of Education passed the "Transformation Plan" that split-up the high school and created six smaller high schools.
The Upper Academy and Lower Academy became the new Elizabeth High School
The William F. Halsey House became Admiral William F. Halsey Jr. Leadership Academy
The John Dwyer House became John E. Dwyer Technology Academy
The Thomas Jefferson House became Thomas Jefferson Arts Academy
The Sam E. Aboff Alternative House became part of Admiral William F. Halsey Jr. Leadership Academy
The Thomas A. Edison Vocational and Technical Academy stood the same
The Alexander Hamilton Preparatory Academy stood the same
In 2016, the Board of Education made some additional changes.
Elizabeth High School, which had two different locations for 9th grade students and all other students, became one location by moving into the Frank J. Cicarell Academy, located next to the Jefferson Arts Academy. The Academy of Finance, which was part of the Halsey Leadership Academy spun-off and became its own School, moving into the former location of Upper Academy. The Admiral William F. Halsey Jr. Leadership Academy was later renamed into The Admiral William F. Halsey Jr. Health and Public Safety Academy
Marching band
The Elizabeth High School Marching Band won the USBands State and National 5A Competition in 2011, 2012, and 2013. In the 2014 season, the Marching Band moved up from 5A to 5 Open and went undefeated until their streak was snapped placing 4th in the National 5 Open Championship in MetLife Stadium on November 15, 2014. Throughout the week of Super Bowl XLVIII between the Seattle Seahawks and Denver Broncos, the Elizabeth High School Marching Band was invited to perform at Media Day in the Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey as well as perform in pre-game festivities at the Super Bowl at MetLife Stadium. In 2019 the band took first at the USBands New Jersey State Championship and The New Jersey Regional Championship. Marking their first championship titles in open class division. As well as becoming a finalist at the Bands of America Mid-Atlantic Regional Championship placing 6th out of 26 schools.
In 2021 the band competed in the inaugural New Jersey Marching Band Director’s Association State Championship and placed first in Class AAA, with a score of 93.7.
Athletics
The Elizabeth High School Minutemen compete in the Union County Interscholastic Athletic Conference, which is comprised of public and private high schools in Union County and was established following a reorganization of sports leagues in Northern New Jersey by the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association. Prior to the 2010 reorganization, the school had competed in the Watchung Conference, which consisted of public and private high schools in Essex County, Hudson County and Union County in northern New Jersey. With 5,049 students in grades 10-12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2019–20 school year as Group IV for most athletic competition purposes, which included schools with an enrollment of 1,060 to 5,049 students in that grade range. The football team competes in Division 5A of the Big Central Football Conference, which includes 60 public and private high schools in Hunterdon, Middlesex, Somerset, Union and Warren counties, which are broken down into 10 divisions by size and location. The school was classified by the NJSIAA as Group V North for football for 2022–2024, which included schools with 1,313 to 5,304 students.
The boys indoor track team won the all-group state title in 1952 as co-champion with Thomas Jefferson High School.
The football team won the North II Group IV state sectional championships in 1981, 1988, 1989, 1997, 1999, 2000 and 2006, and won the North II Group V state sectional title in 2012. The 1988 team finished the season with a 10–1 record after winning the North II Group IV state sectional title with a 13–12 victory against Morris Knolls High School in the championship game. The team won the 1999 North II, Group IV sectional championship with a 26–14 win over Montclair High School. In a season in which the team had six shut outs and gave up 61 points, the 2000 team won the North II Group IV title with a 13–7 win in the championship game, their second consecutive title won against Montclair as its opponent in the finals. The football team won the 2006 North II Group IV sectional championship, defeating Phillipsburg High School by a score of 14–9 in the tournament final. The 2012 team finished the season with a 11–0 record after winning the North II Group V state sectional title with a 37–33 win against Piscataway High School in the tournament final.
The baseball team won the Group IV state championship in 1983 (defeating Middletown High School North in the tournament final), 1986 (vs. Shawnee High School) and 1994 (vs. Howell High School). The 1983 team finished the season with a 22–3 record after winning the Group IV title with a 9–4 victory against Middletown North in the championship game. The 1986 team used a five-run outburst to defeat Shwnee by a score of 8–3 in the championship game to win the Group IV state title and finish the year at 25-4-2.
The boys basketball team won the Group IV state title in 1985 (against Camden High School in the final game of the tournament), 1988 (vs. Camden), 1989 (vs. Trenton Central High School), 1990 (vs. Trenton Central) and 1991 (vs. Camden); with the group finals cancelled due to COVID-19, the team was declared the North IV regional champion in 2020. Led by Luther Wright, the team won the Tournament of Champions in 1990 with a 65–62 win against St. Anthony High School in the tournament final, with Danny Hurley missing a last-second three-pointer that would have tied the game. The team won the program's fourth consecutive Group IV title in 1990, holding off Camden and winning by a score of 76–70 in the finals. The team won the 2003 North II, Group IV title, topping Linden High School 77–72 in the final.
The boys spring / outdoor track and field team won the Group IV state championship in 1988 and 1998 (as co-champion with Millville Senior High School).
The girls basketball team won the Group IV state championship in 1996 against Toms River High School North in the finals.
The Elizabeth High School girls rugby team won the title of Northeast Regional Champions in June 2008. They went on to become the 7th-ranked Girls U-19 rugby team in the nation. The team only formed in 2006.
Administration
The principal is Michael Cummings. His core administration team includes the two assistant principals.
Notable alumni
Asad Abdul-Khaliq (born 1980, class of 1998), former professional quarterback who played in the Arena Football League for the Chicago Rush and New York Dragons.
Tom Colicchio (born 1962, class of 1980), chef, CEO of Crafted Hospitality and head judge of Bravo's Top Chef.
Todd Bowles (born 1963, class of 1981), defensive coordinator of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and former head coach of the New York Jets, who played in the NFL as a defensive back with the Washington Redskins and San Francisco 49ers.
N. J. Burkett (born 1962, class of 1980), television news correspondent for WABC-TV in New York City.
Rodney Carter (born 1964), former NFL running back / 3rd down receiver with the Pittsburgh Steelers.
Al Catanho (born 1972), former NFL linebacker for the New England Patriots and the Washington Redskins.
Karen Civil (born 1984), social media and digital media marketing strategist.
Chris Gatling (born 1967), former all star professional basketball player for NBA teams from 1991 to 2002.
Ray Graham (born 1990), football running back.
Khaseem Greene (born 1989), NFL Linebacker for the Chicago Bears, former first team All American Linebacker during his career at Rutgers University.
Ibrahim Jaaber (born 1984), former professional basketball player.
Horace Jenkins (born 1974), former NBA player.
Michael Kasha (born 1920, class of 1937), physical chemist and molecular spectroscopist who collaborated with Andres Segovia in the 1960s and 1970s to create the Kasha Design classical guitars.
Norm McRae (1947-2003), former MLB pitcher who played for the Detroit Tigers.
Jerome Murphy (born 1987), current NFL American football cornerback who played college football at the University of South Florida and was drafted as the first pick in the third round by the St. Louis Rams.
Raheem Orr (born 1980), former professional football defensive end.
Alex Reyes (born 1994), MLB pitcher who made his debut in 2016 for the St. Louis Cardinals.
Jonal Saint-Dic (born 1985), former football defensive end.
Jahad Thomas (born 1995), NFL running back who played for the New York Jets and the Dallas Cowboys.
Phillip Walker (born 1995), NFL quarterback for the Carolina Panthers.
Luther Wright (born 1971), former NBA player for the Utah Jazz.
References
External links
Elizabeth High School
Elizabeth Public Schools
Data for the Elizabeth Public Schools, National Center for Education Statistics
1977 establishments in New Jersey
Education in Elizabeth, New Jersey
Educational institutions established in 1977
Middle States Commission on Secondary Schools
Public high schools in Union County, New Jersey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship%20in%20India
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Censorship in India
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Censorship in India has taken various forms throughout its history. Although the Constitution of India de jure guarantees freedom of expression, de facto there are various certain restrictions on content, with an official view towards "maintaining communal and religious harmony", given the history of communal tension in the nation. According to the Information Technology Rules 2011, objectionable content includes anything that "threatens the unity, integrity, defence, security or sovereignty of India, friendly relations with foreign states or public order".
In 2021, the Freedom in the World report by Freedom House gave India a Civil Liberties Rating of 33/60 (a higher number is currently a better score). In the subcategories, India got a rating of 2/4 on 'free and independent media', 2/4 on 'individual's freedom to practice and express their religious faith or non-belief in public and private', and a score of 2/4 on 'academic freedom, and the educational system's freedom from extensive political indoctrination'. In 2016, the report Freedom by Freedom House gave India a press freedom rating of "Partly Free", with a Press Freedom Score of 41 (0-100 scale, lower was better at the time). Analysts from Reporters Without Borders rank India 161st in the world in their 2023 Press Freedom Index, classifying it as a "Very serious" situation.
Laws
Obscenity
Watching, listening or possessing pornographic materials is generally legal, however distribution of such materials is strictly banned. The Central Board of Film Certification allows release of certain films with sexual content (labelled A-rated), which are to be shown only in restricted spaces and to be viewed only by people of age 18 and above. India's public television broadcaster, Doordarshan, has aired these films at late-night time slots. Films, television shows and music videos are prone to scene cuts or even bans, however, if any literature is banned, it is not usually for pornographic reasons. Pornographic magazines are technically illegal, but many softcore Indian publications are available through many news vendors, who often stock them at the bottom of a stack of non-pornographic magazines, and make them available on request. Most non-Indian publications (including Playboy) are usually harder to find, whether soft-core or hardcore. Mailing pornographic magazines in India from a country where they are legal is also illegal in India. In practice, the magazines are almost always confiscated by Customs and entered as evidence of law-breaking and are punishable, which then undergoes detailed scrutiny.
National security
The Official Secrets Act 1923 is used for the protection of official information, mainly related to national security.
Censorship by medium
Press
The Indian press does not enjoy extensive freedom. In 2023, it was ranked 161 in the Press Freedom Index, published by Reporters Without Borders. In 1975, the Indira Gandhi government imposed censorship of press during The Emergency; the day after, the Bombay edition of The Times of India in its obituary column carried an entry that reads, "D.E.M O'Cracy beloved husband of T.Ruth, father of L.I.Bertie, brother of Faith, Hope and Justica expired on 26 June". It was removed at the end of emergency rule in March 1977.
On 2 October 2016 (see: 2016 Kashmir unrest) the Srinagar-based Kashmiri newspaper, Kashmir Reader was asked to stop production by the Jammu and Kashmir government. The ban order, issued by the Deputy Commissioner of Srinagar Farooq Ahmad Lone cited that the reason for this was that the newspaper contains "material and content which tends to incite acts of violence and disturb public peace and tranquility" The ban came after weeks of unrest in the Kashmir valley, following the killing of the commander of a terrorist group Hizbul Mujahideen (designated a terrorist group by India, the European Union and the United States) Burhan Wani. Journalists have decried this as a clampdown on freedom of expression and democracy in Kashmir, as a part of the massive media censorship of the unrest undertaken by the central government. Working journalists protested the ban by marching to the Directorate of Information and Public Relations while the Kashmir Editors Guild (KEG) held an emergency meeting in Srinagar, thereafter asking the government to revoke the ban immediately, and asking for the intervention of the Press Council of India. The move has been criticised by a variety of individuals, academic and civil groups in Kashmir and international rights groups, such as Jammu and Kashmir Coalition of Civil Society (JKCCS), Kashmir Economic Alliance (KEA), the Kashmir Center for Social and Development Studies (KCSDS) and Amnesty International, among others. Most of the major Kashmiri dailies have also rallied behind the KR, while claiming that the move represented a political vendetta against the newspaper for reporting events in the unrest as they happened on the ground. Hurriyat leaders, known to champion the cause of Kashmiri independence, also recorded their protests against the banning of the newspaper. Amnesty International released a statement saying that "the government has a duty to respect the freedom of the press, and the right of people to receive information," while criticising the government for shutting down a newspaper for opposing it. The journalists associated with the paper allege that, contrary to the claims of the J&K government, they had not been issued a notice or warning, and had been asked to stop production suddenly, which was only one manifestation of the wider media gag on Kashmir. Previously, the state government had banned newspapers for a few days in July, calling the move a "temporary measure to address an extraordinary situation", only to deflect the blame onto the police upon facing a tremendous backlash, and thereafter asking the presses to resume publication. On 28 December 2016, the newspaper resumed publication after the government lifted the ban after nearly three months.
Obscenity and defamation
In 1988, a "defamation bill" was introduced by Rajiv Gandhi, but it was later withdrawn due to strong opposition. The Supreme Court while delivering the judgement in Sportsworld case in 2014 held that "A picture of a nude/semi-nude woman ... cannot per se be called obscene".
Kashmir
India’s government requires that all maps in publications circulated in India reflect its claim to the entire region of Kashmir, which is disputed by Pakistan, and regardless of current lines of control. Publications that do not conform are seized by the authorities and issues can end up being destroyed.
Film
The Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC), the regulatory film body of India, orders directors to remove anything it seems offensive, including sex, nudity, violence or subjects considered politically subversive or taboo. However, in the past couple decades, there has been a noticeable shift in the board's approach towards censorship. One of the key factors driving this change is the growing influence of Hollywood in India, which has resulted in an increase in exposure to more liberal cultural values. Additionally, globalization and modernization have played a significant role in shaping Indian society, leading to a greater acceptance of progressive attitudes towards social issues. As a result, the Indian film board has become more lenient with censorship guidelines, allowing filmmakers greater creative freedom to explore themes that were previously considered taboo.
The Supreme Court of India has played a significant role in shaping the censorship board's approach to Westernization of Bollywood films. In recent years, the court has shown a more liberal outlook towards creative expression in Indian cinema and has intervened in cases where the censorship board's decisions were deemed excessive or arbitrary. This has led to a more nuanced approach towards issues of Westernization in Bollywood, with the court balancing the need to preserve Indian culture and values with the need to allow filmmakers to freely express themselves.
According to the Supreme Court of India:
In 2002, the film War and Peace, depicting scenes of nuclear testing and the 11 September 2001 attacks, created by Anand Patwardhan, was asked to make 21 cuts before it was allowed to have the certificate for release. Patwardhan objected, saying "The cuts that they asked for are so ridiculous that they won't hold up in court" and "But if these cuts do make it, it will be the end of freedom of expression in the Indian media." The court decreed the cuts unconstitutional and the film was shown uncut.
In 2002, the Indian filmmaker and former chief of the country's film censor board, Vijay Anand, kicked up a controversy with a proposal to legalise the exhibition of X-rated films in selected cinemas across the country, saying "Porn is shown everywhere in India clandestinely ... and the best way to fight this onslaught of blue movies is to show them openly in theatres with legally authorised licences". He resigned within a year after taking charge of the censor board after facing widespread criticism of his moves.
In 2003, the Indian Censor Board banned the film Gulabi Aaina (The Pink Mirror), a film on Indian transsexuals produced and directed by Sridhar Rangayan. The censor board cited that the film was "vulgar and offensive". The filmmaker appealed twice again unsuccessfully. The film still remains banned in India, but has screened at numerous festivals all over the world and won awards. The critics have applauded it for its "sensitive and touching portrayal of marginalised community".
In 2004, the documentary Final Solution, which looks at religious rioting between Hindus and Muslims, was banned. The film follows 2002 clashes in the western state of Gujarat, which left more than 1,000 people dead. The censor board justified the ban, saying it was "highly provocative and may trigger off unrest and communal violence". The ban was lifted in October 2004 after a sustained campaign.
In 2006, seven states (Nagaland, Punjab, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh) have banned the release or exhibition of the Hollywood movie The Da Vinci Code (and also the book), although the CBFC cleared the film for adult viewing throughout India. However, the respective high courts lifted the ban and the movie was shown in the two states.
The CBFC demanded five cuts from the 2011 American film The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo because of some scenes containing rape and nudity. The producers and the director David Fincher finally decided not to release the film in India.
In 2013, Kamal Haasan's Vishwaroopam was banned from the screening for a period of two weeks in Tamil Nadu.
In 2014 the investigative documentary No Fire Zone: In the Killing Fields of Sri Lanka on the by Callum Macrae was refused certification by the Central Board of Film Certification as it would damage India-Sri Lanka relationship.
In 2015, the CBFC demanded four cuts (three visual and one audio) from the art-house Malayalam feature film Chaayam Poosiya Veedu (The Painted House) directed by brothers Santosh Babusenan and Satish Babusenan because the film contained scenes where the female lead was shown in the nude. The directors refused to make any changes whatsoever to the film and hence the film was denied a certificate.
In 2015 noted documentary film makers Jharana Jhaveri And Anurag Singh's Charlie and the Coca Cola Company: Quit India ran into trouble with the CBFC and the case is pending since. In the 20 pages the appellate sited 20 odd objections to the release of the documentary, thought did not suggest a single cut. The two-hour twenty minute documentary exposes the Cola companies of abusing ground water, land, livelihoods, rivers & the laws of the land. The documentary also hold actors & TV guilty and accountable having violated the ethical and moral boundaries for profit over sustainability.
In 2015 Porkalathil Oru Poo a biopic of Isaipriya a television journalist raped and murdered by members of the Sri Lankan Army ran into trouble with the Central Board of Film Certification with board refusing to certify the movie as it would damage India-Sri Lanka relationship.
In 2016, the film Udta Punjab, produced by Anurag Kashyap and Ekta Kapoor among others, ran into trouble with the CBFC, resulting in a very public re-examination of the ethics of film censorship in India. The film, which depicted a structural drug problem in the state of Punjab, used a lot of expletives and showed scenes of drug use. The CBFC, on 9 June 2016, released a list of 94 cuts and 13 pointers, including the deletion of names of cities in Punjab. On 13 June, the film was cleared by the Bombay High Court with one cut and disclaimers. The court ruled that, contrary to the claims of the CBFC, the film was not out to "malign" the state of Punjab, and that it "wants to save people". Thereafter, the film was faced with further controversy when a print of it was leaked online on a torrent site. The quality of the copy, along with the fact that there was supposedly a watermark that said "censor" on top of the screen, raised suspicions that the CBFC itself had leaked the copy to spite the filmmakers. It also contained the only scene that had been cut according to the High Court order. While the CBFC claimed innocence, the lingering suspicions resulted in a tense release, with the filmmakers and countless freedom of expression advocates taking to social media to appeal to the public to watch the film in theatres, as a conscious challenge against excessive censorship on art in India. Kashyap, in a Facebook post, urged viewers to wait till the film released before they downloaded it for free, stating that "Piracy happens because of lack of access and in a world of free internet, i do not have a problem with it.". The film eventually released and grossed over $13 million finishing as a commercial success.
In 2017, the film Lipstick Under My Burkha directed by Alankrita Shrivastava and produced by Prakash Jha, also ran into trouble with the Central Board of Film Certification refused to certify the film, stating that "The story is lady oriented, their fantasy above life. There are contagious [sic] sexual scenes, abusive words, audio pornography and a bit sensitive touch about one particular section of society." Internationally, the film has been screened in over 35 film festivals across the world and notably earned eleven international awards prior to its official release in India, becoming eligible entry for the Golden Globe Award Ceremony. The filmmakers appealed this decision to the Film Certification Appellate Tribunal (FCAT), which overruled the censor board's ruling, thereby granting the film a theatrical release rights. FCAT asked the filmmakers to make some cuts, mostly related to the sex scenes, at their discretion. The film was released with an "A" or adults certificate, equivalent to an NC-17 rating in the United States, with some voluntary edits. Shrivastava told Agence-France Presse: "Of course I would have loved no cuts, but the FCAT has been very fair and clear. I feel that we will be able to release the film without hampering the narrative or diluting its essence."
In 2017 Neelam a film based on the Sri Lankan Civil War and the rise of the Tamil Groups including the LTTE ran into trouble with the Central Board of Film Certification with board refusing to certify the movie as it would damage India-Sri Lanka relationship.
In 2018, the film No Fathers in Kashmir directed by Ashvin Kumar hit a roadblock with the Central Board of Film Certification. His two previous documentaries, Inshallah, Football and Inshallah, Kashmir were first banned and then, subsequently, awarded National Awards. Kumar has written an open letter to Prasoon Joshi stating that being awarded an A certificate for an independent film is "as good as banning the film". The filmmaker has appealed to the Film Certification Appellate Tribunal (FCAT).
Television
In February 2013, in the wake of controversy over suspension of exhibition of the film, Vishwaroopam, the Ministry of Information & Broadcasting constituted a panel under the Chairmanship of Justice (Retd.) Mukul Mudgal to examine issues of film certification under the Cinematograph Act 1952. One of the terms of reference for the committee is to examine "the requirement of special categories of certification for the purposes of broadcasting on television channels and radio stations." But, the committee had not made any recommendations on this important matter.
The current classifications of films in India are as follows:
अ / U – unrestricted public exhibition;
अ/व / U/A – unrestricted public exhibition, but with a caution regarding parental guidance to those under 12 years of age;
व / A – public exhibition restricted to adults 18 years of age and older only;
S – public exhibition restricted to members of a profession or a class of persons (e.g. doctors etc.)—very rare.
Music
Thrash metal band Slayer's 2006 album Christ Illusion was banned in India after Catholic churches in the country took offense to the artwork of the album and a few song titles and launched a protest against it. The album was taken off shelves and the remaining catalog was burnt by EMI Music India.
Dramas
In 1978, Kiran Nagarkar wrote the play Bedtime Story, based partly on the Mahābhārata. Its performance was extra-legally banned for 17 years by Hindu nationalist fundamentalist parties, including the Shiv Sena, a far-right political party; Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and Hindu Mahasabha.
In 1999, Maharashtra government banned the Marathi play Me Nathuram Godse Boltoy or I, Nathuram Godse, Am Speaking The Notification was challenged before the Bombay High Court, and the High Court Bench consisting of B. P. Singh (Chief Justice), S. Radhakrishnan, and Dr. D. Y. Chandrachud allowed the writ petition and declared the notification to be ultra vires and illegal, thus rescinding the ban.
In 2004, Eve Ensler's The Vagina Monologues was banned in Chennai. The play however, has played successfully in many other parts of the country since 2003. A Hindi version of the play has been performing since 2007.
Maps
In 1961, it was criminalised in India to question the territorial integrity of frontiers of India in a manner which is, or is likely to be, prejudicial to the interests of the safety or security of India.
Books
Several books of the Bangladeshi writer Taslima Nasrin have been banned in West Bengal.
1989, The import of Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses was banned in India for its purported attacks on Islam. India was the second country in the world (after Singapore) to ban the book.
1990, Understanding Islam through Hadis by Ram Swarup was banned. In 1990 the Hindi translation of the book was banned, and in March 1991 the English original became banned as well.
Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India by American scholar James Laine was banned in 2004.
Laine's translation of the 300-year-old poem Sivabharata, entitled The Epic of Shivaji, was banned in January 2006. The ban followed an attack by Sambhaji Brigade activists on the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute in Pune. The subsequent governments have not revoked the ban.
In Punjab the Bhavsagar Granth (Bhavsagar Samunder Amrit Vani Granth), a 2,704-page religious treatise was banned by the state government in 2001, following clashes between mainstream Sikhs and the apostate Sikh sect that produced it. It was said that the granth had copied a number of portions from the Guru Granth Sahib. In one of the photographs it showed Baba Bhaniara, wearing a shining coat and headdress in a style similar to that made familiar through the popular posters of Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth guru of the Sikhs. In another Baba Bhaniara is shown riding a horse in the manner of Guru Gobind Singh. The ban was lifted in November 2008.
The Polyester Prince, a biography of the Indian businessman Dhirubhai Ambani was banned.
Importing the book The True Furqan (al-Furqan al-Haqq) by Al Saffee and Al Mahdee into India has been prohibited since September 2005.
R.V. Bhasin's Islam - A Concept of Political World Invasion by Muslims was banned in Maharashtra in 2007 during the tenure of Vilasrao Deshmukh (ex Chief Minister, Maharashtra) on grounds that it promotes communal disharmony between Hindus and Muslims.
Internet
Freedom House's Freedom on the Net 2015 report gives India a Freedom on the Net Status of "Partly Free" with a rating of 40 (scale from 0 to 100, lower is better). Its Obstacles to Access was rated 12 (0-25 scale), Limits on Content was rated 10 (0-35 scale) and Violations of User Rights was rated 18 (0-40 scale). India was ranked 29th out of the 65 countries included in the 2015 report.
The Freedom on the Net 2012 report says:
India's overall Internet Freedom Status is "Partly Free", unchanged from 2009.
India has a score of 39 on a scale from 0 (most free) to 100 (least free), which places India 20 out of the 47 countries worldwide that were included in the 2012 report. India ranked 14 out of 37 countries in the 2011 report.
India ranks third out of the eleven countries in Asia included in the 2012 report.
Prior to 2008, censorship of Internet content by the Indian government was relatively rare and sporadic.
Following the November 2008 terrorist attacks in Mumbai, which killed 171 people, the Indian Parliament passed amendments to the Information Technology Act (ITA) that expanded the government's censorship and monitoring capabilities.
While there is no sustained government policy or strategy to block access to Internet content on a large scale, measures for removing certain content from the web, sometimes for fear they could incite violence, have become more common.
Pressure on private companies to remove information that is perceived to endanger public order or national security has increased since late 2009, with the implementation of the amended ITA. Companies are required to have designated employees to receive government blocking requests, and assigns up to seven years' imprisonment private service providers—including ISPs, search engines, and cybercafes—that do not comply with the government's blocking requests.
Internet users have sporadically faced prosecution for online postings, and private companies hosting the content are obliged by law to hand over user information to the authorities.
In 2009, the Supreme Court ruled that bloggers and moderators can face libel suits and even criminal prosecution for comments posted on their websites.
Prior judicial approval for communications interception is not required and both central and state governments have the power to issue directives on interception, monitoring, and decryption. All licensed ISPs are obliged by law to sign an agreement that allows Indian government authorities to access user data.
India is classified as engaged in "selective" Internet filtering in the conflict/security and Internet tools areas and as showing "no evidence" of filtering in the political and social areas by the OpenNet Initiative in May 2007. ONI states that:
As a stable democracy with strong protections for press freedom, India’s experiments with Internet filtering have been brought into the fold of public discourse. The selective censorship of Web sites and blogs since 2003, made even more disjointed by the non-uniform responses of Internet service providers (ISPs), has inspired a clamour of opposition. Clearly government regulation and implementation of filtering are still evolving. … Amidst widespread speculation in the media and blogosphere about the state of filtering in India, the sites actually blocked indicate that while the filtering system in place yields inconsistent results, it nevertheless continues to be aligned with and driven by government efforts. Government attempts at filtering have not been entirely effective, as blocked content has quickly migrated to other Web sites and users have found ways to circumvent filtering. The government has also been criticised for a poor understanding of the technical feasibility of censorship and for haphazardly choosing which Web sites to block. The amended IT Act, absolving intermediaries from being responsible for third-party created content, could signal stronger government monitoring in the future.
A "Transparency Report" from Google indicates that the Government of India initiated 67 content removal requests between July and December 2010.
See also
Ethical Code for Digital News Websites
Freedom of the press in British India
Television content rating systems in India
List of films banned in India
List of books banned in India
Pornography laws in India
Internet censorship in India
Central Board of Film Certification, the Indian film classification and censorship body
References
Further reading
Chandmal Chopra and Sita Ram Goel. 1987. The Calcutta Quran Petition. New Delhi: Voice of India.
Elst, Koenraad. 1992. 'Negationism in India: Concealing the Record of Islam'.
Arun Shourie, Ram Swarup, and Goel, Sita Ram Goel, 1998. Freedom of expression: secular theocracy versus liberal democracy.
External links
Freedom of Expression in India, International Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX).
Devika Sethi, War over Words: Censorship in India, 1930-60 (Cambridge University Press, 2019).
Politics of India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimitris%20Papaioannou
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Dimitris Papaioannou
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Dimitris Papaioannou (; born 21 June 1964) is a Greek experimental theater stage director, choreographer and visual artist who drew media attention and acclaim with his creative direction of the Opening Ceremony of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games. His varied career spans three decades and has seen him conceive and direct stage works for the Athens Concert Hall, Edafos Dance Theatre and Elliniki Theamaton, work as a costume, set and make-up designer, and published over 40 comics.
Fine arts training
Born in Athens, Papaioannou, an Athens College graduate, showed a flair for fine art from an early age, and studied under the renowned Greek painter Yannis Tsarouchis for three years in his mid-teens. At 19, he earned himself a place at the Athens School of Fine Arts, entering the institution with the highest marks attained by any student, and there studying under Dimitris Mytaras and Rena Papaspyrou.
Early recognition
Papaioannou first attracted attention as a visual artist, illustrator and comic book creator. He presented his art work at a number of exhibitions, produced illustrations for numerous magazines, and designed and co-edited the countercultural fanzine Kontrosol sto Haos (1986–1992), one of the few publications to include openly gay content at that time in Greece. He also contributed to the Greek gay activist magazine To Kraximo (1981–1994) in the early 1980s, and gave an interview to the publication in 1993. Moreover, he published over 40 comics in Greek alternative comics magazines such as Babel and Para Pende, many of which incorporated gay themes and explicit images (such as 1986's Rock 'n' Roll, 1988's My Ex-Boyfriend, and 1993's Heart-Shaped Earth). He was awarded first prize in a competition organised by Marseille Public Transport Authority at the 5th Biennial of Young Artists from Europe and the Mediterranean, held in Marseille in 1990, for his comic Un Bon Plan.
Dance training
Papaioannou began to take an interest in dance and the performing arts while still at the Athens School of Fine Arts, training and experimenting as a performer and choreographer, as well as a costume, set and make-up designer with dance companies in Greece. In 1986, Papaioannou took a trip to New York City where he was introduced to the Erick Hawkins Technique at the dancer and choreographer's studio, and where he attended seminars on Butoh given by Maureen Fleming at La MaMa E.T.C. While in the United States, he choreographed and performed in the 1986 opera The Monk and the Hangman's Daughter, directed by Ellen Stewart and presented in Baltimore.
Edafos Dance Theatre (1986–2002)
Upon his return to Athens in 1986, he founded Edafos Dance Theatre (έδαφος meaning "ground" in Greek) with Angeliki Stellatou, and went on to conceive, direct, choreograph and produce all 17 of the company's productions over its 16 years of life (the company disbanded in 2002). The group's four early works – The Mountain–The Raincoat in 1987, and Room I–Room II in 1988 – represented Greece at the 3rd and 4th Biennials of Young Artists from Europe and the Mediterranean, held in Barcelona and Bologna respectively, and were warmly received by the press – Stefano Casi of the Italian L'Unità described the company as "the revelation of the Festival" in 1988.
In 1989, Papaioannou left Greece for Germany to work as an unpaid trainee assistant to Robert Wilson in Hamburg as he prepared The Black Rider: The Casting of the Magic Bullets with Tom Waits and William S. Burroughs. He then accompanied Wilson to Berlin to act as a stand-in for the lights for his production of Orlando.
Papaioannou, once back in Athens, created The Last Song of Richard Strauss in collaboration with the visual artist Nikos Alexiou in 1990, the first in a series of critical successes for the Edafos Dance Theatre company. The Last Song was incorporated into the 1991 trilogy The Songs, which was selected to represent Greece the following year at both the 6th Biennial from Young Artists of Europe and the Mediterranean in Valencia and at the Seville Expo '92. The Songs was also seen by the then Greek Minister for Culture Melina Mercouri, who secured regular state funding for the company.
Moons followed in 1992, a two-part work that drew upon the poetry of Sappho and the ballet Le Spectre de la Rose, but it was 1993's Medea that was to prove the company's greatest success. This dance-theatre retelling of the Medea myth was performed 52 times by the year 2000, touring festivals and venues across Europe and the Mediterranean region, visiting New York City, and representing Greece at the Lisbon Expo '98. In her review of the 1998 performance of Medea at the 12th Lyon Dance Biennial, Anna Kisselgoff of The New York Times describes the production as "the festival's big surprise", praising its "extraordinary passion" and "striking intensity". Medea was named "Best Choreography" at the Greek National Awards for Dance in 1994.
Other major Edafos Dance Theatre works include:
1995's A Moment's Silence, the first Greek stage work to deal directly with the issue of AIDS (a topic Papaioannou also tackled in his 1987 comic The Red Freckles on Your Skin), presented the world première of The Songs of Sin, a cycle of songs written by the Oscar-winning composer Manos Hadjidakis, and of the specially commissioned Requiem for the End of Love by composer Yorgos Koumendakis. A Moment's Silence was dedicated to the memory of Alexis Bistikas, who died of AIDS in 1995.
1995's Xenakis' Oresteia – The Aeschylus Suite, a retelling of Aeschylus' Oresteia set to the music of Iannis Xenakis and performed at the Ancient Epidaurus Theatre as part of the Epidaurus Festival.
1999's Human Thirst, a collection of six short choreographies that included 1990's The Last Song of Richard Strauss, won awards for "Best Production" and "Best Female Performance" (Angeliki Stellatou) at the Greek National Awards for Dance. Outside Greece, the production was performed in Cyprus, France and the United Kingdom.
2001's For Ever, a non-narrative work that proved to be the last Edafos Dance Theatre production, was performed for the final time in Athens in the summer of 2002. The work was named "Best Production" at the Greek National Awards for Dance.
Other work (1986–2000)
Beyond his work with Edafos Dance Theatre, Papaioannou undertook a number of other projects between 1986 and 2000.
He directed two operas for the Athens Megaron Concert Hall: Thanos Mikroutsikos's The Return of Helen in 1999 (which was also performed at the Montpellier Opera in France and the Teatro Verdi in Florence, Italy), and Bellini's La Sonnambula in 2000. He also directed two stage shows for the Greek singer Haris Alexiou (1995's Nefeli and 1998's Tree), and two for Alkistis Protopsalti (1998's Volcano and 2000's A Tale).
As a choreographer, Papaioannou worked with the Greek National Theatre, the National Theatre of Northern Greece, Lefteris Vogiatzis' nea SKINI theatre company, and the Athens Festival (a 1994 show with George Dalaras), and created choreographies for two works directed by the Oscar-nominated director Michael Cacoyannis: 1994's Theodora, written and performed by Irene Papas, and the 1995 production of Luigi Cherubini's opera Medea, for which he also produced the costumes. He also designed sets and costumes for the Greek National Opera, and a number of Greek theatre and dance companies. As a performer, he worked with numerous Greek dance companies, including OKTANA Dance Theatre.
His film work included performances in Menelaos Karamagiolis' 1998 feature film Black Out p.s. Red Out and the 1990 film short The Kiss by Alexis Bistikas (which saw him engage in an on-screen kiss with the actor Stavros Zalmas), and sets for Bistikas' 1989 film short The Marbles.
Choreographies
The Mountain (Liberal Arts Centre Athens, Greece - 1987)
The Raincoat (Halki, Greece - 1987)
Room I (Old Elefsina Soap Factory, Elefsina, Greece - 1988)
Room II (4th Biennial of Young Artists from Europe, Bologna, Italy - 1988)
The Last Song of Richard Strauss (University of Patras, Greece, 1990)
The Songs (Artists' Building Athens, Greece, 1991)
Moons (Artists' Building Athens, Greece, 1992)
Medea (Koninklijke Nederlandse Schouwburg, Antwerp, Belgium, 1993)
Iphigenia at the Bridge of Arta (Dimitris Mitropoulos Hall of the Megaron, Athens Concert Hall, Greece, 1995)
Xenakis' Oresteia - The Aeschylus Suite (Epidaurus Ancient Theatre, Epidavros, Greece, 1995)
A Moment's Silence (Neo Faliro Old Electric Power Station, Athens, Greece, 1995)
Nefeli (Nefeli Studio, Athens, Greece, 1995)
The Brother Grimm Fairytales (Ancient Theatre, Argos, Greece 1996)
Dracula (Kotopouli-Rex Theatre, Athens, Greece 1997)
Monument (Port Authority Warehouse, Kalamata, Greece 1997)
The Storm (1997)
Volcano (Municipal Theatre of Piraeus, Pireaus, Greece 1998)
Tree (Diogenis Studio, Athens, Greece, 1998)
The Return of Helen (Friends of Music Hall of Athens Concert Hall, Megaron, Athens, Greece, 1999)
Human Thirst (Hora Theatre, Athens, Greece, 1999)
La Sonnambula (Friends of Music Hall of the Athens Concert Halle, Megaron, Athens, Greece 2000)
A Tale (Diogenis Studio, Athens, Greece, 2000)
For Ever (7th Kalamata International Dance Festival, Kalamata, Greece, 2001)
Birthplace 2004 (2004)
Closing Ceremony, Athens Olympic Games 2004 (2004)
Before (Ancient Epidaurus Little Theatre, Epidavros, Greece, 2005)
Black Box (Kalamata Castle Amphitheatre, Kalamata, Greece, 2005)
2 (Pallas Theatre, Athens, Greece, 2006)
Medea 2 (Athens Festival, Peiraios 260, Hall, 2008)
Nowhere (Ziller Building-Main Stage, Greek National Theatre, 2009)
The Colour of the Sun (2010)
Homer's Iliad - Book Four (Ziller Building - Hall, Greek National Theatre, 2010)
K.K. (Pallas Theatre, Athens, Greece, 2010)
Inside (Pallas Theatre, Athens, Greece, 2011)
Primal Matter (2012)
Still Life (Onassis Cultural Centre - Athens Main Stage, Greece, 2014)
Origins 2015 (Baku Olympic Stadium, 2015)
The Great Tamer (2017)
Since She (Tanztheater Wuppertal Pina Bausch, Germany, 2018)
Sisyphus Trans Form (Collezione Maramotti, Reggio Emilia, Italy, 2019 & at NEON | Portals at the former Public Tobacco Factory, Athens Greece, 2021)
INK (2020)
Transverse Orientation (2021)
Post-Edafos work
Athens 2004 Olympic Ceremonies
In 2001, Papaioannou was appointed Artistic Director of the Opening and Closing Ceremonies of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games by Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, President of the Athens 2004 Organising Committee for the Olympic Games. Three years in the making, the Opening Ceremony was hailed a "triumph" by Time magazine and The Times of London.
In 2005, following the success of the Athens 2004 Olympic Ceremonies, Papaioannou received the Golden Cross of the Order of Honour, awarded by the President of the Hellenic Republic for outstanding artistic achievement.
2
On 24 November 2006, Papaioannou premièred 2 in Athens, his first work following his creative direction of the Opening and Closing Ceremonies of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games. 2 was produced in collaboration with the electronic music composer K.BHTA for the production company Elliniki Theamaton. A "dissection of the male psyche", the production commanded a large of amount of Greek press attention, not least for its open references to homosexuality. 2 proved a commercial success; its run was extended twice and over 100,000 tickets were sold in total.
The work seems to draw upon a range of influences, including the work of Jean Genet, René Magritte and Robert Wilson. Inspiration for the show also came partly from Papaioannou's experiences as a gay man in Greece. Contemporary magazine described 2 as an "inspiring" work that "captures the zeitgeist".
A DVD of 2, produced and directed for the screen by Athina Rachel Tsangari of HAOS FILM, was released on 11 December 2007 by Elliniki Theamaton and Modern Times.
INSIDE Inside is a large-scale on-stage experiment by Dimitris Papaioannou that took place in a room set inside the Pallas Theatre in central Athens. Inside this room, for twenty nights in the Spring of 2011, a simple series of movements documenting our daily return home was uniformly repeated by thirty performers in countless combinations and superimpositions. Six hours on stage with no beginning, middle or end. Visitors could watch as much as they liked, sit wherever they liked, exit and re-enter as many times as they liked. The stage action began before visitors came in, and continued after they left.Inside encouraged audiences to treat the theatre as an exhibition space and the work as an exhibit, and to watch the action as if gazing at a landscape.Inside was conceived as a kind of visual meditation. The work was developed along two parallel trains of thought. On the one hand, with a view to the emotional charge that is created when we sense the similarity of all human beings inside their nest. And on the other, an interest in the form of the artwork itself — in how a single motif can become a kind of latent narrative through its repetition and multiplication (like on ancient Greek Geometric vases and Eastern patterned carpets).Inside's final night was filmed in a single, six-hour take and first presented as a video installation as part of Ανταλλαγή / Austausch / Exchange, a 2012 Goethe-Institut art project curated by Sofia Dona, at the Broadway open-air cinema in Athens. The following year, it was projected one summer night at the Kalamata International Dance Festival's open-air Castle Amphitheatre.
STILL LIFE Still Life premiered at the Onassis Cultural Center - Athens on May 23, 2014.Still Life springs from a meditation upon the myth of Sisyphus, who was sentenced to a weird kind of immortality: he would roll a huge rock up to the top of a mountain, only for the rock to roll back down. He would then walk down in order to roll the rock up again. Over and over, eternally. Sisyphus is like a working class hero.
While creating Still Life, Dimitris Papaioannou thought a lot about the human craving for meaning, and about the absurdity of the human condition, rooted in matter but yearning for spirit. He was thinking about Albert Camus, and about work as meaning in and of itself. At the same time, Dimitris Papaioannou concentrated deeply on simplicity, interaction with real materials, and silence — musically-composed silence.Still Life'' is a work about work. About confronting physical matter in order to elevate our existence above it. It is an attempt towards a kind of theatre that generates meditative energy through simple actions, and encourages an emotional journey through optical illusions.
Europe Theatre Prize
In 2017, he received a Special Prize of the XIV Europe Prize Theatrical Realities, in Rome, awarded by the President of the Jury and the Europe Theatre Prize, with the following motivation:As part of the Europe Prize Theatrical Realities, this year sees a Special Prize awarded to Dimitris Papaioannou. Performer, director, choreographer and visual artist, he has reached the highest peaks of international theatre with his work. From the end of the 80s until now, during a rich career, Papaioannou has made a vast contribution, in Greece and the rest of the world, to contemporary theatre, visual art, dance and other forms of artistic expression. His theatre is 'total', with an obvious maturity of expression, offering for the stage a perfect form of signification in which bodies, objects, costumes and the entire scenic set-up are transformed into fluctuating visual signs, visual signs into events, events into stories and emotions. With such a talent, Dimitris Papaioannou can tell every story – myth, history, emotional moments, the human condition today, hypermodernity – and make each one unforgettable.
See also
List of Dimitris Papaioannou works
List of Dimitris Papaioannou comics
Footnotes
References
External links
DimitrisPapaioannou.com Official Site
Dimitris Papaioannou.com Vimeo Channel
Dimitris Papaioannou Facebook
Dimitris Papaioannou Instagram
Dimitris Papaioannou Twitter
Dimitris Papaioannou YouTube Channel (2BlackBox)
1964 births
Living people
Greek theatre directors
Contemporary dance choreographers
Greek choreographers
Greek male dancers
Greek opera directors
Opera designers
Greek comics artists
Gay dancers
Greek gay artists
LGBT comics creators
LGBT choreographers
LGBT theatre directors
Theatre in Greece
Artists from Athens
20th-century Greek LGBT people
21st-century Greek LGBT people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epifanio%20de%20los%20Santos
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Epifanio de los Santos
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Epifanio de los Santos y Cristóbal, sometimes known as Don Pañong or Don Panyong (April 7, 1871 – April 18, 1928), was a noted Filipino historian, journalist, and civil servant. He was regarded as one of the best Filipino writers and a literary genius. He also entered politics, serving as a member of the Malolos Congress from 1898 to 1899 from Nueva Ecija and later as governor of Nueva Ecija from 1902 to 1906. As a lawyer, he was named as the district attorney of San Isidro, Nueva Ecija in 1900 and later as fiscal of the provinces of Bulacan and Bataan. He was named as an assistant technical director of the Philippine Census in 1918. He was appointed Director of the Philippine Library and Museum by Governor General Leonard Wood in 1925, serving until his death in 1928.
Early life and marriage
Epifanio de los Santos was born in April 7, 1871, in Potrero, Malabon, Province of Manila to Escolastico de los Santos of Nueva Ecija and musician Antonina Cristóbal y Tongco. He studied at the Ateneo Municipal de Manila where he obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree graduating summa cum laude. He devoted some time for painting but music became part of his daily life and was even awarded a professorship in music. He finished his law studies at University of Santo Tomas and topped the bar exams in 1898. Rafael Palma (1930) noticed that during his college years, his collecting instinct was early manifested when he curiously dedicated himself to gathering plants and flowers in the Nueva Ecija wherein he also sought the company and even communed with the rural communities. According to Agoncillo, "nobody suspected that he would someday become a literary man". As a young law student, his fascination with the study of Spanish literature was through readings of Juan Valera's novel entitled "Pepita Jimenez" and most of all his available works. Eventually, he formed a delightful and lasting friendship with this author which he met in Spain. His home in Intramuros became the meeting place of literary cliques composed of Cecilio Apóstol (Catulo), Fernando María Guerrero (Fulvio Gil), José Palma, Rafael Palma, Jaime C. de Veyra, Macario Pineda, Mariano V. del Rosario, Salvador V. del Rosario, Ysidro Paredes, Macario Adriatico, Jose Clemente Zulueta and Jose G. Abreu. He made a beautiful oil portrait of Rosa Sevilla and composed a melody dedicated to her.
Epifanio's first wife was Doña Ursula Paez of Malabon; his second was Margarita Torralba of Malolos. Jose, his son to his first wife, became a historian, biographer, and collector. His brother, Escolastico, became a pianist for silent films and has made artistic contributions as a poet and a realist story teller in Philippine magazines and newspapers. Socrates, his son from second wife, became a leading Pentagon aeronautics engineer in his time.
He has two lines of descendants with four children on his first wife Ursula Paez namely Jose, Rosario, Escolastico and Antonio and eight children on his second wife Margarita Torralba namely Leticia, Fernando, Socrates, Federico, Hipatia Patria, Espacia Lydia, Glicera Ruth & Margarita.
Literary and scholarly works
Epifanio was considered one of the best Filipino writers in Spanish of his time and regarded as a literary genius. When he was young, he was the first Filipino to become a member of the Spanish Royal Academy of Language, Spanish Royal Academy of Literature and Spanish Royal Academy of History in Madrid. It was the admiration of his writings that Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo asked the Real Academia Española to open its door to the benevolent young native scholar.
Epifanio was a young associate editor of the revolutionary paper "La Independencia" (1898), writing in prose under the pen name G. Solon and also a member of the Malolos Congress. He also co-founded other newspapers like La Libertad, El Renaciemento, La Democracia, La Patria and Malaysia. He also made valuable publications namely; Algo de Prosa (1909), Literatura Tagala (1911), El Teatro Tagala (1911) Nuestra Literatura (1913), El Proceso del Dr. José Rizal (1914), Folklore Musical de Filipinas (1920). He also authored Filipinos y filipinistas (Filipinos and Filipinists), Filipinas para los Filipinos, Cuentos y paisajes Filipinos (Philippine Stories and Scenes) and Criminality in the Philippines (1903–1908).
He was a member of Samahan ng mga Mananagalog which was initiated by Felipe Calderon in 1904, and it includes active members with the likes of Lope K. Santos, Rosa Sevilla, Hermenegildo Cruz, Jaime C. de Veyra and Patricio Mariano. He was a polyglot, being fluent in Spanish, English, French, German, Ita, Tingian, and Ibalao. He notably translated Florante and Laura classically into sonorous Castilian. As one of the brilliant writers in the Golden Age of Fil-Hispanic literature who had published numerous titles and books, he was an honorary member of the Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española.
As a versatile researcher, he also contributed to early Philippine studies on anthropology, ethnology, archaeology, linguistics and demographics.
Collections
Epifanio de los Santos traveled to many places in Europe, Asia, and Americas searching for rare Philippine documents in museums, archives, and libraries. He collected almost 200 paintings and sculpted pieces done by Juan Luna, Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo, Fabián de la Rosa, Juan Arellano, Pablo Amorsolo, Fernando Amorsolo, Graciano Nepomuceno and Guillermo Tolentino, musical literatures, opera records, valuable printed materials, documents and manuscripts on the revolution and historical pictures. According to Zaide, his famous Filipiniana collection was rated by foreign scholars as the best in the world. In Europe, he was recognized as the philologist and writer of biographical matters about the Philippines.
According to Zaide, there are documents and printed matter in his collection that cannot be found elsewhere, not even in the Filipiniana Division of The National Library nor in any library the world over, the Library of Congress of the United States included. The best years of his life were spent in looking for them only to find them after an almost "wild goose chase" of a lifetime. His Rizaliana collections were greatly acknowledged by W. E. Retana, James A. Le-Roy, and Austin Craig.
In all, there are 115 printed matter and 213 documents in the collection dealing with Philippine revolution
After de los Santos's death, the Philippine legislature, by virtue of the Philippine Clarin Act, negotiated with the widow and heirs of the great collector for the purchase of the collection and library. The Philippine government bought the priceless collections for P 19,250.00.
Other interests
Aside from his scholarly works on different facets of the Philippines, he was also known to be one of the best guitarists at that time. According to Teodoro Agoncillo, there were at least two guitarists that could contend with him, and these were Fernando Canon and General Antonio Luna. For him, music is the embodiment of happiness of the soul, the one that could refreshen the withered spirit.
There was even a story that de los Santos and his friend, Clemente Jose Zulueta had a bitter face-off in the office of La Independencia and Antonio Luna offered to pacify the two gentlemen and he offer his guitar to the one who would win the argumentation, and de los Santos won so he received Luna's guitar.
Public service
Epifanio de los Santos was elected the Malolos Congress in September 1898, serving as one of the three representatives from Nueva Ecija until November 1899. In 1900, he was appointed district attorney of the town of San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. He was later elected as governor of Nueva Ecija in 1902 and again in 1904, serving until 1906. His election victory made him the first democratically elected provincial governor and head of the Federal Party in Nueva Ecija. A member of the Philippine Commission, he was immediately considered as one of those Filipino intellectuals to represent the Saint Louis World's Fair in 1904. He was later appointed provincial fiscal of Bulacan and Bataan provinces. He wrote a treatise on electoral fraud "Electoral Fraud and its Remedies" (Fraudes Electorales y Sus Remedios) in 1907 for the Philippine Assembly. On the side, he devoted his spare time to researches in Philippine history and literature. Portions of his collections where destroyed when fires hit his house in San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. According to Agoncillo and Palma, his interest lies not in politics. In 1918, he was appointed by Governor General Francis Burton Harrison as Assistant Technical Director of the Philippine Census.
The last and most significant position de los Santos held was Director of the Philippine Library and Museum, to which he was appointed by Governor General Leonard Wood in 1925. He succeeded his colleague Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, who died on March 26, 1925. He was also elected as third President of the Philippine Library Association (now Philippine Librarians Association, Inc.), becoming the first Filipino of native parentage to assume such position professionally for Philippine library science. As a director of the Philippine Library, he immersed himself in his work and, according to bibliographer Gabriel Bernardo, gave up “all his other avocations except music and bibliophily.”
Death and legacy
He died in office on April 18, 1928, 11 days after his 57th birthday. The Philippine government paid him the tribute of a state funeral. Local and foreign scholars lamented the loss of one who they described as a "Great among the Great Filipino Scholars."
Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (commonly known as EDSA), the main road through Metro Manila, was named after him. Several schools, streets, a college, a hospital, a printing press and an auditorium in National Library of the Philippines were also named in his honor.
References
Bibliography
CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art. Vol IX. Philippine Literature. Manila: Cultural Center of the Philippines, 1994
Agoncillo, Teodoro A. 2002 ed. The revolt of the masses- the story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan. University of the Philippines Press. E. de los Santos St., UP Campus, Diliman, Quezon City.
Epifanio de los Santos (Great among the great Filipino scholars). 1982. Printed by Merriam School & Office. Supplies Corporation, Manila.
The Delos Santos family descendants memorabilia, historical pictures and clippings.
Philippine Free Press. Manila. April 28, 1928.
The Manila Tribune. April 19, 1928
National Historical Institute (NHI). 1990. Filipinos in history. Vol. II. Manila.
Bacallan, Joyce. 1988. Hero of the month- Epifanio delos Santos- a great Filipino academician. The youngster. p. 7.
Bernardo, Fernando A. 2000. Silent storms: inspiring lives of 101 great Filipinos. Anvil Publishing, Inc. pp. 37–38.
Bantug, Jose P. Epifanio de los Santos Cristobal. pp. 215–223.
Baylon, Gloria J. EDSA: Country's Avenue of History. The Philippine Post Nation: Leading to the Next Millennium. February 23, 1998.
Buencamino, Felipe; De los Santos, Epifanio. Census of the Philippine Islands: taken under the direction of Philippine legislature in the year 1918. A Government Publication. Manila: Bureau Printing. (1921?)
Carson, Taylor; De los Santos, Epifanio. 1927. History of the Philippine Press. Manila. 61 pp.
Cayco, Librado D. (1934) Epifanio de los Santos Cristobal. Manila. National Heroes Day. University of the Philippines.
Churchill, Bernadette R. Epifanio de los Santos, pioneer historian. In History & Culture, Language & Literature: Selected Essays of Teodoro A. Agoncillo. pp. 239–245.
Cullinane, Michael. 2003. Illustrado politics: Filipino elite responses to American rule, 1989–1908. Ateneo de Manila University.
De los Santos, Epifanio. 1909. Algo de prosa. Madrid Fortanet. 70 pp.
De los Santos, Epifanio. 1909. Cinco notas al Capitulo octavo de los "Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas" del Dr. Antonio de Morga (en su nueva edición de W.E. Retana). Madrid Fortanet. 24 pp.
De los Santos, Epifanio. 1909. Literatura tagala : Conferencia leída en el Liceo de Manila ante el "Samahan ng mananagálog". Madrid Fortanet.25 pp.
De los Santos, Epifanio. 1911. Informe acerca de una obra sobre los orígenes de la imprenta filipina. Madrid Imprenta de Fortanet. 52 pp.
De los Santos, Epifanio. 1913. Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera. Cultura Filipina 4 (1): 1-49.
De los Santos, Epifanio. 1913. Ignacio Villamor: El funcionario y el hombre. Cultura Filipina 4 (3): 351–359.
De los Santos, Epifanio. 1915. Ignacio Villamor: El funcionario y el hombre. Cultura Filipina 5 (4): 275–294.
De los Santos, Epifanio. 1916. Rafael del Pan: The Philippine Review 1 (May): 41–44.
De los Santos, Epifanio.1957.Marcelo H. del Pilar; Andres Bonifacio; Emilio Jacinto. Kapisanang Pangkasaysayan ng Pilipinas. English and Tagalog. Translated from Spanish.
De los Santos, Epifanio. 1973. The revolutionists: Aguinaldo, Bonifacio, Jacinto. Translated and edited by Teodoro A. Agoncillo. Manila: National Historical Commission.
De los Santos, Epifanio. 1909. Epifanía Wenceslao E. Retana, ensayo crítico acerca de este ilustre filipinista. Establecimiento Tipográfico de Fortanet, Madrid.
Dungo, Dolores T. Epifanio de los Santos. Epifanio de los Santos College, Malabon, Rizal.
Espino, Licsi F. Jr. 1977. A Historian with style: love of learning chiseled the man. Archipelago: International Magazine of the Philippines 1:37-38.
Fermin, Jose D. 2004. 1904 World's Fair: the Filipino experience. E. de los Santos St., UP Campus, Diliman Quezon City. p. 73.
Gwekoh, Sol H. Biographical Sketch: Epifanio de los Santos. Variety. p 13.
Hardtendorp, A. V. H. Don Pañong – genius. Philippine Magazine 26 (Sept.) 210–11, 234–235.
Hernandez, Vicente S. 1996. History of books and libraries in the Philippines 1521-1900: A study of the sources and chronology of events pertaining to Philippine library history from the sixteenth to the end of the nineteenth century. National Commission for Culture and the Arts, Manila.
Mella, Cesar. 1974. Directory of Filipino Writers: Past and Present. Manila. CTM enterprises.
Mojares, Resil B. 2006. Brains of the nation: Pedro Paterno, T.H. Pardo de Tavera, Isabelo de los Reyes and the production of modern knowledge. Ateneo de Manila University Press. Bellarmine Hall, Katipunan Avenue Loyola Heights, Quezon City. p. 477.
Nieva, Gregorio, ed. 1880- Manila, P.I.: G. Nieva [etc.]. 2005. The Philippine review (Revista filipina) [Vol. 2, no. 1]. More about Jose Rizal by Epifanio de los Santos. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Library. p. 22.
Palma, Rafael. 1930. Epifanio de los Santos Cristobal.(English translation by Tiburcio Tumaneng from the Spanish Original). Manila. 14 pp.
Qurino, Carlos. 1995. Who's who in the Philippine history. Manila. Tahanan Books.
San Juan, E. Jr. Social Consciousness and Revolt in Modern Philippine Poetry. pp. 394–399.
Santos, Ramon Pagayon. 2007. Tunugan: four essays on Filipino Music. The University of The Philippines Press. 216 pp.
Villareal, Hector K. et al. 1965. Eminent Filipinos. Manila: National Historical Commission.
Zaide, Gregorio F. 1930. Epifanio de los Santos, his collection and library. The Tribune Magazine. pp. 4–5
Zaide, Gregorio F. 1965. Epifanio de los Santos: Great among the great Filipino scholars. In Great Filipinos in history. 88: 575–581.
External links
Who is EDSA?
at www.geocities.com
The North American Filipino Star - great composers and the success of the Kundiman at www.filipinostar.org
Strangers to Us All - The World's Lawyer Poets at www.myweb.wvnet.edu
Viva La Independencia! --> at www.pia.gov.ph
Virtual Law Library: Epifanio de los Santos Avenue
Epifanio Delos Santos: The historian who became part of history at https://news.google.com/newspapers
Roles of Rizal, Bonifacio and other Heroes in the Development of the Republic of the Philippines from articles of Epifanio De Los Santos at http://www.malaya.com.ph
1871 births
1928 deaths
University of Santo Tomas alumni
Ateneo de Manila University alumni
Filipino Roman Catholics
Filipino artists
Filipino composers
Linguists from the Philippines
20th-century Filipino lawyers
Filipino journalists
People of the Philippine Revolution
Filipino poets
Filipino educators
20th-century Filipino historians
Spanish-language writers of the Philippines
Nonviolence advocates
Members of the Royal Spanish Academy
People from Malabon
People from Nueva Ecija
Burials at the Manila North Cemetery
Filipino male poets
Members of the Malolos Congress
Governors of Nueva Ecija
People from the Spanish East Indies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Cordilleran%20Volcanic%20Province
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Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province
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The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province (NCVP), formerly known as the Stikine Volcanic Belt, is a geologic province defined by the occurrence of Miocene to Holocene volcanoes in the Pacific Northwest of North America. This belt of volcanoes extends roughly north-northwest from northwestern British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle through Yukon to the Southeast Fairbanks Census Area of far eastern Alaska, in a corridor hundreds of kilometres wide. It is the most recently defined volcanic province in the Western Cordillera. It has formed due to extensional cracking of the North American continent—similar to other on-land extensional volcanic zones, including the Basin and Range Province and the East African Rift. Although taking its name from the Western Cordillera, this term is a geologic grouping rather than a geographic one. The southmost part of the NCVP has more, and larger, volcanoes than does the rest of the NCVP; further north it is less clearly delineated, describing a large arch that sways westward through central Yukon.
At least four large volcanoes are grouped with the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, including Hoodoo Mountain in the Boundary Ranges, the Mount Edziza volcanic complex on the Tahltan Highland, and Level Mountain and Heart Peaks on the Nahlin Plateau. These four volcanoes have volumes of more than , the largest and oldest which is Level Mountain with an area of and a volume of more than . Apart from the large volcanoes, several smaller volcanoes exist throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, including cinder cones which are widespread throughout the volcanic zone. Most of these small cones have been sites of only one volcanic eruption; this is in contrast to the larger volcanoes throughout the volcanic zone, which have had more than one volcanic eruption throughout their history.
The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is part of an area of intensive earthquake and volcanic activity around the Pacific Ocean called the Pacific Ring of Fire. However, the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is commonly interpreted to be part of a gap in the Pacific Ring of Fire between the Cascade Volcanic Arc further south and the Aleutian Arc further north. But the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is recognized to include over 100 independent volcanoes that have been active in the past 1.8 million years. At least three of them have erupted in the past 360 years, making it the most active volcanic area in Canada. Nevertheless, the dispersed population within the volcanic zone has witnessed few eruptions due to remoteness and the infrequent volcanic activity.
Geology
Origins and chemistry
The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province has been a zone of active volcanism since it began to form 20 million years ago. Unlike other parts of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province has its origins in continental rifting—an area where the Earth's crust and lithosphere is being pulled apart. This differs from other portions of the Pacific Ring of Fire as it consists largely of volcanic arcs formed by subducting oceanic crust at oceanic trenches along continental margins circling the Pacific Ocean. The continental crust at the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is being stretched at a rate of about per year. This incipient rifting formed as a result of the Pacific Plate sliding northward along the Queen Charlotte Fault, on its way to the Aleutian Trench, which extends along the southern coastline of Alaska and the adjacent waters off the southern coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula. As a result, volcanism in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is also not related to back-arc basin volcanism. When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals, it can create very large earthquakes, such as the magnitude 8.1 Queen Charlotte Islands earthquake of 1949. As these far-field forces stretch the North American crust, the near surface rocks fracture along steeply dipping faults parallel to the rift zone. Hot magma rises between these fractures to create passive or effusive eruptions. Volcanoes within the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province are located along short northerly trending segments which in the northern part of the volcanic province are unmistakenably involved with north-trending rift structures, including synvolcanic grabens and grabens with one major fault line along only one of the boundaries (half-grabens). Grabens are indicative of tensional forces and crustal stretching.
Two major north-trending faults hundreds of kilometres long extend along the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. These two rock fractures, known as the Tintina and Denali fault systems, have been tectonically active since the Cretaceous period as strike-slip faults. The Denali fault to the west and the Tintina fault to the east are nearly long, extending from northern British Columbia to central Alaska. Other mechanisms suggested for triggering volcanism in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province include mantle plumes, deglaciation and slab windows, although continental rifting is the most accurate mechanism for activating volcanism in the volcanic zone. Further evidence for continental rifting in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is magmas are mainly alkaline, it includes highly alkaline and peralkaline rock types, the main spatial-temporal pattern of volcanism is in the middle of the volcanic province followed by movement to the south, north and possibly northeast, heat flow in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is high, seismic activity is largely absent in the volcanic province and the largest period of volcanism correlates with an interval of net extension between the Pacific and North American plates.
A range of more heavily alkaline rock types not commonly found in the Western Cordillera are regionally widespread in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. These include nephelinite, basanite and peralkaline phonolite, trachyte, and comendite lavas. The most magnesium oxide-rich nephelinites, basanites and alkaline basalts all through the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province display trace element abundances and isotopic compositions that are logical with an asthenospheric source like those for average oceanic island basalt and for alkaline basalts younger than five million years in the rift-related Basin and Range Province of southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. One hypothesized explanation for oceanic island basalt in the Earth's upper mantle under the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is the existence of a slab window. However, not much of a noticeable evidence linking the production of magma in the upper mantle to a possible tectonic system has been stated.
The existence of a fault next to the western flank of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex is normally considered to be the prime structural evidence for continental rifting in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. However, more recent mapping and seismic studies in the Coast Mountains have documented the presence of brittle rift-related faults southwest of the small community of Stewart in northwestern British Columbia. But these faults were in a matter of dispute in 1997 by geologists, stating these faults were last active between 20 and five million years ago. In 1999, a sequence of north-trending faults were mapped that seem to represent young rifting events parallel with the southwestern boundary of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. These rift-related faults might have been active as recently as five million years ago and they might have connections with adjacent Miocene and younger volcanic activity in the southern part of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. In addition, brittle faults with similar north-trending directions might enlarge as far north as the fault next to the western flank of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex. These tectonic events might have helped form the structure the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province.
Subduction beside the northern portion of the Western Cordillera deceased between 43 and 40 million years ago. This finally caused the formation of a slab window under the northern portion of the Western Cordillera 10 million years ago, supporting an entrance to relatively undepleted upper mantle. A switch in relative plate motions at the Queen Charlotte Fault 10 million years ago produced consequent strain throughout the northern portion of the Western Cordillera, resulting in crustal thinning and decompression melting of oceanic island basalt-like mantle to create alkaline volcanism. Several plate motion models indicate a rebound to net compression throughout the Queen Charlotte Fault sometime after four million years ago. Although extensive rifting has not yet been recognized in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, volcanism throughout the past 1.6 million years is possibly due to repetitive upper mantle upwelling and adjacent transtension throughout the Queen Charlotte Fault, accommodated partly by numerous east–west trending fault zones that extend all through the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province.
The volcanics comprising the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province are consistent with the rifting environment. Alkaline basalt, lesser hawaiite and basanite magmas from effusive eruptions create the massive shield volcanoes and small cinder cones throughout the volcanic province, several of which comprise lherzolite magma. Felsic magmas from more viscous eruptions create the massive central volcanoes and largely consist of trachyte, pantellerite and comendite lavas. These felsic volcanics are understood to have been created by fractionation of mainly alkali basalt magma in crustal reservoirs. An area of continental rifting, such as the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, would aid the formation of high-level reservoirs of capable size and thermal activity to maintain long-lived fractionation.
Lithosphere thickness
The variety of different temperature ranges from xenoliths throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province indicate that a narrow lithosphere lies under the northern portion of the volcanic province and a more dense lithosphere lies under the southern portion of the volcanic province. This indication is further provided if the geothermal gradient inside the lithosphere under the northern portion of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is greater than that in the southern portion of the province. A greater geothermal gradient would indicate that a xenolith recording a temperature of was collected from a shallower depth than one from a zone with a reduced geothermal gradient that also records a temperature of .
Further evidence that indicate lithospheric thickening beneath the middle portion of Stikinia include the increased profusion of cognate inclusion and plagioclase megacrysts in volcanic rocks from the southern portion of the volcanic province, which might be evidence of magma ponding and magma crystallization in the lithosphere before a volcanic eruption, and the restricted existence of petrologically evolved rock types in the southern half of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. If the developed magmas originated from fractionation of mafic magmas, fractionation associated with lithospheric contamination, or entirely from melting of the associated lithosphere, their existence suggests more dense lithosphere lies under the southern portion of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province.
In the Llangorse section of the Atlin Volcanic Field in northwestern British Columbia, a suite of xenoliths confines the thickness of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province mantle lithosphere to as thin as and a thickness no more than . Analysis of recent data related to earthquakes in the southwestern portion of the volcanic province indicates that the crust under Stikinia, which comprises the bedrock underlying a large number of volcanoes in the southern portion of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, is also more dense than the crust under the nearby Coast Plutonic Complex, which consists of a broad belt of granitic and dioritic intrusive rocks that collectively represent more than 140 million years of nearly continuous subduction-related magmatism.
Geological features
Hot springs are present throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, indicating magmatic heat is present under the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. They are formed if water percolates deeply through the crust and heats up from the primal magmatic heat under the surface. After the groundwater is heated, the heated groundwater rises to the surface as a hot spring. In some cases, the heated groundwater may rise along extensional faults related to rifting in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. The Lakelse Hot Springs near Lakelse Lake Provincial Park in northern British Columbia is interpreted to be one such example. With a temperature of , the springs are the hottest in Canada. It is also possible the magma associated with the Nass Valley eruption 250 years ago to the north rose along the same north trending fault lines fueling the Lakelse Hot Springs. Hot springs are also present in Iskut River Hot Springs Provincial Park and Choquette Hot Springs Provincial Park in northwestern British Columbia.
Xenoliths, rock fragments that become enveloped in a larger igneous rock, are widespread in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. Xenoliths that originated in the Earth's crust include rich metamorphic rocks and felsic intrusive rocks. Granulite xenoliths exist mainly at the Fort Selkirk Volcanic Field in central Yukon, Prindle Volcano in easternmost Alaska and at Castle Rock and the Iskut River in northern British Columbia. Felsic intrusive xenoliths are a lot more common and usually originate from adjacent granitic intrusions, including those that form the Coast Mountains. More than 14 volcanic zones throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province comprise xenoliths that originated from the Earth's mantle and are located mainly at the Yukon–Tanana Terrane, the Cache Creek Terrane and at volcanoes occupying the Paleozoic and Mesozoic Stikinia terrane. They consist of lherzolite, harzburgite, wehrlite, dunite, websterite and garnet composed pyroxenite. The highest and lowest temperatures recorded by mantle xenoliths increase to the south and decrease to the north. Mantle xenoliths at Prindle Volcano in easternmost Alaska record the minimum temperature of and mantle xenoliths from the Fort Selkirk Volcanic Field in central Yukon record the minimum temperature range from . At Castle Rock in northern British Columbia, mantle xenoliths record the maximum temperature of , as well as the maximum temperature range from . The minimum xenolith temperatures indicate that the boundary between the Earth's crust and mantle is shallowest beneath the northern portion of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. Therefore, the temperature ranges for the northernmost xenolith series is about one-half the temperature range found in xenoliths at the southern portion of the volcanic province.
Megacrysts, crystals or grains that are considerably larger than the encircling matrix, are commonly found in lava flows throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. They consist of three different groups, including kaersutitic amphibole megacrysts, clinopyroxene megacrysts and plagioclase megacrysts. Megacrysts made of kaersutite are known to be found mainly at Llangorse Mountain in northern British Columbia. Black glassy clinopyroxene megacrysts are widespread throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, suggesting their creation is independent of lithosphere structure. In contrast, clear glassy plagioclase megacrysts are found largely at the southern end of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province and largely within the boundaries of the Stikinia terrane. This suggests the plagioclase megacrysts have a source that is sensitive to the Earth's lithosphere, including contamination or magma ponding. Megacrysts made of plagioclase and clinopyroxene regionally show significant evidence of reaction with the associated magma, including sieve-textured cores and random, resorbed and embayed outer margins wherever they are located.
Lava tubes are widespread in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, and are typically basaltic in composition. At Level Mountain, lava tubes reach diameters of to . These owed their origin to highly fluid lavas with temperatures of at least . In Nisga'a Memorial Lava Beds Provincial Park of northwestern British Columbia, lava tubes are present that were formed during one of Canada's most recent volcanic eruptions in the 18th century. Lava Fork at the British Columbia-Alaska border is influenced by lava flows from a recent volcanic eruption that later collapsed into underlying lava tubes after the lava solidified. Sections of these collapsed lava tubes now form volcanic pits.
Extensive areas of nearly flat-lying lava flows throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province can cover areas of at least and are generally composed of highly-fluid basaltic lava. However, lava plains that pre-date the last glacial period have been eroded and overridden by glacial ice, affording a less distinctive form to these older landforms. For example, lava beds at least a million years old in central Yukon contain unconsolidated glacial deposits that were deposited when glacial ice rode on top of the lava flows comprising the lava beds.
Subvolcanic intrusions in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province are exposed in areas of high relief. This includes volcanic plugs found at the Mount Edziza volcanic complex, Level Mountain, Hoodoo Mountain and in the Atlin and Maitland areas. Volcanic plugs in the Atlin and Maitland areas consist of olivine nephelinite and basanite magmas. Minor plugs made of gabbroic and granitic magma are associated with volcanic stratigraphy at the Mount Edziza volcanic complex and Level Mountain.
Terranes and boundaries
The bedrock of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province consists of four large terranes, known as Stikinia, Cache Creek, Yukon–Tanana and Cassiar. Stikinia is a sequence of late Paleozoic and Mesozoic aged volcanic, plutonic and sedimentary rocks interpreted to have been created in an island arc environment that were later placed along a pre-existing continental margin. The Cache Creek Terrane is believed to have formed widely in a pre-existing oceanic basin. It comprises late Paleozoic to Mesozoic aged oceanic melange and abyssal peridotites intruded by younger granitic intrusions. The Yukon–Tanana and Cassiar terranes consist of shifted sedimentary and metamorphic rocks that were derived from the North American continent.
The southern boundary of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is parallel with southwestern Stikinia and is characterized by separate volcanic vents and erosional remains of lavas south of the small community of Stewart. The southern boundary of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province also parallels with a gap in modern volcanism and the supposed northern boundary of the Cascadia subduction zone, defined by the eastward extension of the northern edge of the subducting Juan de Fuca Plate. These two zones divide the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province from modern volcanic zones further south, including the broad Chilcotin Plateau, the east–west trending Anahim Volcanic Belt and the monogenetic Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field in the British Columbia Interior. The eastern boundary of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is bounded by the Cassiar Terrane and is adjoined by a cluster of volcanic plugs in central British Columbia. The northern and western boundaries are adjoined by the Yukon–Tanana and Cache Creek terranes where there lies volcanics in eastern Alaska and weathered remains of lava flows just north and west of Dawson City in west-central Yukon.
Tintina and Denali fault zones
The Tintina and Denali faults are the largest fault zones associated with the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province rift zone, with all volcanism occurring west of the Tintina Fault and east of the Denali Fault. Physiographically, the Tintina Fault forms the Northern Rocky Mountain Trench and the Tintina Trench, which is the northern extension of the Northern Rocky Mountain Trench. The fastest rates of strike-slip movement along the Tintina Fault likely occurred during two pulses in the Mid-Cretaceous and early Cenozoic periods, respectively, with the latter probably occurring during the Eocene epoch. Since the Cretaceous, the Tintina Fault has offset of the surface, although some evidence suggest as much as of offset. The offset caused the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province and the terrains of which the volcanic province occupies to move northwards. In the context of plate tectonics, strip-slip movement of the Tintina Fault is also related to strike-slip movement along the San Andreas Fault and other extensional or strike-slip fault systems of western North America.
To the west, the Denali Fault is the source of minor earthquakes that extend along the length of the fault. In contrast to the Tintina Fault, strike-slip movement along the Denali Fault has offset at least of the surface. The fault separates mountains of the Insular Belt from mountains east of the fault. Tectonic events in the Insular Belt are also related to movement along the Denali Fault.
Human history
The term Stikine Volcanic Belt was originally defined by Jack Souther and Christopher Yorath of the Geological Survey of Canada in 1991 as a group of volcanic deposits centered around the Stikine River in northwestern British Columbia. As more mapping and dating of volcanic deposits was completed in the Western Cordillera, the Stikine Volcanic Belt was expanded to include volcanic deposits further and further from the geographic area associated with the name Stikine. In part for this reason, scientists Ben Edwards and James Russell redefined this area of volcanism as the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. As a geographic descriptor, application of the name Stikine to volcanic rocks exposed along the Yukon River seems a bit odd and confusing. As well, a much older group of totally unrelated volcanic rocks comprise the Stikine Assemblage, which also mainly occurs within the geographic area informally referred to as Stikine Country. The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is a broader name, to encompass a broader geographic area, in which the most recent volcanism has a similar character (mainly alkaline, mafic volcanic rocks), a similar age range (Miocene to Holocene), and a similar tectonic setting (transtension).
See also
Geology of the Pacific Northwest
List of Northern Cordilleran volcanoes
List of volcanoes in Canada
List of volcanoes in the United States
Volcanic history of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province
Volcanology of Canada
Volcanology of Northern Canada
Volcanology of Western Canada
References
External links
Map of Canadian volcanoes – Stikine Volcanic Belt
Volcanoes of Canada – Map of Canadian volcanoes
Volcanism of Alaska
Volcanism of British Columbia
Volcanism of Yukon
Rifts and grabens
Miocene volcanism
Pliocene volcanism
Pleistocene volcanism
Holocene volcanism
Cenozoic geology of North America
Cenozoic British Columbia
Cenozoic Yukon
Cenozoic United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable%20water%20purification
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Portable water purification
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Portable water purification devices are self-contained, easily transported units used to purify water from untreated sources (such as rivers, lakes, and wells) for drinking purposes. Their main function is to eliminate pathogens, and often also of suspended solids and some unpalatable or toxic compounds.
These units provide an autonomous supply of drinking water to people without access to clean water supply services, including inhabitants of developing countries and disaster areas, military personnel, campers, hikers, and workers in wilderness, and survivalists. They are also called point-of-use water treatment systems and field water disinfection techniques.
Techniques include heat (including boiling), filtration, activated charcoal adsorption, chemical disinfection (e.g. chlorination, iodine, ozonation, etc.), ultraviolet purification (including sodis), distillation (including solar distillation), and flocculation. Often these are used in combination.
Drinking water hazards
Untreated water may contain potentially pathogenic agents, including protozoa, bacteria, viruses, and some larvae of higher-order parasites such as liver flukes and roundworms. Chemical pollutants such as pesticides, heavy metals and synthetic organics may be present. Other components may affect taste, odour and general aesthetic qualities, including turbidity from soil or clay, colour from humic acid or microscopic algae, odours from certain type of bacteria, particularly Actinomycetes which produce geosmin, and saltiness from brackish or sea water.
Common metallic contaminants such as copper and lead can be treated by increasing the pH using soda ash or lime, which precipitates such metals. Careful decanting of the clear water after settlement or the use of filtration provides acceptably low levels of metals. Water contaminated by aluminium or zinc cannot be treated in this way using a strong alkali as higher pHs re-dissolve the metal salts. Salt is difficult to remove except by reverse osmosis or distillation.
Most portable treatment processes focus on mitigating human pathogens for safety and removing particulates matter, tastes and odours. Significant pathogens commonly present in the developed world include Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Shigella, hepatitis A virus, Escherichia coli, and enterovirus. In less developed countries there may be risks from cholera and dysentery organisms and a range of tropical enteroparasites.
Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium spp., both of which cause diarrhea (see giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis) are common pathogens. In backcountry areas of the United States and Canada they are sometimes present in sufficient quantity that water treatment is justified for backpackers, although this has created some controversy. (See wilderness acquired diarrhea.) In Hawaii and other tropical areas, Leptospira spp. are another possible problem.
Less commonly seen in developed countries are organisms such as Vibrio cholerae which causes cholera and various strains of Salmonella which cause typhoid and para-typhoid diseases. Pathogenic viruses may also be found in water. The larvae of flukes are particularly dangerous in area frequented by sheep, deer, or cattle. If such microscopic larvae are ingested, they can form potentially life-threatening cysts in the brain or liver. This risk extends to plants grown in or near water including the commonly eaten watercress.
In general, more human activity up stream (i.e. the larger the stream/river) the greater the potential for contamination from sewage effluent, surface runoff, or industrial pollutants. Groundwater pollution may occur from human activity (e.g. on-site sanitation systems or mining) or might be naturally occurring (e.g. from arsenic in some regions of India and Bangladesh). Water collected as far upstream as possible above all known or anticipated risks of pollution poses the lowest risk of contamination and is best suited to portable treatment methods.
Techniques
Not all techniques by themselves will mitigate all hazards. Although flocculation followed by filtration has been suggested as best practice this is rarely practicable without the ability to carefully control pH and settling conditions. Ill-advised use of alum as a flocculant can lead to unacceptable levels of aluminium in the water so treated. If water is to be stored, halogens offer extended protection.
Heat (boiling)
Heat kills disease-causing micro-organisms, with higher temperatures and/or duration required for some pathogens. Sterilization of water (killing all living contaminants) is not necessary to make water safe to drink; one only needs to render enteric (intestinal) pathogens harmless. Boiling does not remove most pollutants and does not leave any residual protection.
The WHO states bringing water to rolling boil then naturally cooling is sufficient to inactivate pathogenic bacteria, viruses and protozoa.
The CDC recommends a rolling boil for 1 minute. At high elevations, though, the boiling point of water drops. At altitudes greater than boiling should continue for 3 minutes.
All bacterial pathogens are quickly killed above , therefore, although boiling is not necessary to make the water safe to drink, the time taken to heat the water to boiling is usually sufficient to reduce bacterial concentrations to safe levels. Encysted protozoan pathogens may require higher temperatures to remove any risk.
Boiling is not always necessary nor sometimes enough. Pasteurization where enough pathogens are killed typically occurs at 63 °C for 30 minutes or 72 °C for 15 seconds. Certain pathogens must be heated above boiling (e.g. botulismClostridium botulinum requires , most endospores require , and prions even higher). Higher temperatures may be achieved with a pressure cooker. Heat combined with ultraviolet light (UV), such as sodis method, reduces the necessary temperature and duration.
Filtration
Portable pump filters are commercially available with ceramic filters that filter 5,000 to 50,000 litres per cartridge, removing pathogens down to the 0.2–0.3 micrometer (µm) range. Some also utilize activated charcoal filtering. Most filters of this kind remove most bacteria and protozoa, such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia lamblia, but not viruses except for the very largest of 0.3 µm and larger diameters, so disinfection by chemicals or ultraviolet light is still required after filtration. It is worth noting that not all bacteria are removed by 0.2 µm pump filters; for example, strands of thread-like Leptospira spp. (which can cause leptospirosis) are thin enough to pass through a 0.2 µm filter. Effective chemical additives to address shortcomings in pump filters include chlorine, chlorine dioxide, iodine, and sodium hypochlorite (bleach). There have been polymer and ceramic filters on the market that incorporated iodine post-treatment in their filter elements to kill viruses and the smaller bacteria that cannot be filtered out, but most have disappeared due to the unpleasant taste imparted to the water, as well as possible adverse health effects when iodine is ingested over protracted periods.
While the filtration elements may do an excellent job of removing most bacteria and fungi contaminants from drinking water when new, the elements themselves can become colonization sites. In recent years some filters have been enhanced by bonding silver metal nanoparticles to the ceramic element and/or to the activated charcoal to suppress growth of pathogens.
Small, hand-pumped reverse osmosis filters were originally developed for the military in the late 1980s for use as survival equipment, for example, to be included with inflatable rafts on aircraft. Civilian versions are available. Instead of using the static pressure of a water supply line to force the water through the filter, pressure is provided by a hand-operated pump. These devices can generate drinkable water from seawater.
The Portable Aqua Unit for Lifesaving (short PAUL) is a portable ultrafiltration-based membrane water filter for humanitarian aid. It allows the decentralized supply of clean water in emergency and disaster situations for about 400 persons per unit per day. The filter is designed to function with neither chemicals nor energy nor trained personnel.
Activated charcoal adsorption
Granular activated carbon filtering utilizes a form of activated carbon with a high surface area, and adsorbs many compounds, including many toxic compounds. Water passing through activated carbon is commonly used in concert with hand pumped filters to address organic contamination, taste, or objectionable odors. Activated carbon filters aren't usually used as the primary purification techniques of portable water purification devices, but rather as secondary means to complement another purification technique. It is most commonly implemented for pre- or post-filtering, in a separate step than ceramic filtering, in either case being implemented prior to the addition of chemical disinfectants used to control bacteria or viruses that filters cannot remove. Activated charcoal can remove chlorine from treated water, removing any residual protection remaining in the water protecting against pathogens, and should not, in general, be used without careful thought after chemical disinfection treatments in portable water purification processing. Ceramic/Carbon Core filters with a 0.5 µm or smaller pore size are excellent for removing bacteria and cysts while also removing chemicals.
Chemical disinfection with halogens
Chemical disinfection with halogens, chiefly chlorine and iodine, results from oxidation of essential cellular structures and enzymes. The primary factors that determine the rate and proportion of microorganisms killed are the residual or available halogen concentration and the exposure time. Secondary factors are pathogen species, water temperature, pH, and organic contaminants. In field-water disinfection, use of concentrations of 1–16 mg/L for 10–60 min is generally effective. Of note, Cryptosporidium oocysts, likely Cyclospora species, Ascaris eggs are extremely resistant to halogens and field inactivation may not be practical with bleach and iodine.
Iodine
Iodine used for water purification is commonly added to water as a solution, in crystallized form, or in tablets containing tetraglycine hydroperiodide that release 8 mg of iodine per tablet. The iodine kills many, but not all, of the most common pathogens present in natural fresh water sources. Carrying iodine for water purification is an imperfect but lightweight solution for those in need of field purification of drinking water. Kits are available in camping stores that include an iodine pill and a second pill (vitamin C or ascorbic acid) that will remove the iodine taste from the water after it has been disinfected. The addition of vitamin C, in the form of a pill or in flavored drink powders, precipitates much of the iodine out of the solution, so it should not be added until the iodine has had sufficient time to work. This time is 30 minutes in relatively clear, warm water, but is considerably longer if the water is turbid or cold. Daily consumption of water treated with 4 tablets containing tetraglycine hydroperiodide reduced the uptake of radioactive iodine in human subjects to a mean of 1.1 percent, from a baseline mean of 16 percent, after a week of treatment. At 90 days of daily treatment, uptake was further reduced to a mean of 0.5 percent. If the iodine has precipitated out of the solution, then the drinking water has less available iodine in the solution. Tetraglycine hydroperiodide maintains its effectiveness indefinitely before the container is opened; although some manufacturers suggest not using the tablets more than three months after the container has initially been opened, the shelf life is in fact very long provided that the container is resealed immediately after each time it is opened.
Iodine should be allowed at least 30 minutes to kill Giardia.
Iodine crystals
A potentially lower cost alternative to using iodine-based water purification tablets is the use of iodine crystals, although there are serious risks of acute iodine toxicity if preparation and dilution are not measured with some accuracy. This method may not be adequate in killing Giardia cysts in cold water. An advantage of using iodine crystals is that only a small amount of iodine is dissolved from the iodine crystals at each use, giving this method of treating water a capability for treating very large volumes of water. Unlike tetraglycine hydroperiodide tablets, iodine crystals have an unlimited shelf life as long as they are not exposed to air for long periods of time or are kept under water. Iodine crystals will sublimate if exposed to air for long periods of time. The large quantity of water that can be purified with iodine crystals at low cost makes this technique especially cost effective for point of use or emergency water purification methods intended for use longer than the shelf life of tetraglycine hydroperiodide.
Halazone tablets
Chlorine-based halazone tablets were formerly popularly used for portable water purification. Chlorine in water is more than three times more effective as a disinfectant against Escherichia coli than iodine. Halazone tablets were thus commonly used during World War II by U.S. soldiers for portable water purification, even being included in accessory packs for C-rations until 1945.
Sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) has largely displaced halazone tablets for the few remaining chlorine-based water purification tablets available today. It is compressed with effervescent salts, usually adipic acid and sodium bicarbonate, to form rapidly dissolving tablets, diluted to 10 parts per million available chlorine (ppm av.cl) when drinking water is mildly contaminated and 20ppm when visibly contaminated.
Chlorine bleach tablets give a more stable platform for disinfecting the water than liquid bleach (sodium hypochlorite) as the liquid version tends to degrade with age and give unregulated results unless assays are carried outnot practical on the spot. Still, despite chlorine-based halazone tablets falling from favor for portable water purification, chlorine-based bleach may nonetheless safely be used for short-term emergency water disinfection. Two drops of unscented 5% bleach can be added per liter or quart of clear water, then allowed to stand covered for 30 to 60 minutes. After this treatment, the water may be left open to reduce the chlorine smell and taste. Guidelines are available online for effective emergency use of bleach to render unsafe water potable.
The Centers for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC) and Population Services International (PSI) promote a similar product (a 0.5% - 1.5% sodium hypochlorite solution) as part of their Safe Water System (SWS) strategy. The product is sold in developing countries under local brand names specifically for the purpose of disinfecting drinking water.
Bleach
Common bleach including calcium hypochlorite (Ca[OCl]2) and sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) are common, well-researched, low-cost oxidizers.
The EPA recommends two drops of 8.25% sodium hypochlorite solution (regular, unscented chlorine bleach) mixed per one quart/liter of water and leave to stand for 30 minutes. Two drops of 5% solution also suffices. Double the amount of bleach if the water is cloudy, colored, or very cold. Afterwards, the water should have a slight chlorine odor. If not repeat the dosage and let stand for another 15 minutes before use.
Neither chlorine (e.g., bleach) nor iodine alone is considered completely effective against Cryptosporidium, although they are partially effective against Giardia. Chlorine is considered slightly better against the latter. A more complete field solution that includes chemical disinfectants is to first filter the water, using a 0.2 µm ceramic cartridge pumped filter, followed by treatment with iodine or chlorine, thereby filtering out cryptosporidium, Giardia, and most bacteria, along with the larger viruses, while also using chemical disinfectant to address smaller viruses and bacteria that the filter cannot remove. This combination is also potentially more effective in some cases than even using portable electronic disinfection based on UV treatment.
Chlorine dioxide
Chlorine dioxide can come from tablets or be created by mixing two chemicals together. It is more effective than iodine or chlorine against giardia, and although it has only low to moderate effectiveness against cryptosporidium, iodine and chlorine are ineffective against this protozoan. The cost of chlorine dioxide treatment is higher than the cost of iodine treatment.
Mixed oxidant
A simple brine {salt + water} solution in an electrolytic reaction produces a powerful mixed oxidant disinfectant (mostly chlorine in the form of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and some peroxide, ozone, chlorine dioxide).
Chlorine tablets
Sodium dichloroisocyanurate or troclosene sodium, more commonly shortened as NaDCC, is a form of chlorine used for disinfection. It is used by all major non-governmental organizations such as UNICEF to treat water in emergencies, and widely by social marketing organisations for household water treatment where household sources of water may not be safe.
Sodium dichloroisocyanurate tablets are available in a range of concentrations to treat differing volumes of water to give the World Health Organization's recommended 5ppm available chlorine. They are effervescent tablets allowing the tablet to dissolve in a matter of minutes.
Other chemical disinfection additives
Silver ion tablets
An alternative to iodine-based preparations in some usage scenarios are silver ion/chlorine dioxide-based tablets or droplets. These solutions may disinfect water more effectively than iodine-based techniques while leaving hardly any noticeable taste in the water in some usage scenarios. Silver ion/chlorine dioxide-based disinfecting agents will kill Cryptosporidium and Giardia, if utilized correctly. The primary disadvantage of silver ion/chlorine dioxide-based techniques is the long purification times (generally 30 minutes to 4 hours, depending on the formulation used). Another concern is the possible deposition and accumulation of silver compounds in various body tissues leading to a rare condition called argyria that results in a permanent, disfiguring, bluish-gray pigmentation of the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes.
Hydrogen peroxide
One recent study has found that the wild Salmonella which would reproduce quickly during subsequent dark storage of solar-disinfected water could be controlled by the addition of just 10 parts per million of hydrogen peroxide.
Ultraviolet purification
Ultraviolet (UV) light induces the formation of covalent linkages on DNA and thereby prevents microbes from reproducing. Without reproduction, the microbes become far less dangerous. Germicidal UV-C light in the short wavelength range of 100–280 nm acts on thymine, one of the four base nucleotides in DNA. When a germicidal UV photon is absorbed by a thymine molecule that is adjacent to another thymine within the DNA strand, a covalent bond or dimer between the molecules is created. This thymine dimer prevents enzymes from "reading" the DNA and copying it, thus neutering the microbe. Prolonged exposure to ionizing radiation can cause single and double-stranded breaks in DNA, oxidation of membrane lipids, and denaturation of proteins, all of which are toxic to cells. Still, there are limits to this technology. Water turbidity (i.e., the amount of suspended & colloidal solids contained in the water to be treated) must be low, such that the water is clear, for UV purification to work well - thus a pre-filter step might be necessary.
A concern with UV portable water purification is that some pathogens are hundreds of times less sensitive to UV light than others. Protozoan cysts were once believed to be among the least sensitive, however recent studies have proved otherwise, demonstrating that both Cryptosporidium and Giardia are deactivated by a UV dose of just 6 mJ/cm2 However, EPA regulations and other studies show that it is viruses that are the limiting factor of UV treatment, requiring a 10-30 times greater dose of UV light than Giardia or Cryptosporidium.
Studies have shown that UV doses at the levels provided by common portable UV units are effective at killing Giardia and that there was no evidence of repair and reactivation of the cysts.
Water treated with UV still has the microbes present in the water, only with their means for reproduction turned "off". In the event that such UV-treated water containing neutered microbes is exposed to visible light (specifically, wavelengths of light over 330-500 nm) for any significant period of time, a process known as photo reactivation can take place, where the possibility for repairing the damage in the bacteria's reproduction DNA arises, potentially rendering them once more capable of reproducing and causing disease. UV-treated water must therefore not be exposed to visible light for any significant period of time after UV treatment, before consumption, to avoid ingesting reactivated and dangerous microbes.
Recent developments in semiconductor technology allows for the development of UV-C Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). UV-C LED systems address disadvantages of mercury-based technology, namely: power-cycling penalties, high power needs, fragility, warm-up time, and mercury content.
Solar water disinfection
In solar water disinfection (often shortened as "sodis"), microbes are destroyed by temperature and UVA radiation provided by the sun. Water is placed in a transparent plastic PET bottle or plastic bag, oxygenated by shaking partially filled capped bottles prior to filling the bottles all the way, and left in the sun for 6–24 hours atop a reflective surface.
Solar distillation
Solar distillation relies on sunlight to warm and evaporate the water to be purified which then condenses and trickles into a container. In theory, a solar (condensation) still removes all pathogens, salts, metals, and most chemicals but in field practice the lack of clean components, easy contact with dirt, improvised construction, and disturbances result in cleaner, yet contaminated water.
Homemade water filters
Water filters can be made on-site using local materials such as sand and charcoal (e.g. from firewood burned in a special way). These filters are sometimes used by soldiers and outdoor enthusiasts. Due to their low cost they can be made and used by anyone. The reliability of such systems is highly variable. Such filters can do little, if anything, to mitigate germs and other harmful constituents and can give a false sense of security that the water so produced is potable. Water processed through an improvised filter should undergo secondary processing such as boiling to render it safe for consumption.
Prevention of water contamination
Human water-borne diseases usually come from other humans, thus human-derived materials (feces, medical waste, wash water, lawn chemicals, gasoline engines, garbage, etc.) should be kept far away from water sources. For example, human excreta should be buried well away (>) from water sources to reduce contamination. In some wilderness areas it is recommended that all waste be packed up and carted out to a properly designated disposal point.
See also
Ceramic water filter
Desalination
Self-supply of water and sanitation
Solar water disinfection
Traveler's diarrhea
Water quality
Wilderness acquired diarrhea
References
External links
Household Water Treatment Knowledge on CAWST website
Water
Camping
Drinking water
Hiking
Waterborne diseases
Wilderness
Camping equipment
Hiking equipment
Emergency services
Water treatment
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5301364
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliotherapy
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Bibliotherapy
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Bibliotherapy (also referred to as book therapy, reading therapy, poetry therapy or therapeutic storytelling) is a creative arts therapy that involves storytelling or the reading of specific texts. It uses an individual's relationship to the content of books and poetry and other written words as therapy. Bibliotherapy partially overlaps with, and is often combined with, writing therapy.
Distinct from the creative arts therapy is bibliotherapy as a supportive psychotherapy, a brief self-help intervention where through the reading of a chosen standard manual, emotion regulation skills are acquired through either behavioral therapy or cognitive therapy techniques. Two popular books used for this are The Feeling Good Handbook for cognitive therapy and Control Your Depression for behavioral therapy. The main advantage of this psychotherapy compared to cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is its cost-effectiveness, although, especially for complex presentations, CBT tends to have more positive treatment outcomes. It has been shown to be effective in the treatment of mild to moderate depression, with cognitive bibliotherapy having a long-lasting effect. Modest evidence also exists to the symptom reduction of alcohol dependence, self-harm and panic disorder.
Unstructured and more informal bibliotherapy fits under creative arts therapies, possibly including reading or activity recommendations by a librarian or health professional based on perceived therapeutic value. More structured bibliotherapy can be described as supportive psychotherapy, where more consideration is placed on the therapist in the selection of reading material and in including other activities to facilitate skill acquisition and symptom reduction. An important difference between the two is the greater empirical support of symptom reduction in bibliotherapy as a supportive psychotherapy.
History
Bibliotherapy is an old concept in library science. According to the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, in his monumental work Bibliotheca historica, there was a phrase above the entrance to the royal chamber where books were stored by King Ramses II of Egypt. Considered to be the oldest known library motto in the world, ψῡχῆς ἰατρεῖον on, is translated: "the house of healing for the soul". Galen, the extraordinary philosopher and physician to Marcus Aurelius of Rome, maintained a medical library in the first century A.D., used not only by himself but by the staff of the Sanctuary Asclepion, a Roman spa famous for its therapeutic waters and considered to be one of the first hospital centers in the world. As far back as 1272, the Koran was prescribed reading in the Al-Mansur Hospital in Cairo as medical treatment.
In the early nineteenth century, Benjamin Rush favored the use of literature in hospitals for both the "amusement and instruction of patients". By the middle of the century, Minson Galt II wrote on the uses of bibliotherapy in mental institutions, and by 1900 libraries were an important part of European psychiatric institutions.
After the term bibliotherapy was coined by Samuel McChord Crothers in an August 1916 Atlantic Monthly article, it eventually found its way into the medical lexicon. During World War I, the Library War Service stationed librarians in military hospitals, where they dispensed books to patients and developed the emerging "science" of bibliotherapy with hospital physicians. When they returned from the war, they tried to implement these ideas in hospital libraries. E. Kathleen Jones, the editor of the book series Hospital Libraries, was the library administrator for the McLean Hospital in Massachusetts. This influential work was first published in 1923, and then updated in 1939, and again in 1953. Pioneer librarian Sadie Peterson Delaney used bibliotherapy in her work at the VA Hospital in Tuskegee, Alabama from 1924 to her death in 1958. Elizabeth Pomeroy, director of the Veterans Administration Library Service, published the results of her research in 1937 on the efficacy of bibliotherapy at VA hospitals. The United Kingdom, beginning in the 1930s, also began to show growth in the use of reading therapy in hospital libraries. Charles Hagberg-Wright, librarian of the London Library, speaking at the 1930 British Empire Red Cross Conference, spoke about the importance of bibliotherapy as part of "curative medicine" in hospitals. In addition, reports from the 1930 Public Health Conference about bibliotherapy were included in the British journal Lancet. By the 1920s, there were also training programs in bibliotherapy. One of the first to offer such training was the School of Library Science at Western Reserve University followed by a program at the University of Minnesota School of Medicine.
With hospitals taking the lead, bibliotherapy principles and practice developed in the United States. In the United Kingdom, some felt that bibliotherapy lagged behind the US and Joyce Coates, writing in the Library Association Record, felt that "the possibilities of bibliotherapy have yet to be fully explored". In 1966, the Association of Hospital and Institution Libraries, a division of the American Library Association, issued a working definition of bibliotherapy in recognition of its growing influence. Then, in the 1970s, Arleen McCarty Hynes, a proponent for the use of bibliotherapy, created the "Bibliotherapy Round Table" which sponsored lectures and publications dedicated to the practice.
Changing definitions
In its most basic form, bibliotherapy is using books to aid people in solving the issues that they may be facing at a particular time. It consists of selecting reading material relevant to a client's life situation. Bibliotherapy has also been explained as "a process of dynamic interaction between the personality of the reader and literature - interaction which may be utilized for personal assessment, adjustment, and growth." Bibliotherapy for adults is a form of self-administered treatment in which structured materials provide a means to alleviate distress. The concept of the treatment is based on the human inclination to identify with others through their expressions in literature and art. For instance, a grieving child who reads, or is read a story about another child who has lost a parent may feel less alone in the world.
The concept of bibliotherapy has widened over time, to include self-help manuals without therapeutic intervention, or a therapist "prescribing" a movie that might provide needed catharsis to a client.
The Online Dictionary for Library and Information Science (2011) defines bibliotherapy as:
Clinical use
Although the term "bibliotherapy" was first coined by Samuel Crothers in 1916, the use of books to change behavior and reduce distress has a long history, dating back to the Middle Ages. When applied in a therapeutic context, bibliotherapy can comprise both fictional and non-fictional materials. Fictional bibliotherapy (e.g., novels, poetry) is a dynamic process, where the material is actively interpreted in light of the reader's circumstances. From a psychodynamic perspective, fictional materials are believed to be effective through the processes of identification, catharsis and insight. Through identification with a character in the story the reader gains an alternative position from which to view their own issues. By empathizing with the character the client undergoes a form of catharsis through gaining hope and releasing emotional tension, which consequently leads to insights and behavioral change. Working with an imaginative journey and a specific selection of metaphors, proponents claim that a therapeutic story approach has the potential to shift an out of balance behavior or situation back towards wholeness or balance. A patient might also find it easier to talk about his issues if he and the therapist can pretend that they are talking about the character's issues. Proponents suggest that the story form offers a healing medium that allows the listener to embark on an imaginative journey, rather than being lectured or directly addressed about the issue.
McKenna et al. (2010) conducted a review on psychotherapies for older depressed people, which concluded that bibliotherapy is effective. Glavin et al. (2017) also conducted a review and concluded that bibliotherapy could effectively treat post-traumatic stress disorder, even though well-designed RTCs still need to ascertain this statement.
The use of bibliotherapy in mental health programs, including those for substance abuse, has been shown to be beneficial to patients in the United Kingdom where it is a popular resource.
Treatment tracks
Bibliotherapy can be performed using affective treatment techniques, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and visual-based materials. Affective bibliotherapy relies upon fiction which can aid participants. By empathizing with a story's character, the client undergoes a form of catharsis by gaining hope and releasing emotional tension. There can also be a connection made between the circumstances in a story and the reader's own personal issues. This, consequently, leads to insights and behavioral change. Bibliotherapy using CBT relies mainly on self-help books which work to correct negative behaviors by offering alternative, positive actions. Visual-based materials, such as graphic novels, utilize both affective and CBT techniques.
Cognitive treatment
The gains achieved in cognitive bibliotherapy illustrate that the most important element in cognitive bibliotherapy is content of the program and not the individual interactions with a therapist. Bibliotherapy using CBT have been empirically tested the most and directed CBT appears to be the most prevalent methodology in the literature. The selection of CBT books is important since there are many on the market that purport to help. Pardeck's analysis on choosing books is quite instructive and much of his criteria mirror what librarians teach in information literacy. These include the authority of the author on the topic, the type of empirical support offered for treatment claims, the existence of studies testing its clinical efficacy, and a comparative review of other books.
Affective treatment
There is not as much research on using fiction in bibliotherapy when compared to cognitive self-help books. The recent work of Shechtman has been important in investigating the use of affective literature for bibliotherapy. In her work on counseling with aggressive boys, Shechtman discusses the deficits these children exhibit and describes affect disorders with symptoms of emotional arousal, low levels of empathy, and difficulties in self-expression. Using integrative treatment whereby the patient explores the problem, gains insight, and commits to change, Shechtman found that using affective bibliotherapy techniques achieved therapeutic change while indicating gains in empathy and insight.
Visual treatment and graphic novels
In the simplest sense, graphic novels are long-form comic books, usually 100 pages or more in length. The application of graphic novels in this context will allow people struggling with literacy to have better access to materials. Dozens of graphic novels have been published over the last decade that address public health topics, such as depression, drug abuse, and PTSD. Public health-based comic books originated in the 1940s. The earliest public health comics averaged around twelve pages and were aimed at preventive instruction for children. Over the last fifteen years, however, the genre has evolved and public health graphic novels and are now commonly 150 pages long and focus more on adult struggles with physical or mental illness. This change has gotten the attention of medical professionals who gather and evaluate these materials. Currently, a group of physicians, professors, artists, and bioethicists run the website Graphic Medicine and hosts an annual conference to discuss the use of graphic novels and comic books in health.
There is a wide range of research that indicates graphic novels are an effective tool for people struggling with literacy and communication problems. They also have been shown to be effective with populations that have trouble with traditional literacy instruction. Resistance to learning can take many forms, some of which can be seen in populations involved with the criminal justice system. Graphic novels are most often used to entice the group referred to as "reluctant readers", people who have abandoned reading for pleasure. While this group may be literate in the basic sense, research shows that people who read for pleasure continuously improve vocabulary and language skills, skills that can help people rehabilitate after incarceration. Research shows graphic novels are of use to students with traditional learning disabilities, like dyslexia and also have been shown to be effective when used in a bibliotherapeutic context to assist people with mental illness in explaining their own struggles to others. Graphic novels have also been described by professionals in the field as especially apt for portraying the struggles associated with mental illness.
Older adults
Bibliotherapy has been studied by Jennie Bolitho (2011) in relationship to libraries, health and social connection for the elderly. Bolitho set up a pilot reading program where she read the text aloud to a group of participants at a local aged care hostel. (She described "being read to as part of the nurturing experience".) Her evaluation at the end of the 12-week program described all responses as positive and participants commented that they "look forward to the group as it made them think for themselves and gave them something to think about aside from their ailments and the monotony of the day" (p. 90).
Use in children's therapy
Bibliotherapy has not been vastly researched to ensure that it will be successful for all students. It has many drawbacks, which include unavailable literature on certain topics that students may be struggling with, many students not being ready to face their issues and read, and students and parents defensively implementing the therapy. The resistance of using bibliotherapy is based on a lack of assertiveness, negative attitudes, anxiety, depression, sexual dysfunctions, and negative behaviors. There has been advocacy for reading books containing difficult themes in advance, rather than in response to a parent or teacher identifying a specific issue in a child's life. The major issue that lies behind bibliotherapy is the lack of research that has been conducted on this therapy device.
Advantages of bibliotherapy include teaching students to solve problems, help students cope with teasing, name-calling, mockery, fears, sexuality changes, anxiety, and death. Despite the limited research on bibliotherapy and its effects, many teachers have shown improved achievement and self-concept.
Implementation
Bibliotherapy can consist solely of reading, or it can be complemented by discussion or play activity. A child might be asked to draw a scene from the book or asked whether commonality is felt with a particular character in the book. The book can be used to draw out a child on a subject (s)he has been hesitant to discuss.
Of necessity, bibliotherapy originally used existing texts. Literature that touched on the particular subject relevant to the child provided the source material. (For example, Romeo and Juliet is typically read in 8th or 9th grade as Romeo is 15 and Juliet is 13; students at that age can identify with them.) Recently it has become possible to find texts targeted to the situation; e.g. many of the Berenstain Bears books target particular behaviors and responses to certain situations.
Two forms of bibliotherapy exist: clinical and developmental. Clinical bibliotherapy is solely used by qualified personnel in a therapeutic setting and developmental bibliotherapy is a useful tool to utilize before a problem arises. Developmental bibliotherapy can be useful for issues such as nightmares as children age. Developmental bibliotherapy is often used by teachers or parents, however, if an issue arises that a teacher or parent cannot handle, clinical bibliotherapy is needed.
Many therapeutic stories are written for specific individual needs, but practitioners have also used them to build psychological resilience when groups and communities face challenges. For example, therapeutic storytelling can play a role in creating inclusive classroom and work communities. Therapeutic stories are also sometimes referred to as "healing stories". In the US, the National Storytelling Network has a special interest group called the Healing Story Alliance.
In the classroom
Implementing bibliotherapy in an elementary classroom can be very beneficial to both the students and the teacher. Teachers who use bibliotherapy in their classroom also learn much about the children they teach. Teachers as practitioners of bibliotherapy select appropriate reading materials and match them to the needs of individual students to assist them in the development of self-awareness, problem-solving skills, perspective-taking, and understanding of problems. The materials may include "any literacy activity, including reading (fiction, nonfiction, or poetry), creative writing, or storytelling." Teachers that select appropriate literature for their classroom needs may provide a child with a "character in a story to help the child understand himself Classroom story time and a guided discussion allows students to "become aware of problems of other children and develop empathy".
In the article "Read two books and write me in the morning", the authors highlight the fact that teachers are an integral part of a student's therapeutic team. It is the teacher who may be the first person to notice that something is troubling a child. They also note that teachers have been referred to as carryover agents, who carry out recommendations from other professionals who have suggested accommodations necessary to ensure a particular student's well-being or success in their classroom. In inclusive classrooms, the teacher and the whole class play a role in meeting directly or indirectly, the needs of students with exceptionalities. Bibliotherapy can help the students in the class to learn coping skills that will help them deal with the social and emotional challenges that may occur. Books and reading are an integral part of classroom life. Through books, "children are able to see reflections of themselves, their times, their country, their concerns... well-written realistic fiction will always help readers gain a deeper understanding of themselves and others."
Stages for teachers
Bibliotherapy has three recognized stages: (1) identification, (2) catharsis, and (3) insight. Identification is when a reader associates themselves with the character or situation in the literary work. Catharsis is when the reader shares many of the same thoughts and feelings of the characters in the literary work, and insight is when the reader realizes that they relate to the character or situation and learn to deal more effectively with their own personal issues. Literary pieces allow teachers to identify for their class, or an individual student, a particular issue that they are dealing with directly or indirectly. In a class with a special needs student, for example, books featuring a character with the same needs will help students experience living with a chronic condition; through a guided discussion, they will be able to verbalize their thoughts and concerns. This exercise will offer insight into the issue of how to help their classmate effectively. Bibliotherapy "does not prescribe meanings, nor is it a form of direct teaching; it is more an invitation and permission giving to children to unveil wisdom and insight that might otherwise be squelched."
Teachers who practice or need to use bibliotherapy can find connections to their state or provincial guidelines. A common challenge for classroom teachers is finding the right book, and although some annotated bibliographies are available online and in curriculum publications, not all issues are touched upon. A teacher may have to find their book. The following evaluation framework is suggested:
"Is the story simple, clear, brief, non repetitious, and believable? Is it at an appropriate reading level and developmental level? Does the story fit with relevant feelings, needs, interests, and goals? Does it demonstrate cultural diversity, gender inclusivity, and sensitivity to aggression? Do characters show coping skills and does the problem situation show resolution?"
Steps for use
There are steps that make bibliotherapy a more effective solution for dealing with the issues that a student may be facing, including developing support, trust, and confidence with the student with an issue, identifying other school personnel that could aid in implementing the therapy, seeking support from the student's parents or guardians, defining the issue that the student is facing and why the teacher wants to help solve it, creating goals that may help the student overcome the issue, researching books that may help with the specific problem, introducing the book to all the people that will be involved, incorporating reading activities, and evaluating the effects and successes that the book may have had on the student.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Bibliotherapy: American Library Association
Art therapy
Creative arts therapies
Storytelling
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5301416
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC%20Radio%201%27s%20Big%20Weekend
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BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend
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BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend (R1BW) (previously known as One Big Weekend, for 2012 as Radio 1's Hackney Weekend, and for 2018 as BBC Music's Biggest Weekend) is a British music festival run by the BBC's radio station. It is held once a year, in a different location within the United Kingdom each time. It was the biggest free-ticketed music event in Europe, until a fee for tickets was introduced in 2018, and always includes a host of new artists.
Background and history
The festival is a spin-off of Radio 1's "One Big Sunday", where in each Sunday during the summer months a different town would host the roadshow, usually next to a beach or in a large park. These were also free, but non-ticketed and held from 2000 to 2002. Both events are successors to the Radio 1 Roadshow which toured the country during every summer from 1973 and continued throughout the 1990s.
Originally a "One Big Weekend" would run twice a year, although that last happened in 2004. Since 2005 it has been held once a year instead, usually in May, with the exception of 2012 when a larger festival took place over the weekend of 23–24 June in Hackney, East London.
The form of the event has varied over the years, from one tent at the events in 2003 to as many as six stages in 2012. Every event since 2013 has consisted of one outdoor main stage, one tented second stage, and one much smaller stage dedicated to showcasing emerging talent supported by BBC Introducing. Additionally, the early events dedicated their Saturday exclusively to dance music and their Sunday to bands. The dance day was replaced by a second day of bands from 2006 onwards, although there was a dance-orientated ‘Outdoor Stage’ between 2007 and 2012. The ‘dance day’ was effectively reinstated for the 2013 event in Northern Ireland, with a day of electronic music being held on the Friday of the weekend. This approach has been repeated in most years since.
The next edition of the event was scheduled to be held between 22 and 24 May 2020 in Dundee, with Camperdown Park becoming the first site to host the event twice. The event however was cancelled in reaction to the COVID-19 pandemic and went virtual. The 2021 Big Weekend was also moved into a virtual mode.
In late 2021, it was revealed that Radio 1's Big Weekend would return in a live tradition for the first time in three years, with Coventry being the host city for this event on 27 to 29 May 2022.
On 30 January 2023, it was announced that Dundee would host Big Weekend from 26 to 28 May 2023. The city was originally due to host in 2020 but it was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Venues
Notes
Tickets
Tickets to the festival are, notably, free (except the small booking fee which was introduced from the 2012 event onwards) but are usually now restricted to one pair per person. Prior to 2006, a ticket booth would be set up in an easy location in the centre of the hosting city, and anybody who wished to obtain a pair of tickets would queue up, before a Radio 1 DJ gave them out (pairs of tickets for the Saturday given away on a Saturday and on the following day for the Sunday), on a first-come first-served basis. The theory there was that the majority of tickets would go to local residents, as people from further away would not make the journey. However, as more and more 'non-local' residents came to the giveaways, and the capacity at the events grew year-on-year, it was decided that a different system was needed. From 2006, therefore, pairs of tickets have been given away through an online lottery. People wishing to attend register on the BBC Radio 1 website and pairs of tickets are then randomly allocated and given out. In order to make sure that those who live locally get the majority of tickets, the applications are split into categories of 'local postcodes' and 'other postcodes' and the majority of the tickets (usually 95%) are reserved for the former.
Despite the tickets being free, some people often attempt to sell them on eBay, and in recent years this has meant that various security measures have been introduced, most notably the barcodes on tickets which are scanned at the gate, the rule that the person whose name is registered on the ticket has to be in attendance and, from 2012, passport-style pictures being required as part of the application process. Tickets are also given away as prizes via various competitions held on Radio 1 (and now 1Xtra) in the weeks running up to the event, which is usually the only way in which members of the public can obtain passes for both days of the event. For the 2013 event, no pre-registration was necessary, and instead all tickets were given away on a 'first come first served' basis - albeit still with the skewing of 90% of tickets being held back for residents of Northern Ireland. After an initial 24-hour delay due to technical difficulties, the tickets all sold out within an hour. 2014's event in Glasgow saw the 'first come first served' ticket release return with no pre-registration needed. 50% of tickets were reserved for residents within the boundaries of Glasgow City Council with a further 45% reserved for those in the rest of Scotland. However, for the first time ever, members of the public could obtain tickets to all three days of the festival. This led to complaints from some disappointed fans who were left without tickets to any day while others bagged tickets for the entire weekend.
For the 2006 event in Dundee, less than half of the tickets were given to local residents, and allegations were made of postal workers stealing tickets.
2000s
May 2003
On 3 and 4 May, the One Big Weekend was held in Manchester.
September 2003
On 13 and 14 September, the One Big Weekend held in Cardiff.
April 2004
On 24 and 25 April 2004, the first of two in that calendar year - was held at Prehen Fields, Derry. It featured the following line-up:
Line-up
Saturday 24 April
Sunday 25 April
September 2004
On 18 and 19 September 2004, the final 'One Big Weekend' under that name - and the second of that calendar year - was held at Perry Park, Birmingham. It featured the following line-up:
Line-up
Saturday 18 September
Sunday 19 September
2005
On 7 and 8 May 2005, the Big Weekend was held at Penshaw Monument in Herrington Country Park, Sunderland, and featured artists included:
Line-up
Saturday 7 May
Sunday 8 May
2006
In 2006, the Big Weekend was held in Camperdown Park, Dundee on 13 and 14 May 2006 and featured artists which included:
Line-up
Saturday 13 May
Sunday 14 May
Many of the BBC Radio 1 DJs including Pete Tong, Tim Westwood and Chris Moyles attended too, and held a number of competitions so that people could win tickets. In addition, Radio 1 also created a virtual festival experience in the virtual reality application Second Life. Avatars on the BBC Radio 1 islands could watch the event on live screens while the audience could see their virtual counterparts on massive stage side screens at the real event in Dundee. The event was hailed as the first ever festival with a professional line-up to take place in a virtual universe.
2007
On Saturday 19 May and Sunday 20 May, Radio 1's Big Weekend was held in Moor Park in Preston.
For the first time in the history of the event, all tickets had barcodes and were scanned on arrival at the park. The barcodes contained information such as name and address of the winner of the tickets. Having the barcodes meant that Radio 1 could cancel lost or stolen tickets and issue new ones to those affected. In an effort to stop people buying tickets from eBay or through other mediums, the public was told they would be asked to prove their home address if their tickets were thought to be suspect. However, the BBC decided to scrap this idea on the day as they thought it would cause angry scenes if people were to be turned away.
At the close of entry on 8 May 2007, over 450,000 people registered for a chance to get tickets for the 2007 festival. On Tuesday 8 May on The Chris Moyles Show, Chris announced that a further 5,000 tickets will be available taking the total for both days being 35,000.
Tickets were also given away in an alternate reality game online using Radio 1 fan forums. The situation surrounded a man called Paul Denchfield who was supposedly sacked from the station. Throughout the run up to the event 'Frozen Indigo Angel' would appear in various places online and on-air, with it being the player's mission to hunt down tickets.
The line up was as follows:
Line-up
Saturday 19 May
Sunday 20 May
2008
In 2008, the festival was held over the weekend of Saturday 10 May and Sunday 11 May, at Mote Park in Maidstone, which can hold up to 20,000 people. 85% of tickets went to people living in Kent, 10% went to those living in areas bordering Kent, including parts of Sussex, Surrey, Essex and London, and the other 5% were handed to others living across the United Kingdom. Concern was raised after a large number of locals commented that even those living within the close vicinity of the park did not receive tickets, with some in the Medway towns winning multiple times.
Line-up
The full line-up (except for Paramore) was announced on BBC Radio 1 on Monday 21 April 2008.
Saturday 10 May
Sunday 11 May
The national newspapers had also reported that Justin Timberlake could be a special guest - performing with Madonna. Although this later turned out to be untrue. Pendulum were hailed as one of the festivals' best acts, outshining even Madonna and packing the INMWT tent.
On the main stage on 10 May 2008, Paul Schrader, Chris Carmack and Rachel McAdams appeared whilst doing promotional work for Tarzan.
Headline sets
2009
The 2009 event was held in Swindon.
Line-up
Saturday 9 May
Sunday 10 May
2010s
2010
On 24 February 2010, it was announced on The Chris Moyles Show that the 10th Big Weekend would take place on the Faenol Estate near Bangor, Wales on Saturday 22 May and Sunday 23 May 2010. Pixie Lott also performed on the show and was announced as the first act on the bill and Lostprophets was announced while they were on tour. Jaguar Skills announced on his website that he would be playing at the event, but he was not on the announced line-up. On the morning of 26 April 2010, the full main stage and INMWT stage listings were announced during the Fearne Cotton Show (which was hosted by Annie Mac, as Cotton was on vacation).
20,000 pairs of free tickets were made available to the public for each day of the weekend. Applicants were able to register for tickets to the event on the Radio 1 website from 26 April 2010 until 3 May 2010.
Line-up
Saturday 22 May
Sunday 23 May
Live Lounge Tent
2011
The announcement of location and dates for Radio 1's Big Weekend 2011 was made by Scott Mills on 30 March 2011, with his breakfast show (he was covering for Chris Moyles that week) being broadcast from Trinity School, Carlisle that morning. Over 750,000 people applied for tickets to the event.
20,000 pairs of tickets were available for the two-day event with the usual allocation policy applying. It was announced that the priority areas for tickets would be the borders of Carlisle, Cumbria, the Scottish Borders and the North East of England.
As usual, competitions to win VIP tickets were run on various Radio 1 shows in the weeks leading up to the Big Weekend.
Line-up
Headline sets
TV & radio coverage
Radio 1's Big Weekend 2011 was streamed live on the Radio 1 website. The headliners of each day (Foo Fighters and Lady Gaga on Saturday and Sunday respectively) were broadcast live on BBC Three and BBC HD. The Big Weekend was also broadcast live on BBC Radio 1. Highlights of the event were also broadcast on BBC Three and BBC HD during the week following the Big Weekend.
2012
On 23 May 2011, it was announced that for 2012, Radio 1 would be replacing the Big Weekend with a 'Hackney Weekend' to form part of the London 2012 Festival, in the buildup to the 2012 Olympics.
The festival duly took place on the Hackney Marshes over the weekend of 23 and 24 June 2012.
50,000 people attended each of the two days in 2012, meaning a total of 100,000 people visited the site over the weekend: more than double the previous highest attendances (40,000 across the weekends in each of 2010 and 2011). Due to the upgraded scale of the festival, the number of stages were increased (from four to six) and, for the first time, the Main Stage was outdoors rather than inside a tent.
Florence + The Machine were initially announced as playing on Saturday 23 June, but a double booking at another European festival meant that they actually performed on Sunday 24 June.
The Ting Tings were initially announced as to be playing on Saturday 23 June, but due to logistical reasons beyond their control they had to pull out of the bill.
On both days of the festival, a number of unannounced special guests performed with artists on the bill, the most noteworthy of which were Rihanna, M.I.A. and Kanye West appearing as part of Jay-Z's headlining set on Saturday; and, in turn, Jay-Z went on to return the favour and make a special multiple-song contribution during Rihanna's own headlining set the next day.
Line-up
Saturday 23 June
Headline sets
2013
The new Radio 1 Breakfast Show host Nick Grimshaw announced that the Big Weekend would return to Derry in May 2013 to celebrate its title of UK City of Culture 2013, the same city that hosted the first of the two 2004 Big Weekends (although the actual site is different). For the first time, the Big Weekend extended to a third day - which focused on dance music. Alongside that initial announcement were the confirmation of the first two acts, Olly Murs and Two Door Cinema Club, with the rest of the line-up being announced by Grimshaw during another Radio 1 Breakfast Show on Monday 6 May. Both of the stages were in Ebrington Square - unlike recent Big Weekends there was no BBC Introducing Stage or Live Lounge Tent at this event. The '1Xtra' and 'In New Music We Trust' stages from Hackney 2012 were combined into a single venue.
Line-up
Due to issues at Heathrow Airport, two acts on the bill for Friday were unable to attend the event: those being Angel Haze and AlunaGeorge. Further acts also had their performances affected by the flight disruptions but were still able to appear: J. Cole was forced to substitute his band for a backing track, and Rudimental's equipment was stuck in London, forcing them to use the equipment of Chase and Status.
The above tables do not always represent the stage orders - for example, Two Door Cinema Club opened the Main Stage on Saturday, as opposed to The Saturdays, who in fact performed second on the day. Similarly, 30 Seconds To Mars opened the Main Stage on Sunday.
Headline sets
2014
On 30 January, Nick Grimshaw, Rita Ora and Paolo Nutini announced that the 2014 event would be held in Glasgow to celebrate the 2014 Commonwealth Games. For the first time, the event took place in two different locations in the same city. The Friday night of the event was held in George Square and was dedicated to dance music. The remaining two days followed the traditional format of the Big Weekend and took place at Glasgow Green. Coldplay, Rita Ora, Paolo Nutini, Pharrell Williams and The 1975 performed. On 31 March, 60,000 weekend tickets for the event sold out in 30 minutes. The Main Stage lineup was announced on the Radio 1 Breakfast Show on 28 April 2014. It was announced that Katy Perry would headline on the Sunday night while One Direction and Kings of Leon would open the Main Stage on the Saturday and Sunday respectively. Local Scottish band Baby Stange performed on the BBC Introducing Stage.
Line-up
Headline sets
{{hidden
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| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 75%;
| header = Coldplay
| content =
"Paradise"
"Charlie Brown"
"Magic"
"Yellow"
"Clocks"
"Every Teardrop is a Waterfall"
"True Love"
"Viva la Vida"
"Oceans"
"A Sky Full of Stars"
Encore
"Fix You"
}}
{{hidden
| headercss = background: #ccccff; font-size: 100%; width: 65%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 75%;
| header = Katy Perry
| content =
"Roar"
"Part of Me"
"Wide Awake"
"Dark Horse"
"I Kissed a Girl"
"The One That Got Away" (with small excerpts of "Thinking of You")
"Unconditionally"
"Walking on Air"
"Teenage Dream"
"California Gurls"
"Birthday"
Encore
"Firework"
}}
2015
On 23 January, Nick Grimshaw announced on the Radio 1 Breakfast Show, that the 2015 event would be held at Earlham Park in Norwich, Norfolk, next to the University of East Anglia, taking place on Saturday 23 and Sunday 24 May. On 31 March, 50,000 tickets went on sale and sold out within 40 minutes. The full lineup for main stage and the INMWT tent was announced on 20 April, Muse headlined on the Saturday and Foo Fighters on the Sunday. The majority of acts for the BBC introducing stage were announced on 22 April with the remaining acts announced on 4 May.
Line-up
Due to their vocal cord operation, Sam Smith's performance on Sunday was cancelled and replaced by Catfish and the Bottlemen.
2016
The event was held in Powderham Castle, Kenton near Exeter on 28 and 29 May. Coldplay headlined the second and final night, with other acts performing including Bring Me the Horizon, Chase & Status, Ellie Goulding and Craig David. On 1 March, it was announced that The 1975 and Jake Bugg had been added to the lineup. Ticket information was announced on Monday 21 March. Tickets went on sale at 8am on Monday 4 April. As usual, the tickets themselves were free, but there was an £8.50 administration fee with each ticket. In 2016, 60% of the tickets were reserved for residents living in areas covered by Exeter City Council and Teignbridge district council. A further 35% went to residents in surrounding areas of Exeter, including those with any other Exeter (EX) and Torquay (TQ) postcodes and those with Truro (TR), Plymouth (PL), Taunton (TA) and Dorchester (DT) postcodes, whilst the remaining 5% of tickets were available to the rest of the UK. The full line-up was announced in April 2016.
Line-up
Controversies
Twenty One Pilots had their set cut short due to "safety concerns". Frontman Tyler Joseph climbed a mast whilst singing "Car Radio", which prompted BBC officials to appear and cut his microphone off, and ask bandmate Josh Dun to stop drumming. They could not continue with their set and had to leave the stage.
2017
For 2017, the event was held at Burton Constable Hall approximately 9 miles (14 km) north-east of Hull. The location was confirmed the morning of 23 January, acts confirmed include Kings of Leon, Little Mix and Stormzy. On 16 March 2017, it was announced Katy Perry will be headlining the Saturday night.
Line-up
Headline sets
2018
In order to take advantage of the absence of the Glastonbury Festival in 2018, 4 separate Big Weekends were held simultaneously between 25 and 28 May in four cities each in the UK's four countries. Stylized as "BBC Music's Biggest Weekend", events were held in Swansea (with a line-up curated by Radio 1), Coventry and Perth (both curated by Radio 2) and Belfast (curated by Radio 6 Music). Tickets sold out for the Swansea, Perth and Coventry Big Weekends.
Line-up
Belfast
Perth
Swansea
Coventry
2019
On 27 February, Greg James announced on the Radio 1 Breakfast Show that the Big Weekend would be held in Stewart Park, Middlesbrough, England for 2019 with Miley Cyrus, The 1975, Little Mix, Mabel, Zara Larsson and Khalid performing. The daily capacity was 32,000.
Headline sets
{{hidden
| headercss = background: #ccccff; font-size: 100%; width: 65%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 75%;
| header = The 1975
| content =
"Give Yourself a Try"
"TooTimeTooTimeTooTime"
"Sincerity Is Scary"
"It's Not Living (If It's Not with You)"
"Love Me"
Robbers"
"I Like America & America Likes Me"
"Somebody Else"
"I Always Wanna Die (Sometimes)
Encore
Love It If We Made It"
"Chocolate"
"Sex"
"The Sound"
}}
2020s
2020
On 27 January, Greg James announced on the Radio 1 Breakfast Show that the Big Weekend would be returning to Camperdown Park in Dundee in 2020 with Dua Lipa and Harry Styles headlining. With Camperdown Park having previously hosted the Big Weekend in 2006, it would have been the first time the same venue hosted the event twice - and the second time the Big Weekend has visited the same city twice, after Derry in 2004 and 2013.
On 13 March 2020, it was announced that the Big Weekend had been cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
However, in late April 2020 it was announced that there would be a virtual version airing on Radio 1 on the weekend of Friday 22 - Sunday 24 May 2020. The new Big Weekend festival featured newly recorded mini sets from the artist's homes as well as re-airings of full sets from previous Big Weekend performers over four "virtual stages".
Artists in italics have recorded new performances for the 2020 Big Weekend.
2021
Due to the continuing pandemic, the 2021 edition of Big Weekend was again held virtually. As with 2020, the event included a mixture of newly recorded performances and archive sets from previous years. It was held on 29 and 30 May 2021.
Artists in italics recorded new performances for the 2021 Big Weekend.
Headline sets
BBC Introducing sets
"23, Never Me" - Dead Pony
2022
In late 2021, it was revealed that Radio 1's Big Weekend would return in a live tradition for the first time in three years, with Coventry being the host city for this event on 27 to 29 May 2022.
On 14 May and 16 March 2022, Saturday’s & Sunday’s main stage line-up were retrospectively announced on The Radio 1 Breakfast Show with Greg James whilst the Future Sounds Stage line-up was announced on Radio 1’s Future Sounds with Clara Amfo.
Headline sets
2023
On 30 January 2023, Dundee was announced as the host city for the 2023 edition of Big Weekend alongside the initial line-up. Dundee is the first Scottish city and second overall city to host the event twice.
Headline sets
References
External links
Free festivals
Rock festivals in the United Kingdom
BBC Radio 1
BBC Radio in Concert
2003 establishments in the United Kingdom
Radio festivals
Music festivals established in 2003
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerica
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Mesoamerica
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Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area that begins in the southern part of North America and extends to most of Central America, thus comprising the lands of central and southern Mexico, all of Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, and parts of Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. As a cultural area, Mesoamerica is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits developed and shared by its indigenous cultures.
In the pre-Columbian era, many societies flourished in Mesoamerica for more than 3,000 years before the Spanish colonization of the Americas begun on Hispaniola in 1493. In world history, Mesoamerica was the site of two historical transformations: (i) primary urban generation, and (ii) the formation of New World cultures from the mixtures of the indigenous Mesoamerican peoples with the European, African, and Asian peoples who were introduced by the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Mesoamerica is one of the six areas in the world where ancient civilization arose independently (see cradle of civilization), and the second in the Americas, alongside Norte Chico in present-day Peru. Mesoamerica is also one of only five regions of the world where writing is known to have independently developed (the others being ancient Egypt, India, Sumer, and China).
Beginning as early as 7000 BCE, the domestication of cacao, maize, beans, tomato, avocado, vanilla, squash and chili, as well as the turkey and dog, resulted in a transition from paleo-Indian hunter-gatherer tribal groupings to the organization of sedentary agricultural villages. In the subsequent Formative period, agriculture and cultural traits such as a complex mythological and religious tradition, a vigesimal numeric system, a complex calendric system, a tradition of ball playing, and a distinct architectural style, were diffused through the area. Villages began to become socially stratified and develop into chiefdoms, and large ceremonial centers were built, interconnected by a network of trade routes for the exchange of luxury goods, such as obsidian, jade, cacao, cinnabar, Spondylus shells, hematite, and ceramics. While Mesoamerican civilization knew of the wheel and basic metallurgy, neither of these became technologically relevant.
Among the earliest complex civilizations was the Olmec culture, which inhabited the Gulf Coast of Mexico and extended inland and southwards across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Frequent contact and cultural interchange between the early Olmec and other cultures in Chiapas, Oaxaca and Guatemala laid the basis for the Mesoamerican cultural area. All this was facilitated by considerable regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica, especially along the Pacific coast.
In the subsequent Preclassic period, complex urban polities began to develop among the Maya, with the rise of centers such as Aguada fénix and Calakmul in Mexico; El Mirador, and Tikal in Guatemala, and the Zapotec at Monte Albán. During this period, the first true Mesoamerican writing systems were developed in the Epi-Olmec and the Zapotec cultures. The Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the Classic Maya logosyllabic script.
In Central Mexico, the city of Teotihuacan ascended at the height of the Classic period; it formed a military and commercial empire whose political influence stretched south into the Maya area and northward. Upon the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 AD, competition between several important political centers in central Mexico, such as Xochicalco and Cholula, ensued. At this time during the Epi-Classic period, the Nahua peoples began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of Oto-Manguean languages.
During the early post-Classic period, Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec culture, and Oaxaca by the Mixtec. The lowland Maya area had important centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán. Towards the end of the post-Classic period, the Aztecs of Central Mexico built a tributary empire covering most of central Mesoamerica.
The distinct Mesoamerican cultural tradition ended with the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Eurasian diseases such as smallpox and measles, which were endemic among the colonists but new to North America, caused the deaths of upwards of 90% of the indigenous people, resulting in great losses to their societies and cultures. Over the next centuries, Mesoamerican indigenous cultures were gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule. Aspects of the Mesoamerican cultural heritage still survive among the indigenous peoples who inhabit Mesoamerica. Many continue to speak their ancestral languages, and maintain many practices hearkening back to their Mesoamerican roots.
Etymology and definition
The term Mesoamerica literally means "middle America" in Greek. Middle America often refers to a larger area in the Americas, but it has also previously been used more narrowly to refer to Mesoamerica. An example is the title of the 16 volumes of The Handbook of Middle American Indians. "Mesoamerica" is broadly defined as the area that is home to the Mesoamerican civilization, which comprises a group of peoples with close cultural and historical ties. The exact geographic extent of Mesoamerica has varied through time, as the civilization extended North and South from its heartland in southern Mexico.
The term was first used by the German ethnologist Paul Kirchhoff, who noted that similarities existed among the various pre-Columbian cultures within the region that included southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, western Honduras, and the Pacific lowlands of Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica. In the tradition of cultural history, the prevalent archaeological theory of the early to middle 20th century, Kirchhoff defined this zone as a cultural area based on a suite of interrelated cultural similarities brought about by millennia of inter- and intra-regional interaction (i.e., diffusion). Mesoamerica is recognized as a near-prototypical cultural area. This term is now fully integrated in the standard terminology of pre-Columbian anthropological studies. Conversely, the sister terms Aridoamerica and Oasisamerica, which refer to northern Mexico and the western United States, respectively, have not entered into widespread usage.
Some of the significant cultural traits defining the Mesoamerican cultural tradition are:
Horticulture and plant use: sedentism based on maize agriculture; floating gardens; use of bark paper and agave (see also maguey) for ritual purposes, as a medium for writing, and the use of agave for cooking and clothing; cultivation of cacao; grinding of corn softened with ashes or lime; harpoon-shaped digging stick
Clothing and personal articles: lip plugs, mirrors of polished stone, turbans, sandals with heels, textiles adorned with rabbit hair
Architecture: construction of stepped pyramids; stucco floors; ball courts with stone rings (see the use of natural rubber and the practice of the ritual Mesoamerican ballgame)
Record keeping: use of two different calendars (a 260-day ritual calendar and a 365-day calendar based on the solar year); use of locally developed pictographic and hieroglyphic (logo-syllabic) writing systems; numbers (see also vigesimal (base 20) number system); "century" of fifty-two years; eighteen-month calendar; screen-fold books
Commerce: specialized markets, "department store" markets subdivided according to specialty
Weapons and warfare: wooden swords with stone chips set into the edges (see macuahuitl), military orders (eagle knights and jaguar knights), clay pellets for blowguns, cotton-pad armor, traveling merchants who act as spies, wars for the purpose of securing sacrificial victims
Ritual and myth: practice of various forms of ritual sacrifice, including human sacrifice and quail sacrifice; paper and rubber as sacrificial offerings; pantheon of gods or spirits; acrobatic flier dance (see the Danza de los Voladores and the Totonac flier dance; 13 as a ritual number; ritual period of 20 x 13 = 260 days; mythic concept of one or more afterworlds and the difficult journey in reaching them; good and bad omen days; a religious complex based on a combination of shamanism and natural deities, and a shared system of symbols
Language: a linguistic area defined by a number of grammatical traits that have spread through the area by diffusion
Geography
Located on the Middle American isthmus joining North and South America between ca. 10° and 22° northern latitude, Mesoamerica possesses a complex combination of ecological systems, topographic zones, and environmental contexts. These different niches are classified into two broad categories: the lowlands (those areas between sea level and 1000 meters) and the altiplanos, or highlands (situated between 1,000 and 2,000 meters above sea level). In the low-lying regions, sub-tropical and tropical climates are most common, as is true for most of the coastline along the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The highlands show much more climatic diversity, ranging from dry tropical to cold mountainous climates; the dominant climate is temperate with warm temperatures and moderate rainfall. The rainfall varies from the dry Oaxaca and north Yucatán to the humid southern Pacific and Caribbean lowlands.
Cultural sub-areas
Several distinct sub-regions within Mesoamerica are defined by a convergence of geographic and cultural attributes. These sub-regions are more conceptual than culturally meaningful, and the demarcation of their limits is not rigid. The Maya area, for example, can be divided into two general groups: the lowlands and highlands. The lowlands are further divided into the southern and northern Maya lowlands. The southern Maya lowlands are generally regarded as encompassing northern Guatemala, southern Campeche and Quintana Roo in Mexico, and Belize. The northern lowlands cover the remainder of the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula. Other areas include Central Mexico, West Mexico, the Gulf Coast Lowlands, Oaxaca, the Southern Pacific Lowlands, and Southeast Mesoamerica (including northern Honduras).
Topography
There is extensive topographic variation in Mesoamerica, ranging from the high peaks circumscribing the Valley of Mexico and within the central Sierra Madre mountains to the low flatlands of the northern Yucatán Peninsula. The tallest mountain in Mesoamerica is Pico de Orizaba, a dormant volcano located on the border of Puebla and Veracruz. Its peak elevation is 5,636 m (18,490 ft).
The Sierra Madre mountains, which consist of several smaller ranges, run from northern Mesoamerica south through Costa Rica. The chain is historically volcanic. In central and southern Mexico, a portion of the Sierra Madre chain is known as the Eje Volcánico Transversal, or the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt. There are 83 inactive and active volcanoes within the Sierra Madre range, including 11 in Mexico, 37 in Guatemala, 23 in El Salvador, 25 in Nicaragua, and 3 in northwestern Costa Rica. According to the Michigan Technological University, 16 of these are still active. The tallest active volcano is Popocatépetl at 5,452 m (17,887 ft). This volcano, which retains its Nahuatl name, is located 70 km (43 mi) southeast of Mexico City. Other volcanoes of note include Tacana on the Mexico–Guatemala border, Tajumulco and Santamaría in Guatemala, Izalco in El Salvador, Arenal in Costa Rica, and Concepción and Maderas on Ometepe, which is an island formed by both volcanoes rising out of Lake Cocibolca in Nicaragua.
One important topographic feature is the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, a low plateau that breaks up the Sierra Madre chain between the Sierra Madre del Sur to the north and the Sierra Madre de Chiapas to the south. At its highest point, the Isthmus is 224 m (735 ft) above mean sea level. This area also represents the shortest distance between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean in Mexico. The distance between the two coasts is roughly 200 km (120 mi). The northern side of the Isthmus is swampy and covered in dense jungle—but the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, as the lowest and most level point within the Sierra Madre mountain chain, was nonetheless a main transportation, communication, and economic route within Mesoamerica.
Bodies of water
Outside of the northern Maya lowlands, rivers are common throughout Mesoamerica. Some of the more important ones served as loci of human occupation in the area. The longest river in Mesoamerica is the Usumacinta, which forms in Guatemala at the convergence of the Salinas or Chixoy and La Pasion River and runs north for 970 km (600 mi)—480 km (300 mi) of which are navigable—eventually draining into the Gulf of Mexico. Other rivers of note include the Rio Grande de Santiago, the Grijalva River, the Motagua River, the Ulúa River, and the Hondo River. The northern Maya lowlands, especially the northern portion of the Yucatán peninsula, are notable for their nearly complete lack of rivers (largely due to the absolute lack of topographic variation). Additionally, no lakes exist in the northern peninsula. The main source of water in this area is aquifers that are accessed through natural surface openings called cenotes.
Lake Chapala is Mexico's largest freshwater lake, but Lake Texcoco is perhaps most well known as the location upon which Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire, was founded. Lake Petén Itzá, in northern Guatemala, is notable as where the last independent Maya city, Tayasal (or Noh Petén), held out against the Spanish until 1697. Other large lakes include Lake Atitlán, Lake Izabal, Lake Güija, Lemoa.
Biodiversity
Almost all ecosystems are present in Mesoamerica; the more well known are the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System, the second largest in the world, and La Mosquitia (consisting of the Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve, Tawahka Asangni, Patuca National Park, and Bosawas Biosphere Reserve) a rainforest second in size in the Americas only to the Amazonas. The highlands present mixed and coniferous forest. The biodiversity is among the richest in the world, though the number of species in the red list of the IUCN grows every year.
Chronology and culture
The history of human occupation in Mesoamerica is divided into stages or periods. These are known, with slight variation depending on region, as the Paleo-Indian, the Archaic, the Preclassic (or Formative), the Classic, and the Postclassic. The last three periods, representing the core of Mesoamerican cultural fluorescence, are further divided into two or three sub-phases. Most of the time following the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century is classified as the Colonial period.
The differentiation of early periods (i.e., up through the end of the Late Preclassic) generally reflects different configurations of socio-cultural organization that are characterized by increasing socio-political complexity, the adoption of new and different subsistence strategies, and changes in economic organization (including increased interregional interaction). The Classic period through the Postclassic are differentiated by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of the various political entities throughout Mesoamerica.
Paleo-Indian
The Mesoamerican Paleo-Indian period precedes the advent of agriculture and is characterized by a nomadic hunting and gathering subsistence strategy. Big-game hunting, similar to that seen in contemporaneous North America, was a large component of the subsistence strategy of the Mesoamerican Paleo-Indian. These sites had obsidian blades and Clovis-style fluted projectile points.
Archaic
The Archaic period (8000–2000 BCE) is characterized by the rise of incipient agriculture in Mesoamerica. The initial phases of the Archaic involved the cultivation of wild plants, transitioning into informal domestication and culminating with sedentism and agricultural production by the close of the period. Transformations of natural environments have been a common feature at least since the mid Holocene. Archaic sites include Sipacate in Escuintla, Guatemala, where maize pollen samples date to c. 3500 BCE.
Preclassic/Formative
The first complex civilization to develop in Mesoamerica was that of the Olmec, who inhabited the gulf coast region of Veracruz throughout the Preclassic period. The main sites of the Olmec include San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes. Specific dates vary, but these sites were occupied from roughly 1200 to 400 BCE. Remains of other early cultures interacting with the Olmec have been found at Takalik Abaj, Izapa, and Teopantecuanitlan, and as far south as in Honduras. Research in the Pacific Lowlands of Chiapas and Guatemala suggest that Izapa and the Monte Alto Culture may have preceded the Olmec. Radiocarbon samples associated with various sculptures found at the Late Preclassic site of Izapa suggest a date of between 1800 and 1500 BCE.
During the Middle and Late Preclassic period, the Maya civilization developed in the southern Maya highlands and lowlands, and at a few sites in the northern Maya lowlands. The earliest Maya sites coalesced after 1000 BCE, and include Nakbe, El Mirador, and Cerros. Middle to Late Preclassic Maya sites include Kaminaljuyú, Cival, Edzná, Cobá, Lamanai, Komchen, Dzibilchaltun, and San Bartolo, among others.
The Preclassic in the central Mexican highlands is represented by such sites as Tlapacoya, Tlatilco, and Cuicuilco. These sites were eventually superseded by Teotihuacán, an important Classic-era site that eventually dominated economic and interaction spheres throughout Mesoamerica. The settlement of Teotihuacan is dated to the later portion of the Late Preclassic, or roughly 50 CE.
In the Valley of Oaxaca, San José Mogote represents one of the oldest permanent agricultural villages in the area, and one of the first to use pottery. During the Early and Middle Preclassic, the site developed some of the earliest examples of defensive palisades, ceremonial structures, the use of adobe, and hieroglyphic writing. Also of importance, the site was one of the first to demonstrate inherited status, signifying a radical shift in socio-cultural and political structure. San José Mogote was eventual overtaken by Monte Albán, the subsequent capital of the Zapotec empire, during the Late Preclassic.
The Preclassic in western Mexico, in the states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, and Michoacán also known as the Occidente, is poorly understood. This period is best represented by the thousands of figurines recovered by looters and ascribed to the "shaft tomb tradition".
Classic
Early Classic
The Classic period is marked by the rise and dominance of several polities. The traditional distinction between the Early and Late Classic are marked by their changing fortune and their ability to maintain regional primacy. Of paramount importance are Teotihuacán in central Mexico and Tikal in Guatemala; the Early Classic's temporal limits generally correlate to the main periods of these sites. Monte Albán in Oaxaca is another Classic-period polity that expanded and flourished during this period, but the Zapotec capital exerted less interregional influence than the other two sites.
During the Early Classic, Teotihuacan participated in and perhaps dominated a far-reaching macro-regional interaction network. Architectural and artifact styles (talud-tablero, tripod slab-footed ceramic vessels) epitomized at Teotihuacan were mimicked and adopted at many distant settlements. Pachuca obsidian, whose trade and distribution is argued to have been economically controlled by Teotihuacan, is found throughout Mesoamerica.
Tikal came to dominate much of the southern Maya lowlands politically, economically, and militarily during the Early Classic. An exchange network centered at Tikal distributed a variety of goods and commodities throughout southeast Mesoamerica, such as obsidian imported from central Mexico (e.g., Pachuca) and highland Guatemala (e.g., El Chayal, which was predominantly used by the Maya during the Early Classic), and jade from the Motagua valley in Guatemala. Tikal was often in conflict with other polities in the Petén Basin, as well as with others outside of it, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Dos Pilas, Naranjo, and Calakmul. Towards the end of the Early Classic, this conflict lead to Tikal's military defeat at the hands of Caracol in 562, and a period commonly known as the Tikal Hiatus.
Late Classic
The Late Classic period (beginning c. 600 CE until 909 CE) is characterized as a period of interregional competition and factionalization among the numerous regional polities in the Maya area. This largely resulted from the decrease in Tikal's socio-political and economic power at the beginning of the period. It was therefore during this time that other sites rose to regional prominence and were able to exert greater interregional influence, including Caracol, Copán, Palenque, and Calakmul (which was allied with Caracol and may have assisted in the defeat of Tikal), and Dos Pilas Aguateca and Cancuén in the Petexbatún region of Guatemala. Around 710, Tikal arose again and started to build strong alliances and defeat its worst enemies. In the Maya area, the Late Classic ended with the so-called "Maya collapse", a transitional period coupling the general depopulation of the southern lowlands and development and florescence of centers in the northern lowlands.
Terminal Classic
Generally applied to the Maya area, the Terminal Classic roughly spans the time between c. 800/850 and c. 1000 AD. Overall, it generally correlates with the rise to prominence of Puuc settlements in the northern Maya lowlands, so named after the hills where they are mainly found. Puuc settlements are specifically associated with a unique architectural style (the "Puuc architectural style") that represents a technological departure from previous construction techniques. Major Puuc sites include Uxmal, Sayil, Labna, Kabah, and Oxkintok. While generally concentrated within the area in and around the Puuc hills, the style has been documented as far away as at Chichen Itza to the east and Edzna to the south.
Chichén Itzá was originally thought to have been a Postclassic site in the northern Maya lowlands. Research over the past few decades has established that it was first settled during the Early/Late Classic transition but rose to prominence during the Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic. During its apogee, this widely known site economically and politically dominated the northern lowlands. Its participation in the circum-peninsular exchange route, possible through its port site of Isla Cerritos, allowed Chichén Itzá to remain highly connected to areas such as central Mexico and Central America. The apparent "Mexicanization" of architecture at Chichén Itzá led past researchers to believe that Chichén Itzá existed under the control of a Toltec empire. Chronological data refutes this early interpretation, and it is now known that Chichén Itzá predated the Toltec; Mexican architectural styles are now used as an indicator of strong economic and ideological ties between the two regions.
Postclassic
The Postclassic (beginning 900–1000 CE, depending on area) is, like the Late Classic, characterized by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of various polities. The main Maya centers were located in the northern lowlands. Following Chichén Itzá, whose political structure collapsed during the Early Postclassic, Mayapán rose to prominence during the Middle Postclassic and dominated the north for c. 200 years. After Mayapán's fragmentation, political structure in the northern lowlands revolved around large towns or city-states, such as Oxkutzcab and Ti’ho (Mérida, Yucatán), that competed with one another.
Toniná, in the Chiapas highlands, and Kaminaljuyú in the central Guatemala highlands, were important southern highland Maya centers. The latter site, Kaminaljuyú, is one of the longest occupied sites in Mesoamerica and was continuously inhabited from c. 800 BCE to around 1200 CE. Other important highland Maya groups include the K'iche' of Utatlán, the Mam in Zaculeu, the Poqomam in Mixco Viejo, and the Kaqchikel at Iximche in the Guatemalan highlands. The Pipil resided in El Salvador, while the Ch'orti' were in eastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras.
In central Mexico, the early portion of the Postclassic correlates with the rise of the Toltec and an empire based at their capital, Tula (also known as Tollan). Cholula, initially an important Early Classic center contemporaneous with Teotihuacan, maintained its political structure (it did not collapse) and continued to function as a regionally important center during the Postclassic. The latter portion of the Postclassic is generally associated with the rise of the Mexica and the Aztec Empire. One of the more commonly known cultural groups in Mesoamerica, the Aztec politically dominated nearly all of central Mexico, the Gulf Coast, Mexico's southern Pacific Coast (Chiapas and into Guatemala), Oaxaca, and Guerrero.
The Tarascans (also known as the P'urhépecha) were located in Michoacán and Guerrero. With their capital at Tzintzuntzan, the Tarascan state was one of the few to actively and continuously resist Aztec domination during the Late Postclassic. Other important Postclassic cultures in Mesoamerica include the Totonac along the eastern coast (in the modern-day states of Veracruz, Puebla, and Hidalgo). The Huastec resided north of the Totonac, mainly in the modern-day states of Tamaulipas and northern Veracruz. The Mixtec and Zapotec cultures, centered at Mitla and Zaachila respectively, inhabited Oaxaca.
The Postclassic ends with the arrival of the Spanish and their subsequent conquest of the Aztec between 1519 and 1521. Many other cultural groups did not acquiesce until later. For example, Maya groups in the Petén area, including the Itza at Tayasal and the Kowoj at Zacpeten, remained independent until 1697.
Some Mesoamerican cultures never achieved dominant status or left impressive archaeological remains but are nevertheless noteworthy. These include the Otomi, Mixe–Zoque groups (which may or may not have been related to the Olmecs), the northern Uto-Aztecan groups, often referred to as the Chichimeca, that include the Cora and Huichol, the Chontales, the Huaves, and the Pipil, Xincan and Lencan peoples of Central America.
Chronology in chart form
Other characteristics
Subsistence
By roughly 6000 BCE, hunter-gatherers living in the highlands and lowlands of Mesoamerica began to develop agricultural practices with early cultivation of squash and chilli. The earliest example of maize dates to c. 4000 BCE and comes from Guilá Naquitz, a cave in Oaxaca. Earlier maize samples have been documented at the Los Ladrones cave site in Panama, c. 5500 BCE. Slightly thereafter, semi-agrarian communities began to cultivate other crops throughout Mesoamerica. Maize was the most common domesticate, but the common bean, tepary bean, scarlet runner bean, jicama, tomato and squash all became common cultivates by 3500 BCE. At the same time, these communities exploited cotton, yucca, and agave for fibers and textile materials. By 2000 BCE, corn was the staple crop in the region, and remained so through modern times. The Ramón or Breadnut tree (Brosimum alicastrum) was an occasional substitute for maize in producing flour. Fruit was also important in the daily diet of Mesoamerican cultures. Some of the main ones consumed include avocado, papaya, guava, mamey, zapote, and annona.
Mesoamerica lacked animals suitable for domestication, most notably domesticated large ungulates. The lack of draft animals for transportation is one notable difference between Mesoamerica and the cultures of the South American Andes. Other animals, including the duck, dogs, and turkey, were domesticated. Turkey was the first to be domesticated locally, around 3500 BCE. Dogs were the primary source of animal protein in ancient Mesoamerica, and dog bones are common in midden deposits throughout the region.
Societies of this region did hunt certain wild species for food. These animals included deer, rabbit, birds, and various types of insects. They also hunted for luxury items, such as feline fur and bird plumage.
Mesoamerican cultures that lived in the lowlands and coastal plains settled down in agrarian communities somewhat later than did highland cultures due to the fact that there was a greater abundance of fruits and animals in these areas, which made a hunter-gatherer lifestyle more attractive. Fishing also was a major provider of food to lowland and coastal Mesoamericans creating a further disincentive to settle down in permanent communities.
Political organization
Ceremonial centers were the nuclei of Mesoamerican settlements. The temples provided spatial orientation, which was imparted to the surrounding town. The cities with their commercial and religious centers were always political entities, somewhat similar to the European city-state, and each person could identify with the city where they lived.
Ceremonial centers were always built to be visible. Pyramids were meant to stand out from the rest of the city, to represent the gods and their powers. Another characteristic feature of the ceremonial centers is historic layers. All the ceremonial edifices were built in various phases, one on top of the other, to the point that what we now see is usually the last stage of construction. Ultimately, the ceremonial centers were the architectural translation of the identity of each city, as represented by the veneration of their gods and masters. Stelae were common public monuments throughout Mesoamerica, and served to commemorate notable successes, events and dates associated with the rulers and nobility of the various sites.
Economy
Given that Mesoamerica was broken into numerous and diverse ecological niches, none of the societies that inhabited the area were self-sufficient, although very long-distance trade was common only for very rare goods, or luxury materials. For this reason, from the last centuries of the Archaic period (8000 BC– 1000 BC) onward, regions compensated for the environmental inadequacies by specializing in the extraction of certain abundant natural resources and then trading them for necessary unavailable resources through established commercial trade networks.
The following is a list of some of the specialized resources traded from the various Mesoamerican sub-regions and environmental contexts:
Pacific lowlands: cotton and cochineal
Maya lowlands and the Gulf Coast: cacao, vanilla, jaguar skins, birds and bird feathers (especially quetzal and macaw)
Central Mexico: Obsidian (Pachuca)
Guatemalan highlands: Obsidian (San Martin Jilotepeque, El Chayal, and Ixtepeque), pyrite, and jade from the Motagua River valley
Coastal areas: salt, dry fish, shell, and dyes
Architecture
Mesoamerican architecture is the collective name given to urban, ceremonial and public structures built by pre-Columbian civilizations in Mesoamerica. Although very different in styles, all kinds of mesoamerican architecture show some kind of interrelation, due to very significant cultural exchanges occurred during thousands of years. Among the most well-known structures in Mesoamerica, the flat-top pyramids are a landmark feature of the most developed urban centers.
Two characteristics are most notable in Mesoamerican architecture. Firstly, the intimate connection between geography, astronomy and architecture: very often, urban centers or even single buildings are aligned to cardinal directions and/or along particular constellations. Secondly, iconography was considered integral part of architecture, with buildings often being adorned with images of religious and cultural significance.
Calendrical systems
Agriculturally based people historically divide the year into four seasons. These included the two solstices and the two equinoxes, which could be thought of as the four "directional pillars" that support the year. These four times of the year were, and still are, important as they indicate seasonal changes that directly impact the lives of Mesoamerican agriculturalists.
The Maya closely observed and duly recorded the seasonal markers. They prepared almanacs recording past and recent solar and lunar eclipses, the phases of the moon, the periods of Venus and Mars, the movements of various other planets, and conjunctions of celestial bodies. These almanacs also made future predictions concerning celestial events. These tables are remarkably accurate, given the technology available, and indicate a significant level of knowledge among Maya astronomers.
Among the many types of calendars the Maya maintained, the most important include a 260-day cycle, a 360-day cycle or 'year', a 365-day cycle or year, a lunar cycle, and a Venus cycle, which tracked the synodic period of Venus. Maya of the European contact period said that knowing the past aided in both understanding the present and predicting the future (Diego de Landa). The 260-day cycle was a calendar to govern agriculture, observe religious holidays, mark the movements of celestial bodies and memorialize public officials. The 260-day cycle was also used for divination, and (like the Catholic calendar of saints) to name newborns.
The names given to the days, months, and years in the Mesoamerican calendar came, for the most part, from animals, flowers, heavenly bodies, and cultural concepts that held symbolic significance in Mesoamerican culture. This calendar was used throughout the history of Mesoamerican by nearly every culture. Even today, several Maya groups in Guatemala, including the K'iche', Q'eqchi', Kaqchikel, and the Mixe people of Oaxaca continue using modernized forms of the Mesoamerican calendar.
Writing systems
The Mesoamerican scripts deciphered to date are logosyllabic combining the use of logograms with a syllabary, and they are often called hieroglyphic scripts. Five or six different scripts have been documented in Mesoamerica, but archaeological dating methods, and a certain degree of self-interest, create difficulties in establishing priority and thus the forebear from which the others developed. The best documented and deciphered Mesoamerican writing system, and therefore the most widely known, is the classic Maya script. Others include the Olmec, Zapotec, and Epi-Olmec/Isthmian writing systems. An extensive Mesoamerican literature has been conserved partly in indigenous scripts and partly in the postinvasion transcriptions into Latin script.
The other glyphic writing systems of Mesoamerica, and their interpretation, have been subject to much debate. One important ongoing discussion regards whether non-Maya Mesoamerican texts can be considered examples of true writing or whether non-Maya Mesoamerican texts are best understood as pictographic conventions that express ideas, specifically religious ones, but don't represent the phonetics of spoken language.
Mesoamerican writing is found in several mediums, including large stone monuments such as stelae, carved directly onto architecture, carved or painted over stucco (e.g., murals), and on pottery. No Precolumbian Mesoamerican society is known to have had widespread literacy, and literacy was probably restricted to particular social classes, including scribes, painters, merchants, and the nobility.
The Mesoamerican book was typically written with brush and colored inks on a paper prepared from the inner bark of the ficus amacus. The book consisted of a long strip of the prepared bark, which was folded like a screenfold to define individual pages. The pages were often covered and protected by elaborately carved book boards. Some books were composed of square pages while others were composed of rectangular pages.
Following the Spanish conquests in the sixteenth century, Spanish friars taught indigenous scribes to write their languages in alphabetic texts. Many oral histories of the prehispanic period were subsequently recorded in alphabetic texts. The indigenous in central and southern Mexico continued to produce written texts in the colonial period, many with pictorial elements. An important scholarly reference work is the Handbook of Middle American Indians, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources. Mesoamerican codices survive from the Aztec, Maya, Mixtec, and Zapotec regions.
Arithmetic
Mesoamerican arithmetic treated numbers as having both literal and symbolic value, the result of the dualistic nature that characterized Mesoamerican ideology. As mentioned, the Mesoamerican numbering system was vigesimal (i.e., based on the number 20).
In representing numbers, a series of bars and dots were employed. Dots had a value of one, and bars had a value of five. This type of arithmetic was combined with a symbolic numerology: '2' was related to origins, as all origins can be thought of as doubling; '3' was related to household fire; '4' was linked to the four corners of the universe; '5' expressed instability; '9' pertained to the underworld and the night; '13' was the number for light, '20' for abundance, and '400' for infinity. The concept of zero was also used, and its representation at the Late Preclassic occupation of Tres Zapotes is one of the earliest uses of zero in human history.
Food, medicine, and science
Maize played an important role in Mesoamerican feasts due to its symbolic meaning and abundance. Gods were praised and named after.
Companion planting was practiced in various forms by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. They domesticated squash 8,000 to 10,000 years ago, then maize, then common beans, forming the Three Sisters agricultural technique. The cornstalk served as a trellis for the beans to climb, and the beans fixed nitrogen, benefitting the maize.
Fray Bernardino de Sahagún collected extensive information on plants, animals, soil types, among other matters from native informants in Book 11, The Earthly Things, of the twelve-volume General History of the Things of New Spain, known as the Florentine Codex, compiled in the third quarter of the sixteenth century. Bernardino de Sahagún reported the ritualistic use of Psilocybe mushrooms known to the Aztecs as teōnanācatl (agglutinative form of teōtl (god, sacred) and nanācatl (mushroom) in Náhuatl). An earlier work, the Badianus Manuscript or Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis is another Aztec codex with written text and illustrations collected from the indigenous viewpoint. The ancient Aztecs used a variety of entheogens within their society.
Evidence shows that wild animals were captured and traded for symbolic and ritual purposes.
Mythology and worldview
Shared traits in Mesoamerican mythology are characterized by their common basis as a religion that—though in many Mesoamerican groups developed into complex polytheistic religious systems—retained some shamanistic elements.
The great breadth of the Mesoamerican pantheon of deities is due to the incorporation of ideological and religious elements from the first primitive religion of Fire, Earth, Water and Nature. Astral divinities (the sun, stars, constellations, and Venus) were adopted and represented in anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, and anthropozoomorphic sculptures, and in day-to-day objects. The qualities of these gods and their attributes changed with the passage of time and with cultural influences from other Mesoamerican groups. The gods are at once three: creator, preserver, and destroyer, and at the same time just one. An important characteristic of Mesoamerican religion was the dualism among the divine entities. The gods represented the confrontation between opposite poles: the positive, exemplified by light, the masculine, force, war, the sun, etc.; and the negative, exemplified by darkness, the feminine, repose, peace, the moon, etc.
The typical Mesoamerican cosmology sees the world as separated into a day world watched by the sun and a night world watched by the moon. More importantly, the three superposed levels of the world are united by a Ceiba tree (Yaxche''' in Mayan). The geographic vision is also tied to the cardinal points. Certain geographical features are linked to different parts of this cosmovision. Thus mountains and tall trees connect the middle and upper worlds; caves connect the middle and nether worlds.
Sacrifice
Generally, sacrifice can be divided into two types: autosacrifice and human sacrifice. The different forms of sacrifice are reflected in the imagery used to evoke ideological structure and sociocultural organization in Mesoamerica. In the Maya area, for example, stele depict bloodletting rituals performed by ruling elites, eagles and jaguars devouring human hearts, jade circles or necklaces that represented hearts, and plants and flowers that symbolized both nature and the blood that provided life. Imagery also showed pleas for rain or pleas for blood, with the same intention to replenish the divine energy. Ritual sacrifice was done in efforts to appease the gods, and was done with the purpose of protection of the population.
Autosacrifice
Autosacrifice, also called bloodletting, is the ritualized practice of drawing blood from oneself. It is commonly seen or represented through iconography as performed by ruling elites in highly ritualized ceremonies, but it was easily practiced in mundane sociocultural contexts (i.e., non-elites could perform autosacrifice). The act was typically performed with obsidian prismatic blades or stingray spines, and blood was drawn from piercing or cutting the tongue, earlobes, and/or genitals (among other locations). Another form of autosacrifice was conducted by pulling a rope with attached thorns through the tongue or earlobes. The blood produced was then collected on amate held in a bowl.
Autosacrifice was not limited to male rulers, as their female counterparts often performed these ritualized activities. They are typically shown performing the rope and thorns technique. A recently discovered queen's tomb in the Classic Maya site of Waka (also known as El Perú) had a ceremonial stingray spine placed in her genital area, suggesting that women also performed bloodletting in their genitalia.
Human sacrifice
Sacrifice had great importance in the social and religious aspects of Mesoamerican culture. First, it showed death transformed into the divine. Death is the consequence of a human sacrifice, but it is not the end; it is but the continuation of the cosmic cycle. Death creates life—divine energy is liberated through death and returns to the gods, who are then able to create more life. Secondly, it justifies war, since the most valuable sacrifices are obtained through conflict. The death of the warrior is the greatest sacrifice and gives the gods the energy to go about their daily activities, such as the bringing of rain. Warfare and capturing prisoners became a method of social advancement and a religious cause. Finally, it justifies the control of power by the two ruling classes, the priests and the warriors. The priests controlled the religious ideology, and the warriors supplied the sacrifices. Historically it was also in discussion that those sacrificed were chosen by the gods, this idea of being "chosen" was decided by the gods. This was then displayed by acts, such as being struck by lightning. If someone was struck by lightning and a sacrifice was needed they would often be chosen by their population, as they believed they were chosen by the gods.
Ballgame
The Mesoamerican ballgame was a sport with ritual associations played for over 3000 years by nearly all pre-Columbian peoples of Mesoamerica. The sport had different versions in different places during the millennia, and a modern version of the game, ulama, is still played in a few places.
Over 1300 ballcourts have been found throughout Mesoamerica. They vary considerably in size, but they all feature long narrow alleys with side-walls to bounce the balls against.
The rules of the ballgame are not known, but it was probably similar to volleyball, where the object is to keep the ball in play. In the most well-known version of the game, the players struck the ball with their hips, though some versions used forearms or employed rackets, bats, or handstones. The ball was made of solid rubber, and weighed up to 4 kg or more, with sizes that differed greatly over time or according to the version played.
While the game was played casually for simple recreation, including by children and perhaps even women, the game also had important ritual aspects, and major formal ballgames were held as ritual events, often featuring human sacrifice.
Astronomy
Mesoamerican astronomy included a broad understanding of the cycles of planets and other celestial bodies. Special importance was given to the sun, moon, and Venus as the morning and evening star.
Observatories were built at some sites, including the round observatory at Ceibal and the "Observatorio" at Xochicalco. Often, the architectural organization of Mesoamerican sites was based on precise calculations derived from astronomical observations. Well-known examples of these include the El Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza and the Observatorio at Xochicalco. A unique and common architectural complex found among many Mesoamerican sites are E-Groups, which are aligned so as to serve as astronomical observatories. The name of this complex is based on Uaxactun's "Group E", the first known observatory in the Maya area. Perhaps the earliest observatory documented in Mesoamerica is that of the Monte Alto culture. This complex consisted of three plain stelae and a temple oriented with respect to the Pleiades.
Symbolism of space and time
It has been argued that among Mesoamerican societies the concepts of space and time are associated with the four cardinal compass points and linked together by the calendar. Dates or events were always tied to a compass direction, and the calendar specified the symbolic geographical characteristic peculiar to that period. Resulting from the significance held by the cardinal directions, many Mesoamerican architectural features, if not entire settlements, were planned and oriented with respect to directionality.
In Maya cosmology, each cardinal point was assigned a specific color and a specific jaguar deity (Bacab). They are as follows:
Hobnil, Bacab of the East, associated with the color red and the Kan years
Can Tzicnal, Bacab of the North, assigned the color white and the Muluc years
Zac Cimi, Bacab of the West, associated with the color black and the Ix years
Hozanek, Bacab of the South, associated with the color yellow and the Cauac years.
Later cultures such as the Kaqchikel and K'iche' maintain the association of cardinal directions with each color, but used different names.
Among the Aztec, the name of each day was associated with a cardinal point (thus conferring symbolic significance), and each cardinal direction was associated with a group of symbols. Below are the symbols and concepts associated with each direction:
East: croco dile, the serpent, water, cane, and movement. The East was linked to the world priests and associated with vegetative fertility, or, in other words, tropical exuberance.
North: wind, death, the dog, the jaguar, and flint (or chert). The north contrasts with the east in that it is conceptualized as dry, cold, and oppressive. It is considered the nocturnal part of the universe and includes the dwellings of the dead. The dog (xoloitzcuintle) has a very specific meaning, as it accompanies the deceased during the trip to the lands of the dead and helps them cross the river of death that leads into nothingness. (See also Dogs in Mesoamerican folklore and myth).
West: the house, the deer, the monkey, the eagle, and rain. The west was associated with the cycles of vegetation, specifically the temperate high plains that experience light rains and the change of seasons.
South: rabbit, the lizard, dried herbs, the buzzard, and flowers. It is related on the one hand to the luminous Sun and the noon heat, and on the other with rain filled with alcoholic drink. The rabbit, the principal symbol of the west, was associated with farmers and with pulque.
Political and religious art
Mesoamerican artistic expression was conditioned by ideology and generally focused on themes of religion and/or sociopolitical power. This is largely based on the fact that most works that survived the Spanish conquest were public monuments. These monuments were typically erected by rulers who sought to visually legitimize their sociocultural and political position; by doing so, they intertwined their lineage, personal attributes and achievements, and legacy with religious concepts. As such, these monuments were specifically designed for public display and took many forms, including stele, sculpture, architectural reliefs, and other types of architectural elements (e.g., roofcombs). Other themes expressed include tracking time, glorifying the city, and veneration of the gods—all of which were tied to explicitly aggrandizing the abilities and the reign of the ruler who commissioned the artwork.
The majority of artwork created during this historical time was in relation to these topics, religion and politics. Rulers were drawn and sculpted. Historical tales and events were then translated into pieces of art, and art was used to relay religious and political messages.
Music
Archaeological studies have never discovered any written music from the pre-Columbian era, but musical instruments were found, as well as carvings and depictions, that clearly show how music played a central role in the Mayan religious and societal structures, for example, as accompaniment to celebrations and funerals. Some Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Maya, commonly played various instruments such as drums, flutes and whistles. Although most of the original Mayan music disappeared following the Spanish colonization, some of it mixed with the incoming Spanish music and exists to date.
See also
Americas (terminology)
Americas
Central America
Hispanic America
Hispanic and Latino Americans
Indigenous peoples of Mexico
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Latin America
Mesoamerican region
Middle America (Americas)
Painting in the Americas before European colonization
References
Bibliography
2 vols. in 3.
Gibson, Charles. The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964.
Wauchope, Robert, general editor. Handbook of Middle American Indians. Austin: University of Texas Press 1964–1976.
External links
Maya Culture
Mesoweb.com: a comprehensive site for Mesoamerican civilizations
Museum of the Templo Mayor (Mexico)
National Museum of Anthropology and History (Mexico)
Selected bibliography concerning war in Mesoamerica
WAYEB: European Association of Mayanists
Arqueologia Iberoamericana: Open access international scientific journal devoted to the archaeological study of the American and Iberian peoples. It contains research articles on Mesoamerica.
Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520–1820''
Classic period in the Americas
History of indigenous peoples of North America
History of Belize
History of El Salvador
History of Guatemala
History of Honduras
History of Mexico
History of Nicaragua
Indigenous peoples of Central America
Indigenous peoples in Mexico
Pre-Columbian cultural areas
Historical regions
Regions of North America
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English%20Argentines
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English Argentines
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English Argentines (also known as Anglo-Argentines) are citizens of Argentina or the children of Argentine citizens brought up in Argentina, who can claim ancestry originating in England. The English settlement in Argentina (the arrival of English emigrants), took place in the period after Argentina's independence from Spain through the 19th century. Unlike many other waves of immigration to Argentina, English immigrants were not usually leaving England because of poverty or persecution, but went to Argentina as industrialists and major landowners.
The United Kingdom had a strong economic influence in Argentina during the Victorian period.
However the position of English Argentines was complicated when their economic influence was finally eroded by Juan Perón's nationalisation of many British-owned companies in the 1940s and then by the Falklands War in 1982. Notable Argentines such as presidents of Argentina Raúl Alfonsín and Carlos Pellegrini, adventurer Lucas Bridges, Huracan football club former player and president Carlos Babington and writer Jorge Luis Borges are partially of English descent.
English immigration
English settlers arrived in Buenos Aires in 1806 (then a Spanish colony) in small numbers, mostly as businessmen, when Argentina was an emerging nation and the settlers were welcomed for the stability they brought to commercial life. As the 19th century progressed more English families arrived, and many bought land to develop the potential of the Argentine pampas for the large-scale growing of crops. The English founded banks, developed the export trade in crops and animal products and imported the luxuries that the growing Argentine middle classes sought.
As well as those who went to Argentina as industrialists and major landowners, others went as railway engineers, civil engineers and to work in banking and commerce. Others went to become whalers, missionaries and simply to seek out a future. English families sent second and younger sons, or what were described as the black sheep of the family, to Argentina to make their fortunes in cattle and wheat. English settlers introduced football to Argentina. Some English families owned sugar plantations.
Background
In a treaty of 1825, the United Kingdom became one of the first countries to recognise the independence of Argentina. English arrivals and investment played a large part in the development of Argentine railway and tramway lines, and also Argentine agriculture, livestock breeding, processing, refrigeration and export. At one point in the 19th century, ten per cent of British foreign investment was in Argentina, despite not being a colony. In 1939, 39% of investment in Argentina was British.
English culture, or a version of it as perceived from outside, had a noted effect on the culture of Argentina, mainly in the middle classes. In 1888 local Anglo-Argentines established the Hurlingham Club, based on its namesake in London. The city of Hurlingham, Buenos Aires and Hurlingham Partido in Buenos Aires Province later grew up around the club and took their names from it. The Córdoba Athletic Club, one of the oldest sports clubs in Argentina, was founded in 1882 by English men who lived in Córdoba working for the railways.
In 1912 the well-known London department store Harrods opened a store in Buenos Aires; the only Harrods ever opened outside London. Harrods Buenos Aires became independent of Harrods in the 1940s, but still traded under the Harrods name.
Afternoon tea became standard amongst large segments of the population and generated the popular merienda, an afternoon snack also known simply as la leche (milk) because it was served with tea or chocolate milk along with sweets. The Richmond café on Florida Street is a notable tea venue near the Harrods department store, now an exhibition hall.
Gardened chalets built by railway executives near railway stations in suburbs including Banfield, Temperley, Munro, Ranelagh and Hurlingham gave a pointed English atmosphere to local areas in Buenos Aires, especially in winter when shrouded in grey mists and fallen oak leaves over cobblestones. Belgrano R, within the Belgrano district, is another train station known for the British neighbourhood around it originated by the railway. An Anglican church from 1896 and the Buenos Aires English High School founded by Alexander Watson Hutton in 1884 are both in this area. Also important are the railway terminals Retiro in Retiro neighbourhood and Constitución. There are numerous countryside stations in the Pampas.
Around 100,000 Anglo-Argentines are the descendants of English immigrants to Argentina. They are one of the most successful immigrant groups of Argentina, gaining prominence in commerce, industry, and the professions. Many speak unaccented English at home. An English-language newspaper, the Buenos Aires Herald, was published daily in Buenos Aires from 1876 to 2017.
Anglo-Argentines have traditionally differed from their fellow Argentines by largely retaining strong ties with their mother country, including education and commerce. There are many schools in Argentina that are bilingual, offering a British curriculum in English and the standard Argentine curriculum in Spanish, including Northlands School, St. Mark's College, Balmoral College, St. Alban's College, St. George's College, Belgrano Day School and Washington School. Buenos Aires had a number of branches of the Asociación Argentina de Cultura Inglesa (English Cultural Association), and throughout the 20th century English language learning and teaching in state schools and private institutions was invariably geared towards the Received Pronunciation. Many private boys' schools have a uniform of blue blazers and grey flannel trousers.
The Anglo-Argentine Society, based in London, was founded in 1948 and has about 900 members. It is a society for Argentine people living in the United Kingdom, particularly those of Anglo-Argentine heritage. One of its main aims is to promote understanding and friendship between the two countries. Also in London is the Canning Club, formerly the Argentine Club until Juan Perón nationalised Argentine-based British businesses, the main source of revenue of the club in the 1940s. The club is for those with a particular link to, or special interest in, Argentina and other Latin American countries.
The Coghlan neighbourhood in Buenos Aires, known for its large English-style residences, was originally inhabited by English and Irish immigrants. Caballito contains an area called the "English District".
In 1794, the British Empire opened a consulate in San Nicolás, leading to the development of a large British community in the area, which became known as the "English borough". They founded the English Merchants' Society in 1810 and in 1822 the British Consulate became home to the first modern bank in Buenos Aires.
World War II
During World War II, 4,000 Argentines served with all three British armed services, even though Argentina was officially a neutral country during the war. Over 600 Argentine volunteers served with both the Royal Air Force and the Royal Canadian Air Force, mostly in the 164 Argentine-British RAF squadron, whose shield bore the sun from the flag of Argentina and the motto, "Determined We Fly (Firmes Volamos)". Many members of the Anglo-Argentine community also volunteered in non-combat roles, or worked to raise money and supplies for British troops. In April 2005, a special remembrance service was held at the RAF church of St Clement Danes in London.
Nearly 500 Argentines served in the Royal Navy around the world, from the North Atlantic to the South Pacific. Many were part of the special forces, such as John Godwin.
Falklands War
When considering the British response to the Argentine landing on the Falkland Islands in 1982, at the start of the Falklands War, the British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, was advised of the potential risk that a military response might pose to Anglo-Argentines. However, the risk did not materialise and people with a British background were not endangered. Diplomatic relations between the two countries were broken off that year, and were normalised in 1990.
English place names
A number of towns, villages and cities have English place names. These include Banfield which is named after Edward Banfield. Wilde, Buenos Aires, named in 1888 by Eduardo Wilde in honour of his uncle Dr. José Antonio Wilde, who was an English Argentine. Hurlingham, Buenos Aires and Hurlingham Partido took their name from the Hurlingham Club around which the city of Hurlingham grew. Others include the town of Lincoln, Washington and City Bell, a small town in La Plata partido, Buenos Aires province, which was founded around 1900 by English immigrants and which is named after its founder, George Bell. Temperley is named after the industrial and textile merchant George Temperley, who was born in 1823 in Newcastle upon Tyne in England. He helped to create Lomas de Zamora Partido and made possible the foundation of the town of Temperley. Allen, Río Negro is named after Charles Allen who managed the construction of the city's train station.
There are several train station-founded towns with English names in the country such as Roberts, Smith, Hereford and Henderson. The station of Monte Coman in Mendoza Province owes its name to a dispute with a British company which did not pay its local workers on time. The workers complained they had nothing to eat; an engineer responded, in bad Spanish, "coman monte" which was supposed to mean "eat the woods". In Córdoba province, English names can be traced in Morrison or James Craik, as well as Armstrong in Santa Fe province.
The Torre de los Ingleses ('Tower of the English') in Buenos Aires was renamed the Torre Monumental following the Falklands War.
English colonies in Argentina
The city of Villa María in Córdoba Province was co-founded by English families.
Sport
Sports such as football, tennis, rugby union, hockey, golf, cricket, and polo were introduced to Argentina by English settlers.
Polo
Polo was first played in Argentina at the Hurlingham Club and the Argentine Polo Association was founded at the club in 1922. Argentina has since become a dominant power in international polo, and the Campeonato Argentino Abierto de Polo has been held annually since 1893 at the Campo Argentino de Polo in Buenos Aires.
Football
English railway workers from Northern England founded the Buenos Aires Football Club on 9 May 1867 in Temple Street (now Viamonte) at a meeting organised by brothers Thomas and James Hogg who were originally from Yorkshire. The first football match to be played in Argentina was played at the Buenos Aires Cricket Club in Palermo, Buenos Aires on 20 June 1867. The match was played between two teams of British merchants, the White Caps and the Red Caps.
Alumni Athletic Club was founded in 1898 as "English High School" (taking the name of the school where the team came from, and the club was the most successful during the first years of football in Argentina. The team debuted in the inaugural season of the recently formed Argentine Football Association in 1893 and played again in 1895 and 1900 under its original name. In 1901 they changed their name to "Alumni". They continued to play in the league until the club were disbanded in 1911.
British football clubs tours over South America contributed to the spread and develop of football in the region during the first years of the 20th century. The first club to tour on the region was Southampton F.C. in 1904, followed by several teams (mainly from England although some Scotland clubs also visited South America) until 1929 with Chelsea F.C. being the last team to tour.
British teams were considered the best in the world by then, and some of them served as inspiration to establish football clubs in Argentina, helped by the immigration of British citizens that had arrived to work for British companies (mostly in railway construction). Clubs founded by English railway workers were Ferrocarril Midland (Buenos Aires Midland Railway, Ferro Carril Oeste (Buenos Aires Western Railway) and Talleres de Córdoba (Córdoba Central Railway), Rosario Central (originally "Central Argentine Railway Athletic Club" by Central Argentine Railway workers).
Further examples of clubs established by British immigrants to South America are Belgrano A.C., Rosario A.C., Alumni, Quilmes, and Newell's Old Boys.
Evidence of the influence of English settlers in Argentine football can be seen by club names, and the tradition of giving clubs English names although they were not founded by British immigrants. Some examples are Boca Juniors, River Plate, All Boys, Racing Club, Chaco For Ever.
Religion
The majority of Argentines of English descent who claim a religion are Catholic rather than mainly Protestant denominations which predominate in England due to conversion or intermarriage with non-English Argentines. The Anglican Church of South America claims a membership of roughly 25,000, mostly living in Argentina, but including members in neighbouring countries.
Anglican church in Argentina
Anglican churches were established in Argentina, where the religion is otherwise overwhelmingly Catholic, in the early 19th century to give a chaplaincy service to expatriate workers living in Argentina. In 1824 permission was given to hold Anglican church services, and in 1831 St. John's Church was built in San Nicolás, Buenos Aires on land donated in 1830 by Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas for the benefit of the new St. John the Baptist Anglican Church. It is the oldest in existence in Buenos Aires.
English naval captain and Christian missionary, Allen Gardiner founded the Patagonia Mission (later renamed the South American Missionary Society) in 1844 to recruit, send, and support Protestant Christian missionaries. His first mission, which included a surgeon and three fishermen was sent to the Yaghans on the island of Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego. They arrived at Picton island in Tierra del Fuego in December 1850, but their food began to run out; the supplies they had expected did not arrive, and by September 1851 they had died from sickness and hunger. The Patagonia Mission continued and in 1854 changed its name to the South American Missionary Society.
In January 1869 the Society established a mission at Ushuaia in Tierra del Fuego under its superintendent, Waite Hockin Stirling. On 21 December 1869 Stirling was ordained at Westminster Abbey as the first Bishop of the Falkland Islands and at the time had episcopal authority over the whole of South America, until power was transferred to the Bishop of Buenos Aires. In 1914 the first mission, Misión Chaqueña, was founded in the north of Argentina.
The Anglican Diocese of Argentina is part of the Anglican Province of the Southern Cone of America and is headed by the current bishop of Buenos Aires.
Notable people
Carlos Babington – former footballer. Known as "El Inglés" (The Englishman).
Hilda Bernard – actress.
Jorge Luis Borges – author and poet; his grandmother was of English origin.
Eduardo Bradley – aviator.
Lucas Bridges – author and explorer.
Chris de Burgh - singer.
Rodolfo Enrique Fogwill – author and sociologist.
Donald Forrester – cricketer.
John Godwin – Royal Navy officer.
Andrew Graham-Yooll – editor.
Trevor Grove – journalist and newspaper editor.
Soto Grimshaw – naturalist and explorer.
Diego Hartfield – tennis player.
Juan Enrique Hayes – football player.
Leonardo Henrichsen – photojournalist.
Mariano Hood – tennis player.
Juan Carlos Howard – tango pianist and composer.
William Henry Hudson – author and naturalist.
Martita Hunt – actress.
Olivia Hussey – actress.
Lewis Lacey – polo player.
Roberto M. Levingston – Argentina President June 18, 1970 – March 21, 1971
Carlos Micháns - composer
Francisco Moreno – explorer and geographer. His mother, Juana Thwaites, was of English descent.
Isaac Newell – founder or Newell's Old Boys football club.
Olga Casares Pearson – actress.
Carlos Pellegrini – President of Argentina from 6 August 1890 to 12 October 1892. His mother, María Bevans Bright, was of English origin.
Julio Porter – screenwriter and film director.
Peter Prescott (barrister) – King's Counsel.
Jorge Pullin – physicist.
Elena Roger – actress.
Collier Twentyman Smithers – portrait, figure and rustic painter.
René Strickler – actor.
Anya Taylor-Joy – actress.
Martín Jacobo Thompson – navy officer and patriot, founder of the Argentine Naval Prefecture.
Maria Elena Walsh – children's literature writer and singer.
Eduardo Wilde – physician, politician and writer.
Amancio Williams – architect.
Gallery
See also
Football in Argentina
Buenos Aires English High School
Alumni Athletic Club
British football clubs tours to South America
References
External links
Anglo-Argentine Society website
Immigration to Argentina-Report-Yale
ABCC – Argentine British Community Council
British Argentine
Argentine
Immigration to Argentina
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magical%20Vacation
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Magical Vacation
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is a 2001 role-playing video game developed by Brownie Brown and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance only in Japan on December 7, 2001, and was later re-released in the same region in 2006. Japanese singer, model, and actress Mika Nakashima was featured in the television commercials for Magical Vacation. The game received a full English language fan translation in 2016.
A sequel was produced for the Nintendo DS in 2006, titled Magical Vacation: Itsutsu no Hoshi ga Narabu Toki. It was released in North America and Europe as Magical Starsign.
Gameplay
The game is a standard RPG adventure game, where the player interacts with the overworld to progress the story while battling against enemies in a turn-based battle system. There are 16 different elements in the game, each of which is stronger than another specific element, and weaker against another. Exceptions to this rule are: the love element (not stronger or weaker than any of the other elements), the dark element (stronger than all other elements except for love and light), and the light element (no weakness).
Spirit combos
The player can increase the power of attacks by borrowing power from elemental spirits in a process called . To use a spirit combo, the player must summon an elemental spirit, and use magic of the same element in the following turns to release vast amounts of damage. Attack power is doubled per spirit present, meaning 2 spirits would create 4 times as much damage, and 3 spirits would create 8 times as much. The maximum combo (7 spirits) yields 128 times as much damage. The power of basic magic can surpass that of advanced magic if the player uses this combo. However, certain special rules apply to its use. For instance, the enemy can summon spirits of a stronger element to eliminate the combo's effectiveness (having one fire elemental spirit will eliminate the effect of one wind elemental spirit), and spirits can be extracted from the field using certain spells. The combo also applies for bombs which contain the magic power of an element. The maximum number of spirits that can be summoned is 7 (regardless of how many spirits were present at the start of the battle), and spirits must be re-summoned per combo use.
Amigo system
This system allows the player to interact with the Game Boy Advance's multiplayer link. The first option, , allows players to exchange main characters to acquire new spells. For instance, exchanging between a wind elemental main character and a sound elemental one will allow the wind elemental character to learn a sound elemental spell, and vice versa. Magic learned in this way can be strengthened with experience like all other spells from the beginning of the game. Each player can also receive "special" spell data, which can be equipped to allied characters, but equipped spells will not strengthen with experience. Exchanging a certain number of times will give the main character a new spell or change their element. Love magic is acquired if the player exchanges with 5 players of the same element. Exchanging 100 times will change the main character's element to the dark element and change their appearance to the dark costume. Learning all of the spells in the game and fulfilling the two prior requirements will give the main character light magic, change their element to the light element, and change them into the light costume.
The second option, becomes available if the player has gone to the hot spring in the Plane of Light at least once during the game. Using the other player's hot spring will increase the main character's powers (different types of hot springs improve different status points; using the same hot spring repeatedly decreases the probability of powering up). After a certain number of uses, the player may be offered a choice to upgrade their hot spring. The level of upgrade is dependent on the player's rank, which is influenced by their in-game actions and win/loss ratio in battles.
The third option, , is the multiplayer battle mode. A multiplayer battle is conducted in the same way as regular battles in the story mode, but winning a certain number of battles or maintaining a certain winning percentage awards the main character a special title that boosts their abilities. 3 elemental spirits (chosen randomly) also appear at the beginning of every multiplayer turn.
Nintendo organized two events in 2002 to gather Magical Vacation players together to make the Amigo system more accessible. The first event was held on January 26 in Osaka, and the second event was held the following day in Tokyo. These events allowed players who only had access to one game cartridge to quickly gain power-ups for their characters.
Setting
Plot
Once upon a time, war erupted for three days in the magic kingdom Kovomaka. This war was kept a secret from ordinary citizens, but one man began to travel all around the country in preparation for the next battle, and several years later, the game's main character entered the magic school Will-o'-Wisp at the invitation of the school's principal. The main character possessed the ability to see and interact with spirits since youth, and was ostracized because of this ability.
The students of Will-o'-Wisp Academy are sent away to a summer school called Valencia Beach, despite warnings that several students from the school had gone missing on the beach in the past. At nighttime, strange monsters called the enigma appear on the beach, abducting the students and sending them to another world. The hero must find the missing students, while also uncovering the mysteries of the enigma and the war that occurred in the kingdom.
World map
The game map is divided into four planes of existence, which can be traversed using a magic bus. The first plane, the Plane of Material, is the player's original world, which houses Will-o'-Wisp Academy and Valencia Beach. The second is the Plane of Light, where puppets, love ambassadors, and dwarves live. The Palace of Light and other ruins are located at the center area, along with a hot springs. The third is the Plane of Darkness, where all sorts of habitats, including a forest, iceberg, desert, and volcano, are located in close proximity. The wolks and nyamnelt species make their homes in this plane, and many enigma monsters live in Enigma Forest. The entrance to the secret dungeon, Garam Masala, is also located within this plane. The final plane is the Plane of Death, which provides a stark contrast to the other environments with its darkened sky and charred ground. Dying in this plane means perfect disappearance of the physical and spiritual self. Even so, several species live in this plane, and the deepest area contains the cave of resurrection. Other worlds are mentioned, such as the planes of Water, Fire, and Wind, but do not appear in the game itself.
Characters
Will-o'-Wisp classmates
Hero/Heroine (Human, age 14)
The player's character has no default name, and the player may choose the character's gender and element as well. The character cannot start out with the light, dark, or love elements, but can learn spells of other elements or change elements using the Amigo system. The main character's appearance changes when they acquire the light or dark elements.
Kirsche prefers sports over academics, though he excels at neither. He has been friends with Arancia since childhood, and never seems to give up even if he loses. He is infatuated with Candy Mintblue, and his magic retrieves gummy worms from MP recovery pots.
Arancia is a gifted musician who can play a multitude of musical instruments, including the piano, harp, strings, percussion, and woodwinds. Her natural talent comes from her musical family, and she can master any instrument almost instantly. However, her music seems to lack emotion and expression, and often causes listeners to lose interest and doze off. She is less than thrilled about Kirsche's affection for Candy Mintblue. Her magic allows the player to discover gold or silver coins from chests.
Ganache is a cool and withdrawn student who was born into a family that bears the dark element. He believes that he and his sister, Vanilla, are different from others, and begins to pursue the enigma after his sister's disappearance three years ago (he explains that his intention was to merge with the enigma in order to save his sister). He prefers to be alone, and only associates with users of dark magic. His hobby is playing the harmonica near the river, and his dark magic makes him a powerful character in battle. His feelings towards Candy Mintblue begin to shift as the story progresses.
Cassis is a nihilistic boy who seems to have underground connections. He lost his father at a young age, but is unaware of the cause of his death. His hobby is collecting knives, and he is a proficient cook. He continuously courts his classmate, Blueberry Lakeside, but is rejected every time. His magic allows the player to retain gummy frogs even when a blade spirit joins.
Cidre is an artist and art critic whose precocious talent allowed him to open his own exhibition at age 10. However, he has recently lacked a theme that he can be passionate enough to depict. He acts as a tutor to his cousin, Souffle, and his magic prevents birds from blocking the player's path. As the story progresses, it is revealed that his mother met a dark fate.
Blueberry is a calm and collected girl who comes from an aristocratic family in the service of the king, with ancestry tied to the Plane of Water. She is a tremendously hard worker, and is continuously at the top of her class as a result, but her frail body prevents her from strenuous activities. She is best friends with Lemon Airsupply, who saved her from bullies during childhood. She seems unsure how to react to Cassis Lumberyard's affection. Her magic allows her to translate "aquarim", the language of the water people.
Lemon is an active, boyish girl who hails from a family of martial artists, but an accident during childhood prevented her from joining the rest of the family, so she began training at Will-o'-Wisp Academy. She cannot bear to watch bullying, and is fond of Blueberry Lakeside. Her magic prevents piranhas from extorting money from the player.
Olive is a shy, gentle girl who likes animals. She had the ability to read minds from youth, but a certain event caused her to fear looking into people's minds. She thinks of Ganache Nighthawk as a brother, and her ability to read minds allows her to understand him better than the other students. Her magic prevents monsters from jumping out of gummy worm holes.
Cabernet is a mischievous and pessimistic boy who was taught magic by a frog. The frog lives in Cabernet's head, and prevents him from picking up gummy frogs. He used to bully Blueberry Lakeside, but stopped after being reprimanded by Lemon Airsupply. He has knowledge of the hidden past between his deceased older brother, Chardonnay, and Ganache's sister, Vanilla. His magic makes gummy frogs run away, but also allows the player to reach paths blocks by the gummies.
Pistachio is a kind but cowardly boy who is one of the least skilled magic users at Will-o'-Wisp. His grades are terrible, and he is bordering on failing. He wears a pair of pants on his head instead of a hat, and likes to read manga. His magic lets him pick up extra gummy frogs when drinking from HP pots.
Peche is a very diligent and emotional girl who loves to look after others. Her personality fits the mold of class president. Her magic sometimes retrieves coins from gummy worm holes.
Sesame loves bugs, and houses a number of them in his house as pets. He always keeps bugs in his pocket, and is rather introverted and timid. He looks up to Kirsche Pintail, and likes to follow him around. His magic warns the player if chests house monsters instead of items.
Café au Lait is a robot that the Will-o'-Wisp Academy principal bought for cheap at an antique store. His machinery is quite rare and valuable, but he is disassembled and operated on several times throughout the course of the game. Café au Lait's personality is designed to be cool and nihilistic, and a character very similar to Café au Lait makes an appearance in the game's sequel as well. His magic helps motivate dwarves scattered around the world, which unlocks the secret dungeon.
Chocolat was buried in the ground near the school for a long time before being dug up one day by the students. He talks like a small child, and likes to play with small animals. His magic allows the player to find gummy worms hidden underneath rocks.
Candy is a talkative, active girl who is attracted to Ganache Nighthawk. Her affection for Ganache plays a strong role in her actions during the later parts of the game. Though she exhibits a carefree personality, she actually despises herself for lacking courage. She rivals Blueberry Lakeside in school smarts, and her hobby is collecting handkerchiefs. She is utterly oblivious of Kirsche Pintail's infatuation with her. Her magic allows the player to remove bomb pots without using a gummy frog.
Other important characters from the Will-o'-Wisp magic school include the main character's teacher, , who seems to be an ordinary teacher but is actually a very powerful magician. The school's principal, (called Biscotti in the sequel) is a legendary magician who gathered the magic school students together from all around the kingdom after the war. is the driver of the , which can take the player into different areas of the map. is Ganache's older sister, who disappeared after merging with an enigma in her mad search for power. She is held captive in Chiboust Castle. is Cabernet's older brother, who was a soldier in the Kovomaka army. He died while searching for Vanilla a year before the start of the story.
Species
These dog-like creatures are faithful to their village leader, and live according to strict rules and practices. Legend says they first came from the Plane of Wood.
Known as felins in the sequel. These cat-like creatures originally came from the Plane of Wind. They are brave and resourceful, having survived in the harsh environment of the Plane of Darkness. They can provide useful information concerning other species.
This species bears resemblance to dolls. Puppets from the Plane of Light can never age. Cabernet, however, is one of the puppets that does age.
This species is highly sensitive to anything concerning love, and can use magic to dispel curses. Females of this species are beautiful, but all of the males are rather ugly.
Mudmen are made of earth and mud. Their bodies are very tough, but they melt at high temperatures. They have very esoteric views on life, and are said to possess magic jewels hidden within their bodies.
Known as potfolk in the sequel. These creatures are located all around the map. The most prevalent are the HP and MP pots, which restore health and magic respectively. Another type, bomber pots, disintegrate when given gummy frogs.
These birds are present in many parts of the game. The black-feathered sparrows in the Plane of Darkness cannot be moved, so the player must have Cider whistle in a certain way to move them.
Once regular creatures, they were turned into dodos by the enigmas' curse. It takes 1000 years for them to return to their original forms, though there is a special way for spirits to break the curse. Dodo blood is famous for its curing properties, which causes them to be hunted quite often.
Known as traveling putties in the sequel. These creatures are konnyaku that can speak and move. They are in danger of becoming extinct, and the remaining ones travel around the world in search for konnyaku potatoes, which can increase their numbers.
These are creatures made up of water. They originally came from the Plane of Water, but were sent to the Plane of Darkness following an enigma invasion. They speak a unique language called aquarim, which can only be translated if Blueberry is in the party.
These creatures appear in many of the dungeons, and demand money when the player comes into contact with them. Refusing to pay increases the amount of money that they demand, but having Lemon on the team will void their demands. The player does not have to pay if the amount of money they demand is more than the player currently has. If given a certain amount of money, they will drop coins used for befriending spirits.
These are robots built over 12000 years ago, and can be found at the Benakoncha Ruins in the Plane of Light. Their speech is displayed in a unique katakana font.
Magicians who do not wish to reincarnate may be reborn as stars. They retain all memories of their past lives, and ascend to the afterlife in Rakyuo, a mystical cavern in the Plane of Death.
There are three types of gummy frogs (red, blue, and green), and they can be used as items to restore health. However, they cannot be caught while the player is traveling with Cabernet, and certain spirits will not join if the player catches too many of them.
There are two types of gummy worms (red and yellow), and they can be used as items to restore magic power. However, they tend to run away into the ground when the player approaches, and going after them causes an enemy to appear. Traveling with Olive allows the player to catch the worms without fighting enemies.
These bearded creatures are superb craftsmen. They are familiar with the mechanics of ancient robots, and will sometimes create robots themselves. The dwarf capital Gearava Village in the Plane of Light, where the factory tower Kido Monga is located.
Most of these mouse-like creatures live in the La Roche Tower in the Plane of Light. Some of them exhibit yakuza-like personalities, and will begin a fight just by being spoken to.
These plant-like creatures live at a marsh in the Plane of Darkness. Some of them seem to be acquaintances of Miss Madeleine.
This species claims to have created the universe. Their beards cause them to resemble dwarves, but brownies are extremely lazy, and their souls will sometimes leave their bodies while they are asleep.
These creatures are directly modeled after the pyrite mineral. Their speech is displayed in hiragana.
Spirits
There are 16 different types of , and up to 7 of one type can be recruited. These spirits can be summoned during battle to perform combos, and some spirits must be recruited in order to proceed through certain dungeons. In order to recruit spirits, the player must speak with each spirit symbol, and fulfill their demands. The requirements for recruiting new spirits become tougher to meet as the game progresses. Some spirits have special additional requirements, making it difficult to recruit all of the spirits available in the game.
One spirit of the element the player chooses for the main character at the beginning of the game will appear in the first half of the game. The requirement to recruit that spirit is one green Gummi Frog, regardless of the type of spirit. As a result, the seventh spirit of the player's original element will not appear. In the Remitz Palace, several spirits can be recruited by chasing Dodo towards the Love Ambassadors. No items are required to recruit the spirits in this scenario, but the room with the Dodo cannot be entered unless the player has at least one spirit of the kind depicted on the room's door.
The spirit of light appears in dungeons and inns, where the player must remain at the appearance points for about 40 seconds in order to recruit the spirit. Though no special item is required to recruit Lux, the spirit despises Nirva, the spirit of darkness, and Lux encountered later on in the game will refuse to join if a certain number of Nirva have already been recruited. The Lux in the secret dungeon only available to players bearing the light element will join only if no more than one Nirva has been recruited.
The spirit of darkness must be recruited by beating them in battle. The spirit's symbol (a human skull) will not appear unless the player has caught a certain number of gummy frogs, and the minimum requirement for recruiting the Nirva in the deepest part of the secret dungeon of darkness is to catch over 1000 gummi frogs. The dungeon cannot be entered if the player possesses the light element.
The spirit of love has no item requirements to recruit, but catching over a certain number of gummy frogs causes them to disappear. This requirement becomes harder to meet for Wish encountered towards the end of the game, and the final one cannot be recruited if the player has bought gummy frogs at shops. 4 of these spirits join during specific events, and skipping the event or making a wrong choice during the event will cause the spirit to disappear forever. The spirit's symbol is a heart sign.
The only requirement for recruiting the spirit of fire is to pay them a certain number of Mirori silver coins. However, the spirit in Zundoko Hole will disappear if the player calls the other dwarves to continue digging. The spirit's symbol is a candle.
The spirit of sound is recruited by paying a certain number of Harmonic gold coins. Having Arancia on the team, along with the small ocarina item will lower the amount of coins demanded. The spirit's symbol is a musical note.
The spirit of wind is recruited by paying a certain number of Rasimov gold coins. However, the final spirit must be recruited in a special way. The spirit's symbol is a feather.
The blade spirit is recruited by paying a certain number of Camti gold coins. The player must dispose of all gummy frogs before paying the spirit to join, but Cassis will retrieve all of the frogs afterwards. The spirit's symbol is a sword.
The spirit of beauty is prideful, and will only join when paid a certain number of Ganick gold coins and if the player has below a certain number of gummy worms in their inventory. If the player catches more than a certain number of worms while a beauty spirit is on the team, it will cause the spirit to demand that all of the worms be thrown away. Ignoring this demand will cause one beauty spirit to leave the team. The spirit's symbol is a mirror.
The spirit of water is difficult to find, and will join when paid a certain number of Crescent silver coins. Its symbol is a puddle.
The spirit of thunder has a habit of saying the same word over and over again, and is recruited by paying a certain number of Helion gold coins. Its symbol is a light-bulb.
The beast spirit is recruited by giving them a certain number of Mahina tails. Its symbol is a footprint.
The spirit of poison is a bit mean-spirited, and is recruited by giving up a certain number of Shibina tails. Its symbol is a bottle.
The spirit of wood is recruited by giving up a certain number of pine cones. The wood spirits encountered later in the game will only join if a certain number of pinecones have been picked up. Its symbol is a tree branch.
The insect spirit is recruited by giving up a certain number of yellow gummy worms, and can only be found using the magnifying glass item. Its symbol is a procession of small bugs.
The ancient spirit speaks like an elderly person, and is recruited by paying a certain number of Alti silver coins. One of the spirits has a special requirement to recruit. Its symbol is a gear.
The stone spirit is recruited by giving up a certain number of blue gummy frogs. However, the spirits will not appear unless the player has caught a certain number of gummy worms, not including worms caught with Chocolat or Kirche's special abilities.
Enigma
The enigma are the mysterious creatures that ambush the player at Valencia Beach. They abduct the students of Will-o'-Wisp because they can increase their own power by fusing with other creatures that have strong magical powers, namely the students. Enigma are resurrected unless they are killed in the Plane of Death, and all of them wield dark elemental magic. 1 in 5 graduates of the magic school are said to be afflicted by enigma, and they plan to gradually take control of Kovomaka Kingdom. Magic power itself was passed on to Gran Dragée by the enigma, and encounters with them are inevitable for those who practice magic.
This type is the most numerous and lowest ranking of the enigma. Most of their missions involve assaulting magicians to merge with. They are not very strong, and some of the classmates are able to fend them off on their own. They mostly function as generic enemies that are repeatedly killed off by the classmates and Miss Madeleine.
This type of enigma is similar to Piskapook except for the horns growing on its body. Vulcaneira has transformation abilities, and lure the classmates into a trap by transforming into Arancia. Kirche and the real Arancia reveal its true identity, and it is killed by Ganache after attempting to merge with Kirche.
These enigma resemble bugs, and tend to attack in groups. In their first appearance, three of them attack the main character at once, though the player only ends up fighting one of them. They merge with the dwarves afterwards, and two of them are defeated during the battle in the dwarf mountain. The final one is vanquished by Miss Madeleine after abducting Chocolat.
Rad Hasnel is a variation of Dab Hasnel, which attempts to merge with Sesame in the Plane of Darkness. However, Sesame refuses to give in, and the enigma is defeated by the classmates.
This enigma assassinated the prior enigma king, Kelrendu, to become leader of the enigma. He merges with Candy, whose mind was clouded with jealousy towards Olive and Ganache, and heads towards the Plane of Death with Ganache, but disintegrates after Olive convinces Candy to liberate her own magic.
The final boss of the game is the former enigma king, who was discredited after being defeated by Gran Dragée in a war. He is assassinated by Equillekrew during the game, and resurrects himself at the Moginasu Magic Cave of the Plane of Death to gain power. He then attempts to merge with Ganache, but his plan is foiled by the classmates. He controls 4 magic hands, which each possess a different element, and assumes a balloon-like form before returning to his true devilish appearance.
The enigma king before Kelrendu. Long ago, he agreed to merge with Gran Dragée, and the two used their combined powers to bring magic into the Plane of Material. When Kelrendu took control of the enigma in Yuveck's abcense, Gran Dragée used Yuveck to ward them off, hence why Kelrendu began reincarnating to become stronger.
Reception
On release, Famitsu magazine scored the game a 35 out of 40.
Notes
References
External links
Official
Official website (Japanese) (translated using Excite.Co.Jp)
Official Nintendo Online Magazine website for Magical Vacation and Tomato Adventure (Japanese) (translated using Excite.Co.Jp)
Magical Vacation at GameFAQs
Interview with the game's director
2001 video games
Brownie Brown games
Game Boy Advance games
Game Boy Advance-only games
Japan-exclusive video games
Nintendo games
Role-playing video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games with gender-selectable protagonists
Video games scored by Tsukasa Masuko
Virtual Console games
Virtual Console games for Wii U
Works about vacationing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico%20City%20Metropolitan%20Cathedral
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Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral
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The Metropolitan Cathedral of the Assumption of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary into Heaven () is the cathedral church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mexico. It is situated on top of the former Aztec sacred precinct near the Templo Mayor on the northern side of the Plaza de la Constitución (Zócalo) in the historic center of Mexico City. The cathedral was built in sections from 1573 to 1813 around the original church that was constructed soon after the Spanish conquest of Tenochtitlan, eventually replacing it entirely. Spanish architect Claudio de Arciniega planned the construction, drawing inspiration from Gothic cathedrals in Spain.
Due to the long time it took to build it, just under 250 years, virtually all the main architects, painters, sculptors, gilding masters and other plastic artists of the viceroyalty worked at some point in the construction of the enclosure. The long construction time also led to the integration of a number of architectural styles in its design, including the Gothic, Baroque, Churrigueresque, Neoclassical styles, as they came into vogue over the centuries. It furthermore allowed the cathedral to include different ornaments, paintings, sculptures and furniture in its interior. The project was a point of social cohesion, because it involved so many generations and social classes, including ecclesiastical authorities, government authorities, and different religious orders.
The influence of the Catholic Church on public life has meant that the building was often the scene of historically significant events in New Spain and independent Mexico. These include the coronations of Agustin I and his wife Ana María Huarte in 1822 by the President of the Congress, and Maximilian I and Empress Carlota of Mexico as emperors of Mexico by the Assembly of Mexican notables; the preservation of the funeral remains of the aforementioned first emperor; burial, until 1925, of several of the independence heroes, such as Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and José María Morelos; the disputes between liberals and conservatives caused by the separation of the church and the state in the Reform; the closure of the building in the days of the Cristero War; and the celebrations of the bicentennial of independence, among others.
The cathedral faces south. It is approximately wide by long, with a height of to the tip of the towers. It consists of two bell towers, a central dome, and three main portals. It has four façades which contain portals flanked with columns and statues. It has five naves consisting of 51 vaults, 74 arches and 40 columns. The two bell towers contain 25 bells. The tabernacle, adjacent to the cathedral, contains the baptistery and serves to register the parishioners. There are five large, ornate altars, a sacristy, a choir, a choir area, a corridor and a capitulary room. Fourteen of the cathedral's sixteen chapels are open to the public. Each chapel is dedicated to a different saint or saints, and each was sponsored by a religious guild. The chapels contain ornate altars, altarpieces, retablos, paintings, furniture and sculptures. The cathedral is home to two of the largest 18th-century organs in the Americas. There is a crypt underneath the cathedral that holds the remains of many former archbishops. The cathedral has approximately 150 windows.
Over the centuries, the cathedral has suffered damage. A fire in 1967 damaged a significant part of the cathedral's interior. The restoration work that followed uncovered a number of important documents and artwork that had previously been hidden. Although a solid foundation was built for the cathedral, the soft clay soil it is built on has been a threat to its structural integrity. Dropping water tables and accelerated sinking caused the structure to be added to the World Monuments Fund list of the 100 Most Endangered Sites. Restoration working beginning in the 1990s stabilized the cathedral and it was removed from the endangered list in 2000.
History
Background: The Major Church
After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, and after Hernán Cortés returned from exploring what is today Honduras, the conquistadors decided to build a church on the site of the Templo Mayor of the Aztec City of Tenochtitlan in order to consolidate Spanish power over the newly conquered territory. There is evidence of the existence of a great major temple dedicated to the god Quetzalcoatl, a temple dedicated to the god Huītzilōpōchtli, a temple dedicated to Tonatiuh, and other minor buildings. The architect Martín de Sepúlveda was the first director of the project between 1524 and 1532, while Juan de Zumárraga was the first bishop of the episcopal see in the New World. The cathedral of Zumárraga was located in the northeastern part of what is now the cathedral. It had three naves separated by Tuscan columns, the central ceiling had intricate engravings made by Juan Salcedo Espinosa and gilded by Francisco de Zumaya and Andrés de la Concha. The main door was probably Renaissance style. The choir had 48 ceremonial chairs made by hand by Adrián Suster and Juan Montaño in pinus ayacahuite wood. For the construction, they used the stones of the destroyed temple of the god Huītzilōpōchtli, god of war and principal deity of the Aztecs. In spite of everything, this temple was soon considered insufficient for the growing importance of the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This first church was elevated to a cathedral by King Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Pope Clement VII according to the bull of 9 September 1534 and, later, named Metropolitan by Pope Paul III in 1547.
This small, poor church, vilified by all the chroniclers who judged it unworthy of such famous new city, rendered its services well that badly for long years. Soon it was ordered that a new temple be erected, proportionate sumptuousness to the greatness of the colony more, but this new factory encountered so many obstacles for its beginning, with so many difficulties for its continuation, that the old cathedral saw passing in its narrow sumptuous ceremonies of the viceroyalty; and only when the fact that motivated them was of great importance would he prefer another church, like that of San Francisco, to raise in its huge chapel of San José de los Indios the burial mound for the funeral ceremonies of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.
Seeing that the conclusion of the new church was long, its factory was already beginning, in 1584 it was decided to completely repair the Old Cathedral, which would certainly be little less than ruinous, to celebrate in it the Third Mexican Provincial Council.
The church was a little longer than the front of the new cathedral; its three naves were not 30 meters wide and were covered, the central one with a step-scissors armour, those on the sides with horizontal beams. In addition to the puerta del Perdón door had another call puerta de los Canónigos door, and perhaps a third was left to the Placeta del Marqués. Years later, the cathedral was small for its function. In 1544, the ecclesiastical authorities had already ordered the construction of a new and more sumptuous cathedral.
Start of the work
In 1552, an agreement was reached whereby the cost of the new cathedral would be shared by the Spanish Crown, the Comendadores and the Indians under the direct authority of the Archbishop of New Spain. The initial plans for the foundation of the new cathedral began in 1562, as part of the project for the construction of the work, then archbishop Alonso de Montúfar would have proposed a monumental construction composed of seven naves and based on the design of the Seville Cathedral; a project that, according to Montúfar himself, would take 10 or 12 years. The weight of a work of such dimensions in a subsoil of swampy origin would require a special foundation. Initially, cross beams were placed to build a platform, which required high costs and constant draining, in the end this project would be abandoned not only for the aforementioned cost, but for the floods suffered by the city center. It is then that, supported by indigenous techniques, solid wooden logs are injected at great depth, about twenty thousand of these logs in an area of six thousand square meters. The project is reduced from the original seven naves to only five: one central, two processional and two lateral for the 16 chapels. The construction began with the designs and models created by Claudio de Arciniega and Juan Miguel de Agüero, inspired by the Spanish cathedrals of Jaén and Valladolid.
In 1571, with some delay, the viceroy Martín Enríquez de Almanza and the archbishop Pedro Moya de Contreras placed the first stone of the present church. The cathedral began to be built in 1573 around the existing church which was demolished when the works advanced sufficiently to house the basic functions of the church.
The work began with a north–south orientation, contrary to that of most cathedrals, due to the waterfalls of the subsoil that would affect the building with a traditional east–west orientation, decision taken 1570. First the chapter house and the sacristy were built; the construction of the vaults and the naves took a hundred years.
Construction development
The beginning of the works was met with a muddy and unstable terrain that complicated the works, because of this, the Tezontle and the Chiluca Stone were favored as building materials in several areas, on the quarry, as these are lighter. In 1581, the walls began to be erected and in 1585 the works began in the first chapel, at that time the names of the stonemasons who worked on the work were: in the chapels were carved by Juan Arteaga and the niches Hernán García de Villaverde, who also worked on the Toral pillars whose mediums were sculpted by Martín Casillas. In 1615, the walls reached half its total height. The works of the interior began in 1623 by the sacristy, and the early church was demolished at its conclusion. What is now the vestry was where Mass was conducted after the first church was finally torn down. On the 21st September 1629, the works were interrupted by the flood suffered by the city, in which the water reached two meters in height, causing damage in the main square, today called Plaza del Zócalo, and other parts of the city. Due to the damage, a project was started to build the new cathedral in the Tacubaya hills, west of the city but the idea was discarded and the project continued at the same location, under the direction of Juan Gómez de Trasmonte, the interior was finished and consecrated in 1667.
The archbishop Marcos Ramírez de Prado y Ovando made the second dedication on 22 December 1667, the year in which the last vault was closed. The date of consecration, (lacking, at that time, of bell towers, main façade and other elements built in the 18th century), the cost of construction was equivalent to 1 759 000 pesos. This cost was covered in good part by the Spanish kings Philip II, Philip III, Philip IV and Charles II. Annexes to the central core of the building would be added over the years the Seminary College, the Chapel of the Animas, and the buildings of the Tabernacle and the Curia.
In 1675, the central part of the main façade was completed, the work of the architect Cristóbal de Medina Vargas, which included the figure of the Assumption of Mary, the title to which the cathedral is dedicated, and the sculptures of James the Great and Andrew the Apostle guarding it. During the remainder of the 17th century, the first body of the east tower was built, by the architects Juan Lozano and Juan Serrano. The main portal of the building and portals on the east side were built in 1688 and that of the west in 1689. The six buttresses that support the structure on the side of its main facade and the bottoms that support the vaults of the main nave were completed.
During the 18th century little was done to advance in the completion of the construction of the cathedral; largely because, now completed in its interior, and handy for all the ceremonies that were offered, there had not the urgent need to continue working on what was missing.
Although the work had in fact been suspended, some works in the interior continued; by 1737 it was the master builder Domingo de Arrieta. He made, in the company of José Eduardo de Herrera, master of architecture, the stands that surround the choir. In 1742 Manuel de Álvarez, master of architecture, ruled with Herrera himself about the presbytery project presented by Jerónimo de Balbás.
In 1752, on 17 September, a cross of iron, with more than three varas, with its vane, was placed on the crown of the lantern tower of this church, engraved on one side and on the other side the prayer of the Sanctus Deus, and in the middle of it a fourth-by-fourth oval, in which a wax of Agnus was placed on one side with its window and on the other side a sheet in which Saint Prisca, lawyer of the rays, was sculpted. The ear of the cross is of two varas, and all its weight is of fourteen arrobas; it is nailed to a quarry base.
In 1787, the architect José Damián Ortiz de Castro was appointed, after a competition in which it imposed the projects of José Joaquín García de Torres and Isidro Vicente de Balbás, to direct the construction works of the bell towers, the main facade and the dome. For the construction of the towers, the Mexican architect Ortiz de Castro designed a project to make them effective against earthquakes; a second body that looks piercing and a bell-shaped finishing. His direction in the project continued until his death in 1793. When he was replaced by Manuel Tolsá, architect and sculptor driver of the Neoclassical, who arrived in the country in 1791. Tolsá is in charge of completing the work of the cathedral. He reconstructs the dome that was low and disproportionate, designs a project that consists of opening a larger ring on which builds a circular platform, to lift from there a much higher roof lantern. Integrates the torches, statues and balustrades. He crown the facade with figures symbolizing the three theological virtues (faith, hope and charity).
Exterior
Facades and portals
The main facade of the cathedral faces south. The main portal is centered in the main facade and is the highest of the cathedral's three portals. Statues of Saint Peter and Paul the Apostle stand between the columns of the portal, while Saint Andrew and James the Just are depicted on the secondary doorway. In the center of this doorway is a high relief of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, to whom the cathedral is dedicated. This image is flanked by images of Saint Matthew and Saint Andrew. The coat of arms of Mexico is above the doorway, with the eagle's wings outstretched. There is a clock tower at the very top of the portal with statues representing Faith, Hope and Charity, which was created by sculptor Manuel Tolsá.
The west facade was constructed in 1688 and rebuilt in 1804. It has a three-section portal with images of the Four Evangelists. The west portal has high reliefs depicting Jesus handing the Keys of Heaven to Saint Peter.
The east facade is similar to the west facade. The reliefs on the east portal show a ship carrying the four apostles, with Saint Peter at the helm. The title of this relief is The ship of the Church sailing the seas of Eternity.
The northern facade, built during the 16th century in the Renaissance Herrera style, is oldest part of the cathedral and was named after Juan de Herrera, architect of the El Escorial monastery in Spain. While the eastern and western facades are older than most of the rest of the building, their third level has Solomonic columns which are associated with the Baroque period.
All the high reliefs of the portals of the cathedral were inspired by the work of Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens.
Bell towers
The bell towers are the work of Xalapan artist José Damián Ortiz de Castro. They are capped with bell-shaped roofs made of tezontle covered in chiluca, a white stone. Ortiz de Castro was in charge of the cathedral's construction in the latter half of the 18th century until he died, unexpectedly. Manuel Tolsá of Valencia, who had built other notable buildings in Mexico City, was hired to finish the cathedral. At this point, the cathedral had already been 240 years in the making. He added the neo-Classic structure housing the clock, the statues of the three theological virtues (Faith, Hope, and Charity), the high balustrade surrounding the building, and the dome that rises over the transept.
The cathedral has 25 bells—eighteen hang in the east bell tower and seven in the west tower. The largest bell is named the Santa Maria de Guadalupe and weighs around . Other major bells are named the Doña Maria, which weighs , and La Ronca ("the hoarse one"), named so because of its harsh tone. Doña Maria and La Ronca were placed in 1653 while the largest bell was placed later in 1793.
The statues in the west tower are the work of José Zacarías Cora and represent Pope Gregory VII, Saint Augustine, Leander of Seville, St. Fulgentius of Écija, St.Francis Xavier, and Saint Barbara. The statues in the east tower are by Santiago Cristóbal Sandoval and depict Emilio, Rose of Lima, Mary (mother of Jesus), Ambrogio, Jerome, Philip of Jesus, Hippolytus of Rome, and Isidore the Laborer.
In 1947, a novice bell ringer died in an accident when he tried to move one of the bells while standing under it. The bell swung back and hit him in the head, killing him instantly. The bell was then "punished" by removing the clapper. In the following years, the bell was known as la castigada ("the punished one"), or la muda ("the mute one"). In 2000, the clapper was reinstalled in the bell.
In October 2007, a time capsule was found inside the stone ball base of a cross, in the southern bell tower of the cathedral. It was placed in 1742, supposedly to protect the building from harm. The lead box was filled with religious artifacts, coins and parchments and hidden in a hollow stone ball. The ball was marked with the date of 14 May 1791, when the building's topmost stone was laid. A new time capsule will be placed in the stone ball when it is closed again.
Tabernacle
Situated to the right of the main cathedral, the Metropolitan Tabernacle (Spanish: Sagrario Metropolitano) was built by Lorenzo Rodríguez during the height of the Baroque period between 1749 and 1760, to house the archives and vestments of the archbishop. It also functioned and continues to function as a place to receive Eucharist and register parishioners.
The first church built on the cathedral site also had a tabernacle, but its exact location is unknown. During the construction of the cathedral, the tabernacle was housed in what are now the Chapels of San Isidro and Our Lady of Agony of Granada. However, in the 18th century, it was decided to build a structure that was separate, but still connected, to the main cathedral. It is constructed of tezontle (a reddish porous volcanic rock) and white stone in the shape of a Greek cross with its southern facade faces the Zócalo. It is connected to the main cathedral via the Chapel of San Isidro.
The interiors of each wing have separate uses. In the west wing is the baptistry, in the north is the main altar, the main entrance and a notary area, separated by inside corner walls made of chiluca stone and tezontle. Chiluca, a white stone, covers the walls and floors and the tezontle frames the doors and windows. At the crossing of the structure is an octagonal dome framed by arches that form curved triangles where they meet at the top of the dome. The principal altar is in the ornate Churrigueresque style and crafted by indigenous artist Pedro Patiño Ixtolinque. It was inaugurated in 1829.
The exterior of the Baroque styled tabernacle is almost entirely adorned with decorations, such as curiously shaped niche shelves, floating drapes and many cherubs. Carvings of fruits such as grapes and pomegranates have been created to in the shape of ritual offerings, symbolizing the Blood of Christ and the Church. Among the floral elements, roses, daisies, and various types of four-petalled flowers can be found, including the indigenous chalchihuite.
The tabernacle has two main outside entrances; one to the south, facing the Zócalo and the other facing east toward Seminario Street. The southern façade is more richly decorated than the east façade. It has a theme of glorifying the Eucharist with images of the Apostles, Church Fathers, saints who founded religious orders, martyrs as well as scenes from the Bible. Zoomorphic reliefs can be found along with the anthropologic reliefs, including a rampaging lion, and the eagle from the coat of arms of Mexico. The east facade is less ambitious, but contains figures from the Old Testament as well as the images of John Nepomucene and Ignacio de Loyola. Construction dates for the phases of the tabernacle are also inscribed here.
Interior
Altars
High Altar
This disappeared in the 1940s. In 2000, a new altar table was made to replace the previous one. This was built in modernist style by the architect Ernesto Gómez Gallardo.
Altar of Forgiveness
The Altar of Forgiveness () is located at the front of the central nave. It is the first aspect of the interior that is seen upon entering the cathedral. It was the work of Spanish architect Jerónimo de Balbás, and represents the first use of the estípite column (an inverted triangle-shaped pilaster) in the Americas.
There are two stories about how the name of this altar came about. The first states that those condemned by the Spanish Inquisition were brought to the altar to ask for forgiveness in the next world before their execution. The second relates to painter Simon Pereyns, who despite being the author of many of the works of the cathedral, was accused of blasphemy. According to the story, while Pereyns was in jail, he painted such a beautiful image of the Virgin Mary that his crime was forgiven.
This altar was slightly damaged by fire in January 1967 and it was restored.
Altar of the Kings
In New Spain, it was customary to dedicate the main chapel of any Spanish cathedral to the ruling king, giving it the greatest importance and artistic wealth. The Altar of the Kings () was also the work of Jerónimo de Balbás, in Mexican Baroque or Churrigueresque style. Balbás constructed it in cedar from 1718 to 1725. It was gilded and finished by Francico Martínez in 1736 and completed in 1737. It is located at the back of the cathedral, beyond the Altar of Forgiveness and the choir, a space known as "royal chapel", although it does not have any grille that delimits and closes the space in the manner of similar chapels. This altar is wide, tall and deep, so it presides over the main nave of the temple because it is located behind the presbytery. There are three main vertical bodies formed by high estipite pilasters. Its size and depth gave rise to the nickname la cueva dorada ("the golden cave").
Additional sculptures were created by Sebastián de Santiago. It takes its name from the statues of saintly royalty which form part of its decoration, and is the oldest work in churrigueresque style in Mexico, taking 19 years to complete. At the bottom, from left to right, are six female royal saints: Saint Margaret of Scotland, Helena of Constantinople, Elisabeth of Hungary, Elizabeth of Aragon, Empress Cunegunda and Edith of Wilton. In the middle of the altar are six canonized kings: Hermenegild, a Visigoth martyr; Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor; Edward the Confessor; and Casimir of Poland below, and Saints Louis of France and Ferdinand III of Castile above them. In between these kings an oil painting of the Adoration of the Magi by Juan Rodriguez Juarez shows Jesus as the King of kings. The top portion features a painting of the Assumption of Mary as celestial queen flanked by oval bas reliefs, one of Saint Joseph carrying the infant Jesus and the other of Saint Teresa of Ávila with a quill in her hand and the Holy Spirit above her, inspiring her to write. In the upper part above this, there are angels carrying the attributes of the Virgin Mary such as the Sealed Fountain, the House of Gold, the Well of Living Water, and the Tower of David, and at the top is an image of God, the Father.
The altar was damaged due to a fire in 1967. This altar has been under restoration since 2003.
Sacristy
The Herrera door opens into the sacristy, the oldest part of the cathedral. It is a mixture of Renaissance and Gothic styles.
The walls hold large canvases painted by Cristóbal de Villalpando, such as The Apotheosis of Saint Michael, The Triumph of the Eucharist, The Church Militant and the Church Triumphant, and The Virgin of the Apocalypse. The Virgin of the Apocalypse depicts the vision of John of Patmos. Two other canvases, Entering Jerusalem and The Assumption of the Virgin, painted by Juan Correa, are also here. An additional painting, attributed to Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, hangs in the Sacristy.
On the north wall, there is a niche that holds a statue of the crucifix with a Christ image sculpted in ivory. Behind this, is another mural that depicts the Juan Diego's of Our Lady of Guadalupe. The Sacristy used to house Juan Diego's cloak, upon which the Virgin's image purportedly appears, but after massive flooding in 1629, it was removed from the Sacristy to better protect it.
A cabinet on the west wall of the Sacristy, under the Virgin of the Apocalypse painting, once held golden chalices and cups trimmed with precious stones, as well as other utensils.
In 1957, The wooden floor and platform around the perimeter of the Sacristy were replaced with stone.
Chapels
The cathedral's sixteen chapels were each assigned to a religious guild, and each is dedicated to a saint. Each of the two side naves contain seven chapels. The other two were created later on the eastern and western sides of the cathedral. These last two are not open to the public. The fourteen chapels in the east and west naves are listed below. The first seven are in the east nave, listed from north to south, and the last seven are in the west nave.
Chapel of Our Lady of the Agonies of Granada
The Chapel of Our Lady of the Agonies of Granada () was built in the first half of the 17th century and originally served as the sacristy. It is a medieval-style chapel with a ribbed vault and two relatively simple altarpieces. The narrow altarpiece contains an oval painting of Saint Raphael, Archangel and the young Tobias, a 16th century painting attributed to Flemish painter Maerten de Vos. At the top of this altarpiece is a painting of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, and above this is a painting of the Last Supper. At the back of the chapel is a churrigueresque painting of Our Lady of the Agonies of Granada.
Chapel of Saint Isidore
The Chapel of Saint Isidore () was originally built as an annex between 1624 and 1627, and was once used as the baptistery. Its vault contains plaster casts representing Faith, Hope, Charity, and Justice, considered to be basic values in the Catholic religion. After the Tabernacle was built, it was converted into a chapel and its door was reworked in a churrigueresque style.
Chapel of the Immaculate Conception
The Chapel of the Immaculate Conception () was built between 1642 and 1648. It has a churrigueresque altarpiece which, due to the lack of columns, most likely dates from the 18th century. The altar is framed with molding—instead of columns—and a painting of the Immaculate Conception presides over it. The altar is surrounded by paintings by José de Ibarra relating to the Passion of Christ and various saints. The chapel also contains a canvas of Saint Christopher painted by Simon Pereyns in 1588, and the Flagellation by Baltasar de Echave Orio, painted in 1618. The altarpiece on the right side is also dedicated to the Immaculate Conception and was donated by the College of Saints Peter and Paul. This chapel holds the remains of Franciscan friar Antonio Margil de Jesús who was evangelized in what is now the north of Mexico.
Chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe
The Chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe () was built in 1660. It was the first baptistery of the cathedral and for a long time was the site for the Brotherhood of the Most Holy Sacrament, which had many powerful benefactors. It is decorated in a 19th century neo-classic style by the architect Antonio Gonzalez Vazquez, director of the Academy of San Carlos. The main altarpiece is dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe and the sides altars are dedicated to John the Baptist and San Luis Gonzaga.
Chapel of Our Lady of Antigua
The Chapel of Our Lady of Antigua () was sponsored and built between 1653 and 1660 by a brotherhood of musicians and organists, which promoted devotion to this Virgin. Its altarpiece contains a painting of the Virgin, a copy of one found in the Cathedral of Seville. This copy was brought to New Spain by a merchant. Two other paintings show the birth of the Virgin and her presentation. Both were painted by Nicolás Rodriguez Juárez.
This chapel is home to the Niño Cautivo (Captive Child) a Child Jesus figure that was brought to Mexico from Spain. It was sculpted in the 16th century by Juan Martínez Montañés in Spain and purchased by the cathedral. However, on its way to Veracruz, pirates attacked the ship it was on and sacked it. To get the image back, a large ransom was paid. Today, the image is in the Chapel of San Pedro or De las Reliquias. Traditionally, the image has been petitioned by those seeking release from restrictions or traps, especially financial problems or drug addiction or alcoholism. The cult to the Niño Cautivo is considered to be "inactive" by INAH. However, this particular image has made a comeback since 2000 as one to petition when a family member is abducted and held for ransom.
Chapel of Saint Peter
The Chapel of Saint Peter () was built between 1615 and 1620, and contains three highly decorated Baroque altarpieces from the 17th century. The altar at the back is dedicated to Saint Peter, whose sculpture presides over the altar. It is surrounded by early 17th century paintings relating to his life, painted by Baltasar de Echave Orio. To the right is an altarpiece dedicated to the Holy Family, with two paintings by Juan Francisco de Aguilera called The Holy Family in the workshop of Saint Joseph and Birth of the Savior. The altarpiece to the left of the main altarpiece is dedicated to Saint Theresa of Jesus whose image also appears in the chapel's window. It includes four paintings on sheets of metal that depict scenes from the birth of Jesus. Five oil paintings illustrate scenes from the life of Saint Theresa, and above this is a semi-circular painting of the coronation of Mary. All these works were created in the 17th century by Baltasar de Echave y Rioja.
Chapel of Christ and of the Reliquaries
The Chapel of Christ and of the Reliquaries () was built in 1615 and designed with ultra-Baroque details which are often difficult to see in the poorly lit interior. It was originally known as the Christ of the Conquistadors. That name came from an image of Christ that was supposedly donated to the cathedral by Emperor Charles V. Over time, so many reliquaries were left on its main altar that its name was eventually changed. Of 17th century ornamentation, the main altarpiece alternates between carvings of rich foliage and small heads on its columns in the main portion and small sculptures of angels on its telamons in the secondary portion. Its niches hold sculptures of saints framing the main body. Its crucifix is from the 17th century. The predella is finished with sculptures of angels, and also contains small 17th paintings of martyred saints by Juan de Herrera. Behind these paintings, hidden compartments contain some of the numerous reliquaries left here. Its main painting was done by José de Ibarra and dated 1737. Surrounding the altar is a series of paintings on canvas, depicting the Passion of Christ by José Villegas, painted in the 17th century. On the right-hand wall, an altar dedicated to the Virgin of the Confidence is decorated with numerous churrigueresque figurines tucked away in niches, columns and top pieces.
Chapel of the Holy Angels and Archangels
The Chapel of the Holy Angels and Archangels () was finished in 1665 with Baroque altarpieces decorated with Solomonic columns. It is dedicated to the Archangel Michael, who is depicted as a medieval knight. It contains a large main altarpiece with two smaller altarpieces both decorated by Juan Correa. The main altarpiece is dedicated to the seven archangels, who are represented by sculptures, in niches surrounding images of Saint Joseph, Mary and Christ. Above this scene are the Holy Spirit and God the Father. The left-hand altarpiece is of similar design and is dedicated to the Guardian Angel, whose sculpture is surrounded with pictures arranged to show the angelic hierarchy. To the left of this, a scene shows Saint Peter being released from prison, and to the right, Saul, later Saint Paul, being knocked from his horse, painted by Juan Correa in 1714. The right-hand altarpiece is dedicated to the Guardian Angel of Mexico.
Chapel of Saints Cosme and Damian
The Chapel of Saints Cosme and Damian () was built because these two saints were commonly invoked during a time when New Spain suffered from the many diseases brought by the Conquistadors. The main altarpiece is Baroque, probably built in the 17th century. Oil paintings on wood contain scenes from physician saints, and are attributed to painter Sebastián López Dávalos, during the second half of the 17th century. The chapel contains one small altarpiece which came from the Franciscan church in Zinacantepec, to the west of Mexico City, and is dedicated to the birth of Jesus.
Chapel of Saint Joseph
The Chapel of Saint Joseph (), built between 1654 and 1660, contains an image of Our Lord of Cacao, an image of Christ most likely from the 16th century. Its name was inspired from a time when many indigenous worshipers would give their alms in the form of cocoa beans. Churrigueresque in style and containing a graffito statue of Saint Joseph, patron saint of New Spain, the main altarpiece is Baroque and is from the 18th century. This once belonged to the Church of Our Lady of Monserrat. This altar contains statues and cubicles containing busts of the Apostles, but contains no paintings.
Chapel of Our Lady of Solitude
The Chapel of Our Lady of Solitude () was originally built in honor of the workers who built the cathedral. It contains three Baroque altarpieces. The main altarpiece is supported by caryatids and small angels as telamons, to uphold the base of the main body. It is dedicated to the Virgin of Solitude of Oaxaca, whose image appears in the center. The surrounding 16th century paintings are by Pedro Ramírez, and depict scenes from the life of Christ.
Chapel of Saint Eligius
The Chapel of Saint Eligius (), also known as the Chapel of the Lord of Safe Expeditions (), was built by the first silversmith guild, who donated the images of the Conception and Saint Eligius to whom the chapel was formerly dedicated. The chapel was redecorated in the 19th century, and the image of Our Lord of Good Sending was placed here, named thus, since many supplicants reported having their prayers answered quickly. The image is thought to be from the 16th century and sent as a gift from Charles V of Spain.
Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows
The Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows (), formerly known as the Chapel of the Lord's Supper (), was built in 1615. It was originally dedicated to the Last Supper since a painting of this event was once kept here. It was later remodeled in a Neo-classical style, with three altarpieces added by Antonio Gonzalez Velazquez. The main altarpiece contains an image of the Virgin of Sorrows sculpted in wood and painted by Francisco Terrazas, at the request of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico. On the left-hand wall a ladder leads to a series of crypts which hold most of the remains of past archbishops of Mexico. The largest and grandest of these crypts contains the remains of Juan de Zumárraga, the first archbishop of Mexico.
Chapel of the Lord of Good dispatch
The Chapel of the Lord of Good dispatch () was premiered on December 8, 1648, and was dedicated to the silversmiths' guild, who placed two images of solid silver, one of the most pure conception and another of San Eligio or Eloy.
The decoration of the entire chapel is neoclassical style belongs to the first half of the nineteenth century.
Chapel of Saint Philip of Jesus
The Chapel of Saint Philip of Jesus () was completed during one of the earliest stages of the construction of the cathedral. It is dedicated to Philip of Jesus, a friar and the only martyr from New Spain, who was crucified in Japan. The chapel is topped with a Gothic-style dome and has a Baroque altarpiece from the 17th century. A statue of the saint is located in a large niche in the altarpiece. The altar to the left is dedicated to Saint Rose of Lima, considered a protector of Mexico City. To the right is an urn which holds the remains of Agustín de Iturbide, who briefly ruled Mexico from 1822 to 1823. Next to this chapel is a baptismal font, in which it is believed Philip of Jesus was baptised. The heart of Anastasio Bustamante is preserved here. In this chapel is a sculpture alluding to the first Mexican saint: San Felipe de Jesús. This work, as seen by many art critics, is the best elaborated, carved and polychrome sculptured sculpture from Latin America.
Organs
The cathedral has had perhaps a dozen organs over the course of its history. The earliest is mentioned in a report written to the king of Spain in 1530. Few details survive of the earliest organs. Builders names begin to appear at the end of the sixteenth century. The earliest disposition that survives is for the Diego de Sebaldos organ built in 1655. The first large organ for Mexico City Cathedral was built in Madrid from 1689 to 1690 by Jorge de Sesma and installed by Tiburcio Sanz from 1693 to 1695. It now has two, which were made in Mexico by José Nassarre of Spain, and completed by 1736, incorporating elements of the 17th-century organ. They are the largest 18th-century organs in the Americas; they are situated above the walls of the choir, on the epistle side (east) and the gospel side (west). Both organs, damaged by fire in 1967, were restored in 1978. Because both organs had fallen into disrepair again, the gospel organ was re-restored from 2008 to 2009 by Gerhard Grenzing; the restoration of the epistle organ, also by Grenzing, was completed in 2014, and both organs are now playable.
Choir
The choir is where the priest and/or a choral group sings the psalms. It is located in the central nave between the main door and the high altar, and built in a semicircular fashion, much like Spanish cathedrals. It was built by Juan de Rojas between 1696 and 1697. Its sides contain 59 reliefs of various saints done in mahogany, walnut, cedar and a native wood called tepehuaje. The railing that surrounds the choir was made in 1722 by Sangley Queaulo in Macao and placed in the cathedral in 1730.
Crypt
The Crypt of the Archbishops is located below the floor of the cathedral beneath the Altar of the Kings. The entrance to the crypt from the cathedral is guarded by a large wooden door behind which descends a winding yellow staircase. Just past the inner entrance is a Mexica-style stone skull. It was incorporated as an offering into the base of a cenotaph to Juan de Zumárraga, the first archbishop of Mexico. Zumárraga was considered to be a benefactor of the Indians, protecting them against the abuses of their Spanish overlords. There is also a natural-sized sculpture of the archbishop atop the cenotaph.
On its walls are dozens of bronze plaques that indicate the locations of the remains of most of Mexico City's former archbishops, including Cardinal Ernesto Corripio y Ahumada. The floor is covered with small marble slabs covering niches containing the remains of other people.
The cathedral contains other crypts and niches where other religious figures are buried, including in the chapels.
Restoration
The sinking ground and seismic activity of the area have had an effect on the cathedral's construction and current appearance. Forty-two years were required simply to lay its foundation when it was first built, because even then the Spaniards recognized the danger of constructing such a huge monument in soft soil. However, for political reasons, much, but not all, of the cathedral was built over the remains of pre-Hispanic structures, leading to uneven foundation from the beginning.
Fire of 1967
On 17 January 1967 at 9 pm, a fire caused by an electrical short circuit caused extensive damage to the cathedral. On the Altar of Forgiveness, much of the structure and decoration were damaged including the loss of three paintings; The Holy Face by Alonso López de Herrera, The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian by Francisco de Zumaya and The Virgin of Forgiveness by Simon Pereyns. The choir section lost 75 of its 99 seats as well a painting by Juan Correa along with many stored books. The two cathedral organs were severely damaged with the partial melting of their pipes. Paintings by Rafael Jimeno y Planas, Juan Correa and Juan Rodriguez Juarez were damaged in other parts of the cathedral. After the fire, authorities recorded the damage but did nothing to try to restore what was damaged. Heated discussions ensued among historians, architects and investigations centering on the moving of the Altar of Forgiveness, as well as eliminating the choir area and some of the railings. In 1972, ecclesiastical authorities initiated demolition of the choir area without authorization from the Federal government, but were stopped. The government inventoried what could be saved and named Jaime Ortiz Lajous as director of the project to restore the cathedral to its original condition. Restoration work focused not only on repairing the damage (using archived records and photographs), but also included work on a deteriorating foundation (due to uneven sinking into the ground) and problems with the towers.
The Altars of Forgiveness and of the Kings were subject to extensive cleaning and restorative work. To replace the lost portions on the Altar of Forgiveness, several paintings were added; Escape from Egypt by Pereyns, The Divine Countenance and The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian. The organs were dismantled with the pipes and inner workings sent to the Netherlands for repair, while the cases were restored by Mexican craftsmen with work lasting until 1977. Reconstruction of the choir area began in 1979 using the same materials as existed before the fire. In addition, any statues in the towers that received more than 50% damage from city pollution were taken out, with replicas created to replace them. Those with less damage were repaired.
Some interesting discoveries were made as restoration work occurred during the 1970s and early 1980s. 51 paintings were found and rescued from behind the Altar of Forgiveness, including works by Juan and Nicolas Rodriguez Juarez, Miguel Cabrera and José de Ibarra. Inside one of the organs, a copy of the nomination of Hernán Cortés as Governor General of New Spain (1529) was found. Lastly, in the wall of the central arch of the cathedral was found the burial place of Miguel Barrigan, the first governor of Veracruz.
Late 20th-century work
The cathedral, along with the rest of the city, has been sinking into the lakebed from the day it was built. However, the fact that the city is a megalopolis with over 18 million people drawing water from underground sources has caused water tables to drop and the sinking to accelerate during the latter half of the 20th century. Sections of the complex such as the cathedral and the tabernacle were still sinking at different rates, and the bell towers were tilting dangerously despite work done in the 1970s. For this reason, the cathedral was included in the 1998 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund.
Major restoration and foundation work began in the 1990s to stabilize the building. Engineers excavated under the cathedral between 1993 and 1998. They dug shafts under the cathedral and placed shafts of concrete into the soft ground to give the edifice a more solid base to rest on. These efforts have not stopped the sinking of the complex, but they have corrected the tilting towers and ensured that the cathedral will sink uniformly.
21st-century work
Since the earthquake in 2017, the cathedral is undergoing a reconstruction to restore the damages caused by the earthquake. During the reconstruction, the workers found 23 lead boxes that contain religious relics such as small paintings and wood or palm crosses. The boxes contained written inscriptions dedicated to specific saints and also indicated that the boxes were found previously by a group of masons and painters in 1810, and reburied.
Cultural value
The cathedral has been a focus of Mexican cultural identity, and is a testament to its colonial history. People often gather there to worship and attend religious services. Researcher Manuel Rivera Cambas reported that the cathedral was built on the site sacred precinct of the Aztecs and with the very stones of their temples so that the Spaniards could lay claim to the land and the people. Hernán Cortés supposedly himself laid the first stone of the original church.
It once was an important religious center, used exclusively by the prominent families of New Spain. At the beginning of Mexican independence, during the First Mexican Empire, Emperor Agustin I was crowned Emperor of Mexico in the cathedral in the presence of the bishops of Puebla, Guadalajara, Durango, and Oaxaca. In 1864, during the Second Mexican Empire, Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico and his consort Empress Carlota, formerly Archduke of Austria and Princess of Belgium, were also crowned with the Imperial Crown of Mexico at the cathedral after their magnificent arrival in the capital of their reign.
Located on the Zocalo it has, over time, been the focus of social and cultural activities, most of which have occurred in the 20th and 21st centuries. The cathedral was closed for four years while President Plutarco Elías Calles attempted to enforce Mexico's anti-religious laws. Pope Pius XI closed the church, ordering priests to cease their public religious duties in all Mexican churches. After the Mexican government and the papacy came to terms and major renovations were performed on the cathedral, it reopened in 1930.
The cathedral has been the scene of several protests both from the church and to the church, including a protest by women over the Church's exhortation for women not to wear mini-skirts and other provocative clothing to avoid rape, and a candlelight vigil to protest against kidnappings in Mexico. The cathedral itself has been used to protest against social issues. Its bells rang to express the Archdiocese's opposition to the Supreme Court upholding of Mexico City's legalization of abortion.
Probably the most serious recent event occurred on 18 November 2007, when sympathizers of the Party of the Democratic Revolution attacked the cathedral. About 150 protesters stormed into Sunday Mass chanting slogans and knocking over pews. This caused church officials to close and lock the cathedral for a number of days. The cathedral reopened with new security measures, such as bag searches, in place.
See also
Cruz de Mañozca
List of colonial churches in Mexico City
List of colonial non-religious buildings in Mexico City
Catholic Church in Mexico
History of Mexico City
References
External links
Photos of Mexico City’s Metropolitan Cathedral, from Have Camera Will Travel
La Rehabilitación de la Catedral Metropolitana de la Ciudad de México, from the UNAM
History of Mexico City’s Metropolitan Cathedral at HiSoUR.com
1534 establishments in New Spain
19th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Mexico
Aztec sites
Baroque church buildings in Mexico
Burial sites of the House of Iturbide
Colonial Mexico
Gothic architecture in Mexico
Historic center of Mexico City
History of Mexico City
National Monuments of Mexico
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mexico (city)
Roman Catholic cathedrals in Mexico
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1813
Roman Catholic churches in Mexico City
Neoclassical church buildings in Mexico
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial%20literacy
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Financial literacy
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Financial literacy is the possession of skills, knowledge, and behaviors that allow an individual to make informed decisions regarding money. Financial literacy, financial education and financial knowledge are used interchangeably. Financially unsophisticated individuals cannot plan financially because of their low financial knowledge. Financially sophisticated individuals are good at financial calculations; they understand interest rate compounding, which helps them to engage in low-credit borrowing. Most of the time, unsophisticated individuals pay high costs for their debt borrowing.
Raising interest in personal finance is now a focus of state-run programs in Australia, Canada, Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Understanding basic financial concepts allows people to know how to navigate the financial system. People with appropriate financial literacy training make better financial decisions and manage money than those without such training.
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) started an inter-governmental project in 2003 to provide ways to improve financial education and literacy standards through the development of common financial literacy principles. In March 2008, the OECD launched the International Gateway for Financial Education, which aims to serve as a clearinghouse for financial education programs, information, and research worldwide. In the UK, the alternative term "financial capability" is used by the state and its agencies: the Financial Services Authority (FSA) in the UK started a national strategy on financial capability in 2003. The US government established its Financial Literacy and Education Commission in 2003.
Definitions of financial literacy
There is a diversity of definitions used by NGOs, think tanks, and , but in its broadest sense, financial literacy is an awareness or understanding of money. Some of the definitions below are closely aligned with "skills and knowledge", whereas others take broader views, and some are from academic research which is tested and validated:
Effectively taking decisions regarding the money management and ability to make informed decisions is called financial literacy.
Personal financial planning is the ability to discuss money and financial issues without any future discomfort that effect financial decisions of every day like. It is the management of financial well-being.
To survive in modern society individuals need to have knowledge about financial literacy.
Ability to use financial concepts in daily life and make optimal financial decisions is called financial literacy.
Financial literacy is an ability to effectively manage the economic well-being of individuals with knowledge and financial skills.
The Government Accountability Office definition (2010) is "the ability to make informed judgments and to take effective actions regarding the current and future use and management of money. It includes the challenges associated with life events such as a job loss, saving for retirement, or paying for a child’s education."
The Financial Literacy and Education Commission (2020) includes a notion of personal capability in its definition as "the skills, knowledge and tools that equip people to make individual financial decisions and actions to attain their goals; this may also be known as financial capability, especially when paired with access to financial products and services."
The National Financial Educators Council adds a psychological component defining financial literacy as "possessing the skills and knowledge on financial matters to confidently take effective action that best fulfills an individual’s personal, family and global community goals."
The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) in 2018 published a definition in two parts. The first part refers to kinds of thinking and behaviour, while the second part refers to the purposes for developing the particular literacy. "Financial literacy is the knowledge and understanding of financial concepts and risks, and the skills, motivation and confidence to apply such knowledge and understanding in order to make effective decisions across a range of financial contexts, to improve the financial well-being of individuals and society, and to enable participation in economic life"
Academic research
Measurement
Financial literacy in personal financial planning can be defined as objectively measured Financial Literacy and Subjectively measured financial literacy.
Objectively measured literacy is mainly about the numerical understanding of facts like compound growth rate, portfolio investment, diversification benefits, and the impact of inflations on financial decisions. Objective financial literacy has been measured with five 5-item tests, which we call the big five, that include questions related to interest rates, saving accounts, and inflation. Out of 5 questions, people who tend to answer three questions correctly counted as low financial literacy.
Subjective financial literacy is more of the self-perception of individuals about their financial literacy. Luradi and Mitchell (2014) identified that people rate their subjective financial literacy higher than objective financial literacy because of their behavioral biases when judging their financial knowledge subjectively. People often misestimate their financial knowledge.
Critical financial literacy
Some financial literacy researchers have raised questions about the political character of financial literacy education, arguing that it justifies the shifting of greater financial risk (e.g. tuition fees, pensions, health care costs, etc.) to individuals from corporations and governments. Many of these researchers argue for a financial literacy education that is more critically oriented and broader in focus: an education that helps individuals better understand systemic injustice and social exclusion, rather than one that understands financial failure as an individual problem and the character of financial risk as apolitical. Many researchers work within social justice, critical pedagogy, feminist and critical race theory paradigms.
Journal of Financial Literacy and Wellbeing
The Journal of Financial Literacy and Wellbeing, published by Cambridge University Press, is a open-access academic journal established in April 2023. It publishes rigorous research on financial literacy and financial well-being. It aims to inform public policies as public, private and civil society strategies and activities, with the ultimate objective of improving the financial literacy, resilience, and well-being of individuals and micro and small entrepreneurs. This journal covers the topics including financial knowledge, financial attitudes and skills. This journal also includes research on related fields like financial well being.
Accounting literacy
Accounting literacy refers to the ability to read and analyse financial statements of the company or individuals and understand the impact of financial decisions, This can be helpful for the investors, managers and individuals. Accounting literacy can be combined with financial planning, tax planning and understanding the financial health of the company.
Academic researchers have explored the relationship between financial literacy and accounting literacy. Roman L. Weil defines financial literacy as "the ability to understand the important accounting judgments management makes, why management makes them, and how management can use those judgments to manipulate financial statements".
The 1999 Blue Ribbon Committee on Improving the Effectiveness of Corporate Audit Committees recommended that publicly traded companies have at least three members with "a certain basic 'financial literacy'. Such 'literacy' signifies the ability to read and understand fundamental financial statements, including a company's balance sheet, income statement and cash flow statement."
Digital financial literacy
Digital financial literacy is all about the combination of Fintech and financial literacy. Digital Financial Literacy (DFL) combines objective financial literacy with the skills and ability of individuals to use digital devices to make financial decisions. There is a need for digital financial literacy across all consumers because of increasing fraud victimization due to digitalization, which prone individuals to misinformed financial decisions.
International findings
An international OECD study was published in late 2005 analysing financial literacy surveys in OECD countries. A selection of findings included:
In Australia, 67 percent of respondents indicated that they understood the concept of compound interest, yet when asked to solve a problem using the concept, only 28% had a good understanding.
A British survey found that consumers do not actively seek out financial information. The information they receive is acquired by chance, for example, by picking up a pamphlet at a bank or having a chance talk with a bank employee.
A Canadian survey found that respondents considered choosing the right investments more stressful than going to the dentist.
A survey of Korean high-school students showed that they had failing scores—that is, they answered fewer than 60 percent of the questions correctly—on tests designed to measure their ability to choose and manage a credit card, their knowledge about saving and investing for retirement, and their awareness of risk and the importance of insuring against it.
A survey in the US found that four out of ten American workers need to be saving for retirement.
"Yet it is encouraging that the few financial education programmes which have been evaluated are reasonably effective. Research in the US shows that workers increase their participation in 401(k) plans (a type of retirement plan, with special tax advantages, which allows employees to save and invest for their retirement) when employers offer financial education programmes, whether in the form of brochures or seminars."
However, academic analyses of financial education have yet to find no evidence of measurable success at improving participants' financial well-being.
According to the 2014 Asian Development Bank survey, more Mongolians have expanded their financial options, and for instance now compare the interest rates of loans and savings services through the successful launch of the TV drama with a focus on the fiscal literacy of poor and non-poor vulnerable households. Given that 80% of Mongolians cited TV as their main source of information, TV serial dramas were identified as the most effective vehicle for messages on financial literacy.
Asia–Pacific, Middle East, and Africa
A survey of women consumers across Asia Pacific Middle East Africa (APMEA) comprises basic money management, financial planning and investment. The top ten of APMEA Women MasterCard's Financial Literacy Index are Thailand 73.9, New Zealand 71.3, Australia 70.2, Vietnam 70.1, Singapore 69.4, Taiwan 68.7, Philippines 68.2, Hong Kong 68.0, Indonesia 66.5 and Malaysia 66.0.
Australia
The Australian Government established a National Consumer and Financial Literacy Taskforce in 2004, which recommended the establishment of the Financial Literacy Foundation in 2005. In 2008, the functions of the Foundation were transferred to the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC). The Australian Government also runs a range of programs (such as Money Management) to improve the financial literacy of its Indigenous population, particularly those living in remote communities.
In 2011 ASIC released a National Financial Literacy Strategy—informed by an earlier ASIC research report 'Financial Literacy and Behavioural Change'—to enhance the financial well-being of all Australians by improving financial literacy levels. The strategy has four pillars:
Education
Trusted and independent information, tools and support
Additional solutions to drive improved financial well-being and behavioural change.
Partnerships with the sectors involved with financial literacy, measuring its impact and promoting best practice.
ASIC's MoneySmart website was one of the key initiatives in the government's strategy. It replaced the FIDO and Understanding Money websites.
ASIC also has a MoneySmart Teaching website for teachers and educators. It provides professional learning and other resources to help educators integrate consumer and financial literacy into teaching and learning programs.
The Know Risk Network of web and phone apps, newsletters, videos, and websites was developed by the insurance membership body ANZIIF to educate consumers on insurance and risk management.
India
National Centre for Financial Education (NCFE), a non-profit company, was created under section 8 of Companies Act 2013, to promote financial literacy in India. It is promoted by four major financial regulators, Reserve Bank of India, SEBI, IRDA and PFRDA.
NCFE conducted a benchmark financial literacy survey in 2015 to find the level of financial awareness in India. It organises various programs to improve financial literacy including collaborating with schools and developing new curriculum to include financial management concepts. It also conducts a yearly financial literacy test. The topics NCFE covers in its awareness programs include investments, types of bank accounts, services offered by banks, Aadhaar cards, demat accounts, pan cards, power of compounding, digital payments, protection against financial frauds etc.
Saudi Arabia
A nationwide survey was conducted by SEDCO Holding in Saudi Arabia in 2012 to understand the youth's financial literacy level. The survey involved a thousand young Saudi nationals, and the results showed that only 11 percent kept track of their spending, although 75 percent thought they understood the basics of money management. An in-depth analysis of SEDCO's survey revealed that 45 percent of youngsters did not save any money, while only 20 percent saved 10 percent of their monthly income. Regarding spending habits, the study indicated that items such as mobile phones and travel accounted for nearly 80 percent of purchases. Regarding financing their lifestyle, 46 percent of youth relied on their parents to fund big ticket items. 90 percent of the respondents stated they wanted to increase their financial knowledge.
Singapore
In Singapore, the National Institute of Education Singapore established the inaugural Financial Literacy Hub for Teachers in 2007 to empower school teachers to infuse financial literacy into core curriculum subjects to embed pedagogically sound activities to engage students in learning. Such day-to-day relevant and authentic illustrations enhance the experiential learning to build financial capability in youth. Integral to evidence-based practices in schools, research on financial literacy is spearheaded by the Hub, which has published numerous impact studies on the effectiveness of financial literacy programs and on the perceptions and attitudes of teachers and students.
The Singapore government through the Monetary Authority of Singapore funded the setting up of the Institute for Financial Literacy in July 2012. The institute is managed jointly by MoneySense (a national financial education program) and the Singapore Polytechnic. This Institute aims to build core financial capabilities across a broad spectrum of the Singapore population by providing free and unbiased financial education programs to working adults and their families. From July 2012 to May 2017, the Institute reached out to more than 110,000 people in Singapore via workshops and talks.
Europe
France
In 2016, France introduced a national economic, budgetary and financial education (EDUFI) strategy based on OECD principles. The government designated the Banque de France as the national operator in charge of implementing the policy.
This government-led strategy aims to promote financial literacy in French society. Measures include financial education and budget planning courses for young people. Entrepreneurs and financially vulnerable individuals also receive support to develop skills.
The Banque de France conducts periodic surveys on the level of understanding, attitudes and behaviour of the French population regarding budgetary and financial matters. It also raises awareness on topics such as over-indebtedness, bank inclusion schemes, means of payment, bank accounts, credit, savings and insurance.
The Cité de l'Économie opened to the public in June 2019. This institution is the first French museum dedicated entirely to fostering economic literacy in an instructive and entertaining way. The Banque de France funds it in cooperation with several partners, including the Ministry for Education, the Institut pour l'Éducation Financière du Public (IEFP – Institute for Public Financial Education) and the Bibliothèque Nationale de France.
Belgium
The FSMA is tasked with contributing to better financial literacy of savers and investors enabling individual savers, insured persons, shareholders and investors in Belgium to be in a better position in their relationships with their financial institutions. As a result, they will be less likely to purchase products unsuited to their profile.
Switzerland
A study measured financial literacy among 1,500 households in German-speaking Switzerland. Testing the three concepts compound interest, inflation, and risk diversification, results show that the level of financial literacy in Switzerland is high compared to results for other European countries or the US population. Results of the study further show that higher financial literacy is correlated with financial market participation and mortgage borrowing. A related study among 15-year-old students in the Canton of Fribourg shows substantial differences in financial literacy between French- and German-speaking students.
The Swiss National Bank aims at improving financial literacy through its initiative Iconomix which targets upper secondary school students.
The new public school curriculum will cover financial literacy in public schools.
United Kingdom
The UK has a dedicated body to promote financial capabilitythe Money Advice Service.
The Financial Services Act 2010 included a provision for the FSA to establish the Consumer Financial Education Body (CFEB). From April 26, 2010, CFEB continued the work of the FSA's Financial Capability Division independently of the FSA, and on April 4, 2011, was rebranded as the Money Advice Service.
The strategy previously involved the FSA spending about £10 million a year across a seven-point plan. The priority areas were:
New parents
Schools (a program being delivered by pfeg)
Young adults
Workplace
Consumer communications
Online tools
Money advice
A baseline survey conducted 5,300 interviews across the UK in 2005. The report identified four themes:
Many people are failing to plan ahead.
Many people are taking on financial risks without realising it
Problems of debt are severe for a small proportion of the population, and many more people may be affected by an economic downturn
The under-40s are, on average, less financially capable than their elders
"In short, unless steps are taken to improve levels of financial capability, we are storing up trouble for the future."
Numerous charities in the United Kingdom also work to improve financial literacy, such as MyBank, Citizens Advice Bureau, and the Personal Finance Education Group.
Financial literacy within the UK's armed forces is provided through the MoneyForce program, run by the Royal British Legion in association with the Ministry of Defence and the Money Advice Service.
Americas
Canada
In 2006, Canadian securities regulators commissioned two national investor surveys to gauge people's knowledge and experience with investments and fraud. The results from both studies demonstrated that there is a need to better to educate and inform investors about capital markets and investment fraud. Education in this area is particularly important as investors take on more risk and responsibility of managing their retirement savings, and a large baby boomer population enters the retirement years across North America.
In 2005, the British Columbia Securities Commission (BCSC) funded the Eron Mortgage Study. It was the first systematic study of a single investment fraud, focusing on more than 2,200 Eron Mortgage investors. Among other things, the report identified that investors approaching retirement without adequate resources and affluent middle-aged men were vulnerable to investment fraud. The report suggests investor education will become even more important as the baby boomer generation enters retirement.
In Canada, Financial Literacy Month takes place during the month of November to encourage Canadians to take control of their financial well-being and invest into their financial futures by learning about topics of personal finance. Canada has also established a government entity to "promotes financial education and raises consumers' awareness of their rights and responsibilities". The agency also "ensures federally regulated financial entities comply with consumer protection measures.
United States
In the US, a national nonprofit organization, the Jump$tart Coalition for Personal Financial Literacy, is a collection of corporate, academic, non-profit and government organizations that work for financial education since 1995.
Another national nonprofit organization in the US, the National Association of Investors (NAIC), has focused their financial literacy efforts specifically on investment education since 1951.
The United States Department of the Treasury established its Office of Financial Education in 2002; and the US Congress established the Financial Literacy and Education Commission under the Financial Literacy and Education Improvement Act in 2003. The Commission published its National Strategy on Financial Literacy in 2006.
While many organizations have supported the financial literacy movement, they may differ on their definitions of financial literacy. In a report by the President's Advisory Council on Financial Literacy, the authors called for a consistent definition of financial literacy by which financial literacy education programs can be judged. They defined financial literacy as "the ability to use knowledge and skills to manage financial resources effectively for a lifetime of financial well-being."
The Council for Economic Education (CEE) conducted a 2009 Survey of the States and found that 44 states currently have K-12 personal finance education or guidelines in place. However, "only 17 states require high school students to take a course in personal finance."
The Center For Financial Literacy at Champlain College conducts a biannual survey of statewide high school financial literacy requirements across the nation. The 2017 survey found that Utah had the highest state requirement in the nation, while in Alaska, Delaware, Washington, District of Columbia, Hawaii, Rhode Island and South Dakota, students are entirely dependent on the initiative of their local school board.
In July 2010, the United States Congress passed the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (Dodd-Frank Act), which created the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB). The CFPB has been tasked, among other mandates, with promoting financial education through its Consumer Engagement & Education group.
Brazil
Between 2018 and 2019, surveys were performed for a myriad of players in the Brazilian financial market. Among them, B3 (stock exchange), ANBIMA, CVM e Ilumeo Institute. Following these surveys, Brazil defined action plans, the National Strategy about Financial Education (ENEF).
See also
Financial deepening
Financial ethics
Financial inclusion
Financial literacy curriculum
Financial Literacy Month
Financial regulation
Financial social work
Information literacies
References
Further reading
External links
Money Smart Financial Education Program from the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, available at Wikimedia Commons
Personal finance education
Financial economics
OECD
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Be Our Guest
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"Be Our Guest" is a song written by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken for Walt Disney Pictures' 30th animated feature film Beauty and the Beast (1991). Recorded by American actor Jerry Orbach and English actress Angela Lansbury as Lumière and Mrs. Potts, respectively, "Be Our Guest" is a large-scale Broadway-inspired musical number that takes place during the first half of Beauty and the Beast, performed by the castle's staff of enchanted objects in an elaborate attempt to welcome Belle. Menken initially intended for the melody of "Be Our Guest" to be temporary but was ultimately unable to compose a satisfying one with which to replace it. The song had originally been intended for Belle's father Maurice. However, "Be Our Guest" had to be entirely re-written as the story evolved in order to return its focus to Belle.
"Be Our Guest" has garnered universal acclaim from both film and music critics who, in addition to dubbing the song a show-stopper, praised its catchiness and Orbach's vocal performance while applauding the scene's unprecedented use of computer-generated imagery. "Be Our Guest" has since been extolled as one of Disney's most celebrated and popular songs, establishing itself as one of the studio's greatest and most iconic. "Be Our Guest" received nominations for both the Golden Globe and Academy Awards for Best Original Song, being performed by Orbach live at the 64th Academy Awards, ultimately losing both to the film's title song. "Be Our Guest" has been ranked highly on several "best Disney song" countdown lists, garnering recognition from IGN, M and the American Film Institute. Disney has further used the song in the Broadway musical adaptation and the 2017 live-action remake of Beauty and the Beast. The song's title was used for the Be Our Guest Restaurant at the Magic Kingdom, and as a tagline for promoting the 2017 film. The song has been parodied in an episode of The Simpsons and the film South Park: Bigger, Longer and Uncut.
Background
Originally, Beauty and the Beast, under the direction of Richard Purdum, was not intended to be a musical. Then-studio chief Jeffrey Katzenberg decided to turn the film into a Broadway-style musical similar to The Little Mermaid (1989), Disney's previous animated film, after he, displeased with the film's initial story reel, ordered the film scrapped and restarted from scratch. As a result, Purdum resigned, and first-time feature film directors Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale replaced him.
Following the Academy Award-winning success of The Little Mermaid, Katzenberg asked The Little Mermaid songwriting duo of Howard Ashman and Alan Menken to write the songs for and score Beauty and the Beast. At first Ashman, who was at the time writing songs with Menken for a recently pitched idea for another Disney film called Aladdin (1992), was reluctant to join the struggling film project, but eventually agreed.
Musically, "Be Our Guest" is based on a simple melody that was composed by Menken, who initially had little intention of using it as anything more than just a "dummy." Upon singing the tune and presenting it to co-writer Ashman, Menken discovered that he was unable to come up with a melody capable of surpassing "that dumb piece of music that I wrote initially because it was just right." Subsequently, Ashman wrote the song's lyrics.
Originally, the filmmakers had initially intended for "Be Our Guest" to be performed by Lumière to Belle's disoriented father Maurice when the character first discovers the Beast's castle. According to co-director Gary Trousdale, "The song had already been recorded and the sequence partially animated when we decided that it would be more meaningful if it was directed towards Belle" because "she is one of the two main characters and the story revolves around her coming to the castle." Consequently, the song had to be re-written and the entire scene re-animated. Trousdale explained, "We had to bring Jerry Orbach and all the other vocal talents back into the studio to change all references to gender that appeared in the original recording."
Context, scene, and analysis
Beauty and the Beast fourth musical number, "Be Our Guest" is set within the first half of the film, occurring shortly after Belle sacrifices her own freedom in return for her father's, becoming the Beast's prisoner. Confined to her bedroom when she, upset, stubbornly refuses to join the Beast for dinner, Belle eventually ventures into the kitchen after feeling hungry, where she is greeted by the castle's staff of enchanted inanimate objects – Mrs. Potts, Cogsworth and Lumière. Upon insisting that they treat her more like a guest than a prisoner, Lumière decides to go against the Beast's orders and invites Belle to dinner. A "food chorus line," "Be Our Guest" is "a rollicking invitation to Belle from the castle staff." As one of the film's most poignant, large-scale, "all-stops-pulled production number[s]," the scene features "dancing plates and other fanciful dinner guests" as they "perform for Belle, hoping to make her stay a little more comfortable." As the film's heroine, Belle is served a meal in the form of "a Broadway-quality stage show." Commonly regarded as the "show-stopper" of Beauty and the Beast, the sequence both visually and musically "derive[s its] insatiable energy and excitement from the gradual accumulation of participation." The Washington Post observed that "'Be Our Guest'" involves "the household gadgets enjoin[ing] Belle to live with them," comparing it heavily to the song "Under the Sea" from Disney's The Little Mermaid (1989), which was also written by Menken and Ashman. Longing to be human, servant and maître d' Lumière is also of the impression that he is worth nothing unless he serves, singing,"Life is so unnerving/For a servant who's not serving."
In terms of character development, "Be Our Guest introduces both Belle and audiences to Lumière's "musical expertise." Additionally, the energetic and flamboyant way in which Lumiere, a suave, French-accented candelabra, is personified and portrayed throughout "Be Our Guest" has often been likened to French entertainer Maurice Chevalier. The Washington Post commented, "The model for Lumiere seems to have been Maurice Chevalier, and the idea is so choice, and so deftly executed, that it places him immediately among the top rank of Disney characters." American actor and singer Jerry Orbach, who provided the voice of Lumiere, himself admitted to People that the character was very much him doing a deliberate impersonation of Chevalier.
Described as both a "musical montage" and the "magical set piece" of Beauty and the Beast, "Be Our Guest" is "a big production number featuring dancing cutlery." Analyzing the scene's complex, elaborate choreography, film critics have observed the profound influence that American filmmaker and choreographer Busby Berkeley has had on "Be Our Guest", deeming its lively "Busby Berkeley-style choreography" both "joyous and charming" while commenting, "Without the confines of camera range, there are virtually no limits to how spectacular an animated Berkeley scene can be ... most notably ... 'Be Our Guest'." David Kronke of Amazon.com hailed the song itself as "an inspired Busby Berkeley homage." Similarly, the Dance Films Association wrote, "the 'Be Our Guest' number features practically all of the techniques employed by Berkeley in his musical comedies," while The New York Times called "Be Our Guest" a "Busby Berkeley-style number in which Belle is serenaded by furniture and dishes." Film critic Roger Ebert joked that the "Be Our Guest" choreography resembles "Busby Berkeley running amok." Additionally, Jerry Griswold, author of The Meanings of "Beauty and the Beast": A Handbook, observed several similarities between "Be Our Guest" and a scene from Maurice Sendak and Carole King's musical Really Rosie.
Significantly, Beauty and the Beast was one of Disney's earliest feature-length animated films to fully employ computer-generated imagery and technology, utilizing it to a significant extent, as depicted throughout its signature musical numbers "Be Our Guest" and "Beauty and the Beast." Significantly, "Be Our Guest" "marks the debut of the [Pixar Image Computer] system that is featured in the ballroom dance sequence and 'Be Our Guest'." Due to its elaborateness, the sequence has been noted for "tak[ing] full advantage of the advantages of animation."
Music and lyrics
"Be Our Guest" is, according to the song's official sheet music, a Broadway musical-inspired song. Another inspiration for the song is a minor theme from Gustav Mahler's Third Symphony, occurring in both the first and third movements, which the Disney song copied nearly note for note as the main theme. An energetic, "turbo-charged Broadway chorus number," "Be Our Guest" was written in common time at a "free" tempo of 50 beats per minute, spanning a length of three minutes and forty-four seconds. In "Be Our Guest," Orbach's "low" tenor or baritone vocal range spans roughly three octaves, from the low note of F3 to the high note of D♭6. Described as a "scintillating," "jolly," "lavish and bouncy" song, "Be Our Guest" is, according to TV Guide, a "boisterous" number, comparing it to songs from the Broadway musicals Hello, Dolly! and Mame. Musically, the song, according to Film.com, has a total of four key changes and modulations, beginning slowly and "gradually build[ing] ... to a thunderous, bring-the-house-down climax."
Additionally described as "a spark of Gallic vaudeville that lights a flame to both [entertainers] Maurice Chevalier and Yves Montand," "Be Our Guest" depicts both "fun" and "humour." Extending a warm, energetic invitation towards Belle, the first verse of the song is preceded by a spoken introduction. It reads, at first in French, "Ma chere Mademoiselle, it is with deepest pride and greatest pleasure that we welcome you tonight. And now we invite you to relax, let us pull up a chair as the dining room proudly presents: your dinner," immediately succeeded by the sung lyrics "Be our guest, be our guest, put our service to the test," continuing with "Go on, unfold your menu / take a glance and then you'll / be our guest / oui, our guest / be our guest." A nostalgic Lumiere muses about being human, pining for the "good old days when we were useful." Furthermore, Lumiere voices his need to serve, singing, "Life is so unnerving/For a servant who's not serving."
Reception
Critical response
"Be Our Guest" has been universally lauded, receiving widespread critical acclaim and garnering nearly unanimously positive reviews from both film and music critics. Hailing it as a "crowd-pleasing production number," TV Guide drew similarities between "Be Our Guest" and songs from the Broadway musicals Hello, Dolly! and Mame. The Globe and Mail Jennie Punter called the song "show-stopping." Similarly, Drew Taylor of Indiewire echoed Punter's statement, writing, "when the enchanted wait staff dazzle the captive Belle, assuring her that she's not a prisoner she's a guest of the castle," the result is ultimately "show-stopping." Writing for the Austin Chronicle, Kathleen Maher, who generally panned the film's songs and musical numbers, liked "Be Our Guest", describing it as Beauty and the Beast "only ... magical set piece." Ranking Beauty and the Beast: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack as Disney's greatest soundtrack, Moviefone's Sandie Angulo Chen highlighted "Be Our Guest", noting its "infectious quality" while hailing it as an "amazing food chorus line." JoBlo.com wrote that "Be Our Guest" is both "eye-popping" and "impossibly catchy." Orbach's performance as Lumiere has also garnered significant praise. Filmtracks.com commented, "the ever popular 'Be Our Guest' ... flourish[es] due to a spirited lead performance by Jerry Orbach." Similarly, Hollywood.com cited in the website's biography of the actor, "Among the highlights of [Beauty and the Beast] was Orbach's delivery of the showstopping number 'Be Our Guest'." {{rquote|right|'Be Our Guest,' the lavish production number that is a dry-land answer to 'Under the Sea' from The Little Mermaid, may not have the identical calypso charm, but it has just about everything else, including Busby Berkeley-style choreography carried out by dancing silverware ... This demonstrates Mr. Ashman's gifts as an outstandingly nimble lyricist.|The New York Times''' Janet Maslin.}}
Several critics have awarded specific praise to "Be Our Guest"'s choreography, comparing it extensively to the work of director and choreographer Busby Berkeley. In addition to hailing "Be Our Guest" as "delightful," Candice Russel of the Sun-Sentinel wrote, "In setting the table for Belle, Lumiere and friends concoct a Busby Berkeley song-and-dance extravaganza." The Deseret News' Chris Hicks described "the Busby Berkeley-style 'Be Our Guest'" as "first-rate." Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly highlighted the scene, writing, "The set pieces are narcotically pleasing, especially the Busby Berkeley-style dancing-kitchenware spectacular, 'Be Our Guest'." James Berardinelli of ReelViews coined "'Be Our Guest' ... the animated equivalent of Broadway show-stoppers, with all the energy and audacity of something choreographed by Busby Berkeley." Calling it a "wonderful musical number," Roger Ebert enthused, "'Be Our Guest' is a rollicking invitation to Belle from the castle staff, choreographed like Busby Berkeley running amok." In review of the 2011 3D re-release of Beauty and the Beast, Stephen Whitty of The Star-Ledger commented, "The illusion of depth does add more life to the enchanted housewares — particularly the 'Be Our Guest' number, with its Busby Berkeley geometrics."
While Beauty and the Beast several theatrical re-releases and reissues have been met with generally mixed reviews, critical response towards the "Be Our Guest" musical sequence has remained predominantly positive. Reviewing the 2001 IMAX re-release of the film, the Los Angeles Times Charles Solomon felt that the inclusion of the deleted song "Human Again" was unnecessary, preferring "Be Our Guest" and writing, "a second major production number simply isn't needed; 'Be Our Guest' is sufficient." Similarly, the Seattle Post-Intelligencer William Arnold wrote, "On the other hand, it's understandable why ["Human Again"] was cut from the original. It's almost too similar to the film's show-stopper, 'Be Our Guest'." Reviewing the film's 2012 3D conversion, Todd Gilchrist of Boxoffice wrote that "Be Our Guest" is "effective, immersive and maybe even memorable." Meanwhile, Annlee Ellingson of Paste wrote, "It's thrilling to experience this film's major set pieces on the big screen again, especially the Broadway-infused 'Be Our Guest' number." The Times-Picayune Mike Scott wrote, "But then the 3-D all but disappears until the 'Be Our Guest' number -- with its artfully surreal dance of the dishes." Andrew Pulver of The Guardian, who otherwise criticized the film's songs, praised "Be Our Guest", writing, "Apart from the spectacular Busby Berkeleyesque [']Be Our Guest['], the film pretty much grinds to a halt whenever one of the songs ... starts up." Likewise, Neil Smith of Total Film concluded that "only 'Be Our Guest' and the ballroom swoop really benefit from a stereoscopic make-over that doesn't do the hand-drawn remainder many favours."
Although vastly critically acclaimed, the song did receive some minor criticism. Lukewarmly, Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic commented, "numbers like 'Be Our Guest' provides evidence that Lumiere and co. are infinitely preferable as entertaining flatware." On Lansbury's performance, Tan joked, "The singer's delightfully personable contribution is almost reason enough to forgive Disney for thinking her English accent ... would not look out of place in a film set in 18th century France." A more negative review was written by Pete Vonder Haar of The Houston Press. Observing that Beauty and the Beast "was Disney's first stab at incorporating computer animation," he felt that "the results are, now, pretty primitive," concluding, "I recall thinking the dancing forks during 'Be Our Guest' ... looked pretty bad and time has not been kind." The song has also been compared to "Under the Sea" from The Little Mermaid, most of which have been mixed. Jay Boyar the Orlando Sentinel opined, "'Be Our Guest' ... is the closest thing in Beauty and the Beast to the bubbly 'Under the Sea' extravaganza in The Little Mermaid," while Entertainment Weekly Owen Gleiberman's review was much more negative, describing the song as "merely serviceable" and concluding, 'Be Our Guest,' ... sorry to say, is no 'Under the Sea'." Likewise, Desson Howe of The Washington Post panned both the song and Lumiere, writing, "the Candelabrum's Maurice Chevalier accent is clearly intended to substitute for the Caribbean-lilted lobster in Mermaid. And the ensemble song, 'Be Our Guest,' in which the household gadgets enjoin Belle to live with them, is an obvious attempt to reprise a similar Mermaid number, 'Under the Sea.' But it's just under par."
Awards, accolades and legacy
Alongside the songs "Beauty and the Beast" and "Belle," "Be Our Guest" was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 64th Academy Awards in 1992. Having garnered three separate Academy Award nominations for Best Original Song, Beauty and the Beast became the first film in the history of the Academy Awards to achieve this rare feat; this would not be repeated until The Lion King had three songs nominated for the award. Ultimately, "Be Our Guest" lost to the film's title song. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Beauty and the Beast producer Don Hahn revealed that Disney feared that having three songs nominated for Best Original Song would result in a draw or three-way tie. Therefore, while "Beauty and the Beast" received heavy promotion from the studio, significantly less was given to "Be Our Guest" and "Belle." "Be Our Guest" was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song at the 49th Golden Globe Awards in 1992, losing again to "Beauty and the Beast." In 2004, the American Film Institute nominated "Be Our Guest" for its "100 Years…100 Songs" ranking.
Allwomenstalk believes that "Be Our Guest" represents "what Disney is all about." Dubbed one of the most memorable songs from Beauty and the Beast, while lauded as a "favorite," a "classic" and "one of the greatest showstoppers" in film history, "Be Out Guest" is commonly cited as one of Disney's greatest songs. As Beauty and the Beast "most frequently heard song," BuzzSugar ranked "Be Our Guest" third on the website's list of the "25 Disney Songs We Will Never Stop Singing". Calling the song a "gem," author Maggie Pehanick wrote that "Be Our Guest" was "one of the first [Disney] songs to get permanently lodged in your brain." Oh No They Didn't ranked "Be Our Guest" eighth on its list of "The Top 25 Disney Songs of All Time", while IGN ranked the song third, with author Lucy O'Brien writing, "Of all the brilliant numbers peppered throughout Beauty and the Beast, it's the turbo-charged Broadway chorus number [']Be Our Guest['] that's the stand-out," describing it as "one of the best songs ever devised by Alan Menken and Howard Ashman." "Be Our Guest" was ranked seventh on M's "Top 20 Disney Songs of All Time" list, with author Stephanie Osmanski citing "Be our guest, be our guest, put our service to the test" as her favorite lyrics. Meanwhile, HitFix ranked "Be Our Guest" sixth on their own list o "The 20 Best Disney Songs of All Time." Additionally, while ranking Lumiere the thirty-ninth "Best Animated Movie Character" of all-time, Empire hailed "Be Our Guest" as the character's best moment and "Stroke of genius," writing, "The song ... sees Lumiere introduce perhaps the greatest dining experience in animation history." While ranking the "50 Greatest Fairy Tale Movies," on which Beauty and the Beast ranked second, Total Film highlighted "Be Our Guest" as the film's "Most Magical Moment." Film.com ranked "Be Our Guest" the thirteenth "Greatest Musical Number ... in Movie History," describing the song as "a masterpiece of showtune construction" while lauding its Busby Berkeley-inspired choreography. "Be Our Guest" was the only animated musical number included on the website's list of 50.
Certifications
Live performances
In 1992, Jerry Orbach performed "Be Our Guest" at the 64th Academy Awards.
Cultural impact
Covers and parodies
In The Simpsons sixth-season episode "Two Dozen and One Greyhounds" (1995), "Be Our Guest" is parodied by the character Mr. Burns when he performs the song "See My Vest". New York magazine-run website Vulture.com ranked the song eighth on its list of "The Ten Best Simpsons Songs". An Oscar-themed rendition of the song was performed by Seth MacFarlane at the 85th Academy Awards. In 2013, English television personalities Ant & Dec appeared in a Christmas television advertisement for the supermarket Morrisons. In the minute-long commercial, a computer-animated gingerbread man named Ginger serenades Ant & Dec to the tune of "Be Our Guest," inviting them to enjoy the store's products. In 2020, the song was parodied under the name "Wear a Mask", a song that tells people how to defend themselves from the COVID-19 pandemic and lampoons criticisms from politicians and "mask debaters", all in the style of the 1991 animated film featuring Lumière and his appliances.
Broadway musical
"Be Our Guest" was also featured as an elaborate production number in the Broadway musical adaptation of Beauty and the Beast, which ran from 1994 to 2007. Originally performed by American actors Gary Beach and Beth Fowler, who originated the roles of Lumiere and Mrs. Potts, respectively, "Be Our Guest" was "a spectacular dance of illuminated saucers, showgirls bedecked with spinning plates, and giant-size bottles spewing streams of brilliant sparkles." In addition to "performance[s] by eye-catching cutlery, plates, a tablecloth and napkins," the musical number featured "a show-stopping routine [from] a dancing doormat." When the Broadway production transferred to the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre in 1999, they also incorporated confetti and streamer cannons that erupt at the end.
Reception towards the Broadway treatment of "Be Our Guest" has been generally mixed. While some theatre critics, such as Alex Bentley of CultureMap, felt that "Be Our Guest" "remain[s] as timeless as ever," The Christian Science Monitor Karen Campbell criticized the number's lavishness, feeling that it compromised the story Campbell wrote, "Only in the fantastical 'Be Our Guest' number ... does the show's extraordinary technological magic threaten to derail the story line." However, some critics did positively comment on the fact that the Broadway adaptation of "Be Our Guest" was more than simply a "cookie-cutter" carbon copy rendition of the original version featured in the animated film.
Live-action film
"Be Our Guest" is featured in the 2017 live-action adaptation of Beauty and the Beast. In addition, the phrase "Be Our Guest" became the tagline in promotional trailers and posters for the film. The song is performed primarily by Ewan McGregor, with contributions from Emma Thompson, Gugu Mbatha-Raw, and Ian McKellen. This version is very similar to the animated film, except that Lumiere sings "Too long we've been rusting" where he sang "Ten years" in the original, as well as when Lumiere sings "We'll prepare and serve with flair a culinary cabaret," there is a musical nod to Kander & Ebb's 1966 musical Cabaret'' "signature, campy, percussive sound."
References
1991 songs
Songs from Beauty and the Beast (franchise)
Songs from musicals
Disney Renaissance songs
Songs with lyrics by Howard Ashman
Songs with music by Alan Menken
Song recordings produced by Alan Menken
Song recordings produced by Howard Ashman
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Commitments%20%28film%29
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The Commitments (film)
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The Commitments is a 1991 musical comedy-drama film based on the 1987 novel of the same name by Roddy Doyle. It was directed by Alan Parker from a screenplay written by Doyle, Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais. Set in the Northside of Dublin, the film tells the story of Jimmy Rabbitte (Robert Arkins), a young music fanatic who assembles a group of working-class youths to form a soul band named "The Commitments". The film is the first in a series known as The Barrytown Trilogy, followed by The Snapper (1993) and The Van (1996).
Producers Lynda Myles and Roger Randall-Cutler acquired the film rights to the novel in 1988, and commissioned Doyle, a first-time screenwriter, to write an adaptation. Doyle spent one year working on the script before Myles brought in veteran screenwriters Clement and La Frenais to help complete it. Upon reading the novel, Parker signed on as the film's director in 1989. An international co-production between Ireland, the United States and the United Kingdom, The Commitments was the first film produced by Beacon Pictures, which provided an estimated budget of $12–15 million. The film's young lead actors were mostly inexperienced, and were cast because of their musical backgrounds and resemblance to the characters in the novel. Principal photography took place in Dublin, from late August to October, 1990.
The Commitments underperformed at the North American box office, grossing $14.9 million during its theatrical run. Reviewers praised the music, performances and humour, while criticism was occasionally aimed at the pacing and Parker's direction. The film resulted in two soundtrack albums released by MCA Records; the first reached number eight on the Billboard 200 album chart and achieved triple-platinum status, while the second album achieved gold sales status. At the 1992 British Academy Film Awards, the film won four of six BAFTA Awards for Best Film, Best Direction, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Editing. It also received an Academy Award nomination for Best Film Editing. The film has since gained cult status.
Plot
In the Northside of Dublin, Ireland, Jimmy Rabbitte is a young music fanatic who aspires to manage an Irish soul band in the tradition of 1960s African-American recording artists. He places an advert in the local newspaper and holds auditions in his parents' home. After being deluged by several unsuitable performers, Jimmy decides to put together a band consisting of friends and people he encounters—lead singer Deco Cuffe, guitarist Outspan Foster, keyboardist Steven Clifford, alto saxophonist Dean Fay, bassist Derek Scully, drummer Billy Mooney, and female backup singers Bernie McGloughlin, Natalie Murphy and Imelda Quirke. Jimmy then meets trumpeter Joey "The Lips" Fagan, a veteran musician who offers his services, and has unlikely stories about meeting and working with famous musicians. Joey names the band "The Commitments".
After purchasing a drum set and acquiring a piano from Steven's Grandmother, Jimmy secures the remainder of the band's musical equipment from Duffy, a black market dealer. The band rehearses on the second floor above a snooker hall, and after much practice, they convince a local church community centre to give them a gig, under the pretence of it being an anti-heroin campaign. Jimmy then hires Mickah Wallace, a affable bouncer known for being a savage fighter, to act as the band's security. The band draws a good crowd, but after Deco inadvertently hits Derek with his microphone stand, the amplifiers explode, resulting in a power outage.
Tensions run high among the band members, as Joey seduces Natalie, then Bernie, then Imelda, all while Deco grows increasingly obnoxious and unruly, believing himself to be the star of the band. The band performs at another venue where, at the end of one song, Billy accidentally knocks over his hi-hat cymbals, leading to a heated argument between him and Deco. Billy leaves the band in fear of going to jail if he beats up Decomuch to Jimmy's frustrationand Mickah replaces him as the band's drummer. During the band's next performance at a roller disco, their first paying gig, Jimmy is confronted by Duffy, who demands payment for the equipment he provided the band. Mickah intervenes and violently attacks Duffy, who is escorted out. Jimmy then goes on stage and introduces the band, which elicits boisterous cheers from the audience.
After the band secures another gig, Joey promises Jimmy that he can get his friend, Wilson Pickett, to sing alongside them. On this promise, Jimmy convinces several journalists to attend the band's next performance. At the venue, the band draws a large crowd, but its members begin arguing with each other offstage, and become doubtful when it appears that Pickett will not show. They go back on stage, where Deco denounces Jimmy for misleading the audience about Pickett's appearance; the band's performance of one of Pickett's songs, "In the Midnight Hour", silences the crowd's protests. After the performance, the fighting continues; during a heated argument, Mickah beats up Deco outside the club, and Jimmy storms off in frustration, claiming that the band is finished. Joey follows Jimmy, who berates him for misleading the band about Pickett. Just as Joey leaves, Pickett's limousine pulls up next to Jimmy, and his driver asks for directions to the club, revealing that Joey was telling the truth about Pickett, he just showed up too late. In a closing monologue, Jimmy explains that the band's members have since gone their separate ways; Bernie joined a country band, Deco got his record deal and became a bigger egomaniac, Mickah sings for a punk band, Outspan & Derek still play as street buskers, Dean formed a jazz band, Joey's mother got a postcard that he was touring with Joe Tex (who had died a decade prior), Steven became a doctor but misses playing music, Billy is recovering from getting kicked in the head by a horse, Imelda married Greg (who won't let her sing anymore), Natalie became a successful solo singer, and implies that he and Natalie are in a relationship.
Cast
In addition, comedian Sean Hughes played Dave from Eejit Records while Maura O'Malley played Joey's mother. Besides Andrea, the other three members of The Corrs appear in the film, with Jim Corr in a credited role and Sharon and Caroline Corr in brief background roles. The film's director, Alan Parker, plays an unnamed producer at Eejit Records at the end of the film. While the Jimmy character regularly voices both sides of his imaginary interview on the Terry Wogan show, Wogan does not appear.
Production
Development
Following the 1988 publication of Roddy Doyle's novel The Commitments (1987) in the United Kingdom, producers Lynda Myles and Roger Randall-Cutler acquired the film rights, and asked Doyle to write an adaptation. Doyle, an inexperienced screenwriter, spent one year drafting the script, accompanied by Myles and Randall-Cutler. Although a script was completed, Myles felt it needed improvement, and passed the book on to Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais, hoping that they would suggest a more experienced writer. Upon reading the novel, Clement and La Frenais agreed to help write the script themselves.
In 1989, Myles took the project to Beacon Pictures, an independent film company established that year by Armyan Bernstein, a former television journalist turned screenwriter and producer. Clement and La Frenais traveled to Los Angeles to discuss the project with Alan Parker, and gave him a copy of the novel. Upon reading the novel, Parker was intrigued by its dialogue and humor, stating, "The book was all dialogue with very little description, but by the use of this wonderful language, and almost nothing but language, in a few lines [Doyle] was able to make his characters as vivid and strong as a dozen pages of purple Joycian prose." He signed on to direct the project after concluding work on his previous film Come See the Paradise (1990). After Beacon agreed to finance the film, 20th Century Fox acquired the North American distribution rights, and Parker was given creative control. The film was an international co-production between companies in the United Kingdom and the United States. Randall-Cutler's The First Film Company and Parker's Dirty Hands Productions, both based in England, were enlisted as production companies. Parker and the producers later attended the 1990 Cannes Film Festival to secure worldwide pre-sales.
Casting
Casting directors John and Ros Hubbard travelled to Dublin, Ireland in April 1990 and spent two months visiting local clubs in their search for musicians to appear in the film. In June of that year, Parker travelled to Dublin and placed an advertisement in the magazine Hot Press, requesting young artists to audition for roles in the film. Parker wanted actors who could play a musical instrument and resembled the characters from the novel. He said, "I would stop kids busking (performing for change) on the streets and call them in to audition ... we had to choose kids who were quite talented, because they had to play musicians who were awful at first, but gradually improved."
Auditions were first held at The Waterfront, a nightclub located near the River Liffey. Jim Corr and his sisters Andrea Corr, Sharon Corr and Caroline Corr were among those who auditioned. Andrea was cast in the non-musical role of Sharon Rabbitte, Jimmy's younger sister, while Sharon and Caroline were cast as members of an Irish band known as "Country & Western"; Jim appears in a brief role as a member of the band "Avant-Garde-A-Clue". Parker then held a casting call at the Mansion House on Dawson Street, Dublin, where 1,500 people auditioned for various roles. During the auditions, Parker met Andrew Strong, son of the film's vocal coach Rob Strong, who performed "Mustang Sally". After meeting with Parker to discuss the project, Strong secured the role of Deco Cuffe, the lead singer of The Commitments. Robert Arkins was initially considered for the role of Deco before he was ultimately cast as Jimmy Rabbitte. Although his character does not have a singing part in the film, Arkins performs the song "Treat Her Right" during the opening credits.
For the role of Joey "the Lips" Fagan, the eldest member of the band, Parker and La Frenais wanted veteran musician Van Morrison. Although his meeting with Parker did not go well, Morrison offered his songs for use in the film. Rory Gallagher was also considered before veteran film and stage actor Johnny Murphy secured the role. Although Murphy could not play an instrument, Parker felt that he best captured the essence of both the character and the film. Murphy was the only cast member who did not do his own playing in the film. Bronagh Gallagher, another established actor, was cast as Bernie McGloughlin, one of the band's three backup singers known as "The Commitmentettes". The actress, born in Derry, Northern Ireland, had to learn a Dublin accent for the role. Angeline Ball secured the role of Imelda Quirke after a private audition with the Hubbards.
Maria Doyle Kennedy was a member of the Irish quartet band The Black Velvet Band before she was cast as Commitmentette singer Natalie Murphy. Michael Aherne, who plays The Commitments' pianist Steven Clifford, was an employee for the Dublin Corporation and took a three-month leave of absence to make the film. Glen Hansard, the lead singer of The Frames, was cast as Outspan Foster, the band's guitarist.
Dave Finnegan was cast as Mickah Wallace, a belligerent and hot-tempered bouncer who becomes a drummer for the band. Parker's first meeting with Finnegan began civilly before their exchanges grew more and more heated. They soon became verbally abusive, threatening each other with disturbing acts of violence. Parker cast Finnegan immediately, explaining that he simply wanted to test the limits of Finnegan's aggression, as he wanted the truculence of the character to be convincing. Colm Meaney first learned of the film adaptation while working with Parker on Come See the Paradise. After Parker held auditions for the younger cast members, Meaney secured the role of Jimmy's father Jimmy Rabbitte, Sr. The audition scene in the film, in which various musicians audition at Jimmy Rabbitte's home, required more than 100 band members. Peter Rowen, brother of Irish artist Guggi, appears as a young skateboarding boy who asks to audition for the band. At the time of the film's production, Rowen had appeared on the cover art of U2's albums Boy (1980) and War (1983), and was a national skating champion.
Filming
Parker spent five weeks rehearsing with the cast members before principal photography commenced on 27 August 1990, with an estimated budget of $12–15 million. While Doyle's novel is set in the fictional Barrytown (based on Kilbarrack, where Doyle was a schoolteacher), Parker suggested that the film take place in Dublin. A total of 44 locations in the city were used for filming. Cinematographer Gale Tattersall sought to create "a gritty, ugly look" that would become more composed and polished as the band became more successful. He felt that this visual style would support the film's story arc.
The film's opening scene, depicting Jimmy Rabbitte (Arkins) trying to offload cassettes and shirts in a street market, was filmed on Sheriff Street, in front of the St. Lawrence O'Toole Catholic Church. A house located on Darndale in the Northside of Dublin was used to depict the Rabbitte family home. The home where Joey "the Lips" Fagan (Murphy) resides with his mother was a house located on 118 Pembroke Road in Ballsbridge. The production also filmed scenes at Ricardo's Pool Hall, a dilapidated building located on 84–87 Lower Camden Street. The second floor of the pool hall was used to depict the band's rehearsals. The Archbishop Byrne Hall (also known as St. Kevin's Hall), located in the Portobello district of Dublin, was used to depict a local church community center, where The Commitments first perform on stage. The Saint Francis Xavier Church, Dublin, located on Upper Gardiner Street, was used to film a scene in which Jimmy finds Commitments pianist Steven Clifford playing "A Whiter Shade of Pale" on an organ. The production team also filmed a scene at a Phibsborough bus depot; the location was used to depict Jimmy convincing Deco (Strong) to become a part of the band. A walkway, where Jimmy discusses his plan to form a band to Outspan and Derek was filmed at the Kilbarrack D.A.R.T. Station. Principal photography concluded in mid-October 1990 after 53 days of filming.
Music
The Commitments does not have an original film score, but features existing music tracks. Music supervisor G. Marq Roswell spent several months during the film's pre-production listening to and categorizing hundreds of R&B songs before travelling to Dublin, Ireland to help Parker finalize songs that would be used in the film. Parker and Roswell had created a "short list" of 1,000 possible song choices. From May to June 1990, Parker had listened to more than 300 songs from the 1960s before narrowing his choices down to 75 songs. The finished film features 68 different musical cues and 52 songs. 24 songs were chosen by the director to be performed by the cast. Roswell also organized and oversaw the recording sessions. The songs were recorded live on set, as Parker wanted to capture the reality of the band's rehearsals and performances. The filmmakers used out-of-phase speakers, which enabled them to play pre-recorded tracks at maximum volume, creating a live performance atmosphere. Each song was then recorded onto a 24-track recorder.
Soundtracks
A motion picture soundtrack album with music produced by Kevin Killen and Paul Bushnell was released on 13 August 1991, by MCA Records. The soundtrack features fourteen songs, most of which appeared in various scenes in the film. Niamh Kavanagh performed as both a lead and backing vocalist in songs such as "Destination Anywhere" and "Do Right Woman, Do Right Man". The soundtrack album was a commercial success, reaching the number one position of the New Zealand Albums Chart. It also reached number one on the Australian Album Chart, and was certified 5× platinum. The Commitments was present for a total of 76 weeks on the Billboard 200, and peaked at number 8 . AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called the album "a bit generic", while Robert Christgau called it "a cross between The Big Chill and The Blues Brothers" with performers who "sacrifice idiosyncrasy for competence".
After the commercial success of the first soundtrack album, a follow-up entitled The Commitments, Vol. 2: Music From The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on 17 March 1992. The album included four more songs from the film, as well as seven additional songs performed by the cast. The soundtrack proved less successful than the previous release, peaking at number 118 on the Billboard 200 chart. The second volume also reached number six on the Australian Album Chart, and was certified gold.
Billy Altman, writing for Entertainment Weekly awarded the album a "B", praising the performers for "sounding more mature and together on their seven newly recorded cover versions here than on four left over from the film". Erlewine, in his review for AllMusic awarded the album three stars out of five and described it as being "plain and forgettable". According to The Daily Telegraph, the soundtrack has sold 12 million copies worldwide.
In 2007, Geffen Records released a 2-CD Deluxe Edition of the soundtrack, which collects The Commitments (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) and The Commitments, Vol. 2: Music From The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack, as well as five tracks from cast member Andrew Strong's 1993 solo album Strong.
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Release
Strategy
20th Century Fox felt that The Commitments would attract young adult audiences, but test screenings indicated that the film would appeal more to older viewers, due to its musical content. Parker, a former advertising executive, collaborated with the studio on the film's marketing, running an extensive campaign to attract the intended target audience. Theatrical posters for the film were distributed to exhibitors in February 1991. Beginning in April 1991, Fox arranged several screenings in Toronto, New York City, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago, with audience members being music industry executives, journalists, disc jockeys and club owners. In August 1991, the studio hosted a press junket in Dublin, Ireland for several media outlets. The Commitments premiered at the Pacific Design Center in West Hollywood, California on 6 August 1991, the Cinerama Dome Theatre in Hollywood on 7 August 1991, the Cineplex Odeon Century Plaza Cinemas in Century City, Los Angeles on 13 August 1991, and the Savoy Cinema in Dublin, Ireland on 19 September 1991.
Fox gave The Commitments a platform release which involved opening the film in select cities before expanding distribution in the following weeks. The film had a limited release in New York City, Los Angeles, and Ireland on 14 August 1991, and expanded to Toronto, San Francisco and Chicago on 16 August 1991. The film was released nationwide in North America on 13 September 1991, and Ireland on 4 October 1991. The English-based studio Sovereign Pictures handled distribution outside North America.
Box office
The Commitments grossed $271,333 on its first week of limited release in North America—an average of $33,916 per theater. The film grossed an additional $268,653 in its second weekend, with an overall domestic gross of $775,824. More theaters were added in its third week; the film grossed an additional $1,366,223 from 104 theatres, which was a +409% increase from its second weekend. The following week, the film was released to a total of 555 theaters in the United States and Canada. It grossed $2,511,091, securing the number three position at the domestic box office. The film saw a significant drop in attendance during the following week, the film grossed $1,752,234, a 30.2% overall decrease from the previous weekend. After eight weeks of release, The Commitments ended its theatrical run with an overall gross of $14,919,570. In North America, it was the 80th highest-grossing film of 1991 and the 42nd highest-grossing R-rated film of that year.
The film was the highest-grossing film in Ireland of all time with a gross of IR£2.23 million ($3.5 million). It grossed £8,285,701 in the UK.
Home media
In North America, The Commitments was released on VHS on 9 April 1992 by FoxVideo, Inc. To promote the release, FoxVideo distributed 90,000 videocassette copies of a "making-of" featurette to home video retailers. The featurette was made available to consumers as a free rental. FoxVideo spent an estimated $300,000 on the marketing, and an additional $200,000 promoting the featurette using print and broadcast advertising.
A Region 1 DVD was released on 19 August 2003, by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. The DVD presents the film in standard definition. Special features include a making-of featurette, a music video for the song "Treat Her Right", a theatrical trailer, and CD sampler that plays four songs from the motion picture soundtrack. A two-disc special edition DVD was later released on 16 March 2004. The first disc presents the film in widescreen, and features an audio commentary by Parker. Other special features include the theatrical trailer, the "Treat Her Right" music video with optional introductions by Parker and Robert Arkins, three featurettes, six TV spots for the film, four radio spots, and a still gallery.
The Commitments was released on Blu-ray on 30 August 2016 by RLJ Entertainment, coinciding with the film's 25th anniversary. The Blu-ray presents the film in 1080p high definition, and contains all the additional materials found on the Special Edition DVD, as well as new interviews with Parker and the cast, and a collective booklet featuring production notes written by Parker.
Reception
Critical response
The Commitments received mostly positive reviews. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes sampled 48 reviews, and gave the film an approval rating of 90%, with an average score of 7.4/10. The critical consensus reads, "The Commitments is a vibrantly funny and blissfully heartfelt ode to the power of music". It is also ranked sixth on the website's best reviewed films of 1991. On Metacritic, the film has a score of 73 out of 100 based on reviews from 23 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Roddy Doyle, author of the 1987 novel, praised the film, stating that Parker and the filmmakers did a "terrific job".
Variety magazine called the film "well-executed and original", and praised the performances as well as the editing by Gerry Hambling. Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader wrote, "If [Parker] can't resist the occasional fancy or cutesy flourishes ... that tend to compromise his work, he still allows his material to exist on its own level and makes it fun to watch." Hal Hinson of The Washington Post described the film as "a deadly funny movie; nearly every scene is broken off with a punch line. But Parker's sense of comedy is organic; he never lets the jokes elbow the characters, or the music, out of the spotlight." Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times also praised Parker's direction, writing, " ... Parker has loosened up quite a bit here, not forcing the action as much as he did in the similar Fame and bringing a surprisingly loony touch to characters like Jimmy's Elvis-obsessed father." Time magazine reviewer Richard Corliss wrote, "The film offers no message, no solutions, only a great time at the movies."
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote that the film was "filled with life and energy, and the music is honest." On the syndicated television program Siskel & Ebert At the Movies, Ebert gave the film a "Thumbs Up" rating, while his colleague Gene Siskel gave the film a "Thumbs Down". Siskel, writing for the Chicago Tribune, felt that the film was "a joyful but empty mixture of Irish kids and black American soul music". In his review for Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman criticized the overall premise as being "downright insulting", explaining, "In Parker's hands, soul music becomes little more than a self-serving metaphor – an easy symbol for 'commitment' and integrity." Peter Travers of Rolling Stone criticized the storytelling, writing in his review, " ... the predictable way in which the band's nine men and three women argue about music, sex and fame robs the story of urgency." Janet Maslin of The New York Times stated, "The Commitments becomes repetitive after a while, since so much of it is about the group's stage show, and since the effort to create an off-stage story never really works." David Denby of New York Magazine felt that the film has "a raspy surface authenticity and a great deal of affection for its characters and milieu but not much dramatic interest."
Accolades
The Commitments received various awards and nominations in categories ranging from recognition of the film itself to its writing, direction, editing and sound to the supporting performance of Andrew Strong. In September 1990, the film debuted at the 4th Tokyo International Film Festival, where it competed for the "Tokyo Grand Prix Award" and was nominated for the Best Director Award, with Parker winning in the latter category. In January 1992, the film received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy though it failed to win the award at the 49th Golden Globe Awards, losing to the animated feature Beauty and the Beast. On 19 February 1992, The Commitments received one Academy Award nomination for Best Film Editing, but lost to JFK at the 64th Academy Awards ceremony on 30 March 1992. At the 45th British Academy Film Awards, the film received six nominations, and won four for Best Film, Best Direction, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Editing.
Legacy and aftermath
The Commitments has gained cult status, and is regarded as one of the best Irish films. An image of four of the actors, in character, was on an Irish postage stamp as part of the Ireland 1996: Irish Cinema Centenary series issued by An Post; the image includes lead singer Deco Cuffe (Andrew Strong), along with the three "Commitmentettes" – Imelda Quirke (Angeline Ball), Natalie Murphy (Maria Doyle Kennedy) and Bernie McGloughlin (Bronagh Gallagher). In 1999, the British Film Institute ranked the film at number 38 on its list of the "100 best British films of the century", based on votes from 1,000 leading figures of the film industry. In 2005, a poll conducted by Jameson and The Dubliner ranked The Commitments the "Best Irish Film of All time", based on 10,000 votes. Following the film's release, the novel also gained popularity, becoming Doyle's most well-known work, which the author resented. "I dismissed The Commitments for a long, long time to the extent I forgot I had anything to do with it", he said.
Many of the actors went on to pursue various acting and musical careers. Robert Arkins signed a record deal with MCA Records in 1993, although he did not finish recording the consequent album. He has produced work for a number of commercial clients, television projects, and composed music for two short films. Andrew Strong went on to produce several albums, which he described as having elements of R&B and rock. He has performed alongside The Rolling Stones, Elton John and Ray Charles, and formed his own band, The Bone Yard Boys, in 2003. In 1993, two of the film's cast members, Kenneth McCluskey and Dick Massey, formed their own tribute act band, The Stars from the Commitments. The 9-piece band has since played more than 1,000 shows worldwide, and has played with B.B. King, James Brown and Wilson Pickett.
Siblings Andrea, Jim, Sharon and Caroline Corr, who had minor supporting roles, had only recently formed their family quartet, performing in their aunt's pub as The Corrs; the film's music coordinator, John Hughes, noticed them when they auditioned for the film and agreed to become their manager. The band has since achieved international stardom, releasing six studio albums and selling more than 60 million records worldwide. Andrea would again collaborate with Parker on his 1996 film adaptation of the musical Evita. Glen Hansard continued performing with his band, The Frames, and achieved greater success and critical acclaim with the 2005 film Once. Bronagh Gallagher has since enjoyed a lengthy acting career in film and television and Maria Doyle Kennedy has, to date, released eleven studio albums and has gone on to become an award-winning actress. Michael Aherne is the only cast member to have not pursued an acting career after the film's release.
On 6 October 2010, it was announced that Strong, Arkins, Ball, Gallagher, Aherne, Hansard, Félim Gormley and Dave Finnegan would join The Stars from The Commitments for a reunion tour to celebrate the film's 20th anniversary. Donations from every ticket sold were given to the Irish Cancer Society, with a goal of raising €30,000. The cast performed at The Royal Theatre, in Castlebar, County Mayo on 14 March 2011, Ireland's National Events Centre (INEC) in Killarney, County Kerry on 15 March 2011, The Odyssey, in Belfast on 17 March 2011, and The O2 in Dublin on 19 March 2011.
The Barrytown Trilogy
The Commitments is the first book in Doyle's series known as The Barrytown Trilogy, followed by The Snapper (1990) and The Van (1991). While all three novels focus on the Rabbitte family, Doyle expressed that he was not interested in writing or producing sequels to the 1991 film adaptation, stating, "I hope it's never made. I just think that, whereas The Commitments was very much a labour of love, Commitments 2 is definitely an act of cynicism."
Doyle was given creative freedom by the BBC over the adaptation of The Snapper, for which he wrote the screenplay. Lynda Myles returned to produce the film and hired Stephen Frears as its director. Colm Meaney returned in a supporting role. The adaptation was originally planned as a television film before Frears suggested that it be transferred to film. Doyle disagreed with the change, stating, "I didn't like it on the big screen—I thought it was grainy." The Snapper (1993) premiered at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival, where it received a standing ovation. It was a critical success, receiving largely positive reviews.
For the film adaptation of The Van, Doyle and Myles formed their own production company, Deadly Films, and the author was given creative control over the selection of its cast and director. Frears returned as director, and Meaney was cast in the lead role. Although The Van (1996) premiered at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival to some favorable reviews, critical reaction was negative upon release; reviewers criticized the film for its thin material and lack of strong characterization.
Cancelled sequel
In January 2000, it was announced that Harvey Weinstein had acquired the film rights to the novel for Miramax and commissioned playwright Warren Leight to write a direct sequel to The Commitments, with Cathy Konrad attached as a producer. The premise involved several members of The Commitments pairing with new band members before going on tour in the United States. The sequel was never produced.
Stage production
Doyle's novel inspired a 2013 musical stage production, directed by British theatre director Jamie Lloyd. Following the film's success, Doyle had previously turned down offers to adapt his novel into a stage production. The Commitments began previews on 21 September 2013 in London's West End at the Palace Theatre. Its official opening night was on 8 October 2013. The show had more than 1,000 performances before officially closing in London on 1 November 2015. It has been announced that a United Kingdom and Ireland tour will commence in 2017.
See also
BFI Top 100 British films
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
The Commitments at AlanParker.com
1991 films
1990s musical comedy-drama films
20th Century Fox films
Irish musical comedy-drama films
British musical comedy-drama films
American musical comedy-drama films
Pop music films
American rock music films
British rock music films
Irish rock music films
English-language Irish films
Films directed by Alan Parker
Films produced by Marc Abraham
Films set in Dublin (city)
Films shot in Dublin (city)
Films set in Ireland
Films shot in the Republic of Ireland
BAFTA winners (films)
Best Film BAFTA Award winners
Films whose director won the Best Direction BAFTA Award
Films whose writer won the Best Adapted Screenplay BAFTA Award
Beacon Pictures films
Films with screenplays by Dick Clement
Films with screenplays by Ian La Frenais
1991 comedy films
1990s English-language films
1990s American films
1990s British films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Fetterman
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John Fetterman
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John Karl Fetterman ( ; born August 15, 1969) is an American politician serving as the junior United States senator from Pennsylvania since 2023. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as the mayor of Braddock, Pennsylvania, from 2006 to 2019 and as the 34th lieutenant governor of Pennsylvania from 2019 to 2023. Generally described as a progressive and a populist, Fetterman advocates healthcare as a right, criminal justice reform, abolishing capital punishment, raising the federal minimum wage to $15 per hour, and legalizing cannabis.
Fetterman studied finance at Albright College and earned an MBA from the University of Connecticut before beginning a professional career in the insurance industry. He went on to join AmeriCorps and earned a Master of Public Policy degree from Harvard University. Fetterman's service with AmeriCorps led him to Braddock, where he moved in 2004 and was elected mayor the following year. As mayor, Fetterman sought to revitalize the former steel town through art and youth programs.
Fetterman ran for the U.S. Senate in 2016, finishing third in the Democratic primary. He ran for lieutenant governor of Pennsylvania in 2018, defeating a field of candidates that included incumbent Mike Stack in the Democratic primary and winning the election with incumbent governor Tom Wolf. During his tenure, Fetterman received national attention for his efforts to legalize cannabis statewide and for his opposition to President Donald Trump's false claims of election fraud in Pennsylvania.
In 2021, Fetterman announced his candidacy in the 2022 U.S. Senate election in Pennsylvania. He won the Democratic nomination with 59% of the vote and defeated Republican Party nominee Mehmet Oz in the general election with 51% of the vote, becoming the first Democrat to win this seat since 1962. Fetterman resigned as lieutenant governor upon being sworn into the Senate on January 3, 2023.
Early life and education
Fetterman was born at Reading Hospital in West Reading, Pennsylvania, to Karl and Susan Fetterman, both of whom were 19 years old. Eventually they moved to York, Pennsylvania, where Fetterman grew up and his father became a partner at an insurance firm. He grew up in an affluent suburb of York, and his parents were conservative Republicans.
Fetterman had a self-described privileged upbringing; he said he "sleepwalked" as a young adult while playing four years of football in college, intending eventually to take over ownership of his father's business. In 1991, Fetterman graduated from Albright College, also his father's alma mater, with a bachelor's in finance. He also received a Master of Business Administration (MBA) from the University of Connecticut (UConn) in 1993. For two years Fetterman worked in Pittsburgh as a risk-management underwriter for Chubb.
While Fetterman was studying at UConn, his best friend died in a car accident; this impacted Fetterman's life and career. After his friend's death, Fetterman joined Big Brothers Big Sisters of America, pairing with an eight-year-old boy in New Haven, Connecticut, whose father had died from AIDS and whose mother was slowly dying from the disease. During his time as a Big Brother, Fetterman says he became "preoccupied with the concept of the random lottery of birth", and promised the boy's mother he would continue to look out for her son after she was gone.
In 1995, Fetterman joined the recently founded AmeriCorps, and was sent to teach Pittsburgh students pursuing their GEDs. He later attended Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University, graduating in 1999 with a Master of Public Policy degree.
Fetterman began his corporate career working at an insurance firm. He came to Braddock in 2001 to start an Out-of-School-Youth Program, helping local youth to earn their GEDs. He moved to Braddock in 2004.
Mayor of Braddock (2006–2019)
Elections
Fetterman ran for mayor of Braddock against the incumbent, Pauline Abdullah, in 2005. With backing from the town's young residents, he won the Democratic primary by a single vote. Fetterman won the general election; he did not face a Republican opponent.
In the 2009 Democratic primary for mayor of Braddock, Fetterman faced Jayme Cox. During the campaign, Cox attacked him for failing to build consensus with the town council. Cox also criticized Fetterman for abuse of power after Fetterman released non-public records that showed Cox was arrested in 2004. Braddock Solicitor Lawrence Shields agreed that Fetterman's conduct constituted "an abuse of his mayoral authority" and violated the Pennsylvania Criminal History Record Information Act. Fetterman defeated Cox in the primary by a vote of 294 to 103 and was unopposed in the general election. Fetterman handily won the Democratic primaries in 2013 and 2017, and was unopposed in the general elections.
Tenure
Fetterman served as the part-time mayor of Braddock and the full-time director of the city's youth program. He also founded a nonprofit organization, Braddock Redux, which he used to acquire and save properties in Braddock.
Fetterman's father helped subsidize Fetterman financially because the position of mayor paid only $150 per month. He received payments of $54,000 from his father in 2015. Fetterman has several tattoos related to the Braddock community. On his left arm are the numbers 15104—Braddock's ZIP Code—and on the right are the dates of nine murders that occurred in the town while he was mayor.
After his first election, one of Fetterman's first acts was to set up a website for Braddock showing the town's mostly neglected and destroyed buildings. As mayor, Fetterman initiated youth and art programs and worked to develop the town's abandoned buildings and improve the poor economy. With family money, he purchased the town's First Presbyterian Church for $50,000 and lived in its basement for several months. The church was later turned into the town's community center. Fetterman later purchased an adjacent warehouse for $2,000, placed two shipping containers on the roof for extra living space, and moved in. He worked to convert vacant lots into parks and gardens, build the town's first public basketball court, and establish a two-acre organic urban farm, worked by teenagers of the Braddock Youth Project. To help fund programs, Fetterman established relationships with local nonprofit organizations, Allegheny County's economic development program, and then-county executive Dan Onorato. For example, Fetterman helped secure a $400,000 grant from the Heinz Foundation toward the building of a green roof, which provided 100 summer construction jobs for local youth.
Fetterman pitched Braddock to people around the country as a place to move due to the town's low real estate prices. The town has attracted people from cities such as Chicago and Portland, Oregon, drawn by the potential for growth. Inspired by Fetterman's call, a group of Brooklyn residents moved to Braddock and transformed an abandoned church into an art center. But Braddock's redevelopment raised concerns about gentrification. Despite Fetterman's attempts to attract new residents to Braddock, the population continued to hover around 2,000, and even though the town's real estate was cheap, many of the homes were condemned or uninhabitable.
Braddock mayors hold administrative power over the Braddock Police Department, but Fetterman delegated that power to Braddock Police Chief Frank DeBartolo for the sake of efficiency. Fetterman aimed to improve the relationship between Braddock's residents and the police by serving as a mediator during disputes. During his tenure as mayor, Braddock's homicide rate fell substantially; for five years, there were no gun-related murders in Braddock.
In 2006, Fetterman opposed the expansion of Mon-Fayette Expressway, a partially completed four-lane highway that connects Western Pennsylvania and West Virginia. He argued that the planned expansion of the expressway would cut straight through Braddock and destroy the town.
While mayor, Fetterman had a contentious relationship with the town council and did not attend many council meetings. In 2009, members of the town council attempted to have him removed from a town council meeting and arrested after he criticized a political opponent while delivering his mayoral report. The same year, council president Jesse Brown ordered Braddock's code enforcement officer to cite Fetterman for an occupancy permit violation for a building owned by Fetterman's nonprofit. A judge later dismissed the complaint. To avoid the town council's gridlock, Fetterman used his nonprofit to accomplish many of his ideas for Braddock; this approach limited citizens' input into the projects.
In November 2010, Fetterman was arrested and immediately released after refusing to leave the property of the U.S. Steel Tower in Pittsburgh while protesting the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center's controversial closure of Braddock Hospital. The Braddock Hospital was Braddock's largest employer, and its closure left the town without a healthcare provider.
Also in November 2010, Fetterman took a leading role in trying to close down Club 804, a Braddock nightclub he described as a public nuisance after a shooting occurred there. Two years later, the club renamed itself "Club Elegance" and Fetterman unsuccessfully sought to have it shut down for violating Braddock's ordinance regarding acceptable locations for certain sexually oriented businesses.
Fetterman cast only one vote during his tenure as mayor. In 2012, he voted to help the borough council choose a president.
Starting in 2013, Fetterman began defying a 1996 Pennsylvania law that banned same-sex marriage and began to marry LGBT couples inside his home.
In 2013, Fetterman and celebrity chef Kevin Sousa established a restaurant in Braddock, something the town had lacked. He bought a 3,000-square-foot former car dealership, intending to make it the site of the new restaurant. The restaurant was named Superior Motors. The restaurant opened in 2017, but closed in 2021 amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Mayor Chardaé Jones, Fetterman's successor, criticized the restaurant for closing after only a few years and having received a Paycheck Protection Program loan for $190,000 in 2020.
Shotgun incident
Fetterman was criticized for an incident in North Braddock in January 2013 when he heard a sound he thought was gunfire and followed an unarmed jogger, whom he detained with a shotgun. The jogger, Chris Miyares, a black American, said that what Fetterman thought were gunshots were kids shooting bottle rockets. Fetterman said no debris had been found. Miyares claimed that Fetterman pointed the shotgun at his chest while he loaded the gun and then aimed the gun at his face. Fetterman denies that he pointed the gun at Miyares and said he only pointed the gun in a way to show that he was armed and that he "didn't even have a round chambered or the safety off." He said he believed he "did the right thing" and has not apologized. No charges were brought against either in connection with the incident, and Miyares never filed a formal complaint.
The incident gained new attention during Fetterman's Senate bid, with critics alleging a racial element to the incident. Fetterman's campaign denied allegations of racism, claiming that Miyares was wearing a black sweatsuit and mask, so Fetterman could not have identified his race or gender. Fetterman also added that Miyares was running in the direction of a school and that he made the decision to approach him with the firearm due to the event's proximity in time to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting.
In 2021, Miyares wrote that Fetterman had "lied about everything" that happened during the incident, but that he had "done far more good than that one bad act" and "should not be defined by it", and that he hoped Fetterman would win the Senate race.
Media coverage and criticism
Fetterman's efforts to create youth-oriented programs, revitalize his town, and attract artists and other "creatives" to his community were featured in The New York Times. A 2009 article in The Guardian called him "America's coolest mayor".
Fetterman appeared on the Colbert Report on February 25, 2009, discussing the economic difficulties his town faced due to a decreasing population, plummeting real estate values, and bankruptcy. He also questioned why funds from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 could not be used to support projects such as those in Braddock.
In 2010, Levi Strauss & Company donated money towards Braddock's revitalization and featured the town in an advertising campaign and documentary produced by the Sundance Channel.
During Fetterman's mayoral tenure, several Braddock residents, including the members of the town council, criticized him for his media appearances that emphasized what they saw as negative aspects of the town. Jesse Brown, Braddock's former town council president, said Fetterman "needs to tone down his rhetoric about the community and the bad shape the community is in and the devastation of the housing... If he feels that the community is bankrupt, then he needs to go somewhere where he'd like it." In 2018, Tony Buba, a Braddock-based filmmaker, said: "[Fetterman is] this big presence, and everyone thinks he's John Wayne, [but it is] not that simple." Buba pointed out that while Fetterman was mayor, Braddock's population had stagnated, and while the average income had grown, it was still only $25,000 per household.
Lieutenant Governor of Pennsylvania (2019–2023)
Elections
2018
On November 14, 2017, Fetterman announced that he would run for the Democratic nomination for lieutenant governor of Pennsylvania, challenging, among others, incumbent lieutenant governor Mike Stack. Stack was seen as a vulnerable incumbent after the Pennsylvania inspector general launched an investigation into Stack regarding allegations that he mistreated his staff and Pennsylvania state troopers. Fetterman was endorsed by Vermont senator Bernie Sanders, Pittsburgh mayor Bill Peduto and former Pennsylvania governor and Philadelphia mayor Ed Rendell.
On May 15, Fetterman won the Democratic primary for lieutenant governor with 38% of the vote. Fetterman was a part of the Democratic ticket along with incumbent governor Tom Wolf. On November 6, 2018, Wolf and Fetterman defeated the Republican ticket of Scott Wagner and Jeff Bartos in the general election.
Tenure
Fetterman was sworn into office as the lieutenant governor of Pennsylvania on January 15, 2019, replacing Mike Stack. One the first tasks Governor Tom Wolf gave him was to look into legalizing marijuana statewide. Fetterman went on a statewide tour, visiting all 67 Pennsylvania counties, and spoke to residents about legalization. After completing his tour, he published a report on his findings.In a show of support for marijuana legalization and the LGBTQ+ community, Fetterman hung the pride flag and a flag with a marijuana leaf from his office's balcony, which overlooks the state capitol. State employees removed them when an omnibus bill, signed into law by Wolf, banned unauthorized flags on capitol property. Fetterman continued to defy the law by flying the flags outside his office.
An Associated Press review of Fetterman's daily schedule during his tenure as lieutenant governor found that he kept a light work schedule and was often absent from official state business. From his inauguration in January 2019 until May 2022, Fetterman's official schedule was blank for one-third of workdays. Additionally, the days that he worked were often short, ranging from four to five hours. He was often absent from presiding over the Pennsylvania State Senate, an official duty of the lieutenant governor. In 2020, he attended only half of the Senate's sessions; in 2021, he attended only a third of them.
Board of Pardons
The lieutenant governor has very little actual power, but does oversee the Pennsylvania Board of Pardons. In this position, Fetterman worked to increase commutations and pardons for those serving jail time in Pennsylvania. The Philadelphia Inquirer reported that Fetterman ran the Board of Pardons "with the heart of an activist and, at times, the force of a bully". The Inquirer also reported that he threatened to run against Attorney General Josh Shapiro (who, at the time, was planning a run for governor) unless Shapiro supported more pardons.
While chaired by Fetterman, the Board of Pardons recommended 50 commutations for life sentences, and Governor Wolf granted 47 commutations. As lieutenant governor, Fetterman announced "a coordinated effort for a one-time, large-scale pardoning project for people with select minor, nonviolent marijuana criminal convictions".
Donald Trump
In November 2020, Fetterman received national press coverage for saying Donald Trump was "no different than any other random internet troll" and that he "can sue a ham sandwich" in response to Trump threatening to file lawsuits in Pennsylvania alleging voter fraud in the 2020 presidential election.
Joe Biden won the 2020 presidential election in Pennsylvania, defeating Trump by more than 81,000 votes. Trump's claims of voter fraud led to a challenge of the results, and Texas attorney general Ken Paxton filed suit to overturn the election results in Pennsylvania and other states. Supporting that effort, Texas lieutenant governor Dan Patrick offered a reward of $1,000,000 to anyone who could prove a case of fraud in the affected states. Fetterman responded by certifying that Pennsylvania had discovered three cases of voter fraud; two men had cast ballots as their dead mothers (both for Trump), and another had voted on behalf of his son as well as himself (also for Trump). Fetterman said that Patrick should pay $1 million for each of these cases. He said he was proud to announce that Trump "got 100% of the dead mother vote" in Pennsylvania. Fetterman's lampooning of the alleged voting fraud received nationwide publicity.
U.S. Senate (2023–present)
Elections
2016
On September 14, 2015, Fetterman announced his candidacy for the Democratic nomination for the U.S. Senate seat held by Pat Toomey in the 2016 election. His campaign was considered a long shot against two better-known candidates, Katie McGinty and Joe Sestak, the 2010 Democratic nominee for Senate. Fetterman was endorsed by former Maryland governor Martin O'Malley, former Pennsylvania treasurer Barbara Hafer, and the PennLive editorial board.
Fetterman's campaign focused on progressive values and building support through grassroots movement, drawing comparisons to Bernie Sanders. He was the only statewide Democratic candidate in Pennsylvania to endorse Sanders. Though lacking statewide name recognition, low on campaign funds, and polling as low as 4% a week before the primary, Fetterman garnered 20% of the primary vote. Katie McGinty, who spent $4,312,688 on the primary and was endorsed by Barack Obama and many U.S. senators, finished ahead of former congressman and admiral Joe Sestak, who raised $5,064,849, with Fetterman raising $798,981 and finishing third. After the primary, Fetterman campaigned on behalf of McGinty, who lost to Toomey in the general election.
2022
In January 2021, Fetterman announced he was launching an exploratory committee for the 2022 U.S. Senate election in Pennsylvania. On February 4, 2021, Fetterman filed a statement of candidacy with the Federal Election Commission declaring his intention to run for the Senate seat being vacated by Toomey. On February 8, 2021, he officially entered the race.
Democratic primary
Fetterman's main opponent in the Democratic primary was U.S. representative Conor Lamb. A political action committee supporting Lamb ran ads attacking Fetterman as "a self-described democratic socialist". While the ad cited an NPR article that called Fetterman a socialist, The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote, "Fetterman has never actually described himself that way." Both Lamb and another candidate, Malcolm Kenyatta, criticized Fetterman for an incident where he pulled a loaded shotgun on a black jogger whom he believed had fired a gun.
While leading in many polls, Fetterman received few endorsements in the Democratic primary. State representative John I. Kane said that the lack of endorsements was characteristic of Fetterman's "lone wolf personality". Darisha Parker, a state representative from Philadelphia, argued that his lack of endorsements was because he had "never come and introduced himself to me or any of my colleagues... if a lieutenant governor doesn't take the time to get to talk to somebody like me, then why would we want to send somebody like him to D.C.?"
Fetterman won the Democratic primary by a landslide with 58.7% of the vote to Lamb's 26.3%. He won every county including Philadelphia County, but struggled to win much of the city's black vote—capturing just 18% of the vote in the majority-black precincts. Fetterman's wife Gisele gave a victory speech on her husband's behalf, as he was hospitalized following a stroke.
General election
In the general election, Fetterman faced Republican nominee Mehmet Oz, a celebrity television doctor. According to The Philadelphia Citizen, Fetterman employed a social media campaign strategy consisting of shitposting and internet memes. The Daily Beast reported that Oz's New Jersey residency, net worth, and connections to Donald Trump were the focus of many of the memes. Criticizing Oz's previous residency in New Jersey became a particular hallmark of Fetterman's campaign, seeking to label Oz a carpetbagger. Efforts by the campaign to highlight Oz's New Jersey ties included enlisting New Jersey celebrities Snooki and Steven Van Zandt to record video messages aimed at Oz, and having a plane banner fly over the Jersey Shore reading "Hey Dr. Oz: Welcome home to N.J.! ❤️ John."
Fetterman's health was also a major issue in the campaign because he had suffered a stroke days before his primary victory.
At an August 2022 rally in Erie, Fetterman appeared in public for the first time since recovering from his stroke; according to Politico, he "appeared physically healthy and mostly talked without any issues. At times, however, his speech was somewhat halted." In October 2022, he gave his first in-person interview since the stroke, with Dasha Burns, on NBC Nightly News with Lester Holt. As a result of his stroke, Fetterman required closed-captioning technology to read the questions as they were being asked out loud. Burns said that in their uncaptioned conversation before the interview, she was uncertain whether he could understand her. This drew criticism from other reporters, who said Fetterman did not exhibit such difficulty in other interviews.
In September 2022, Oz called on Fetterman to debate him before early voting began in Pennsylvania on September 19. Fetterman agreed to debate Oz in "the middle to end of October" but did not commit to an exact date or to a debate in September. Oz and Toomey criticized Fetterman's approach to the debate. The Washington Post wrote that it "raised questions about whether [Fetterman], still recovering from a serious stroke, is fit to serve in the Senate". On September 15, Oz and Fetterman agreed to a single debate on October 25.
Politico reported that Fetterman struggled during the debate "to effectively communicate—missing words, pausing awkwardly and speaking haltingly", while The New York Times reported that "he was also fluent enough over the course of the hour to present his Democratic vision for a state that could determine control of the Senate". According to the Times, Fetterman was an uneven debater even before his stroke. Republicans seized on his appearances and behavior after the stroke to suggest that he was not fit for office; according to medical experts, speech impairment after a stroke does not indicate cognitive impairment. Senator Chris Coons said that the debate "was hard to watch" but that Pennsylvanians would still be attracted to Fetterman's candidacy because of his "record of what he's done in Braddock [and] as lieutenant governor".
Although Fetterman led most pre-election polls, his debate performance and concerns about his health helped Oz take a narrow lead before the election.
On November 9, media outlets projected Fetterman as the winner of the election. Fetterman won the election with 51.3% of the vote to Oz's 46.3%.
Tenure
Fetterman took office on January 3, 2023. At 6 feet 8 inches tall, he is the tallest currently serving senator.
According to The New York Times, Fetterman's adjustment to the Senate has been "extraordinarily challenging—even with the [extensive] accommodations that have been made to help him adapt". To assist with Fetterman's stroke-related speech processing issues, the Senate chamber was outfitted with closed captioning technology at his desk and at the front of the chamber.
In February 2023, Fetterman attended his first Agriculture Committee hearing. He asked questions about trade and organic farming, but stumbled slightly over his words.
Fetterman was hospitalized for syncope (lightheadedness) for two days beginning on February 10, 2023. Two days after his release he was hospitalized again, for a severe case of major depression. For about two months, Fetterman lived and worked at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center. As part of his daily schedule at the hospital, his chief of staff arrived at 10 a.m. on weekdays with newspaper clips, statements for Fetterman to approve, and legislation to review. During his hospitalization, Fetterman co-sponsored a bipartisan rail safety bill, introduced after the derailment of a chemical-carrying train in East Palestine, Ohio, close to the border with Pennsylvania; the regulation aimed to strengthen freight-rail safety regulations to prevent future derailments.
On April 17, 2023, Fetterman returned to the Senate to chair the Senate Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry subcommittee on food and nutrition, specialty crops, organics and research. The Washington Post said that Fetterman's "voice stumbled at times while reading from prepared notes" during the subcommittee hearing, but "he appeared in good spirits" and communicated a message about the importance of fighting hunger.
Committee assignments
Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry
Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs
Committee on Environment and Public Works
Joint Economic Committee
Special Committee on Aging
Political positions
Fetterman is often described as a social and fiscal progressive, including by himself. When running for Senate in 2022, Fetterman said that he is not a progressive and is "just a Democrat", explaining that many parts of his platform that were once considered progressive are now mainstream beliefs of the party. In 2022, The New York Times characterized Fetterman as "left-leaning". Fordham University political science professor Christina Greer described Fetterman, alongside New York City Mayor Eric Adams, as "simultaneously progressive, moderate and conservative".
Abortion
In a Democratic primary debate in May 2022, Fetterman said regarding abortion: "That is between a woman and her physician". To the question if any exceptions exist, he said: "It's certainly not between me or any politician. We settled this decades ago, and the fact that these states are trying to repeal it... we have to push back on that." Later that month, Fetterman reiterated his position opposing any legal restrictions on abortion, including in the third trimester.
Congressional stock ownership
Fetterman supports barring members of Congress and their immediate families from trading or holding stocks.
Criminal justice reform
Prison reform is one of Fetterman's signature issues, advocating for more rehabilitation action as well as clemency for model prisoners. As part of his role as lieutenant governor, he served as the chair of Pennsylvania's Board of Pardons, which processes clemency requests and forwards them to the governor. Fetterman urged the board to process requests more quickly.
Fetterman is in favor of abolishing capital punishment in Pennsylvania, stating that he "wholly support[s] Governor Tom Wolf's moratorium on the death penalty". He has called the death penalty "inhumane, antiquated, expensive, and [a] flawed system of punishment".
Fetterman supports the elimination of mandatory sentences of life in prison without the possibility of parole for second degree murder, in which someone commits a felony resulting in death, but is not directly responsible for the killing. He does not support eliminating life without parole as a sentence. His Senate race opponent, Mehmet Oz, claimed that Fetterman supports "eliminat[ing] life sentences for murderers", which PolitiFact and other fact-checking outlets called a distortion of Fetterman's position.
Environmental issues
Previously, Fetterman opposed fracking, calling the practice "an environmental abomination". He has since shifted his stance on the issue, saying that he supports permitting fracking, although he advocates for stricter environmental regulations. Fetterman says there needs to be a balance between decarbonization efforts and creating jobs in the fossil fuel industry. While running for lieutenant governor, he supported establishing two new fracking wells. In 2021, Fetterman said that he supports moving towards a "de facto moratorium [on fracking] because the transition is going to be toward green and renewable energy". In February 2021, he told MSNBC, "I'm embracing what the green ideal considers a priority. Like, you know, the Green New Deal isn't a specific piece of legislation. What I am in support of is acknowledging that the climate crisis is absolutely real."
Filibuster
Fetterman supports ending the filibuster in the United States Senate. He has also said that Democrats need to be more ruthless, like Republicans, in order to pass legislative priorities.
Foreign policy
In 2015, The Patriot-News described Fetterman as a "skeptic of free trade", given his opposition to the Trans-Pacific Partnership, and a non-interventionist. Fetterman has said that the United States should not "be considered the world's police officers".
Israel
Fetterman is a strong supporter of Israel–United States relations and said as a U.S. senator, he will "lean in" on the "relationship between the United States and Israel". He said that the U.S.–Israel relationship "is a special one that needs to be safeguarded, protected, supported and nurtured through legislation and all available diplomatic efforts in the region". He supports United States foreign aid to Israel, including Iron Dome funding. Fetterman criticized congressional Democrats who voted against Iron Dome funding, calling them "fringe" and "extreme". He has said he supports Israel's right to defend itself and is "passionate" in his opposition to the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement. He supported a law signed by Pennsylvania governor Tom Wolf that barred Pennsylvania from entering into contracts with companies that boycott Israel. He supports a two-state solution and the expansion of the Abraham Accords, the Arab-Israeli agreements brokered under the Trump administration.
NATO
In 2023, Fetterman voted against an amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act that would have clarified that Article 5 of the NATO treaty does not obviate the need for Congress to declare war.
Fetterman voted for Tim Kaine's amendment, which prohibits the president of the United States from withdrawing from NATO without congressional approval.
Gun policy
Fetterman supports greater restrictions on gun purchases.
Healthcare
Fetterman has described himself as a supporter of Medicare for All, saying that healthcare is a "fundamental human need and right". Fetterman's website states that "Healthcare is a fundamental human right," and that he would "support whatever path" is necessary to expand healthcare accessibility including the expansion of Obamacare. In debate, he reaffirmed he would vote for Medicare for All.
Marijuana
Fetterman is a proponent of legalizing marijuana, calling the issue a "political bazooka" and that leaving the issue alone is giving an opportunity for another party to gain political support for a pro–marijuana legalization agenda. He argued that if conservative South Dakota voters were willing to approve a ballot measure legalizing recreational marijuana, Pennsylvania should legalize it too. He also supports expunging criminal convictions related to marijuana.
Minimum wage
Fetterman supports raising the minimum wage to $15 an hour.
Policing
Fetterman has described himself as "pro-policing", including pro-community policing. He opposes defunding the police, calling the movement "absurd", but supports the Black Lives Matter movement. After Derek Chauvin, a police officer who murdered an unarmed black man, George Floyd, was convicted of second-degree murder, Fetterman tweeted his support for the verdict, stating that Chauvin was "clearly guilty".
As lieutenant governor, Fetterman supported legislation that would allow the police to use deadly force only in situations where officers or others nearby face imminent threat of death or serious injury.
Taxation
Fetterman supports implementing a wealth tax in the United States. He has said those "who have yachts" could be used as a potential benchmark.
Unions
Fetterman is a supporter of labor unions, saying "The union way of life is sacred". He is a supporter of the PRO Act.
Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023
Fetterman was among the five Senate Democrats who voted against final passage of the Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023.
Personal life
Fetterman is married to Gisele Barreto Fetterman (), a Brazilian-American activist. Almeida, who was once an undocumented immigrant and a resident of Newark, New Jersey, heard about Fetterman's work as mayor of Braddock and wrote him a letter in 2007. Fetterman invited Almeida to visit Braddock, and a year later they were married. The couple has three children and they live in a converted car dealership with their rescue dogs, Levi and Artie. The family chose to not live in State House, the official residence for Pennsylvania's lieutenant governor.
In 2008, Allegheny County sued Fetterman and his nonprofit Braddock Redux for unpaid taxes. A tax lien was placed against Fetterman and his nonprofit for $25,000. In 2012, Fetterman paid off the unpaid taxes.
In fall 2020, Gisele Fetterman shared a photo of the family's home while John was being interviewed. Levi's humorous facial expression resulted in the photograph going viral. The next day, an unconnected fan of Levi created a Twitter account in his name and became friends with Gisele Fetterman, but remains anonymous. Levi and Artie have their own Twitter account with more than 25,000 followers. Levi is a mixed-breed dog and was featured in the CW's television special "Dogs of the Year 2021". In July 2021, the York Daily Record reported that Levi was an advocate for the increase of the state license fee for dog owners to fund the Pennsylvania bureau tasked with canine law enforcement, such as dealing with dangerous dogs and exposing puppy mills.
Fetterman is known for his casual style of dress. He is often seen wearing a sweatshirt and shorts, and long owned only one suit, which he wore when presiding over the Pennsylvania Senate, where there is a dress code. Fetterman purchased a new suit for his swearing-in as a U.S. senator.
In March 2023, right-wing conspiracy theorists spread a false theory that Fetterman had been replaced by a body double.
The Philadelphia Inquirer reported that Fetterman has a net worth between $717,000 and $1.58 million.
Health
According to Fetterman's Chief of Staff, Adam Jentleson, Fetterman has struggled with depression throughout his life.
In 2017, Fetterman's feet suddenly began to swell and he was subsequently hospitalized for testing. At that time, he was diagnosed by cardiologist Ramesh Chandra with "atrial fibrillation, an irregular heart rhythm, along with a decreased heart pump", although this diagnosis was not known publicly until Fetterman's stroke in May 2022.
In 2018, Fetterman spoke publicly about his substantial weight loss. Fetterman, who is 6 foot 8 inches tall (2.06m), had weighed more than before losing approximately .
On June 4, 2019, The Philadelphia Inquirer reported that Fetterman "collapsed" while presiding over the State Senate; he became wobbly and grabbed the lectern to prevent himself from falling over, and a member of the Capitol's nursing staff came to examine him. Afterward, Fetterman's spokesperson said he had become overheated and was "back to normal".
On May 13, 2022, Fetterman had an ischemic stroke and was hospitalized. The stroke was induced by a clot caused by atrial fibrillation (irregular heart rhythm). Because Fetterman also had cardiomyopathy, his doctors implanted a pacemaker and defibrillator. He was discharged from the hospital on May 22, 2022.
In an early June 2022 letter, Chandra wrote that Fetterman was "well compensated and stable" and that "If he takes his medications, eats healthy and exercises, he'll be fine." His doctors reported that Fetterman did not sustain cognitive damage, and that they expected a full recovery. Fetterman expressed regret for having ignored his health; after the 2017 diagnosis with atrial fibrillation, he did not see a doctor for five years and did not continue medications.
In an October 2022 letter providing a medical update, Fetterman's primary care physician said that he "spoke intelligently without cognitive deficits" during examination and had significantly improved communication compared to his first visit with the doctor. Fetterman's stroke left him with symptoms of an auditory processing disorder, and he uses closed captioning as an aid to read speech in real time. The physician noted that Fetterman regularly attends speech therapy, routinely exercises, takes appropriate heart medications, and "has no work restrictions and can work full duty in public office."
On February 8, 2023, Fetterman was hospitalized overnight after feeling lightheaded during a U.S. Senate retreat earlier that day. His office reported that he was in "good spirits and talking with his staff and family", and that his hospitalization was unrelated to his stroke. On February 16, 2023, Fetterman checked himself into Walter Reed Hospital due to clinical depression. A senior aide later said Fetterman would remain hospitalized for "likely less than two months" while he underwent treatment. Fetterman was discharged from Walter Reed on March 31. He returned to the Senate on April 17 and chaired an Agriculture Committee subcommittee to discuss Pennsylvania's farm issues.
Film
Fetterman made a cameo appearance in the 2022 film The Pale Blue Eye. In December 2022, he posted a photo of himself and his wife alongside actor Christian Bale on the set of the film. Fetterman also worked with Bale and the film's director, Scott Cooper, in 2013, when they filmed Out of the Furnace in Braddock.
Electoral history
Notes
References
External links
Senator John Fetterman official U.S. Senate website
Fetterman for Pennsylvania campaign website
John Fetterman at Politifact
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1969 births
Living people
21st-century American philanthropists
21st-century American politicians
Albright Lions football players
American politicians with disabilities
American social workers
Candidates in the 2016 United States Senate elections
Democratic Party United States senators from Pennsylvania
Harvard Kennedy School alumni
Left-wing populists
Lieutenant Governors of Pennsylvania
Mayors of places in Pennsylvania
People from Braddock, Pennsylvania
People with mood disorders
Philanthropists from Pennsylvania
Politicians from Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
Politicians from Reading, Pennsylvania
Politicians from York, Pennsylvania
University of Connecticut alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bass%20amplifier
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Bass amplifier
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A bass amplifier (also abbreviated to bass amp) is a musical instrument electronic device that uses electrical power to make lower-pitched instruments such as the bass guitar or double bass loud enough to be heard by the performers and audience. Bass amps typically consist of a preamplifier, tone controls, a power amplifier and one or more loudspeakers ("drivers") in a cabinet.
While bass amps share many features with the guitar amplifiers used for electric guitar, they are distinct from other types of amplification systems, due to the particular challenges associated with low-frequency sound reproduction. This distinction affects the design of the loudspeakers, the size and design of the speaker cabinet and the design of the preamplifier and amplifier. Speaker cabinets for bass amps usually incorporate larger loudspeakers (e.g., speakers are more common for bass than for electric guitar amps) or more speakers and larger cabinet sizes than those used for the amplification of other instruments. The loudspeakers themselves must also be sturdier to handle the higher power levels and they must be capable of reproducing very low pitches at high sound pressure levels.
History
1920s–1940s
The bassists who first sought methods to make their instruments louder were upright bass players. While the upright bass is a large instrument, standing about six feet tall (with its endpin extended), due to its low register it is not a loud instrument when played acoustically and because human hearing is less sensitive at low frequencies. In the 1890s and early 1900s, upright bass players performing in bars and brothels often found it difficult to be heard by the audience over louder instruments such as trumpet. A partial solution was playing slap bass style, slapping the strings against the fingerboard to make a relatively loud percussive sound.
In 1933, the Audiovox Manufacturing Company was founded by Paul Tutmarc, subsequently the inventor of the first electric bass, the fretted and solid-body Audiovox Model 736 Bass Fiddle, in 1936, which was designed to be played in a guitar-like horizontal manner. The instrument was sold with the first purpose-built bass amplifier, the Audiovox Model 936. Seen largely as a novelty, the few that were sold remained in the Seattle area.
1950s–1970s
The Ampeg Bassamp Company, founded in 1949 by Everett Hull, responded to the growing demand for electric bass equipment by producing a line of bass amplifiers. The first model offered was the Super 800, an 18-watt model with a single 12" speaker and a rear ventilation port. In 1951, Ampeg introduced a 20-watt version with a 15-inch speaker. In 1960, they introduced the B-15 Portaflex, a flip-top 25-watt tube bass amplifier with a single 15" speaker. While the Portaflex had a pleasing bass tone, and was used by studio bassists such as James Jamerson and Carol Kaye, it was not powerful enough to be used in a stadium or arena concert. Ampeg amplifiers were widely used by electric bass guitarists in the 1950s and 1960s.
Leo Fender resurrected the solid-body "bass guitar" in 1950 with the Fender Precision bass. Unlike the upright bass, a solid-body electric bass does not produce acoustic sound from a hollow body; while an upright bass player often benefits from using a bass amp, a bass amp is a necessity for an electric bass player.
By the late 1960s, as electric guitarists in rock bands began using powerful amplifiers to play large venues, bassists needed to keep up. The Acoustic 360 was a "200-watt, solid state head designed to drive the 361 cabinet, a rear-firing 18” speaker enclosure". The engineers who designed the amp and cabinet in 1967, Harvey Gerst and Russ Allee, mounted the 18" speaker in a folded horn enclosure; the 360 amp had a built-in fuzz bass effects unit. The Acoustic 360 and its 361 cabinet "...got the bass world ready for the Woodstocks, Altamonts and giant festival concerts" and it was used by notable players such as funk bassist Larry Graham, Led Zeppelin's bassist John Paul Jones and jazz fusion player Jaco Pastorius. John Paul Jones used two of the amp/cabs in Led Zeppelin; Dave Brown used them with Santana; John McVie played with the amp/cab in the beginning years of Fleetwood Mac. In December 1967, the loud sound of the Acoustic 360 led to The Doors getting "...arrested for noise violations".
Another 1960s-era amp and speaker that was used for loud, large venue performances was the Ampeg SVT (Super Vacuum Tube), a 300-watt amplifier head "powered by fourteen [vacuum] tubes" designed to be used with an 8x10" speaker cabinet.
The Vox T-60/AC-100 bass amplifier uses two 15-inch cabinets and thirty-to-forty watts of solid-state power using "germanium transistors". The Sunn Model T was used by The Moody Blues, Kiss, Queen, The Who's John Entwistle and Rush's Geddy Lee. The Sunn used a 150-watt amp with "four 12AX7WA tubes, followed by two 12AX7A tubes, and powered by four 6L6GC tubes".
The Gallien-Krueger 800RB was a solid state bass amplifier head introduced in 1983 that was liked by bassists for its loud, clean sound and durable construction. It introduced the concept of bi-amplification, as it sent 300 watts of low register sound to the bass speakers and 100 watts to the tweeter. The GK used a tube preamp simulator circuit called "boost". GK 800RB users include Red Hot Chili Peppers bassist Flea and Guns N' Roses' Duff McKagan.
The Marshall JMP Super Bass is a 100 watt amp. Lemmy, bassist/lead singer of Motörhead, used numerous of these amps to drive cabinets with four 12" speakers and others with four 15" speakers. His amps were labelled named “Killer,” “No Remorse,” and “Murder One". The Peavey Mark IV is a large, solid-state amp providing 300 watts at 2 ohms; the Mark IV was known for its affordable price and its reliability.
Fender developed a bass amplifier, the Fender Bassman, first produced in 1952. This was a 26-watt tube amplifier with a single 15" speaker. In 1954, the Bassman was redesigned to use four 10" speakers. This speaker cabinet was an open-back design; as such, it had poor low-frequency efficiency and was prone to blowing speakers when used for bass because of the lack of damping. The Bassman became very popular as an electric guitar amplifier. The circuit design also underwent repeated modifications. The "5F6A" circuit introduced in 1958 is regarded as a classic amplifier design and was copied by many other manufacturers, such as Marshall.
The early rock bands of the 1960s used the PA system only for vocals. The electric guitarist and electric bassist had to produce their sound for the hall, club or other venue with their own amplifiers and speaker cabinets. As a result, bass players from the 1960s often used large, powerful amplifiers and large speaker cabinets. Some bass players would even use multiple bass amplifiers, with the signal from one bass amp being sent to one or more "slave" amps. In the mid-1960s John Entwistle (The Who) was one of the first major players to make use of Marshall stacks. At a time when most bands used 50- to 100-watt amplifiers with single cabinets, Entwistle used twin stacks with new experimental prototype 200-watt amplifiers. This, in turn, also had a strong influence on the band's contemporaries at the time, with Jack Bruce of Cream and Noel Redding of the Jimi Hendrix Experience both following suit.
Entwistle also experimented throughout his career with "bi-amplification," where the higher frequencies of the bass sound are divided from the lower frequencies, with each frequency range sent to separate amplifiers and speakers. This allows for more control over the tone, because each portion of the frequency range can then be modified (e.g., in terms of tone, added overdrive, etc.) individually. The Versatone Pan-O-Flex amplifier used a different approach to bi-amplification, with separate amplifier sections for bass and treble but a single 12-inch speaker. The Versatone was used by well-known bassists such as Jack Casady and Carol Kaye.
Grateful Dead bassist Phil Lesh used an unusual method of bass amplification which was part of the band's 1970s
Wall of Sound (Grateful Dead) PA system. The signal from each string on the bass was sent to its own amplifier
and speakers. This added a wider spatial effect to the bass and also reduced the Intermodulation distortion
between the strings.
In later years, Lesh's bass signal was so powerful that fans dubbed the area in front of his speakers the Phil Zone,
which was referenced in the band's CD Fallout from the Phil Zone.
1980s–2010s
In the 1980s the role of bass in popular and rock music evolved to become more melodic rather than simply providing a rhythmic function. The amplifier brand strongly identified with this new, 'scooped' sound (with strong bass and treble boost and mid-cut) was Trace Elliot. There were several features which made their amplifiers unique: the GP11 pre-amp featured 11 graphic EQ bands which were very broad bands, overlapping each other, thereby enabling massive amounts of frequency cut or boost when adjacent bands were boosted or cut. Secondly, the frequency bands were spaced closer together towards the bass end allowing even more variation for bass guitarists to alter their sound like no other amp had previously allowed. Added to this were MOSFET poweramps of 250 or 500 watts and the option of bi-amplified systems where bass and upper frequencies are filtered before being separately amplified and fed to dedicated high frequency and low frequency speaker cabinets. Trace Elliot gained a reputation for themselves; rumour has it that early users were John Paul Jones of Led Zeppelin, Andy Rourke of The Smiths and Brian Helicopter of punk band The Shapes. Mark King of Level 42 was also an early adopter of the brand. The company, now dedicated to manufacturing, moved to new premises in Witham, Essex, in 1985 to satisfy the growing demand.
As PA systems improved, horn-loaded "bass bins" and subwoofers were added and were often well-equipped to amplify directly fed bass guitar and keyboard frequencies. As well, in the 1980s and 1990s, monitor systems were substantially improved, which allowed sound engineers to provide on-stage musicians with a loud, clear, and full-range reproduction of their instruments' sound.
As a result of the improvements to PA systems and monitor systems, bass players in the 2000s no longer need to have huge, powerful bass amplifier systems to play stadiums and arenas. Instead of playing with two 8x10" bass stacks and one or more huge, powerful bass heads, in the 2010s, many bass players perform at large live venues with relatively small and less powerful bass amplifiers. The reason they can do so is that most higher-priced 2010s-era bass amplifiers usually have DI output jacks that can be patched into the audio snake cable, and then plugged into the mainstage mixing board and amplified through the PA system or sound reinforcement system.
In the 2010s, virtually all of the sound reaching the audience in large venues comes from the PA system or sound reinforcement system, the huge speaker systems pointed at the audience. As well, in the 2010s on-stage instrument amplifiers are more likely to be kept at a low volume, because when band members have their onstage amps "cranked" to high volume levels on stage, this makes it harder for the audio engineer to control the sound mix and blend. For example, if a heavy metal bassist had two 8x10" cabinets and several 1x18" subwoofer cabinets and several thousand watts of bass amplifier heads, and these amps are set to a very high volume level, this bass player will be creating very significant onstage bass volume. If the sound engineer wished to turn down the bass in the PA/sound reinforcement system, this bassist's loud onstage volume would make it hard for this engineer to control and/or reduce the volume of bass in the FOH (Front of House) sound mix. Another issue that can develop with bass players who have very high onstage volume is that it can be hard for the audio engineer to produce a clean sound through the PA/sound reinforcement system. For example, if a bassist was driving his bass amp speaker stacks into clipping to create a fuzz bass tone, if the audio engineer wished to have a "clean" bass sound, this could pose a challenge.
As a result of requests by audio engineers to reduce onstage volume, in the 2010s, in many large venues. much of the on-stage sound reaching the musicians now comes from the monitor speakers or in-ear monitors, not from the instrument amplifiers. Stacks of huge speaker cabinets and amplifiers are still used in concerts in some genres of music, especially heavy metal, but they tend to be used more for the visual effect than for sound reproduction.
In some small to mid-size venues, such as bars and nightclubs, the PA system may not have the capacity to provide the bass sound for the venue, and the PA system may be used mainly for vocals. Bass players in bands that play at a variety of venues, including these types of small to mid-size venues, may need to be able to provide the bass sound for the venue, and so they will require a large combo amp or bass stack with this capability.
Types
Different types of equipment are used to amplify the electric bass and other bass instruments, depending on the performance setting, style of music, the sound desired by the bassist, the size of the venue and other factors, such as whether a bassist is an amateur or professional musician. Professional bassists are more likely to have expensive "boutique" amps and cabinets. All types of bass amps and cabinets are designed to be transportable to shows and recording studios, and as such, most have various features to protect the cabinet (e.g., metal or plastic corner protectors) and speakers (a plastic screen or metal grille) during transportation and move the equipment (a single carry handle is standard for practice amps and combo amps and two handles are sometimes provided for two-handed carrying of large cabinets, and wheels are mounted on some large combo amps and cabinets). Amplifier "heads" may be sold mounted in a wooden cabinet with a carrying handle, or they may be sold as rackmount-able components, which can be screw-mounted in a 19" road case for protection.
The speaker enclosures for combo amps and speaker cabinets are typically covered in stiff vinyl, carpet, felt or other sturdy fabric, or painted.
Practice amps
The smallest bass amps amplify the instrument enough for individual practice in a small room. Practice amps do not typically produce enough volume or low-frequency sound reproduction to be used in a band rehearsal or show. As such, they are mostly used by beginners or, when used by professionals, for warm-up or individual practice. They are more likely than full-size combo amp cabinets to have an open-back design, like an electric guitar combo amp.
Some buskers playing on the street for tips may use battery-powered practice amps, a feature available on some models.
Practice amps may have an auxiliary line-in jack, allowing a CD player or electronic metronome to be mixed into the output for practice purposes. As well, there is often a headphone output jack.
Higher-priced practice amps may have a DI out jack, so that the preamplifier signal can be connected directly to a mixing board for a live show's sound reinforcement system or for a sound recording session. DI out-equipped units effectively turn the practice amp into a preamplifier unit.
Combo amps
For rehearsals, studio recording sessions, or small club performances, electric and upright bass players typically use a "combo" amplifier, which combines a preamplifier, tone controls, a power amplifier and a speaker (or multiple speakers) in a single cabinet. Smaller combo amps may be easier to transport and set up than using separate amplifier and speaker units, and as such, they are a popular choice for many bass players.
Bass players in quieter, more acoustic genres may be able to use smaller, more modestly powered combo amps. Bassists who play in genres more associated with a high stage volume (e.g., hard rock or electric blues) may tend to use, larger, more powerful (in wattage) combo amps.
Bass stacks
For larger venues such as stadiums and outdoor music festivals, or for music genres that use bass instruments with an extended lower range and high stage volumes, bass players often use a more powerful amplifier (300 to 2000 watts or more) and one or more separate speaker cabinets (or "cabs") in various combinations, called a "bass stack". An example of the powerful, loud bass amplifier systems used in grunge is Alice in Chains bassist Mike Inez's setup. He uses four Ampeg SVT-2PRO amplifier heads, two of them plugged into four 1x18" subwoofer cabinets for the low register, and the other two plugged into two 8x10" cabinets.
A bass stack may use a single speaker cabinet, e.g., a cabinet holding eight ten-inch speakers, or 8x10". Smaller speaker cabinets with one, two, or four speakers are more commonly used, because while the 8x10" cabinet is able to produce huge volume and powerful bass tone, the cabinets are very heavy and difficult to transport.
Some single cabinets use mixed speaker sizes. Examples include MESA Engineering's 1x15"/4x10" cabinet, Peavey's PVH 1516, which has 1x15" and 2x8" speakers. and Traynor's TC1510 combo, which has 1x15" and 2x10".
Large cabinets with speaker sizes other than 10", 12" or 15" are less commonly used. Examples include the 6x8" and 8x8" cab configurations.
One reason that some bass players choose to use a "bass stack" rather than a combo is that the separate component approach enables bassists to use different speaker cabinets for different shows or activities. For example, a bassist playing a stadium may use an 8x10" cab for this show, but then bring a 4x10" cab for a nightclub show the next day, or a 1x12" cab for a studio recording.
Large speaker cabinets may have attached lifting handles and dolly wheels to facilitate transportation.
Speaker cabinets with 1/4 input jacks typically have two parallel jacks, so that the amp head may be plugged into one cabinet, and then a second cabinet can be "daisy chained" by connecting it to the first cabinet. Cabinets with horn-loaded tweeters often have an attenuator knob for controlling the tweeter.
Bass cabinets have thicker wood panels than electric guitar amps, and often have stronger internal bracing. This reduces the likelihood of unwanted cabinet buzzes or rattles, which are more likely with bass cabinets due to the lower sound frequencies output.
"Open back" bass speaker cabinets are uncommon, because the configuration increases difficulty in clearly reproducing low-frequency tones.
Heads
Separate bass amplifiers which do not contain speakers, often called "heads" or "amp heads", are usually integrated units, with a preamplifier, equalizer (bass and treble controls) and a power amplifier combined in a single unit. Some bassists use separate preamplifier/power amplifier setups, where one or more preamplifiers drive one or more power amplifiers. In the latter example, a bass player can use a bass-specific power amplifier or use a sound reinforcement system power amp. Bass amp heads are available in high-wattage power ratings that are not available in combo units. For example, the Ampeg SVT8-PRO amp head puts out 2,500 watts RMS at 2 ohms, a power level that is high enough for the largest 8x10" cabinets and the largest venues (stadiums, outdoor festivals, etc.).
If a player uses a separate preamplifier and power amplifier, she or he can buy a power amplifier intended for a sound reinforcement system or PA system or pick a power amplifier designed specifically for bass instruments. These preamps and power amps come in two formats: 19 inch rack-mountable units and units with their own wood or metal case. If a player uses a rackmountable preamp and power amp, these units and any effect units, such as an audio compressors, can be mounted in 19" rack mount road cases.
The "bass stack" approach gives the bassist opportunity to customize the rig, mixing various models and brands of preamplifier, graphic equalizer, power amplifier and speaker cabinets as desired. As well, a failing component can be individually replaced without taking the entire rig out of service, as would occur with a combo amplifier.
Some professional-grade amp heads, such as Ampeg's SVT400-PRO, have an audio crossover, an electronic filter that splits the bass signal into a low-pitched signal (which could be routed to a cabinet suited for low-pitched sounds, such as a 1x15" or 2x15" cabinet), and the middle and high frequencies to a different cabinet suited to this register (e.g., a 2x10" or 4x10" cabinet with a horn-loaded tweeter). Amps with a crossover can either have a single crossover point pre-set at the factory (e.g., 100 Hz) or a knob is provided to enable the bassist to select the frequency where the bass signal is split into low and higher-pitched signal. Amps with an adjustable crossover point can enable bassists to fine-tune their speaker output for a particular venue.
Amplifier technology
Amplifiers may be based on tube ("thermionic" or in the UK, "valve") or solid state (transistor) technology, or hybrid designs that use both technologies, typically by pairing a tube preamplifier with a transistor power amplifier.
Tube amplification
Vacuum tubes were the dominant active electronic components in bass amplifiers manufactured from the 1950s until the early 1970s. Tube amplifiers for bass almost always use class AB1 topology for efficiency reasons. Many bass players believe that tube amplifiers produce a "warmer" or more "natural" sound than solid state amplifiers when lightly or moderately driven, and more pleasing distortion characteristics when overdriven. Some performers also believe that tube amps have a greater level of perceived loudness for a given amount of amplifier power.
Even though tube amplifiers produce more heat than solid state amplifiers, few manufacturers of tube amplifiers include cooling fans in the amplifiers' chassis. Usually adequate cooling is provided by passive convection. Adequate airflow is needed to prevent excessive heat from shortening the tubes' lifespan or producing tonal inconsistencies.
Tube amplifiers require more maintenance than solid state transistor amplifiers, such as replacing vacuum tubes and
electrolytic capacitors. Tube amplifiers are usually heavier than an equivalently powered transistor amplifier. As tubes are made of glass, tube amplifiers are more fragile than a solid state amp.
Solid state amplification
By the 1960s and 1970s, semiconductor or transistor-based amplifiers (also called "solid state") began to become popular. This was in large part because for a given wattage level and feature level, solid state amplifiers are less expensive, lighter weight, and require less maintenance than tube amplifiers. As well, transistor amplifiers are more reliable and less fragile than tube amps.
The output transistors of solid state amplifiers can be passively cooled by using metal fins called heat sinks to radiate away the heat. For high-wattage amplifiers, a fan is often used to move air across internal heatsinks.
Hybrid
Hybrid bass amplifier heads typically pair a tube preamplifier with a solid-state power amplifier. This provides the player with the best elements of both amplifier technology. The tube preamp gives the player the ability to obtain tube amplifier tone, which tube enthusiasts state is "warmer" than a solid state (transistor) preamp. As well, tube users state that tube preamps have a more pleasing-sounding, natural tone when the preamp's volume is pushed up so high that the bass signal becomes overdriven; in contrast, a solid state preamp that is pushed to the point of signal "clipping" can be harsh-sounding. Some hybrid amp heads have a bypass switch, so that the tube preamp can be bypassed, if the tube breaks or develops a technical problem. The tube preamplified signal in a hybrid amplifier head is then sent to a solid state power amplifier. Compared with tube power amps, solid state power amplifiers are more reliable, require less maintenance, less fragile and lighter in weight. A hybrid tube preamp/solid state power amp thus provides a bass player with the benefits of both technologies' strengths: tube preamp tone and solid state reliability for the power amp.
Power in watts and volume
The relationship between perceived volume (loudness) and power output in watts of an amplifier is not a linear relationship: The human ear perceives a 50-watt amplifier as only twice as loud as a five-watt amplifier, despite a tenfold increase in power in watts. Doubling the power of an amplifier results in a "just noticeable" increase in volume, so a 100-watt amplifier is only slightly louder than a 50-watt amplifier. In addition is the human ear's tendency to behave as a natural audio compressor at high volumes.
In a band, the bassist will typically need three or four times the wattage of the electric guitarist. While an electric guitarist will often find that a 50 watt amp will be adequate for rehearsals and mid-size performance venues, a bass player performing alongside them will typically need at least a 300 watt bass amp, six times the power of the electric guitar amp, to get a good bass volume. "More advanced players who regularly gig in small to medium sized venues… typically [use amps that] produce 300-700 watts of output." Some bassists believe a tube bass amp will sound louder than a solid-state bass amp of the same wattage.
Impedance
The power handling capabilities of a speaker cabinet or individual speaker are always given in relation to a specific impedance (a measure of electrical resistance); the most common impedance ratings in bass speaker systems are 8 ohms and 4 ohms, although some equipment is rated down to 2 ohms or even more rarely to 1 ohm.
Power supply
Most modern bass amps are powered solely by AC mains power. Inexpensive practice amps may have the AC mains plug hardwired into the unit. Middle-priced to high-priced amplifiers typically have a removable cable and plug, allowing simplified replacement.
Most amps are designed to work for a single voltage. A small number of expensive bass amps designed for touring professionals have user-selectable voltage, which enables a bassist to use same amp in both North America and across Europe.
A small number of small combo amps can run on both AC mains power and battery power. This enables bassists to play outside where there is no access to power (e.g., for busking on the street). Amps that are battery powered may have a 12-volt input, so that it can be connected to a car battery with alligator clips.
Loudspeakers
The lowest note on the double bass or four-stringed electric bass is E1, two octaves below middle C (approximately 41 Hz), and on a five-string it is B0 (approximately 31 Hz). The requirement to reproduce low frequencies at high sound pressure levels means that most loudspeakers used for bass guitar amplification are designed around large diameter, heavy-duty drivers, with 10", 12" and 15" being most common. Less commonly, larger speakers (e.g., 18") or smaller speakers (e.g., the 8x8" cabinet, which contains eight 8" speakers) may be used. As a general rule, when smaller speakers are used, two or more of them are installed in a cabinet (e.g., 2x10", 4x10" and 8x8"). For 12" speakers, combo amps and cabinets are available with 1x12" and 2x12"; less commonly, 4x12" cabinets are seen. For 15" speakers, combo amps and cabinets usually have 1x15", although 2x15" and even 4x15" cabinets exist. A small number of 1x18" bass cabinets are sold (e.g., Trace Elliot).
For 10" speakers, the most common combo amp and speaker cabinet configurations are 2x10" and 4x10". For speaker cabinets, 2x10" and 4x10" are the most widely used, although 8x10" cabinets are used in stadium concerts, especially in louder rock genres. Other configurations with 10" speakers do exist, but they are less common. For example, there are a small number of 1x10" and 3x10" combo amps and speaker cabinets, and a small number of 6x10" cabinets. Bass speakers are usually made with stiff paper cones. Hartke combo amps and speaker cabinets are unique in that the cone is made from paper, except for the middle, which is made of aluminium. Gallien-Krueger's MB210-II combo amp uses ceramic speakers.
On the smaller end of the speaker spectrum, some small practice combo amps have 1x3", 2x5", 1x6.5", and 1x8" speakers.
Many manufacturers abbreviate the number and size of speakers in the name of their equipment. A cabinet with two 10" speakers may be called a "210".
Another abbreviation that is used is to add the wattage to the name, so a 500-watt Yamaha combo amp with two 12" speakers may be called the "Yamaha 212-500".
Bassists who want a more powerful low end may use a subwoofer cabinet. Subwoofers are specialized for very-low-frequency reproduction, with typical maximum useful high frequencies of about 150 or 200 Hz, so a subwoofer cabinet must be paired with a full range speaker cabinet to obtain the full tonal range of an electric bass or upright bass. Bass guitar players who use subwoofer cabinets include performers who play with extended range basses with include notes between B0 (about 31 Hz); and C#0 (17 Hz) and bassists whose style requires a very powerful sub-bass response is an important part of the sound (e.g., funk, Latin, gospel, R & B, etc.).
Keyboard players who use subwoofers for on-stage monitoring include electric organ players who use bass pedal keyboards (which go down to a low "C" which is about 33 Hz) and synth bass players who play rumbling sub-bass parts that go as low as 18 Hz. Of all of the keyboard instruments that are amplified onstage, synthesizers produce some of the lowest pitches because, unlike a traditional electric piano or electric organ which have as their lowest notes a low "A" and a low "C", respectively, a synth does not have a fixed lowest octave. While performers who use concert sound subwoofers for onstage monitoring may like the powerful sub-bass sound that they obtain, sound engineers may find this problematic, interfering with the "Front of House" sub-bass sound.
Cabinet design
It is generally not possible to combine high efficiency (especially at low frequencies) with both compact enclosure size and adequate low frequency response. In general, to maximize low-frequency performance, a larger cabinet size is needed.
Most bass speaker cabinets employ a vented bass-reflex design, which uses a port or vent cut into the cabinet and a length of carefully measured tubing or pipe to increase the low-frequency response and improve the speaker system's efficiency.
Less commonly, some bass speaker cabinets use one or more passive radiator speakers, a "drone cone" lacking a voice coil, which is used in addition to a regular woofer to improve the low-frequency response of a cabinet. Passive radiator speakers help to reduce the risk of overextension.
Acoustic suspension designs with sealed cabinets are relatively uncommon because they are less efficient. Some cabinets use a transmission-line design similar to bass-reflex, and in rare cases, some large cabinets use horn-loading of the woofers (e.g., the Acoustic 361 18" speaker cabinet from the late 1960s).
Most bass combo amps and bass speaker cabinets are "front-firing," where the speakers and horn (if present) aim forward. However, because very-low-pitched sounds are omnidirectional, some combos and cabinets have woofers that point down or to the rear, as do many designs of home cinema subwoofer cabinets. The deep bass tone radiates from the cabinet in all directions.
Bass combo cabinets and speaker cabinets are typically cube- or rectangle shaped. Some small- to mid-sized combo amp cabinets have a wedge shape, like a keyboard amp or a stage monitor speaker cabinet. The wedge shape, also called a "rock back" feature, enables a bassist to point their speakers up towards themselves, to make it easier to hear their sound.
Tweeters
High frequency tweeters, typically horn-loaded, are included in some bass instrument speaker cabinets.
In the early 1980s, some performers began using two-way or three-way cabinets, with 15" woofers, a vented midrange driver and a horn/driver, with an audio crossover directing the signal to the appropriate driver. Folded-horn bass guitar rigs have remained rare due to their size and weight. As well, since the 1990s, most clubs have PA systems with subwoofers that can handle the low range of the bass guitar. The more common use of tweeters in traditional bass guitar amplifiers in the 1990s helped bassists to use effects and perform more soloistic playing styles, which emphasize the higher range of the instrument.
Horns and speakers in the same cabinet are sometimes wired separately, so that they can be driven by separate amplifiers. Biamplified systems and separately-wired cabinets allowed bassists to send an overdriven low-pitched sound to the speaker, and a crisp, undistorted high-pitched sound to the horn.
Since the 1960s, some bassists have obtained a similar result by plugging their bass into both an electric guitar guitar amp and a bass amp. This approach does not use a crossover, but since an electric guitar amp will only produce pitches down to about 80 Hz, the guitar amp reproduces the mid- to high frequencies and the bass amp reproduces the low frequencies. With this arrangement, distortion and other effects can be applied to the guitar amp without affecting the solidity of the bass amp tone.
Some bass amplifier combos have a "whizzer cone" attached to the low-frequency woofer's centre. The whizzer cone is about the same size as a dust cap, although it resembles a miniature speaker cone. This handles the upper frequencies that are too high for the woofer.
Controls, jacks and indicator LEDs
Controls
There are two main types of controls on bass amps: switches and rotary knobs. The simplest, least expensive practice amps and combo amps may only have a few switches and knobs, such as an "on/off" switch, a volume knob, and a bass and treble control knob. Mid-priced models may add additional tone controls (e.g., one, two or three "midrange" controls and a "presence" knob for very high frequencies) and/or add a second type of volume knob called a "gain", "preamplifier" (or "preamp"/"pre"), or "drive" (short for "overdrive") control. A good selection of equalizer knobs and gain stages is standard on expensive amplifiers. If an amp has one or more preamp or gain knobs, the second volume knob may be called "master", "volume" or "post".
Amplifiers for electric guitars are more likely than bass amps to have multiple "channels", but some bass amps also have channels. By providing two or more "channels", each with its own gain, equalization and volume knobs, a bassist can preset various settings (e.g., an accompaniment setting for playing a backing part and a solo bass setting for playing a bass solo). In a heavy metal band, a bassist may use a multi-channel amp to have one setting with an aggressive overdrive, while another channel has a "clean" sound for ballads.
On some amps, setting the "gain" or "drive" control above a certain setting causes an overdrive effect, either due to the natural effect of overloading the preamplifier (or the preamp tube on a tube amplifier) and/or due to a distortion effect being turned on. Tube amplifiers typically also have a "standby" switch in addition to an "on/off" switch. Controls are typically mounted on the front of the amplifier near the top of the cabinet; often the knobs are recessed so that they do not project beyond the wooden cabinet, to protect the knobs during transportation. On amplifier "heads", protective metal U-shaped protrusions may be used to protect the knobs during transportation. On some amps, notably Roland models, the knobs and switches may be on top of the amplifier, at the rear of the top surface. Again, the knobs are usually recessed below the top of the wooden cabinet to protect them.
Mid-to high-priced amps may have other switches (which on some amps are switched on by pulling an existing rotary knob out) that boost or cut some part of the frequency range, such as "bright boost", "deep boost" or "mid scoop" switches. Amps with an onboard audio compressor or limiter, which is used to protect the speakers from sudden peaks in volume and from damage due to power amplifier clipping, may have only an on/off switch to turn on the effect (as with lower- to mid-priced amps), or they may have one or more knobs to control how much compression is applied to the bass tone (typically a ratio and threshold knob or just a single knob). Some 2000s-era amps may have an electronic tuner and a mute button, to mute the sound of tuning during a break between songs without having to change the volume settings. On some amps, vertical sliders may be provided to control a graphic equalizer, which gives the bassist control over a number of frequency bands.
Higher-cost amps for professionals with an XLR DI out jack may also have a "ground lift" switch (to be used in case of a humming ground loop), a DI out level control knob, and a switch which determines whether the DI out signal to the PA or recording mixing board is pre- or post- the amp's internal preamplifier and equalization circuitry. The pre-/post- switch enables a bassist to decide whether to send the audio engineer just the signal from her bass, or to send the signal once it has been pre-amped and equalized by her amp settings. Some higher-cost amps may have a parametric equalizer (or a semi-parametric equalizer) for some frequency ranges (typically the middle frequency range), which can be used to modify the bass tone to suit different styles or performance venues. Some bass amps have a 15 or 20 dB pad which can be used to attenuate "hot" signals, such as basses with an internal preamplifier (depending on the model of amplifier, some brands may provide two inputs (high and low gain) instead of providing a "pad". This pad can be turned on using a button. Some bass amps have an even stronger pad, a 40 dB pad.
Some bass amps may have additional controls for onboard effects such as bass chorus or a knob for controlling a multi-effects unit (which might include a suboctave generator, chorus, reverb, fuzz bass etc.). Some 2000s-era amps may have a knob to control digital amp or speaker emulation settings (e.g., emulating the tone of a huge 8x10" speaker stack or a vintage tube amp by famous makers, such as the Ampeg SVT).
Input and output jacks
Bass amps come with a range of different input and output jacks, depending on the cost of the amplifier and its intended purpose. The least expensive practice amps may only have a single 1/4" input jack and no output jacks. Some practice amps and small combo amps have RCA or 1/8" inputs for plugging an MP3 player or CD player into the bass amp, to facilitate practicing with a recording. Some amps have a high-gain input, for basses which have internal preamplifiers on the instrument. The high-gain input is routed through a pad (attenuator). An amp may also have a low-gain input, which is unattenuated, for regular basses.
Lower-priced amps may have a preamp out. Bass amps intended for use by professional players may have an XLR DI output so that the amp can be connected directly to a mixing board of a PA system or recording set-up. Some bass amps have a 1/4" headphone out jack, so that the bass amp can be used for silent practice. When the headphone is plugged in, the amplifier to the speaker is normally automatically turned off. Higher-priced amps designed for professionals often have "preamp out" and "power amp in" jacks, which can be used to make an effects loop. The power amp in jack can also be used to plug in an external preamplifier pedal, which would then bypass the amp's onboard preamp and EQ section.
Some bass amps have an auxiliary in jack, for plugging in a drum machine, keyboard bass or synthesizer. Some bass amps also have an external speaker out jack.
On some amps with a number of input and output jacks, the jacks may be consolidated in a patch bay. Some amps have an input jack for a foot-operated switch which can be used to turn on an effect or switch to a solo channel. Some amplifiers have a "tuner out" jack, for sending the instrument signal to an external electronic tuner.
Bass speaker cabinets often have two 1/4" jacks. These are provided so that one speaker cable can be plugged into the first jack and connected to the power amp; if the bassist wants to use a second cabinet, a second speaker cable is plugged into the second jack and then into second speaker.
A small number of bass amps designed for the upright bass have both a 1/4" input for a piezoelectric pickup and an XLR input for a condenser microphone mounted on the bass, with a simple mixer for combining the two signals, as described below.
Indicator LEDs
The least expensive practice amps and basic combo amps may only have a single indicator light: an LED to indicate when the amp's power is on.
More expensive amps may also have LEDs to indicate when the preamp has a signal present from the instrument; when a limiter or similar speaker protection feature is activated; when clipping is occurring; or when the amp is in standby mode.
Amplifying the double bass
Almost all bass amplifiers are designed for use with an electric bass, which has magnetic pickups. The signal from a double bass usually comes from a piezoelectric pickup mounted on the bridge or beneath the feet of the bridge. These pickups require a preamplifier or preamp-equipped DI box before the signal is sent to the bass amp. The preamplifier helps to ensure that the impedance of the pickup signal matches the impedance of the amplifier, which improves the tone. Some preamplifiers also have equalizers which can be used to modify the tone.
Double bass players performing in genres where the bass is slapped, either by pulling the string until it snaps back onto the fingerboard or striking the strings, such as traditional blues, rockabilly, psychobilly jazz, folk, and bluegrass often blend the sounds picked up by a piezoelectric transducer with the sounds picked up by a small condenser microphone mounted on the bridge. The microphone picks up the resonance coming from the body and the sounds of the strings being plucked, bowed, or slapped. The two sound signals are blended using a simple mixer and then routed to the amplifier.
While many upright bass players use combo amplifiers, bassists in genres that use high stage volume, such as the punk-rockabilly genre of psychobilly use "bass stacks". Some jazz bassists and other bass players who play in small venues use specialized, expensive upright bass amps, like the Acoustic Image combo amplifier.
Double bass players playing in genres where a louder amplified tone (emphasizing the fundamental frequencies) is desired may encounter audio feedback. Feedback for double bass generally manifests itself as a sharp, sudden high-volume "howling" sound that can damage loudspeakers. When acoustic instruments with resonant bodies are amplified with microphones and piezoelectric transducer pickups, they are prone to have feedback problems. For acoustic bass guitars, soft plastic discs are available to block the instrument's sound holes, thus reducing feedback. Upright bass players sometimes use homemade foam inserts to fill in the "f" holes.
Preamplification and effects
The basic sound of the amplified electric bass or double bass can be modified by electronic bass effects. Since the bass typically plays an accompaniment, beat keeping role as a rhythm section instrument in many styles of music, preamplifiers ("preamps"), compression, limiters, and equalization (modifying the bass and treble frequencies) are the most widely used effect units for bass. The types of pedals commonly used for electric guitar (distortion, phaser, flanger, etc.) are less commonly used for bass, at least in bands or styles where the bassist mainly plays a rhythm section role. In styles of music where the bass is also used as a soloing instrument (certain genres of heavy metal, progressive rock and jazz fusion), bassists may use a wider range of effects units. Jazz fusion bassists who play fretless bass may use chorus effect and reverb for their solos.
A range of other effects are used in various genres. "Wah-wah" and "synth" bass effects are associated with funk music. As well, since the 1960s and 1970s, bands have experimented with "fuzz bass" where the bass is distorted either by overdriving the amp or by using a distortion unit. Fuzz bass was used by psychedelic rock bands in the 1960s and early 1970s and in traditional heavy metal bands (Led Zeppelin) during the same era. Octave-generating effects, which generate an octave below the pitch being played are also used by bass players. Many bassists in modern-day hard rock and heavy metal bands use overdrive pedals specifically made for bass guitar. Since the late 1980s, bass-specific overdrive pedals have been available; these pedals maintain the low fundamental pitch. Using a regular guitar distortion pedal for bass would result in the lower frequencies being greatly lessened. Well-known overdrive effects for bass include the BOSS ODB-3 Bass Overdrive, Electro-Harmonix Bass Blogger, Tech21 Sansamp Bass Driver, the DigiTech XBD Bass Driver, and the Electro-Harmonix Big Muff.
Overdrive built into amplifiers
Some bass amplifiers have an "overdrive" or distortion effect built into the unit. The Peavey Century 200 has an onboard "distortion" effect on the second channel. The Peavey VB-2 also has built-in overdrive. Aguilar Amplification's AG 500 bass head is a two-channel amplifier, one of which offers a "saturation" control for overdrive. A variety of BOSS combo amplifiers have a built-in "drive" effect. Gallien-Krueger's bass amp heads have a "boost" control which provides a simulated tube overdrive effect. The Behringer Ultrabass BVT5500H Bass Amplifier Head has a built-in limiter and overdrive. The LowDown LD 150 bass amp has a range of overdrive sounds, from a slight hint to heavy distortion. The CUBE-20XL BASS amp includes built-in overdrive.
The 75 Watt Fender Rumble 75 Bass Combo Amp and its 150 Watt and 300 Watt counterparts can produce an overdrive effect by using the gain and blend controls, giving overdrive sounds ranging from "mellow warmth [to] heavy distorted tones". The Fender SuperBassman is a 300-watt tube head which has a built-in overdrive channel. The Fender Bronco 40 includes a range of effects including modern bass overdrive, vintage overdrive and fuzz.
The MESA Bigblock 750 has a built-in overdrive channel. The Mesa M2000 has a high gain switch which can be engaged with a footswitch. The Marshall MB450 head and combo bass amplifiers have a tube pre-amp on the "Classic" channel which can be overdriven. The Ashdown ABM 500 EVO III 575W Bass amp head has a built-in overdrive effect. Overdrive is also available on many Crate bass amplifiers. The Yamaha BBT500H has three types of built-in drive effects: overdrive, distortion and fuzz. The Ampeg B5R Bass Amplifier has two channels: clean and overdrive, with the ability to combine the two. Verellen, a boutique amp company, produces a bass amplifier with a built in overdrive channel.
Manufacturers
Bass amplifier equipment manufacturers include a variety of different types of companies, ranging from companies that only make individual components to companies that only make bass amplifiers and loudspeakers (e.g., Gallien-Krueger). At the other end of the spectrum are companies that offer bass amplification equipment as part of a much broader offering of different types of instrument amplifiers and public address systems (e.g., Peavey, Carvin A&I or Yorkville Sound.)
Another way of categorizing bass equipment manufacturers is by which part of the market they are targeting. While Peavey and Yorkville products are aimed at the generalist mass market, some bass equipment manufacturers, such as Acoustic Image or Walter Woods make expensive "boutique" equipment that is aimed at a niche market within the professional musician market. Acoustic Image amplifiers and speaker cabinets tend to be used by professional acoustic folk and jazz musicians, and Walter Woods amplifiers are associated with professional acoustic jazz bass players.
Alternatives
Some bass players cannot use a bass combo amp, either due to strict noise and disturbance rules in their apartment, lack of space to store a combo amp (if they live in a small room) or due to the need for a set-up which can amplify multiple types of instruments and/or voice. Alternatives to buying a bass amp for people who have noise or space constraints include a headphone amplifier or a micro-practice amp which includes a headphone jack (on bass amps, connecting headphones to a headphone jack automatically turns off the main loudspeaker). Multi-instrumentalists and bassist-singers can consider a keyboard amplifier, a small PA system, or some models of acoustic instrument amplifiers which include bass as one of the instruments which can be used; all of these options have full-range speakers that can handle the bass range.
While electric bass players have used regular guitar amplifiers in large concerts since the 1960s, this is usually just for the higher register; a bass amp is still typically used for the low register, because regular guitar amps are only designed to go down to about 80 Hz. One of the reasons bassists split their signal into a bass amp and an electric guitar amp is because this arrangement enables them to overdrive the higher-register sound from the electric guitar amp, while retaining the deep bass tone from the bass amp. Naturally-produced overdrive on bass obtained by cranking a tube amplifier or solid-state preamplifier typically results in a loss of bass tone, because when pushed into overdrive, a note goes to the upper octave second harmonic.
Bass players who do not have a combo amp who are playing live shows can connect their bass to a DI unit and from there to the PA system. In a well-equipped nightclub or music bar, the audio engineer can then route the bass signal to a stage monitor suitable for bass, so the bass player and band can hear the bass tone. Some standalone bass preamplifier pedals have a DI output, so this output can similarly be connected to a PA system. Bass players who are playing in small venues (coffeehouses, small pubs, etc.) will typically need to bring their own bass combo amp (or an alternative amp, such as a keyboard amp combo), because very small venues often have a very small, low-powered PA system which is used mainly for vocals. Some small venues do not have monitor speakers, or they have only one, in front of the lead vocalist. Bass players who do not have a combo amp who are laying down tracks in the recording studio can plug into a DI unit (any professional recording studio will have one), which is connected to the audio console; the audio engineer can provide the bassist with the sound of their instrument through headphones.
See also
Bass effects
Guitar effects
Instrument amplifier
Guitar amplifier
Guitar speaker
Isolation cabinet (guitar)
List of bass amplifier and loudspeaker manufacturers
Further reading
Hopkins, Gregg; and Moore, Bill. Ampeg: The Story Behind the Sound. Hal Leonard, 1999.
Fliegler, Ritchie and Eiche, Jon F. Amps!: The Other Half of Rock 'n' Roll. Hal Leonard Corporation, 1993.
Zottola, Tino. Vacuum Tube Guitar and Bass Amplifier Theory. Bold Strummer, Limited, 1996.
References
Bass amplifier types and related. - Bassamplifier.org
Amplification
Loudspeakers
Instrument amplifiers
Bass (sound)
Blues instruments
Rock music instruments
Folk music instruments
Jazz instruments
Contrabass instruments
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ty%20Murray
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Ty Murray
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Ty Monroe Murray (born October 11, 1969), is an American nine-time World Champion professional rodeo cowboy. He was one of the top rodeo contestants in the world from the late 1980s to early 2000s. He is one of the co-founders and a board adviser of the Professional Bull Riders (PBR). From 2005 to 2020, he was also a regular color commentator for several televised PBR events.
In 2023, Murray was ranked No. 11 on the list of the top 30 bull riders in PBR history.<ref name="Ranked No. 11"
Early life
Ty Murray was born on October 11, 1969, in Phoenix, Arizona, to Harold "Butch" and Joy Murray. He has two sisters, Kim and Kerri, both also involved in rodeo during their childhoods. His father competed in rodeos, broke colts for 30 years, and was the starter for The Downs in Albuquerque, New Mexico. His mother competed as a child in the National Little Britches Rodeo Association. She took first place in their bull riding competition. However, it was not long before the family moved to a ranch in Glendale, Arizona, that was around 10 miles from Phoenix.
At 2 years old, Murray's father put him on calves, but rode alongside and held him. When he started walking, he got spurs, and he spurred his mother's sewing machine cover to pieces. At 8 years old, he helped his father break colts. At 9 years old, he rode his first bull. That 1,800 pound brindle just loped around, so his father warned him it was not typical. Murray felt invincible back then. However, the second bull threw him and stepped on his jaw, breaking it. Murray figures he would have quit after that had his affection for the sport not been complete. At 12 years old, Murray rode his first bareback horse in a rodeo. It was the first time he had been somewhat scared riding livestock; he referred to it as "spooky."
At 12 years old, Murray purchased a mechanical bucking machine with money he saved doing chores. He joined the Deer Valley High School gymnastics team to improve his rodeo skills. Since the meets were on the weekends, though, he never actually competed in a meet.
Larry Mahan first paid attention to Murray when he was about 13 years old. Mahan, world champion rodeo competitor, was Murray's hero. Mahan noticed him at a Little Britches rodeo. When Mahan heard Murray was going to compete in all three riding events, that piqued his interest. He wanted to meet someone who was competing like he had done. Mahan called Murray to invite him to his place in Colorado Springs, Colorado. They spent that summer flying around the West in Mahan's plane participating in several different activities. Murray soon began a weightlifting program. That was when Murray started participating in gymnastics.
Later Murray was mentored by the world champion, who had won more National Finals Rodeo (NFR) first place "All Around Cowboy" championships than anyone in history. When Murray was in third grade, his teacher passed out a paper that asked students, "If you could do anything in your life, what would it be?" Murray immediately wrote out, "I want to beat Larry Mahan's record."
Career
High school rodeo
In 1987, he won the Arizona National High School Rodeo Association all-around championship. He tied with Dennis Schmidt for the bareback riding championship. This helped Arizona win the team national title, which it had not won in 12 years. He competed in every roughstock event and in cutting. He also won the National High School Rodeo Association all-around championship.
College and 1988 PRCA season
In 1987, he enrolled in the fall semester of Odessa College, a two-year school in Odessa, Texas. The school's proximity to some nearby PRCA rodeos was one of the deciding factors. In 1988, at 18 years old, he was old enough to join the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA), which he did promptly. Murray was set on trying for a world championship immediately. The fact that he could attend school and compete simultaneously was another deciding factor. He attended school and competed simultaneously in the National Intercollegiate Rodeo Association, and the PRCA. In Murray's first official year on the PRCA, he traveled with rodeo cowboy Cody Lambert, who rode bulls and saddle bronc. Before Murray, Lambert traveled with Tuff Hedeman, Jim Sharp, and Lane Frost. Now Lambert could travel with Murray for saddle bronc riding, then they met up with the other guys for bull riding. Murray spent the season gaining experience with Cody's help. When the season end was near, he was in the lead for Rookie of the Year. However, his riding was suffering some due to fatigue as he was not used to pro rodeo. At the Calgary Stampede, a bull named First Blood threw him headfirst into the dirt. Lambert told his uncle Butch he needed to rest. After some rest, Murray continued to enter all three roughstock events. In 1988, he was the PRCA Rookie of the Year due to winning $45,977 in the three roughstock events, bull riding, bareback riding, and saddle bronc riding. He did not earn enough money in a single event to qualify for the finals, the NFR in the PRCA.
1989 PRCA season
In this year, Murray was in his second year at Odessa College. He exchanged the dorm for an apartment with Jim Sharp. Slightly older, Sharp was already a world champion in bull riding. Murray started the year competing in Fort Worth, Texas. He captured the saddle bronc title and finished second in bareback. His earnings of $4,062 were enough to win the all-around event, and enough to beat Dave Appleton, the previous year's all-around champ. He also earned a spot in the Dodge National Circuit Finals Rodeo.
Murray competed at the Reno Rodeo Championship at the end of June. Although he did not win any events, he tied third in the saddle bronc event and made it to the finals in bull riding. Out of 11 bulls, only 3 cowboys made rides. Murray was bucked off by a bull named Copenhagen Times in two seconds. Despite this, Murray earned $5,449, enough to win the all-around. Murray was reluctantly happy to win the all-around without winning any events. He was also frustrated at not scoring in the bull riding finals. Consistency won the all-around, but it was hard won.
In July, all of the guys competed at Cheyenne Frontier Days. The cowboys refer to it as the "Daddy of Them All." Every cowboy knows about and needs to compete there. This was the finals day on Sunday. It had rained and was muddy. Frost got on a bull named Takin’ Care of Business by Bad Company Rodeo. Lane made a great ride. After he dismounted, the bull put a horn against Frost's back and pressed him against the ground. After this encounter, Frost got up and motioned for help, then collapsed. The impact from the bull broke some ribs. The severed ribs broke an artery; his heart could not recover. Frost died; he was 25 years old.
By Labor Day, Murray was 2nd in the All-Around World Standings. He was $1,000 behind his uncle, Butch Myers. Then, two weeks, later, Murray was leading the standings. On September 19, Murray's earnings were $84,044; his uncle had $82,465, and Clay O’Brien Cooper had $76,967. Near the end of October, the race was looking close and time was running out before the NFR. But it was obvious Murray would qualify.
This time for the NFR, he qualified for the NFR in the bareback riding and the saddle bronc riding. He almost qualified for bull riding.
He drew a bareback mare named Kattle Kate. Kattle Kate was owned by Flying U Rodeo. Murray made a good ride, scoring a 78. He tied for sixth in the fifth round. Next up was Bad River from Harry Vold. Murray made a great ride on this saddle bronc, scoring a 77. In the ninth round, Murray scored 75 on a saddle bronc ride on Copenhagen Joe and finished fourth in the round. In the eighth round, he scored 74 on the bronc Skoal Exorcist. On the final round Sunday, Murray started with the bareback event. His draw was a horse named Rabbit. Rabbit was a Mesquite Championship Rodeo horse. He had a good ride, scoring 78. He finished that round in sixth place. That put him almost out of reach in the bareback average (which paid a large bonus). All that remained between him and the all-around title was a mare named Oil City Red. The mare's first four jumps were famous and hard to get through. But if one did manage them, they could get a good ride. Murray made it through and scored a 73; he thought probably not good enough. He made sixth place in the saddle bronc average for the finals. An official soon found Murray's parents to congratulate them on their son's win. That was the beginning of Murray's all-around world championships. He was also the youngest winner of the title.
He and his uncle Butch Myers were the only two cowboys that year who qualified in more than one event. Nephew and uncle had a friendly competition for the all-around that year. Myers had a $2,786 lead over Murray heading into the finals. Murray placed on 7 of his 20 horses, winning $58,031 in his first NFR. He bypassed Myers by $21,202. Murray became the youngest all-around champion that year. Previously, Jim Shoulders had held that position for winning at age 21 in 1949. Also, that year, Murray won the National Intercollegiate Rodeo Association's all-around, saddle bronc, and bull riding titles.
1990 PRCA season
When the next season began, being a world champion, things were different for Murray. There were many demands on his time from promoters, clothing companies, and fans. There is significant pressure to repeat. Few cowboys have repeated as all-around champ in the 75 years preceding. However, Murray's personal philosophies kept him from feeling this additional pressure in his competition. He took each ride one at a time and ignored distractions.
About a month after Murray won his championship, he and Sharp moved out of Odessa into a place in Benbrook, Texas. It's a little south of Fort Worth. Not long after that, Murray received a sponsorship offer from well-known clothing company. He turned the offer down, which just was not done back then, ending the call with an instruction for them to contact his agent next time. Back then, rodeo cowboys did not have agents. Even 20 years after winning his six titles, Larry Mahan was still getting the standard deal Murray turned down. When Murray went for deals, he was selective. He also went outside rodeo, getting deals with companies such as Post, No Fear Sportswear, and other sportswear labels. His tactics paid off.
One of Murray's goals this season was to improve his bull riding, in order to qualify for the NFR in all 3 roughstock events. His first event that season was the National Western Stock Show in Denver, Colorado, where he won the all-around title. At January's end, he held the fifth spot in the World Standings and had a good lead in the all-around World Standings.
In Rapid City, South Dakota, Murray was matched with Mr. T. Mr. T is still considered one of the rankest bulls ever. At the time, he was the rankest bull, and most cowboys did not want to draw him. Mr. T was nasty and almost impossible to ride. He had only been ridden once before. Marty Staneart rode him at Cheyenne Frontier Days. He had dispatched 187 cowboys. Somehow Murray stayed on this bull and managed to stay in the middle of the bull for a qualified ride and get a score.
Murray continued to win all-around titles that season, at rodeos such as Colorado Springs, Phoenix, and the Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo. By May, Murray considered that all three of his events were at the same skill level. Then on May 19, 1990, at the Redding Rodeo in California, Murray had an incident. On a saddle bronc named Road Agent Murray rode well, scoring 72 points. As Murray was dismounting, his left foot hung in the stirrup for a second. Instantly, he was drawn underneath. He found himself facedown in the mud. The horse stepped on him and kicked him. Then as Murray tried to crawl away, he was kicked again. The hoof his right elbow. Murray ended up with stitches in his head, bruised ribs, and a broken elbow. He missed six weeks.
Murray was back to competition in July even though his elbow was in a brace. He competed at Reno Rodeo. He won the all-around and bronc riding titles. He qualified for the NFR again that season. He was fifth in the World Standings in bull riding. He was sixth in the World Standings in saddle bronc. He was seventh in the World Standings in bareback. Thus, he had qualified in all three roughstock events. Murray was the third cowboy to qualify for all three roughstock events in the NFR (and first in 17 years).
So it was back to the Thomas & Mack Center, Las Vegas, Nevada. In Round One, Murray tied for second in bull riding. He also tied for second in the bareback. In the Second Round, he and Lambert split first place in saddle bronc. Also in the Second Round, Murray placed fourth in bull riding. Murray continued to ride well in additional rounds. On Friday, December 7, in Round Eight, Murray had one of his best bareback rides of the year. He scored 84 points on Sippin' Velvet. He won the round with that score. When Murray finished that round, he had surpassed $200,000; having earned $203,552. He was the first cowboy to win over $200,000. He had two rounds to go.
The amount of earnings after Round 8 also assured him the all-around championship. It did not mean Murray would take it easy in the next two rounds however. In the next night, Round Nine, Murray has his next serious incident. Murray drew a saddle bronc of 1,200 pounds. A gelding named Bo Skoal. Murray could tell the horse was "off" that night. The horse flipped over backward after he got out of the gate. Murray was ready for him or he might have been under the horse when he fell. Still, he was not quite fast enough. His right knee got caught. The horse hit the knee and then rolled around on it. The pain was unbearable for Murray. It turned out the knee was not broken but was an intense bruise. He couldn't move it. Murray had to skip the rest of the Round Nine and Round Ten.
PBR Highlights
1994 inaugural season
Murray competed on the inaugural tour of the PBR, the Bud Light Cup Series, which was in 1994. He also qualified for the inaugural PBR World Finals that year. The first world finals event was held at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas, Nevada in October. Only one record for Murray is found on ProBullStats Bull Riding Compendium for this year. Murray rode the bull Achey Breaky in round 2 of the finals for 81.5 points. The bull score is calculated to be 40.10 points, but may be slightly off. One notable out from 1994 saw Murray conquer the 1993 PRCA Bucking Bull of the Finals, Gunslinger, for 93 points in the short go of 1994's Bullnanza Nashville.
Adriano Moraes was the first world champion for the PBR. All of Murray's PBR competition took place on the Bud Light Cup Series, as it was the PBR's only tour that year.
Highlights from seasons 1995-2001
The records from these earlier years are incomplete. There is no data for 1996. From the years 2000-2002, some data is missing from the PBR's records. Thus, buckoffs are unmarked and bull scores are calculated based on the average bull score and ride score.
Notable outs from 1995
In January in Fort Worth, Texas, Murray almost made a qualified ride on 1997 PBR World Champion Bull 315 Panhandle Slim. He was bucked off in 7.60 seconds; the bull scored 44 points. Murray met up with this bull three more times. He bucked off the bull again in Albuquerque, New Mexico in March 1999. In October 1999, he rode the bull at the PBR World Finals in Las Vegas, Nevada for 94 points; the bull was scored 46 points. In January 2001, in Bossier City, Louisiana, he rode the bull for 89 points; the bull was scored 44 points. In May 1995 in Charlotte, North Carolina, Murray got his shot at the famous 1995 PBR World Champion Bull and 1994-1995 PRCA Bucking Bull of the Year Bodacious. The Bull bucked him off in 1.70 seconds.
Notable outs from 1997
This year, Murray competed in only 5 PBR Bud Light Cup events; in the second event of the year in St. Louis, Missouri, Murray landed on his right elbow when getting bucked off of a bull named Bar Fly, which ended up dislocating his shoulder and putting him out of competition for 7 months. Though he returned to action in the fall of 1997 and finished 7th in the final event, Bullnanza Reno, he did not earn enough money to qualify for the 1997 PBR Finals.
Notable outs from 1998
In October, Murray rode Little Hopper for 86.50 points while the bull was scored 42.58 points. Later in October, Murray drew the bull Hollywood in the PBR World Finals in Las Vegas, but was bucked off. In May 1999 in Richmond, Virginia and September 2000 in Reno, Nevada, he was again bucked off the bull. In January 2001, he finally got a qualified ride on the bull for the very high score of 93 points in Greensboro, North Carolina; the bull scored 45.50 points. In December 1998 in Salt Lake City, Utah, Murray rode Kushma for 88.50 points; the bull scored 43.50 points.
National Finals Rodeo
In 1998, the PRCA's National Finals Rodeo was held in December at the Thomas & Mack Center in Las Vegas, Nevada, which continues to be where it is held. Murray qualified for the NFR in 1998 and had a run of many qualified, high point rides that year. He rode 403 Dewalt Power for 83 points while the bull scored 40.50 points. He rode 409 Orleans for 81 points and the bull scored 40 points. He rode 65 Hells Bells for 81 points; the bull scored 39.50 points. He rode -08 Riptide for 84 points while the bull scored 41 points. He rode 236 Slingshot for 83 points; the bull scored 40 points. Last, he rode F6 Hard Copy Skoal for 79 points and the bull scored 43.50 points.
Notable outs from 1999
Murray's most notable achievement in the PBR took place this year. He won the PBR World Finals Event at the PBR World Finals in October in Las Vegas, Nevada at the Thomas & Mack Center.
In January 1999 in Worcester, Massachusetts, Murray rode Lock & Load for 87 points; the bull scored 42.50 points. In March in Albuquerque, New Mexico, he rode Lock & Load for 89.50 points; the bull scored 44 points. In October 1999 in Columbus, Ohio, he rode the bull yet again for 87.50 points; the bull scored 43 points.
In January, Murray rode Bocephus in Greensboro, North Carolina for 87.50 points while the bull scored 43.00 points. He also made a qualified ride on this bull in June in Nashville, Tennessee for 84 points and the bull scored 41 points.
In February in Guthrie, Oklahoma, Murray rode Orleans for a score of 82 points while the bull scored 40 points. In March, Murray bucked off 1998 PBR World Champion Bull Moody Blues in Odessa, Texas. He also bucked off Moody Blues in Guthrie, Oklahoma in February 2001; the bull scored 45 bull points. In September, in Reno, Nevada, Murray rode Copenhagen Zandy for a very high score of 95 points; the bull scored 46.50 points. In October in Columbus, Ohio, Murray rode 5 Barracuda for 90.50 points while the bull was scored 44.50 points. In October, Murray rode Palace Station Express for 93.50 points while the bull scored 46.00 points. He also rode the same bull in January 2000 in Greensboro, North Carolina for 91 points and the bull scored 45.00 points.
PBR World Finals
At the PBR World Finals, Murray successfully rode all of his bulls. The finals took place in October in Las Vegas, Nevada. He rode 48 Tequila for 87.50 points; the bull scored 43 points. He rode Vindicator for 90.50 points and the bull scored 44.50 points. Then, he rode the PRCA 1996 Bucking Bull of the Year Red Wolf for an extremely high score of 95.50; the bull scored high as well with 47 points. He also rode Red Wolf in June 1998 in Charlotte, North Carolina for 93.50 points. He also bucked off Red Wolf in February 2000 in Guthrie, Oklahoma while Red Wolf scored 45 points. Another notable bull that Murray rode at the finals was three-time PBR World Champion Bull (2002-2004) Little Yellow Jacket. Murray scored 90.50 points on the champion bull. The bull scored 45 points. Later, in September 2001, he would buck off the bull in Baltimore, Maryland; the bull would score 46 points. Last, in the championship round of the 1999 PBR World Finals, he rode Panhandle Slim for 94 points; the bull scored 46 points.
Notable outs from 2000
In January in Tampa, Florida, Murray rode 27 Cochise for 87 points; the bull score was 43 points. In March in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Murray bucked off 441 Blueberry Wine; the bull scored 45 points. Then, in February 2001, in St. Louis, Missouri, he scored very high with 93.50 points and the bull scored 46 points. In April 2001, in New Orleans, Louisiana, he bucked off Blueberry Wine while the bull scored 43.50 bull points. In April in Uniondale, New York, Murray bucked off Clayton's Pet; the bull scored 45.50 points. Then, in March 2001, in Cleveland Ohio, he scored 92.50 points and the bull scored 46 points.
In October in Columbus, Ohio, Murray made a qualified ride on 5 Jersey Joe for 87 points; the bull scored 42.50 points. He also made a qualified ride on him in February 2001 in Anaheim, California for 93.50 points; the bull scored 46 points.
PBR World Finals
At the PBR World Finals in 2000, Murray bucked off all but one of his bulls. The finals took place in October in Las Vegas, Nevada. First, he attempted 150 Bell Dinger and bucked off; the bull scored 43.50 points. Then, he tried 76 Law Dog and bucked off while the bull scored 43.50 bull points. After that came 75 Ugly Buck and he bucked off while the bull scored 44.50 bull points. Then, he bucked off J3 El Nino and the bull scored 44.50 bull points. Last, he gained a qualified ride off 695 Mighty Whitely for 89.50 points; the bull scored 44 bull points.
Notable outs from 2001
In January in Bossier City, Louisiana, Murray made a qualified ride on 77 Coyote Ugly for 90.50 points; the bull scored 45 points. In February in St. Louis, Missouri, during the short-go, Murray became the first rider to ever make the whistle aboard 441 Blueberry Wine, earning him a score of 93.50 points; the bull earned a score of 46.00. In March in Colorado Springs, Colorado, he got a shot at 1999 PBR World Champion Bull Promise Land. The bull threw him off and earned 46.50 points. In April in Nampa, Idaho, he rode Dirt Dobber for 90.50 points; the bull scored 44.50 points. He won the event in Nampa after riding Psycho for 87.50 points in the short-go, but landed on his left elbow and dislocated his shoulder at the end of the ride, causing him to miss the next two events. He came back to ride in Nashville, Tennessee, where he rode Bone Collector for 92 points, while the bull scored 44 points. In the final event of the year in Columbus, Ohio that October, Murray again rode Coyote Ugly, this time for 92.50 points, winning his third event of the year; the bull scored 46 points.
PBR World Finals
The PBR World Finals were held in October in Las Vegas, Nevada. Like the previous year's world finals, Murray bucked off all but one of his bulls. First, he bucked off J3 El Nino and the bull scored 43.76 points. Then, Murray gained a qualified ride from K7 Q Ball of 90.50 points; the bull scored 44.76 points. After that, Murray bucked off 161 Shorty; the bull scored 44 points. Last, he bucked off 2 Jack the Ripper while the bull scored 44.26 points.
Notable outs from 2002
In January in Bossier City, Louisiana, Murray made a qualified ride on Fresh Country for 86.50 points while the bull earned 44.75 points. Also in January, Murray made a qualified ride on Smokin’ Smurf in Greensboro, North Carolina for 90.50 points. The bull earned 44.50 points. Again in January, in Greensboro, Murray earned a qualified ride on Perfect Storm for 95 points; the bull earned 47 points. He had earlier bucked off the bull in August 2001 in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. In February in Guthrie, Oklahoma, he made a qualified ride on Starbucks for 89 points; the bull earned 44.00 points. Also in February in Guthrie, he made a qualified ride on 6 Lefty for 89.50 points; the bull scored 44.00 points. In March in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Murray had a shot at future Brand of Honor bull Mossy Oak Mudslinger. The bull bucked him off and earned 47 points. Murray's final professional ride happened in round 1 of the 2002 NILE Bull Riders Invitational in Billings, Montana, where he bucked off a bull named Mooch. While recovering from a neck strain sustained in Billings, Murray officially announced his retirement from bull riding.
Other endeavors
In November 1999, Murray made a cameo appearance in an episode of Walker, Texas Ranger in Season 8, Episode 8, titled "Widow Maker." The star, Chuck Norris, discovered after the show that Murray practiced a martial art. True to form, it was due to Murray being one not to "toot his own horn." Murray has credited the martial art of Nippon Kempo as aiding him in his rodeo skills.
In 2006, Murray was featured in the Miller Lite "Man Laws" series of commercials with movie star Burt Reynolds. Murray is currently a commentator for the PBR on CBS.
In 2007 Murray, along with his wife Jewel, appeared in the ABC reality television series Fast Cars and Superstars: The Gillette Young Guns Celebrity Race, featuring a dozen celebrities in a stock car racing competition. In the first round of competition, Murray matched up against skateboarder Tony Hawk and actress Krista Allen. John Elway won the series in the final match. In the summer of that same year, CMT televised Ty Murray's Celebrity Bull Riding Challenge. Murray attempted to teach nine celebrities how to ride a bull, survive a fall, and compete at one major PBR event. In January 2008 he appeared as himself in an episode of CSI.
On February 8, 2009, it was announced that both Murray and Jewel would be contestants on the eighth season of Dancing with the Stars, signifying the first time a husband and wife appeared as contestants on the show in the same season; however, Jewel had to withdraw from the competition due to an injury sustained during pre-season practice. Murray was partnered with new Dancing with the Stars professional dancer Chelsie Hightower. Murray was eliminated in the tenth week semifinals. Also in 2009, Murray and Jewel appeared on the HGTV Celebrity Holiday Homes special.
In January 2010 Murray and Jewel appeared on the ABC reality series Extreme Makeover: Home Edition. On February 22, 2010, Murray was co-host of WWE Raw on USA Network with Jewel where they had a bull riding competition for the WWE Divas.
Personal life
Murray has been married twice. The first was the singer Jewel whom he married in 2008; they divorced in 2014. The second is Paige Duke, whom he married in 2017.
Jewel
In 1999 Murray met singer/songwriter Jewel at the National Western Stock Show and Rodeo in Denver, Colorado. It was just sheer chance that Ty was the one who got her tickets to the sold-out event through a mutual acquaintance. Her full name is Jewel Kilcher. She is the daughter of Atz Kilcher, an Alaskan all-around cowboy, so she grew up riding horses and competing in local rodeos. She and Ty conducted their relationship by telephone for the first nine months, while they were on the road touring separately.
When their relationship became serious enough, Jewel moved into Ty's ranch in Stephenville, Texas. As Ty got to know her, he discovered that her ranching background was much stronger than he and his buddies realized. On a pack trip, they discovered just how tough she was. She grew up in a house with no amenities, no heat, no electricity, and no running water, with an outhouse, so she was right at home in the cabin he had built on his ranch that similarly outfitted. Likewise, Jewel brought Ty into her music world; they co-wrote the song "Till We Run Out of Road" together one night. The song is featured on her This Way album. The song is about Murray and his former traveling partner and mentor, Cody Lambert, who is now the livestock director of the PBR. It discusses how he misses his family. There's also a piece that discusses the late hall of famer Lewis Feild, who rode out of the limelight as Murray rode in. Jewel also mentioned him, though not by name, in her song "Stephenville, TX" which is on her Goodbye Alice in Wonderland album. She appears with him in one of the "Man Law" commercials.
On August 7, 2008, Murray and Jewel eloped to the Bahamas. Murray, 38, and Kilcher, 34, had been together for a decade when they decided to get married. There was no previous engagement announcement. "I dreamt about this day since I was a little girl on a ranch in Alaska," Jewel said. "It was relaxed and romantic. I wore a traditional wedding gown and diamonds, and he wore jeans and a button-down shirt. Ty's definitely my perfect prince."
On Monday evening, July 11, 2011, Jewel gave birth to a son. Jewel was 36 years old at the time. The baby boy weighed 7 pounds, 6 ounces. Jewel and her husband had spent two years trying to conceive.
On July 2, 2014, Jewel announced on her blog that she and her husband Ty Murray had decided to get a divorce. She further elaborated that they had been engaged in a difficult but thoughtful separation. Jewel was age 40, while Murray was age 44. Their son turned three a week after the announcement. Jewel also confirmed that the couple would raise their son together.
Paige Duke
In December, Paige Duke, an ERA reporter at the time, was attending an after-party for the 2014 NFR when she saw Murray. She immediately thought of her boss, the president of RIDE TV, in terms of getting Murray's email address for him. Right after she procured Murray's email address, he left the party. Murray got her contact information the next day, and they went for dinner. From then on they were inseparable and in time moved in together at Murray's ranch in Stephenville, Texas.
Early in 2016, Murray took Duke on a long hike to Hope Lake, Colorado, to an altitude of 12,000 feet above sea level. It was a three mile trip. Duke shared that she had wanted to get married on a mountaintop. Murray and her mother realized that was logistically impossible. So Murray proposed to her on one instead. They planned their wedding for September. Duke had selected a natural spring in North Carolina to hold the wedding, which was actually an old rock quarry. The plan was for Murray's father and son to be his best men. Engagement details were available on Paige's Facebook page.
On September 30, 2017, Murray married Duke in Mooresville, North Carolina. Duke was born and raised in Lancaster, South Carolina. They were married at The Quarry at Carrigan Farms in Mooresville. Duke wore a white lace wedding gown, and Murray wore denim, a vest, and black cowboy hat. Murray's son wore an outfit that matched his father's. On September 24, 2018, Murray and Duke welcomed their first child together, a daughter.
Honors
2023 No. 11 on the list of the top 30 bull riders in PBR history
2018 The PBR named a new award after Murray, the Ty Murray Top Hand Award
2018 Bull Riding Hall of Fame
2016 Texas Rodeo Cowboy Hall of Fame
2016 New Mexico Sports Hall of Fame
2015 Cheyenne Frontier Days Hall of Fame
2013 California Rodeo Salinas Hall of Fame
2011 Arizona Sports Hall of Fame
2002 PBR Ring of Honor
2002 Texas Cowboy Hall of Fame
2000 ProRodeo Hall of Fame
1999 Texas Sports Hall of Fame
1990 Calgary Stampede Guy Weadick Award
1989 Rodeo Hall of Fame of the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum
1988 Cowboy Capital Walk of Fame
References
Bibliography
External links
Official Site
1969 births
Living people
Participants in American reality television series
People from Stephenville, Texas
Sportspeople from Phoenix, Arizona
Ranchers from Texas
Bull riders
ProRodeo Hall of Fame inductees
Saddle bronc riders
Bareback bronc riders
All-Around
Odessa College alumni
Rodeo announcers
Sportspeople from Odessa, Texas
Professional Bull Riders: Heroes and Legends
Bull Riding Hall of Fame inductees
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20halfpenny
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History of the halfpenny
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The British halfpenny coin was worth 1/480th of a pound sterling. At first in its 700-year history it was made from silver, but as the value of silver increased the coin was made from base metals. It was finally abandoned in 1969 as part of the process of decimalising the British currency. "Halfpenny", colloquially written ha'penny, was pronounced ; "1 ½d" was spoken as a penny ha'penny or three ha'pence .
It was long considered that the first halfpenny coins were produced in the reign of King Edward I (1272–1307), with earlier requirements for small change being provided by "cut coinage"; that is, pennies cut into halves or quarters, usually along the cross which formed a prominent part of the reverse of the coin. However, in recent years metal detectorists have discovered a few halfpennies of Kings Henry I (1100–1135) and Henry III (1216–1272) – these are extremely rare and very little is known about them; they have all been found in the London area, where they circulated alongside the more common cut coinage, and while it is possible that these coins were patterns or trials, it is clear that they did see circulation. It is possible that there are other coins or issues still to be discovered.
Early halfpennies
A few King Henry I silver halfpennies have been discovered recently. The issue is possibly a pattern or trial, but it is obvious that several specimens entered circulation. The obverse features an uncrowned front-facing bust of the king, with the inscription HENRIC REX – King Henry – while the reverse features a cross with the identification of the moneyer GODWIN A ON WI – Godwin of Winchester. The fact that round halfpennies were issued by Henry I was mentioned by both John of Worcester and Geoffrey of Monmouth.
Two issues, both struck at the London mint, have been discovered recently. Both are in the short-cross style of King Henry III, produced between 1216 and 1247, and are similar in design to the pennies, but only half the size. The obverse shows a crowned bust of the king holding a sceptre, with the inscription HENRICUS REX, while the reverse shows a small cross with four pellets in each quarter with the moneyer's inscription TERRI (or ELIS) ON LUND – Terry (or Elis) of London.
Edwardian and Henrician halfpennies
King Edward I (1272–1307) successfully introduced the halfpenny as part of his new coinage, which allowed trade to increase. As with all coins of this period, the denomination was not written on the coin, which was worth its weight in silver; thus a halfpenny was half the size and weight of a penny. All hammered halfpennies tend to be difficult to identify because they are small, often clipped, and in poor condition, and the legends on the coins are often incorrect because of the difficulty in making dies which were small enough for the denomination. The fact that Kings Edward II, III, and IV also issued halfpennies makes it difficult to distinguish between them – in general, Edward I's coins are slightly larger than his successors'. As with other denominations, by far the majority of coins were produced at the London mint, in the Tower of London, but five other mints were active in Edward I's reign. The legend on the reverse of the coin identifies the mint's name, and reads CIVITAS LONDON or LONDONIENSIS for London, VILLA BRISTOLLIE for Bristol, CIVITAS LINCOL for Lincoln, NOVI CASTRI for Newcastle upon Tyne, CIVITAS EBORACI for York, and VILLA BEREVVICI for Berwick-upon-Tweed.
The king's name appears in the obverse inscription, usually EDW, EDWA, or EDWR R ANGL DNS HYB, or RICARD or HENRI respectively for the issues of Kings Richard II (1377–1399) and Henry IV (1399–1413).
During the reign of King Edward II (1307–1327), halfpennies were only produced at the mints in London and Berwick, probably because sufficient had been produced when his father introduced the new coinage. The principal difference between the coins of Edward II and his father is that the obverse inscription of the London-produced coins reads EDWARDUS REX A(NG), and EDWARDUS REX AN on the Berwick-produced coins.
Three mints were actively producing halfpennies in the reign of King Edward III, 1327–1377, at London, Berwick, and Reading (VILLA RADINGY), although Berwick and Reading coins are very rare. The usual obverse inscription of this reign was EDWARDUS REX AN – Edward King of the English – or occasionally on earlier coins EDWARDUS REX – King Edward – or EDWARDUS ANGLIE D or EDWARDUS DEI GRA R – Edward by the grace of God King. At this time English coins were much envied in Europe for their weight and good metal content, with the result that English halfpennies were copied on the continent; they are similar in style to those of Edward III, but the obverse legend often reads EDWARDIENSIS.
King Richard II (1377–1399) produced all his halfpennies at the London mint. The obverse legend reads RICHARD (or RICARD) REX ANGL – Richard King of England – around a front-facing bust of the king.
The halfpennies of King Henry IV (1399–1413) are difficult to identify, mainly because they have been heavily clipped or worn. The obverse legend reads HENRIC REX ANGL around a front-facing bust of the king, while the reverse legend reads CIVITAS LONDON. In 1412 the weight of the halfpenny was reduced from 4.5 grains (0.29 grams) to 3.75 grains (0.24 grams), although coins were produced from the same dies as before.
The halfpennies of King Henry V (1413–1422) are a little easier to identify, but the basic design remained the same as before.
In the first reign of King Henry VI (1422–1461), halfpennies were commonly produced at London and Calais (VILLA CALIS), and less commonly at York. The designs are continuations of those of the earlier Henries, with the obverse legend HENRIC REX ANGL.
The halfpennies of the first reign of King Edward IV (1461–1470) are divided into the heavy coinage up to 1464, which was only minted in London, and the light coinage from 1464, produced at London, Bristol (now VILLA BRISTOW), Canterbury (CIVITAS CANTOR), York, and Norwich (CIVITAS NORWIC). The obverse inscription reads EDWARD DI GRA REX.
During the short second reign of Henry VI (1470–1471), halfpennies were produced at London and Bristol. The obverse inscription was changed to read HENRIC DI GRA REX.
Halfpennies of the second reign of Edward IV (1471–1483) are much like those of the first reign (only a few months earlier) but they were also produced at Durham (CIVITAS DERAM).
King Richard III's (1483–1485) short reign only produced halfpennies from the London mint. The obverse inscription reads RICARD DI GRA REX, which distinguishes the coins from those of Richard II.
Tudor halfpennies
Halfpennies in the reign of King Henry VII (1485–1509) were produced mostly at London, but also at Canterbury and York. Henry's coins are fairly distinct from those of the earlier Henries, with the king's front-facing portrait being different in style, and the obverse legend reading HENRIC DEI GRA REX.
By the reign of King Henry VIII, the halfpenny was becoming a coin of lesser importance, and less effort was spent on producing good-quality impressions on the coin blanks, with the result that many of the inscriptions are difficult to read. The coins of his first and second coinage (1509–1526 and 1526–1544) look similar to those of his father, Henry VII, although the obverse inscriptions were changed between the two coinages, from HENRIC DI GRA REX ANGL to H DG ROSA SIE SPIA – Henry by the grace of God a rose without a thorn (Henricus Dei gratia rosa sine spina).
The third (1544–1547) and posthumous (1547–1551) coinage halfpennies have a more lifelike bust, but were produced in debased silver (only 1/3 silver and 2/3 copper) and therefore are usually in a very poor condition.
In the short reign (1547–1553) of King Edward VI there were several issues of halfpennies. The first issue was produced between April 1547 and January 1549 at the Tower and Bristol mints; both mints' products are extremely rare and have the crowned bust of the king on the obverse, with the inscription EDG ROSA SIN SPIN (or EDG DG ROSA SIN SPIN on some Bristol coins) and a cross with CIVITAS LONDON or CIVITAS BRISTOLI on the reverse. The final issue of halfpennies was produced at the Tower mint between 1550 and 1553 with the obverse legend being EDG ROSA SINE SPINA surrounding a rose in the centre of the coin, and the reverse showing CIVITAS LONDON around the royal shield over a cross. The quality of silver in this final issue of halfpennies was so poor that the coin was often used as a farthing.
No halfpennies were produced in the reigns of Queen Mary I, or of Philip and Mary, or for the first twenty years of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I.
Halfpennies were produced in some quantity in Queen Elizabeth I's fifth and sixth coinage issues (1582–1600 and 1601–1602). Because of their small size, they did not have the queen's effigy or any legends on them, but instead had a portcullis on the obverse and a cross on the reverse. Sixth-issue coins also had a mintmark on the obverse: "1" for 1601 and "2" for 1602.
17th-century silver halfpennies
When King James I ascended the English throne in 1603, for the first couple of years halfpennies were produced in the same style as Elizabeth I's sixth issue, though with a thistle or lis mintmark. From 1604 onwards, there was a completely different style of coin with a rose on the obverse and a thistle on the reverse.
Surprisingly, considering the huge variety of coins of other denominations produced during his reign between 1625 and 1649, hardly any halfpennies were minted during the reign of King Charles I. The most common issue was produced at the Tower mint and simply had a rose on both sides of the coin. The other issue was produced at the Aberystwyth mint, and had a rose on one side and plumes on the reverse.
The final silver halfpennies were produced under the auspices of the Commonwealth. Commonwealth halfpennies were extremely plain, having no inscription on either side, but a shield charged with a St George's cross on the obverse, and the Irish harp on the reverse.
Base-metal halfpennies
In the early years of the reign of King Charles II (1660–1685), there was a clear need for low-denomination coins to fund day-to-day purchases. The silver 1d and 2d coins issued in the first few years of the reign were being hoarded, and tradesmen in many parts of the country had taken to issuing private tokens in base metal; while this was an offence, in practice penalties were minimal and the government appreciated the need for such coinage which was not available legally. A problem with the production of low-value coins is that if the face value is less than the cost of production (including the metal) then the exercise is done at a loss and the coins may be clipped or melted down for their metal content; if the face value is higher, counterfeit coins begin to appear. The Mint was not ready to produce copper coins until 1672; by that time Maundy-type small silver (1d–4d) coins were being produced and were circulating widely, so no copper pennies were produced, although a Royal Proclamation in August 1672 decreed that halfpennies and farthings would be issued, and that they would have a face value equal to the value of the metal less the cost of producing them. The new coins were legal tender up to a total value of six pence, and depicted Britannia (modelled by the Duchess of Richmond) on the reverse. It was soon discovered that the Mint was incapable of producing the copper blanks needed for the new coins, and these eventually were imported from Sweden; to facilitate the process, the Customs Duty on the import of the metal was waived. Further delays ensued, caused not least by transportation problems, and the first halfpennies did not appear in circulation until after Christmas (the year did not end until 24 March in those days, so there were still three months before the start of 1673).
The ideal of striking coins with a value equal to their production costs was not long maintained, and the coins were given a face value slightly higher than their metal content, so inevitably counterfeits soon began to appear.
Charles II's head faces left on the copper coinage, and right on the silver coinage.
The copper halfpenny weighed between 10.0 and 12.0 grams and had a diameter of 28–31 millimetres. The inscription on the obverse, around the king's head, reads CAROLVS A CAROLO – Charles, son of Charles – while the reverse shows BRITAN NIA around the left facing seated Britannia, holding a spray and trident, with the date beneath Britannia. Coins were produced dated 1672, 1673, and 1675.
The halfpennies of King James II (1685–1688) were made of tin with a small square plug of copper in the centre. The corrosion properties of tin mean that very few coins survive in a good state of preservation, not helped by the electrochemical reaction between copper and tin. The objects of using tin were to produce coins at a profit while at the same time producing a coin which would be difficult to counterfeit, and at the same time to assist the ailing tin-mining industry. The coins weighed between 10.5 and 11.6 grams, with a diameter of 28–30 millimetres. The obverse showed the right-facing effigy of the king with the inscription IACOBVS SECVNDVS – James the Second – while the reverse shows the same Britannia as before. Unusually, the date appears not on the reverse but on the edge of the coin, which has the inscription NVMMORVM FAMVLVS date – an ancillary coinage. The coins were produced in 1685, 1686, and 1687.
In the joint reign of King William III and Queen Mary II (1689–1694), the production of bimetallic tin/copper halfpennies continued in 1689, 1690, 1691 and 1692. However the tin coinage was becoming increasingly unpopular because the public did not feel that there was any intrinsic value in the coins and also the corrosion problem had become apparent; even worse, lead counterfeits had started to appear. Just before the queen's death from smallpox in 1694 a copper halfpenny, weighing 9.1–11.7 grams with 28–31 millimetres diameter was reintroduced. The contract for the new coins stipulated that the copper used should be English and the blanks struck at the Mint. It is noticeable that Charles II's Swedish copper halfpennies have toned to a dark red colour, while the William and Mary halfpennies tone to black, presumably because of different impurities in the copper.
The obverse inscription read GVLIELMVS ET MARIA, while the reverse reads BRITANNIA (with the date beneath Britannia in 1694). The 1689–1692 coins have the edge inscription NVMMORVM FAMVLVS with the date.
For the widowed King William III, the production of halfpennies continued under the contract granted during the previous reign. However it soon became apparent that the manufacturers were in breach of contract – to save costs, not only were some of the blanks being cast rather than struck, but some of the coins were themselves being cast in one operation. There were other ways in which the manufacturers were economising on expenses – cheap labour was being used, including foreigners some of whom could not spell or punctuate the words they were engraving on the dies. Towards the end of the reign both the workmanship and the design and production of the dies for the copper coinage had sunk to a nadir, which is curious as simultaneously the mint was producing the highest quality work in the five and two guinea pieces which were being produced. By 1698 there was a glut of copper coinage and an Act was passed to stop the coining for one year; this seems to have had little effect and the proliferation continued. There were further Parliamentary attempts to control the glut of coinage later.
The William III halfpenny appears with various distinct types of engraving of the king's head, Britannia, and the inscriptions, with the quality getting worse as the reign wore on. The coins were copper, weighing 8.9 to 11.5 grams, with a diameter of 28–29 millimetres. The king's effigy on the obverse faced right, with the inscription GVLIELMVS TERTIVS – William the Third. Britannia appears on the reverse with the inscription BRITANNIA and the date normally in the exergue beneath Britannia. Coins were produced each year between 1695 and 1701.
Due to the glut of copper coinage, there was no need to produce any copper halfpennies during the reign of Queen Anne (1701–1714).
The United Kingdom
Soon after the accession of King George I (1714–1727) the surplus of copper coins was used up, and in 1717 a new contract was signed and a Royal Warrant issued for the production of a new halfpenny. The halfpennies struck in 1717 and 1718 looked slightly odd as they were smaller, thicker and somewhat lighter than the previous issues, weighing 9.4–10.3 grams with a diameter of 25–27 millimetres, but they were well-struck with high-relief features of the right-facing head of King George and the inscription GEORGIVS REX on the obverse, and Britannia with the inscription BRITANNIA and the date in the exergue beneath Britannia. The 1717–1718 issue is known as the dump halfpenny. For the 1719–1724 issue, the size of the coin was increased to 26–29 millimetres, though with the same weight of metal as before.
King George II's (1727–1760) halfpennies were the most prolific issue yet, but to them must be added a huge range of counterfeits (and pieces similar to counterfeits but with markedly different legends from the real coins, so that the manufacturers could avoid accusations of counterfeiting). Many genuine coins were melted down and underweight fabrications produced from the molten metal. It is difficult for people who use a modern regulated currency to appreciate the extent to which counterfeiting had debased the currency – for long periods of time, counterfeits outnumbered genuine coins. Halfpennies were produced in all years between 1729 and 1754, with the exception of 1741. They weighed 9.7–10.3 grams and had a diameter of 28–30 millimetres. The obverse showed the left-facing head of King George and the inscription GEORGIVS II REX on the obverse, and Britannia with the inscription BRITANNIA and the date in the exergue beneath Britannia.
Counterfeit coinage
In the reign of King George III (1760–1820) the first issue of halfpennies did not come until 10 years after the king's accession, in 1770. Counterfeiting was rampant, and in 1771 the issuance of counterfeit copper coin became a serious crime; this however had little effect and for the next twenty years or so the majority of copper so-called coins in circulation were forgeries. In March 1782 a female counterfeiter was hanged, then fixed to a stake and burned before the debtor's door at Newgate prison in London. In a letter to Lord Hawkesbury of 14 April 1789, Matthew Boulton commented "In the course of my journeys, I observe that I receive upon an average two-thirds counterfeit halfpence for change at toll-gates, etc., and I believe the evil is daily increasing, as the spurious money is carried into circulation by the lowest class of manufacturers, who pay with it the principal part of the wages of the poor people they employ". Boulton's contract in 1797 to produce the Cartwheel pennies and twopences, thwarting the counterfeiters, did not extend to producing the halfpenny, though Boulton had expected that it would, and had prepared patterns of the appropriate size and weight in accordance with his ideas on the intrinsic value of copper coins. The reason the government gave for the omission of the denomination from the contract was that the large number of de facto halfpennies (including tokens and fakes) would be driven out of circulation and Boulton would be unable to produce enough coins to meet the demand that would ensue. Public demand for legal halfpennies soon forced the government to change its mind, and in 1798 a contract was issued to Boulton for him to produce halfpennies and farthings dated 1799. However, in the meantime the price of copper had risen, and consequently the weight of the coins was reduced slightly, which resulted in them not being as popular as expected. In 1806 a further 427.5 tons of copper was struck into halfpennies by Boulton, but the price of copper had risen again and the weight was even less than the 1799 issue. This time, however, there was no unfavourable reaction from the public, so perhaps the national obsession with "intrinsic value" was over.
Great Britain and beyond, 1800–1970
George III halfpennies were produced in three distinct phases:
1770–1775 (all years). Weight 9.2–10.8 grams, diameter 29–30 millimetres. Obverse shows a right-facing bust of the king, with the inscription GEORGIVS III REX, reverse shows a left-facing seated Britannia holding a spray and spear, with the inscription BRITANNIA and the date in the exergue beneath Britannia. (The king's bust has a fuller face in 1774 and 1775).
1799. Weight 12.0–13.1 grams, diameter 30–31 millimetres. Obverse shows a right-facing bust of the king, with the inscription GEORGIVS III DEI GRATIA REX, reverse shows a redesigned left-facing seated Britannia holding a spray and spear, with the inscription BRITANNIA 1799.
1806–1807. Weight 9.2–9.8 grams, diameter 29 millimetres. Obverse shows a right-facing bust of the king, with the inscription GEORGIVS III D G REX date, reverse shows a slightly different left-facing seated Britannia holding a spray and spear, with the inscription BRITANNIA.
After the mint moved from the Tower of London to Tower Hill the production of gold and silver coins took precedence over copper. The production of copper coins did not resume until the reign of King George IV (1820–1830), when farthings were produced in 1821. The issue of new halfpennies did not happen until 14 November 1825 as a result of a disagreement between the egocentric designer Benedetto Pistrucci and the authorities, which resulted in William Wyon being invited to design the coins instead. This delay may be regarded as a good thing, as Wyon's designs are generally considered among the most elegant British coins. The George IV halfpenny was produced between 1825 and 1827, weighed 9.1–9.5 grams, with a diameter of 28 millimetres. The obverse shows a left-facing laureated bust of King George IV with the inscription GEORGIUS IV DEI GRATIA date, while the reverse shows a right-facing seated helmeted Britannia with a shield and trident, with the inscription BRITANNIAR REX FID DEF. Wyon's preference was to put the date under the king's bust, and to put the rose, thistle, and shamrock in the exergue underneath Britannia where the date commonly appeared before.
The halfpenny of King William IV (1830–1837), produced in 1831, 1834, and 1837, continues the George IV design but with a right-facing bust of the new king, with the inscription GULIELMUS IIII DEI GRATIA date, while the reverse is identical to the previous reigns'.
The halfpennies of Queen Victoria's long reign (1837–1901) can be basically divided into the copper issue of 1838–1860, where the coins were 9.1–9.5 grams in weight and 28 millimetres in diameter, and which were very similar to the halfpennies of her two predecessors (with the obvious substitution of REG for REX on the reverse), and the bronze issue of 1860–1901 (which itself is split between 1894 and 1895 into coins displaying the "young head" and the "old head" of the Queen). The bronze coins weighed 5.5–5.8 grams and were 25 millimetres in diameter. The bronze coins also featured the denomination HALF PENNY on the reverse for the first time, with the date in the exergue beneath Britannia. The inscription on the obverse of the "young head" coins reads VICTORIA D G BRITT REG F D, while on the "old head" it is VICTORIA DEI GRA BRITT REGINA FID DEF IND IMP. Some 1874–1876 and 1881–1882 halfpennies have an "H" mintmark underneath the date, indicating that they were produced at the Heaton mint in Birmingham. Halfpennies were produced in all years of Victoria's reign except 1837, 1840, 1842, 1849 and 1850.
Halfpennies weighing 5.67 grams (one fifth of an ounce) and of 1 inch (25.4 millimetres) diameter (which was to remain the standard size of the coin for the remainder of its existence) were minted in all years of King Edward VII's reign (1901–1910) except 1901. They are similar to the last issues of Queen Victoria except for the king's right-facing bust on the obverse, with the inscription EDWARDVS VII DEI GRA BRITT OMN REX FID DEF IND IMP, and also are extremely reminiscent of the contemporary penny.
The reign of King George V produced halfpennies to an unchanged design every year between 1911 and 1936. The obverse shows a left-facing portrait of the king by Sir Bertram Mackennal, with the inscription GEORGIVS V DEI GRA BRITT OMN REX FID DEF IND IMP, and the usual right-facing Britannia on the reverse. Unlike some of the pennies of this reign, no halfpennies have mintmarks from provincial mints. Halfpennies of this reign suffer somewhat from "ghosting", caused by production problems when the image of one side partly comes through to the other; efforts were made to solve the problem with a modification of the king's effigy in 1925, but the problem was not finally solved until a second modification in 1928.
A halfpenny exists for King Edward VIII, although strictly speaking it is a pattern which would have been awaiting royal approval about the time that the king abdicated in December 1936. The king insisted that his left profile be used on the coinage instead of the right, which would have been used if he had followed the alternating tradition going back to King Charles II; the obverse has the inscription EDWARDVS VIII D G BR OMN REX F D IND IMP, but in a complete break from tradition Britannia was dropped from the reverse for the first time since 1672, and replaced by a sailing ship, said to represent Sir Francis Drake's Golden Hind. This reverse remained in use for the remainder of the coins' existence.
Halfpennies of a similar design to his brother's were produced in each year of the reign of King George VI. The inscription on the obverse reads GEORGIVS VI D G BR OMN REX F D IND IMP until 1948, then GEORGIVS VI D G BR OMN REX FIDEI DEF. There are reported to be slight differences in the reverse – the size and positioning of the ship, the inscription HALF PENNY and the date under the ship – from year to year, but numismatists differ in opinion as to whether this is significant enough to count as a design variation each year, or just one design for the whole reign.
Unlike the penny, Queen Elizabeth II's reign produced halfpennies every year between 1953 and 1967, except for 1961. The reverse was the same as before, while the obverse featured the queen's head by Mary Gillick, with the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRA BRITT OMN REGINA F D in 1953, and ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F D for the rest of the reign.
The pre-decimal halfpenny ceased to be legal tender in 1969.
The new two pence coin, introduced when decimalisation of British coinage took effect in 1971, is essentially the same size as the halfpenny coin as it had most recently existed.
Cricket connection
Broadhalfpenny Down, a place of great significance in the history of cricket, got its name from the coin.
In popular culture
In a 1967 episode of the television series The Avengers, entitled "You Have Just Been Murdered", John Steed assembles 999,999 halfpennies before being made a 'halfpenny millionaire' courtesy of Mrs Peel. The sequence also shows a close up of a 1947 halfpenny reverse.
References
External links
British Coins – information about British coins (from 1656 to 1952)
Half penny
Pre-decimalisation coins of the United Kingdom
Coins of England
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Yeronga Memorial Park
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Yeronga Memorial Park is a heritage-listed park at Ipswich Road, Yeronga, City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. The park has an area of and is one of the oldest in Brisbane, having been established in 1882, and has been a World War I memorial since 1917. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 2 December 2005.
History
Yeronga Memorial Park is bounded by Ipswich Road to the east, Villa Street to the north, Park Road to the west, and School Road to the south. Its evolution has reflected the development of Yeronga and a number of important themes and events in Queensland's history.
The area was inhabited by the Coorparoo or Yerongpan clans of the Jagera tribe before the arrival of Europeans, and continued to be used by them for some time after the establishment of a convict settlement Brisbane in 1824. The area was then used by Europeans to depasture sheep from the Government Farm in Oxley.
Development of the Darling Downs made the Ipswich Road the main route to the interior, and the initial rough track was surveyed in the 1860s. The first sales of Crown land in the Yeronga area, involving 154 acres, had taken place in 1854. Land use in the area moved towards dairying and crops, including arrowroot, cotton, sugar, corn and potatoes. In 1879, the Queensland Government established a system of local government in Queensland. At that time, Yeronga was situated within the Yeerongpilly Division (a local government area) administered by the Yeerongpilly Divisional Board. The Yeerongpilly Division originally extended from Brisbane south to the Logan River and from Mount Gravatt to Goodna.
In 1882 the Yeerongpilly Divisional Board declared of land off Ipswich Road to be a Public Park and Recreation Ground. In 1886 the Stephens Division (about nine square miles, and including Yeronga) was split off from Yerongpilly Division, putting the park within the Stephens Division, which in 1888 made of the park a permanent reserve.
The first major boost to development around Yeronga occurred when the South Brisbane to Corinda railway link was opened in 1884 including the Yeronga railway station. The railway link initiated Yeronga's popularity as a residential suburb. By 1887 the Stephens Division had a population of 3480, and by the 1890s Yeronga had become popular with the elite, with grand homes intermingling with farming estates and small subdivisions. In 1903, Stephens Division became Stephens Shire. The second main phase of development at Yeronga was again transport-related; it began after the Ipswich Road tramline reached Yeronga Park in 1915.
Yeronga Memorial Park is one of the oldest parks in Brisbane. In 1882 103 acres and three roods (41.9 hectares), of portions 153A, 154A, and 155A Parish of Yeerongpilly, County of Stanley, was declared a reserve for a Public Park and Recreation Ground. In 1888 102 acres, three roods and 62 perches were declared a permanent reserve under the Stephens Divisional Board, and areas of the current park were cleared. Remaining native vegetation suggests that the reserve was originally open eucalypt forest. However, the extent of the reserve has been reduced over time by excisions. Part of portion 155A was lost in 1888 to the South Coast railway line and a water reserve. In 1902 and 1912 some parts of 155A were given over to Villa Street, and in 1919 part of the school reserve was added to the park to form Honour Avenue, while some land was lost to a repositioning of the railway line. In 1921 part of portion 155A was reserved for showground purposes, but it was returned to the park in 1925.
In 1930 some land from portion 153A was excised for the erection of the Yeronga Fire Station (1934), and in 1931 land from 153A was added to the school reserve for the construction of a sports oval. In 1950 a part of 153A facing School Road was excised for the Yeronga Kindergarten and Pre-School, and in 1953 the remainder of 155A was removed, later being occupied by Yeronga State High School (1960) and the Yeronga Technical College (1967). In 1975 another part of 153A facing School Road was excised for a Meals on Wheels Depot, and the current park covers 22.46 hectares.
One of the most historically significant aspects of Yeronga Park is its World War I memorial role, which was developed between 1917 and 1921. Circa 1917, a road was constructed through the park, aligned east to southwest, from Park Road to Ipswich Road. Between 1917 and 1919 a total of 96 weeping figs and flame trees were planted either side of this road, forming Honour Avenue. Each tree was accompanied by a timber post topped with a metal shield which bore the name of a soldier by the Stephens Shire who had died in the war. Having a named avenue of memorial trees within a park is uncommon in Queensland. The memorial avenue is one of the earliest of its type in Australia. KS Inglis, author of "Sacred Places: War Memorials in the Australian Landscape" (1998) identifies the earliest World War I avenue of honour as being established in Victoria in 1917, which is contemporaneous with the Yeronga Park memorial avenue.
A memorial pavilion and two sets of memorial gates to the park were built in 1921. The gates stand at each end of Honour Avenue, and although the pavilion is offset to the north-east of the avenue, it is still linked to the other memorial elements by a palm-lined footpath that runs diagonally from Honour Avenue to Ipswich Road. The domed pavilion form of war memorial is uncommon. The dedication on the southern inner pier of the Ipswich Road Gates, to the women workers of Stephens Shire, is also unusual in Queensland.
The outpouring of grief in Australia that accompanied the deaths of 60,000 servicepeople in World War I, and the fact that the dead were buried overseas, led to a period of memorial-building across the nation. Of the 559 residents of the Stephens Shire that had enlisted in World War I, the names of 97 are carved into the marble tablets fixed onto a stone in the centre of the memorial pavilion. Although the original shields set on posts by the trees have long since disappeared, they have been replaced by name plates set into concrete at the base of the trees, or on the path along Honour Avenue. Given the attrition rate on the original trees along the avenue, other trees in the park, near the Ipswich Road gates, have received plaques. The old-style plaque and post arrangement can be seen under a mango tree in front of the Country Women's Association Rooms on School Road, dedicated to Private Thomas Markey.
Following the formation of Greater Brisbane in 1925, the administration of Yeronga Park passed to the Brisbane City Council.
During World War II Yeronga Park was occupied by a number of American military units. A 1946 aerial photograph shows an extensive network of huts, which had been erected in the park to accommodate these troops. Little physical evidence of this occupation survives within the park. Part of the existing Girl Guides hall at the northern end of the park may date to this period. To the west of the memorial pavilion the American Legion has erected a memorial stone, commemorating the World War II occupation of the park by the United States' military forces.
Apart from its role as a memorial park and as "Camp Yeronga" in World War II, Yeronga Park has also been an active recreation venue for most of its history, and various clubs have leased sections of the park. The Yeronga Tennis Club was formed in 1909, and still occupies the three courts near Villa Street. Four other early courts on a terrace near the bowling club have reverted to grass. The Queensland Blind Cricket Association erected a timber hall in the north of the park in the 1920s. The Stephens Croquet Club was formed in 1923 and in that year built a wooden clubhouse and two croquet lawns in the north-east of the park. The Annerley Bowls Club operated in the park from 1927 to 1992, and its modern two-storied brick clubhouse, to the west of the croquet club, is now used by the Brisbane Bridge Centre. There is also a brick shed, which was extended in the 1950s, standing to the south of the upper bowling green. In 1936 a large in-ground draughtsboard was built to the southwest of the World War I memorial pavilion, and this was resurfaced in 2003. The Yeronga Park shale stone wall, which runs south along Ipswich Road from the memorial gates appears to have been the result of a Depression works project in the mid 1930s.
The Yeronga Park Memorial Swimming Pool Complex was built in the southwest of the park between 1960 and 1964, with an Olympic pool and two wading pools, and a heated pool was added by 1972. Designed by architects Bligh Jessup Brentnall and Partners, the pool complex is a type of war memorial that was favoured after World War II. Utilitarian structures such as swimming pools and hospitals were considered to be a more appropriate gesture of remembrance than purely monumental structures. In 1970 the Southern Districts Rugby Football Club took out a lease in the park. Their current clubhouse was built in 1986.
Non-sports organisations have also staked their claim on park land. The Kurilpa Scouts occupy the Baden Powell Memorial Hall, and the Yeronga Girl Guides occupy a building further east along Villa Street. The Yeronga Boy Scouts, who occupied the scout hall until 2003, was established in 1921. There was a smaller building present in a 1946 aerial photograph, but it was aligned parallel to Park Road. The current hall is drawn in its present position and configuration on a 1951 map. The Annerley Girl Guides was formed in 1934, and their current timber hall may be a relic of the World War II military occupation of the park, with a 1950s concrete block extension. The Queensland Country Women's Association established a headquarters on the School Road side of the park in 1952. Three organisations also built on land that was excised from the park, as mentioned earlier: the Yeronga Fire Station, the Yeronga Park Kindergarten and Preschool Association, and Meals on Wheels.
Some features of the park have disappeared over time, and these include the small huts, with white or grey mineral siding, built in World War II for the United States' military. Various older sports clubhouses have also been replaced or removed over time. There was a small clubhouse next to the tennis courts by 1946, but the current concrete block clubhouse was built between 1964 and 1972. The concrete block clubhouse of the Queensland Blind Cricket Association was built in the 1950s, with a later extension to the west. A small shed due east of this clubhouse has been removed since the 1980s. The original interwar timber two-storied Annerley Bowls Club clubhouse was replaced with the current brick two-storied clubhouse before 1972. There also appears to have been an octagonal shelter in the north-east corner of the current Rugby field, until the 1970s. This area had long been used for Sunday School picnics, which usually occurred on the Eight Hour Day holiday in May. A brick pavilion to the west of the South's Rugby Clubrooms, visible in aerial photographs from 1960 onwards, has been demolished recently. Honour Avenue has lost a number of its original trees, and the most easterly section of bitumen and kerbing, near the Ipswich Road Gates, has been removed. The most intact section of the avenue of trees lies adjacent to the central cricket oval.
In 1979 a plaque commemorating people from the area who had served in World War II, the Malayan Emergency, the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation and the Vietnam War was added to the gates on Park Road.
Description
Yeronga Memorial Park is bounded by Ipswich Road to the east, Villa Street to the north, Park Road to the west, and School Road to the south. A road, formerly Frederick Street, enters the park from the north, providing access to car parking for the Bridge Club and Croquet Club. Honour Avenue, which is bitumened, crosses the northern part of the park, with vehicle access from the Park Road end only. Weeping figs (Ficus benjamina) are planted symmetrically, several metres from the kerb. Honour Avenue effectively divides the park into two zones: the sports facilities established in the early twentieth century are situated to the north of Honour Avenue, and the native woodland and late twentieth century sports facilities are situated to the south of Honour Avenue.
At the western end of Honour Avenue are the memorial gates at Park Road. These consist of two pairs of red brick piers with smooth rendered corners. They stand on rough rendered plinths, and are topped by projecting cornices crowned by globes. The two inner piers support vehicle gates, and there are also iron pedestrian gates on each side of Honour Avenue. A metal plaque on the southern inner pier reads:These gates have been erected by the residents of Yeronga and District as a permanent memorial to those men and women of the suburb who served in the Great War 1914–1919.The plaque (1979) on the northern inner pier reads:This plaque has been dedicated as a memorial to those men and women of the district who served in World War II 1939–1945 and Malaya, Borneo, Vietnam 1948–1973.The Ipswich Road memorial gates, where Honour Avenue used to link with Ipswich Road, are more ornate, with the inner two piers being taller, and have smaller engaged piers facing towards the pedestrian piers. Each of the four main piers stands on a smooth rendered plinth. Low brick walls form a small enclosure on the park side of each pedestrian entrance, and there is a wooden fence leading to the gates from the footpath, north and south of the piers. On each face underneath the cornices is a decorative band of render inset with a green glazed tile displaying a floral pattern. The northern plaque reads: These gates were erected by the women of Stephens Shire in honour of the men who fought for them. The southern plaque reads: This tablet is dedicated to the women workers of Stephens Shire.
The World War I memorial pavilion stands on the southern edge of the rough-formed carpark of the ex-bowling clubhouse, near a palm-lined pedestrian path running diagonally from Honour Avenue to Ipswich Road. The square pavilion is rendered in concrete. The corner pilasters with ornamental capitals carry a thin encircling entablature, with a heavy projecting cornice above. A low parapet conceals a gutter for the domed roof. Standing on a plinth of concrete steps, each of the four arched entrances contains a decorative iron gate and fence. The pavilion shelters a square, polished stone pillar on a rough sandstone plinth. Marble tablets on each side of the stone pillar record the names of the dead from Stephens Shire, in World War I. A plaque also notes: July 1921 — Erected by the residents of Stephens Shire and District in appreciation of our boys who sacrificed their lives in the Great War 1914–1919. A small sandstone flaming urn crowns the pillar. A World War II memorial stone stands to the west of the pavilion.
To the north of Honour Avenue are a number of other significant facilities within the park. From west to east, these include: a Scout hall; three tennis courts; a Girl Guides hall; the site of old tennis courts on a grassy terrace near Frederick Street; and two unused interwar bowling greens, set at different levels. A brick shed stands to the south of the upper bowling green.
The Scout hall is low set, long and rectangular, with narrow vertical timber boards for most of the building, and weatherboards around the wider eastern section. It has a galvanised iron roof, and double- hopper windows. The Girl Guides hall has an early (possibly 1940s) weatherboard, skillion-roofed section with a later concrete block extension.
Several croquet greens and a croquet clubhouse occupy the north-east corner of the park. The weatherboard clubhouse of the Stephens Croquet Club is a small rectangular building with a gambrel roof clad with corrugated iron. It stands on concrete stumps. The roof ridge has an orbed finial at each end, above small gablets which ventilate the roof space. A small projecting pediment marks the main entrance, which faces north over the lawns. The building has early multi-paned windows.
A large in-ground draughtsboard stands between the ex- Bowling Club and Honour Avenue, and an arris rail fence runs north from the memorial gates along Ipswich Road. A shale stone retaining wall runs along Ipswich Road, forming an embankment terrace running south from the memorial gates. A cricket oval lies south-west of the rugby field, and the timber Country Women's Association (CWA) rooms face School Road on the southern edge of the park, between the old Yeronga Fire Station and the Yeronga Park Kindergarten and Preschool Association. The CWA building is a modest timber cottage, supported on low concrete stumps and sheltered by a hip roof clad with corrugated metal sheeting. Between the Swimming Pool Complex and Honour Avenue is a third cricket oval.
Located in the naturalistic bushland landscape of the southwest corner of the park, the Swimming Pool complex includes a masonry slab-on- ground, change rooms and kiosk building, one Olympic size swimming pool, two small wading pools, a heated swimming pool and a small masonry swim club building. The wading pools are sheltered by shade structure and there is a scattering of poolside chairs and tables around the concourse. The pool complex is fenced and entry is from School Road. A bitumen carpark stands adjacent to Yeronga State School.
The mature trees featured around the park include the area of eucalyptus woodland near the swimming pools, and the plantings associated with the park's memorial role. These include the weeping figs planted along Honour Avenue, of which those in the centre of the park are the best examples. Other mature figs are planted along Ipswich Road and School Road. There are Canary Island date palms along the path near the memorial pavilion, and also along the northern boundary of the bowling and croquet greens. A large double-row, alternately queen palms and Chinese fan palms, curves from Ipswich Road, behind the rugby grounds, to School Road, and a line of queen palms runs across the northern boundary of the park. There are some queen palms planted along the eastern side of Frederick Street, which extends into the park, and a small double row of palms cuts from Frederick Street diagonally to Honour Avenue. Some palms also run down Park Road in front of the Scout hall. Two mango trees stand near the old tennis court terrace, there are cypress trees planted on three sides of the functioning tennis courts, and assorted specimen and memorial trees grow on the east lawn between the memorial pavilion and the Ipswich Road memorial gates. A large tallow wood eucalyptus stands near the entry to the rugby ground carpark.
Informative Note The current clubhouse of the Southern Districts Rugby Union Club, the former bowling clubhouse, the cricket pavilion, the modern tennis courts and tennis clubhouse, the Girl Guides clubhouse and the toilet block south of the Honour Avenue are not of cultural heritage significance.
Facilities
The park is home to the Yeronga Park Heated Pools, has a Beach volleyball area, Swimming Club, Tennis Club as well as Lawn Bowls and Cricket fields. A Brisbane City Council swimming pool complex is situated on the southern edge of the park. The Swimming Club was established in 1965.
Heritage listing
Yeronga Memorial Park was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 2 December 2005 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.
Yeronga Memorial Park is important in demonstrating part of the pattern of Queensland's history, being a recreation reserve established in 1882, and later a memorial park from 1917. Within the layout, structures, buildings, plantings and activities pursued in the park are illustrated several important themes and events in Queensland's history. These historical layers include: sporting activities since the 1880s, including Queensland Blind Cricket, bowls and croquet since the 1920s; Boy Scouts and Girl Guides activities; a World War I and World War II memorial function; and providing a Depression-era work opportunity in the construction of the stone wall along Ipswich Road.
The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage.
The memorial avenue lined with trees, memorial gates, and memorial pavilion, created between 1917 and 1921, are key aspects of the park, both historically and in establishing the current layout of the park. They demonstrate the process of grieving that was occurring across Stephens Shire (1903 to 1925), Queensland and Australia at that time. After World War I, most Queensland communities erected a public memorial to honour local participation in the war, and each monument is a unique historical documentary record. The honour avenue is one of the earliest World War I memorial avenues established in Australia. The domed memorial pavilion is an uncommon form of war memorial in Queensland. The dedication on the Ipswich Road memorial gates, to the women workers of Stephens Shire, is an unusual public recognition of women's role in World War I.
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.
Yeronga Memorial Park is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of its type: a public park since 1882 and a war memorial since 1917. Much of the 1917 layout of the park survives. Elements within the park that are important in demonstrating the use of the park for these purposes include: the tennis courts and surrounding cypress trees; the croquet clubroom and lawn (1923); a pedestrian path lined by palms (pre-1946); the bowls club lawns (1927); the in-ground draughtsboard (1936); the memorial pavilion (1921); the World War II memorial stone north of Honour Avenue which is formed by a memorial avenue of trees (1917–1919); the memorial gates (1921). To the south of Honour Avenue, lies the CWA hall (1952), the Memorial Swimming Pool Complex (1960–1964); the shale stone retaining wall along Ipswich Road (1930s); a curved palm avenue (pre-1946) and indigenous vegetation (primarily eucalypts).
Individual features of the park are also good examples of their type, such as the timber Croquet clubroom and lawn, the bowling greens, the memorial gates, the memorial pavilion, and the Memorial Swimming Pool Complex.
The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.
Yeronga Memorial Park is significant for its aesthetic values. Contributing to this value are the substantial and imposing memorial gates at both entrances that provide a fitting and dignified entrance to Honour Avenue and the memorial pavilion. The shale stone wall, running south from the Ipswich Road gates towards the former Yeronga Fire Station, is a picturesque feature. The abundance of trees in the park, interspersed with open sporting areas, provide for pleasing vistas within the park, especially between the croquet club and the tennis courts, and across the central cricket oval. The croquet clubroom and the brick structure near the upper bowling green, also contribute to its aesthetic quality. The park also contributes to the streetscape along Ipswich Road at Yeronga/Annerley.
The mature trees that enhance the picturesque aspect of the park include: the surviving memorial fig trees along Honour Avenue; those planted in the eastern memorial lawn; the memorial palms in numerous locations within the park; the cypress trees around the tennis courts; the mango trees near the old tennis court site; the fig trees along Ipswich Road and School Road; and the eucalyptus woodland near the swimming pools.
The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
Given the role of the park as a memorial to the war dead of the Stephens Shire, its long history of use by sporting groups, and its presence as a landmark on Ipswich Road, Yeronga Park has a strong and ongoing association with the local community and is of social significance.
See also
List of parks in Brisbane
References
Brisbane History Group (1996) Yeronga Heritage Tour
Attribution
External links
Queensland Heritage Register
Parks in Brisbane
1882 establishments in Australia
Yeronga, Queensland
World War I memorials in Queensland
World War II memorials in Queensland
Borneo confrontation memorials in Queensland
Malayan Emergency memorials in Queensland
Vietnam War memorials in Queensland
Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea%20Beaumont
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Andrea Beaumont
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Andrea Beaumont, also known as the Phantasm, is a fictional DC Entertainment supervillain and antiheroine created by Alan Burnett and Paul Dini, and designed by Bruce Timm. Beaumont first appeared as the main antagonist in the 1993 DC Animated Universe (DCAU) film Batman: Mask of the Phantasm, where she was established as the girlfriend-then-ex-fiancée of Bruce Wayne/Batman prior to and around the time he first began his vigilante career. Dana Delany provided the voice work for Andrea and Stacy Keach provided the electronically modified voice of her "Phantasm" alter ego.
Andrea Beaumont has made occasional appearances in various DCAU Batman media in her Phantasm guise, often as a freelance assassin working with Amanda Waller. In December 2020, Beaumont made her main DC Universe comic book debut in Tom King's Batman/Catwoman 12-issue maxiseries.
Mask of the Phantasm
Character design
In keeping with Batman: The Animated Series''' film noir inspiration and "Dark Deco" visual style, Bruce Timm created Andrea's civilian design to reference women's fashion from the 1940s, including: red hair in a long bob (reminiscent of Lauren Bacall), "sweater girl" sweaters, high-waisted pencil skirts, wrap dresses, and pumps.
Timm designed the Phantasm's costume to reflect Alan Burnett's initial description of a Grim Reaper-esque character. Burnett wanted the villain to be reminiscent of the Ghost of Christmas Future, a similarity that the Joker mentions in the film.Batman: Mask of the Phantasm. Dir. Eric Radomski and Bruce W. Timm. Perf. Kevin Conroy, Dana Delany, Mark Hamill, and Hart Bochner. 1993. DVD. Warner Home Video. October 4, 2005. Timm went through approximately 20 different character designs for the Phantasm before creating a version that would evolve into the final design. Five alternate designs for the Phantasm's costume were featured in HBO's "First Look" television preview for Mask of the Phantasm.
Described by Timm as resembling a "tall, gaunt Death character", the Phantasm's costume is hooded and features a metal, skull-like mask. The Phantasm carries a large blade, reminiscent of a scythe, in her right hand. The blade was not part of Timm's original design, and was added later at Burnett's insistence. The character's left glove houses a chemically-based, artificial fog-generating device that the Phantasm uses for stealth, combat, and intimidation. At various points in Mask of the Phantasm, the Phantasm's manipulation of fog makes it appear that the character has supernatural powers, such as intangibility and the ability to vanish. These smoke-filled appearances were influenced by the Marvel Comics supervillain Mysterio.
The Phantasm's facade is completed by a masculine voice provided by Stacy Keach, which was digitally altered in post-production to be deeper and echo. Portions of Keach's unmodified performance can be heard in Mask of the Phantasm's theatrical trailer, including the Phantasm's signature phrase: "Your angel of death awaits". The Phantasm's on-screen presence is accompanied by an eerie theme composed by Shirley Walker that prominently features the theremin.
Role
The screenwriters of Batman: Mask of the Phantasm included Alan Burnett, Martin Pasko, Paul Dini, and Michael Reaves. Pasko wrote many of the flashback sequences (including those featuring Andrea and Reaves) and the final showdown between Batman, the Phantasm, and the Joker. Andrea is based loosely on a combination of Judson Caspian (the Reaper) and his daughter Rachel, characters from the four-issue 1987 "Batman: Year Two" comic book storyline that ran in Detective Comics #575-578. According to Kevin Conroy, Andrea was named after voice director Andrea Romano.
In Mask of the Phantasm, producer Alan Burnett "wanted to do a big love story with Bruce because we hadn't really done it on the TV show. I wanted a story that got into his head". Burnett centered Andrea in his conception of the film's story: "We wanted to make a big movie story. We were telling a story about 'the girl who got away'. The one woman who could have stopped Bruce from ever becoming Batman". The resulting narrative, which dealt with Bruce's decision to become and remain Batman, hinged on Bruce and Andrea's relationship.
Andrea's role in Mask of the Phantasm corresponds with that of the femme fatale from hardboiled detective fiction and Hawksian woman from film noir. Burnett felt that the film's narrative should be removed from Batman's traditional rogues gallery. The fact that Andrea is revealed as the main villain in a plot twist is a convention of the femme fatale stock character.
Andrea serves as a foil for Batman. The characters are very similar; they both don an intimidating costume and speak to the gravestones of their parents (as if holding a conversation with the deceased). The paralleling of their characters — most importantly the death of their parents at the hand of criminals — highlights how different they are: Though they both became vigilantes, Andrea chose to become a killer, following a warped code of "eye for an eye" justice, while Bruce chose a code of ethics that forbids killing.
Plot
Andrea Beaumont is the daughter of financier Carl Beaumont and his late wife Victoria. Since his wife's death, Carl has devoted himself to Andrea's future. In her youth, while attending Gotham University, she meets fellow student and billionaire Bruce Wayne, and they fall in love. Bruce vacillates between the promise he made to his murdered parents to fight crime versus starting a married life with Andrea, which he feels his parents would have wanted for him had they lived to see him grown. Bruce dons a mask and leather jacket and stops a truck hijacking, but is not pleased as the robbers mocked him instead of being intimidated on sight. The lukewarm success and growing love for Andrea brings Bruce to the conclusion to abandon crime-fighting - instead pledging part of his inheritance to the Gotham City Police Department - so he can marry Andrea. Right before Bruce makes his decision, he was exploring a grotto on his property and is met by Andrea. After the two briefly explore what would soon be the Batcave, Bruce proposes marriage, and Andrea gladly says yes.
Andrea discovers that her father is in business with the Mafia, and set up dummy corporations for some of the most powerful mob bosses in Gotham: Chuckie Sol, Sal Valestra, and Buzz Bronski. When the mobsters learn that Carl has made unauthorized investments, they consider it defalcation and want immediate repayment. Unable to quickly access the money he has stolen and invested, Carl and Andrea hastily flee to Europe, forcing Andrea to reluctantly break off her engagement with Bruce, thus leading to him diving down the path to become a vigilante after losing a chance at a normal life. Andrea later recounts how she and her father bounced around various parts of Europe before finally presumably settling somewhere in the coastal regions of the Mediterranean Sea.
A few years later, Arthur Reeves, who was once a lawyer in Beaumont's employ and the only one entrusted with knowledge of the Beaumont's flight, is seeking election to the Gotham city council but has run out of money. Carl Beaumont refuses to contribute to Reeves' campaign, and in retaliation Reeves sells information on the Beaumonts' whereabouts to the mob, though Reeves is unaware about their sinister intentions. Although Carl has returned the money, the mobsters demanded "interest" in the form of his life due to his unpunctuality. They send one of their goons, who would later become Bruce's archenemy the Joker, to do the job. When returning from food shopping, Andrea passes by the hitman, who gives her a nonchalant look and moves on, in fear and distress she tries to tell him her father paid them back only for him to ignore it. Andrea goes inside, then screams at seeing her murdered father.
Consumed with rage and hatred, Andrea waits patiently and trains herself for many years, planning to take revenge on the men who had her father killed and ruined her life and happiness. When she returns to Gotham, she dons a terrifying costume reminiscent of the Grim Reaper, complete with a smoke-generating device, scythe-bladed gauntlet, and a terrifying synthesized voice of her late father's. Disguised as such, she kills Sol and Bronski after taunting them by saying "Your angel of death awaits". Shortly before his death, Sol was attacked by Batman who attempted to thwart his plans to flood Gotham with high-quality fake money. Sol's death was seen by multiple witnesses, who then observe Batman. This leads to Batman being blamed for the killings of Bronski and Sol and branded a fugitive. Arthur Reeves, now an experienced selectman, rallies his constituency into demanding peace and ordering the Gotham Police to hunt Batman (over the objections of Commissioner Gordon, who stays out of it). Soon after killing Bronski in the graveyard, Andrea visits her mother's grave, where she first met Bruce. Batman, also drawn to his parents' grave after investigating the crime scene, is shocked to see her. He quickly flees, but Andrea notices and immediately guesses his secret identity. Batman later discovers the link between the mobsters and Carl Beaumont and questions Andrea on the topic, but she rebuffs him. Valestra, now in failing health, appeals to Reeves for protection from Batman, pointing how in addition to paying him off for selling out Carl Beaumont he also provided Reeves with inside information such as blackmail on his political enemies, but Reeves rebuffs Valestra as a has-been. Valestra then seeks out the Joker to kill Batman, aware of their long feud. Joker declines at first, saying he is not "pest control", but changes his mind when Valestra offers money and remembering old times.
Andrea breaks into Valestra's home to murder him, only to find Joker has beaten her to the punch and set a trap intended for Batman. She escapes unharmed, but Batman attempts to apprehend her. After a brief rooftop skirmish, the Phantasm absconds in a cloud of smoke as the police arrive on the scene. When Andrea realizes that the police will arrest Batman in her stead, she quickly changes out of her costume and helps him escape. At Wayne Manor, in a final attempt to conceal her vendetta, Andrea lies to Bruce that the Phantasm is her father and that she has returned to Gotham to stop his killing spree. Unaware that Carl was murdered, Bruce believes her and the two spend the night together. Meanwhile, Joker goes to Reeves to inform him that Batman is not responsible for the wave of killings. When Reeves refuses to believe him about the Phantasm's existence, Joker attacks him with Joker venom, but the process is interrupted as Andrea soon comes for him. Proof of Reeves' conspiring with the Valestra mob is exposed, especially after Batman confronts him at the hospital, however the incomplete poisoning has left him in a state of constant hysteria, likely leaving him incompetent to face charges.
Andrea tracks the Joker to his hideout at the derelict Gotham World Fairgrounds, where she and Bruce once went to as a couple, but he has guessed her identity and anticipated the attack. The two battle in the "Home of the Future" exhibit (also seen in a flashback where Bruce took Andrea on a date, and took a special interest in a model car on display), before the Joker lures Andrea to a giant turbine. He attempts to kill her by sucking her into it, but Batman intervenes, breaking the machine before its blades could have crushed Andrea. She attempts to justify her actions: "They took everything, Bruce. My dad, my life, you. I'm not saying it's right, or even sane, but it's all I've got left. [...] They had to pay!" Batman attempts to reason with Andrea and begs her to leave, and she disappears in a cloud of smoke. After a stalemate battle between Batman and the Joker that sees both men on the brink of exhaustion, the fairgrounds - rigged with explosives - detonate and begin to crumble. Andrea reappears and explains that "one way or another, it ends tonight". With the defeated Joker in her power, Andrea bids farewell and disappears with her captive before Batman can stop her.
After barely escaping the fairgrounds' destruction through a series of sewers, Batman assumes that Andrea and the Joker have perished. However, Andrea survives and leaves a locket for Bruce in the Batcave as a keepsake. In the penultimate scene of the film, a saddened Andrea stands alone at night on the deck of an ocean liner.
DCAU animation and comics
Her first real appearance was in the movie adaptation mini comic that came with the VHS release (this comic was a digest size) and was released in December 1993. Simultaneously there was a Prestige Format which was the traditional sized comic. Both of these books had the same red cover. There was a Newstand edition which featured a different cover.
Adventures
The Phantasm makes her first returning appearance in "Shadow of the Phantasm", a story in the comic Batman & Robin Adventures Annual #1 (November 1996). In a direct sequel to Mask of the Phantasm, Andrea and Batman defeat Arthur Reeves, who - having been driven mad with a permanent grin on his face by the Joker as the doctors were unable to fully treat him - is determined to exact revenge on Beaumont and Batman, who he finally learns is Bruce Wayne, with Reeves falling to his death.
In 2004's Batman Adventures: Shadows and Masks, Andrea goes undercover in Black Mask's organization, the False Face Society. During this story arc, she meets Bruce (who was also infiltrating the organisation as his criminal disguise "Matches Malone") at Wayne Manor and asks him not to interfere with her operation. He coldly rebukes her, calling her a "killer". She eventually fights Batgirl and has her captured and put in a water tank to kill her only for her to be freed by Bruce who was present there and then later tries to kill Black Mask.
"Epilogue"
The Phantasm makes a cameo appearance as an assassin in the season 2 finale episode of the television series Justice League Unlimited: "Epilogue" (2005). Years after Bruce retired from crimefighting at the beginning of Batman Beyond, Andrea, now an elderly woman but still active as a mercenary, is hired by Amanda Waller who was concerned about Batman's eventual death or retirement, to murder Terry McGinnis' parents, whose son is secretly also Bruce's under genetic tampering. The psychological trauma, Waller reasons, may steer Terry toward becoming Wayne's successor as Batman. However, the Phantasm abandons the hit moments before she would have slain the young couple. Andrea argues that the murder would defile the Batman legacy by breaking Bruce's paramount rule: to never take a life. Andrea's change of heart marks the official end of Waller's "Project Batman Beyond", though chance would compel Terry to eventually become Bruce's successor regardless after his father is murdered. In the episode, Andrea has no lines or voice actor. Her sentiments are conveyed through Waller's monologue recounting the event.
Batman Beyond 2.0
The Phantasm returns in "Mark of the Phantasm", a seven-part storyline in the 2015 digital comic Batman Beyond 2.0 (set after the Batman Beyond animated series). At the secret behest of Amanda Waller, Andrea seeks out the great-grandnephew of Joe Chill, Jake Chill (a.k.a. the Vigilante), for the murder of Terry McGinnis' father. Beaumont is charged with killing Jake before Terry learns of Jake's guilt, in an effort to remove any temptation for Terry to attempt the same.
After an initial attempt on Jake's life fails due to Terry's intercession, Andrea visits Bruce in the Batcave. Bruce reveals that he searched for Andrea, and attempts to convince her that it is not too late for them. Andrea acknowledges that, despite their similarities, they are at loggerheads: "I do things Batman can't. I always have". Beaumont abandons her second attempt on Jake's life when he accidentally dies from exposure to Joker venom.
DC Universe
Andrea Beaumont/Phantasm made her comic debut in Batman/Catwoman limited series by writer Tom King and artist Clay Mann in December 2020. Previously revealed in 2019, posted on Twitter by King and Mann, the image of the Phantasm included Batman and Catwoman reflected in the Phantasm's scythe, in addition to the text "She awaits you" (a reference to the Phantasm's catchphrase) and the series title.
DC Comics describes Beaumont's role in one of three timelines featured in the comic: "And in the present, Bruce and Selina's union is threatened by the arrival of one of Batman's past flings, Andrea Beaumont, a.k.a. Phantasm. Beaumont's return calls into question how each character chooses to operate in their costumed, and personal, lives, and any move by Phantasm could change the fate of Bruce and Selina's future".
Minor appearances
Andrea Beaumont is mentioned as an easter egg in Batman: Arkham Origins, where postcards from Rome and Paris addressed to Bruce Wayne bear her signature. In those postcards, she is confirmed to be looking for her father and telling Bruce he knows how to meet her.
The Phantasm appears as a playable character in the Lego DC Super-Villains video game as downloadable content. She was one of the playable characters for the Batman: The Animated Series story level and would become a permanent playable character upon completion.
In Batman: Li'l Gotham, the Phantasm's mask was placed on display in the Batcave.
Her mask was mentioned in Batwoman episode "Meet Your Maker".
An easter egg in The Lego Batman Movie is an advertisement for a fragrance called "Musk of the Phantasm".
Action figures
In conjunction with the release of Mask of the Phantasm'' in 1993, Kenner released a Phantasm action figure. The toy was packaged with Phantasm's mask and cloak off, revealing the villain's secret identity, and — apocryphally — spoiling the plot twist for audiences. This model was later re-released as part of a "Rogues Gallery" box set, but with the costume's grey and black coloring transposed.
In 2016, DC Collectibles released a new action figure in their six inch highly-articulated toy line based on Batman the Animated Series, packed with a re-release of the Batman figure from the series. This figure is more precisely sculpted and has more articulation, though does not include an unmasked Beaumont portrait or feature seen in the 4 inch figure.
References
Action figures
Animated human characters
Batman: The Animated Series characters
Comics characters introduced in 1994
Characters created by Bruce Timm
DC Animated Universe original characters
DC Comics female supervillains
DC Comics martial artists
Female characters in film
Female film villains
Fictional female soldiers and warriors
Fictional assassins in comics
Fictional female assassins
Fictional female serial killers
Fictional fist-load fighters
Film characters introduced in 1993
Film supervillains
Vigilante characters in comics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali%20Zafar
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Ali Zafar
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Ali Zafar (; born 18 May 1980) is a Pakistani singer-songwriter, actor, model, producer, screenwriter and painter. He started out on Pakistani television before becoming a popular musician, later also established a career in Bollywood and his success led many Pakistani actors to venture into Hindi films. He has received five Lux Style Awards and a Filmfare Award nomination.
Zafar started his career as a music composer and gained popularity with his single "Channo" from his debut album Huqa Pani, which sold over five million copies worldwide. "Channo" turned out to be a huge success, topping many music charts and earned him several awards for Best Music Album and Artist. Zafar made his acting debut with a leading role in the 2010 Bollywood satire film Tere Bin Laden, a moderate box office success. His performance in the film garnered critical appreciation and earned him several nominations in the Best Male Debut category, including Filmfare. He then also worked in several films, including Mere Brother Ki Dulhan, Chashme Baddoor, and Dear Zindagi.
Alongside his acting and singing career, Zafar participates in tours, concerts and stage shows, is active in humanitarian work and has a number of endorsement deals. In 2013, Zafar was voted as the "Sexiest Asian Man on the Planet", based on a worldwide poll by the British newspaper Eastern Eye.
On 23 March 2021, Ali Zafar was awarded the highest literary award, Pride of Performance, for his meritorious contribution and achievements in the field of arts and music. He received the award from President of Pakistan Arif Alvi at ceremony at the President House, Islamabad.
Early life
Ali Zafar was born on 18 May 1980 in Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan to a Punjabi family. His parents, Mohammad Zafarullah and Kanwal Ameen, were professors at the University of Punjab. He has two brothers, Zain and Danyal; the latter of these is a commercial model who aimed to launch a career as a singer and actor soon. Zafar received his early education from C.A.A. Public School. He graduated from the Government College of Lahore and the National College of Arts.
Career
Zafar started his career as a sketch artist at Pearl Continental Hotel in Lahore and then began acting in television serials. He debuted as a television actor by acting in drama serials Kollege Jeans, Kanch Ke Par and Landa Bazar.
Zafar sang "Jugnuon Se Bhar De Aanchal" for the 2003 film Shararat. In the same year, he debuted as a musician with the album Huqa Pani, which was a success. The album sold over 5,000,000 copies worldwide and won several awards and nominations, including the 2004 Lux Style Award for "Best Album" and the 2008 "Best Male Artist" award at the MTV awards, making him one of the most popular pop singers in Pakistan. It was also claimed that Bollywood's popular music directors Himesh Reshammiya and Pritam ripped "Channo" and "Rangeen" from Zafar's album in "Chhore Ki Baatein" for Fight Club – Members Only and "Dillagi Mein Jo Beet Jaaye" for Aashiq Banaya Aapne respectively.
Zafar released his second album Masty in November 2006. The music video of the single "Dekha" was named as the most expensive music video of Pakistan, costing more than ten million rupees. The video was produced by Lux and was shot in Malaysia, featuring Reema Khan, Meera and Aaminah Haq. The song was also made part of the Hollywood film Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps, which was released in September 2010. He is currently the fourth Pakistani artist after Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Strings and Atif Aslam to have songs featured in Hollywood films. He also won the "Youth Icon" award in the Lux Style Awards 2007, in Malaysia. Zafar was also offered a role for 2007 film Khuda Kay Liye, but was unable to sign due to some personal reasons. The role was then performed by Fawad Khan.
In 2010, he made his debut as a leading actor with the Bollywood film Tere Bin Laden, which was directed by Abhishek Sharma. Tere Bin Laden was partially based on Osama bin Laden and Zafar played a Pakistani journalist from Karachi, who makes fake video of Osama Bin Laden, so that he could go to America. The film released in July 2010, proved to be a major commercial success in India, but was banned in Pakistan. Zafar's performance in the film garnered critical appreciation and earned him Best Male Debut nominations at several award ceremonies, including IIFA Awards, Screen Awards, Zee Cine Awards and Filmfare Awards. He was also named as the first Pakistani to be called to Indian Film Festival at Australia in March 2011 for his movie screening.
In February 2011, Zafar released his third album Jhoom, which won the 2012 Lux Style Award for "Best Music Album". He made a special appearance in the film Luv Ka The End, in which he sang a song, "F.U.N. Fun Funna". He also sung the title song for the film Love Mein Ghum. He also acted alongside Tara D'Souza in the film Mere Brother Ki Dulhan, starring Imran Khan and Katrina Kaif, and it was released in September 2011.
In March 2012, Zafar starred in the film London, Paris, New York with Aditi Rao Hydari. It was directed by Anu Menon, and Zafar also composed the soundtrack for the film. He also performed the soundtrack for the Pakistani drama Zindagi Gulzar Hai, which won many awards.
Zafar also starred in the romantic comedy film Chashme Baddoor, directed by David Dhawan. The film was released in April 2013 and was declared a box office super-hit. The same year, he was also featured in an episode of Burka Avenger, singing his famous song "Channo".
Zafar then also starred in and composed the soundtrack for the film Total Siyappa, which was a romantic comedy film released in March 2014. He also acted in Kill Dil, which was released in November.
Zafar released a single "Urain Ge" as tribute to victims of APS Peshawar attack in early 2015, featuring many Pakistani artists. His voice was also featured in the song "DJ", which was sung by Sunidhi Chauhan for the film Hey Bro. He then also sang a song for Defence Day, "Hanstay Hanstay".
Zafar had performed an item number "Six Pack Abs" in the sequel of his 2010 film Tere Bin Laden, entitled Tere Bin Laden: Dead or Alive, which was released in February 2016. Zafar was also seen in Pakistani film Lahore Se Aagey. He then appeared in Gauri Shinde's Dear Zindagi as a musician alongside the star cast Alia Bhatt. The films were released in November 2016. He then also sung "Hum Roshan to Kal Roshan", which released in December 2016.
In 2018, Zafar starred in Ahsan Rahim's directorial debut romantic action-comedy film Teefa in Trouble, alongside Maya Ali, which is debut of both the actors in Lollywood, and also the debut of Zafar's Lightingale Productions. He is also working on his fourth music album, and he will be producing another Pakistani film based in Deosai National Park.
Tours and performances
After he got fame, Zafar first performed at the ceremony of 3rd Lux Style Awards in 2004. The following year, he did his stage act at 4th Lux Style Awards. He then sang live the songs in 5th Lux Style Awards in 2006 and 6th Lux Style Awards in 2007, and then performed a stage dance with Reema Khan in the 2007 ceremony. He also had performed in Mela Festival at Oslo, Norway in 2008.
He joined Coke Studio Pakistan in 2008 and performed three original songs "Allah Hu", "Daastan-e-Ishq" and "Nahi Ray Nahi", and one tribute song "Yaar Daddi Ishq" to Muhammad Juman, in season one and two.
In 2012, Zafar performed at 11th Lux Style Awards with Humaima Malick and also paid tribute to musician Mehdi Hassan by singing his ghazal "Mujhe Tum Nazar Sai". He also performed at the Pantaloons Femina Miss India contest held at Bhavans Ground in Mumbai on 30 March 2012. He then performed at GiMA Awards. He also had performed at 57th Filmfare Awards, but his performance was cut out in the TV release. In 2013, he performed along with Shah Rukh Khan, Katrina Kaif and Preity Zinta at Temptations Reloaded concert in Muscat, Oman.
Zafar then also performed in the Lifestyle Pakistan Expo at Karachi Expo Centre, where he walked the ramp for designer brand ChenOne and also performed with a dhol. He was also invited to perform in 2013 Cannes Film Festival held at Cannes, France. In 2014, he was seen performing with Yami Gautam on Zee Cine Awards. He then also performed in Naz Choudhury's Bollywood Showstoppers at The O2 Arena along with Sonakshi Sinha, Jacqueline Fernandez, Mika Singh and Shahid Kapoor. He then also hosted the first Star Box Office India Awards Ceremony along with Ayushmann Khurrana, where they also gave a musical tribute to Raj Kapoor.
He re-joined Coke Studio Pakistan in 2015 for the eight season where he performed three songs. The first song "Rockstar" became popular worldwide, and was also appreciated by Imran Khan, Mahira Khan, Sonu Nigam, Hrithik Roshan and Adnan Sami, and then it was also awarded the title Song of the Year. Zafar then gave tribute to Saleem Raza by performing a second song "Ae Dil" along with Sara Haider. The third song he performed was Sufi "Ajj Din Vehre Vich".
At the logo-launch-event of Pakistan Super League on 20 September 2015, Zafar released and performed on the league anthem "Ab Khel Ke Dikha". He also performed in the launch event of the team Islamabad United on 30 January 2016, where he released team anthem "Chakka Choka". He then also performed in the opening ceremony of 2016 PSL on 4 February. He also performed about 50 concerts across Pakistan within two months in early 2016.
Zafar performed a dancing act on the remix of his Coke Studio hit "Rockstar" in the ceremony of 14th Lux Style Awards, after when he was given musical tribute by Jimmy Khan, Uzair Jaswal, Sara Haider and Farhan Saeed separately, in 2015. The following year, he hosted the ceremony, where he performed an opening dance act on his new song paying tribute to Lux Style Awards. He then also gave a musical tribute there, co-singing with Ali Sethi and Qurat-ul-Ain Balouch, to Amjad Sabri who was assassinated in Karachi on 22 June 2016.
The same year, he collaborated with Atif Aslam for the song "Yaarian", and they performed on it on Defence Day. Zafar walked the ramp in September with Mahira Khan, showcasing the bridal collection in Divani's Bagh-e-Bahar show, at the Haveli Barood Khana. He also performed on the stage of 1st Hum Style Awards along with Sohai Ali Abro, where he was also awarded "Most Stylish Male Performer". In his concert on 25 November, he performed the mannequin challenge too.
Zafar released anthem of 2017 PSL "Ab Khel Jamay Ga" in January 2017, upon which he then also performed in its opening ceremony on 9 February in Dubai, and also at its closing ceremony on 5 March in Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore. He also performed at grand finale of Miss Veet in January. On 19 April, he along with his Teefa in Trouble co-star Maya Ali, performed in the 16th Lux Style Awards.
In tenth season of Coke Studio Pakistan, Zafar performed four songs, after being featured in the promo song "Qaumi Taranah". He performed his original "Julie" alongside his brother Danyal Zafar on guitars under Shani Arshad's production, and "Yo Soch" with Natasha Khan under Strings production. He also gave tribute to Master Inayat Hussain by performing "Jaan-e-Bahaaraan" solo under Shuja Haider's production, and to Junaid Jamshed by "Us Rah Par" with Ali Hamza ft. Strings under Jaffer Zaidi's production.
On 27 October 2017, Zafar performed at the MTV Unplugged India concert with Ayushmann Khurrana at Dubai Tennis Stadium.
Personal life
Zafar married his long-time fiancée Ayesha Fazli, who is a distant relative of Indian actor Aamir Khan, on 28 July 2009 in Lahore, Pakistan. They had a boy in 2010, and a girl in 2015.
His brother-in-law Umair Fazli is a movie director, better known for making the 2016 box office success Saya e Khuda e Zuljalal.
Controversies
On 19 April 2018, fellow singer Meesha Shafi accused Ali Zafar of sexual harassment on Twitter. Ali Zafar categorically denied the allegation and said that he would take the matter to court. On 23 June 2018, Ali Zafar filed a 1 billion rupees defamation case against Shafi for slander under the Defamation Ordinance 2002, claiming that Shafi had caused "tremendous injury" to his "reputation, goodwill, livelihood" through "false, slanderous and defamatory" allegations, according to Geo News. The suit read: "As the defamatory statements are patently false, it can only be concluded that this malicious campaign has been launched against the plaintiff as part of a motivated conspiracy to tarnish the plaintiff's good image through making false accusations."
On 25 June 2018, Court issued "a permanent stay against Meesha Shafi until the final decision of the case", preventing her making further claims against Zafar. Meesha had filed a complaint to the provincial Ombudsperson under the Protection Against Harassment of Women at Workplace Act 2010, which was dismissed on 3 May 2018. Meesha filed an appeal against the order of the Ombudswoman to the Governor of Punjab who also dismissed her appeal, on the grounds that Meesha Shafi was not an employee at the time. On 10 April 2019, the court fined Meesha Shafi Rs. 10,000 over "non-appearance" of her lawyer.
On 29 April 2019, Shafi described how she had first tried to resolve her complaint privately with Zafar's representatives, but Zafar insisted she visit him. On 30 May 2019, nine eyewitnesses, including two women, denied Shafi's allegations of harassment. Kanza Muneer said in her statement that during the rehearsal, at which 11 people were present and videos were made, Zafar and Shafi maintained five to six feet distance from each other. On 11 October 2019, Lahore High Court dismissed Meesha Shafi's appeal.
In his testimony in court Ali Zafar said that he supports the #MeToo movement, which is aimed to end sexual harassment and abuse, but it had been "misused against him". Zafar claimed that it was actually Shafi's lawyer, a renowned women's rights activist who was the master mind behind the conspiracy. "Meesha Shafi's claim in her court testimony that the other women who came forward are unrelated is a complete lie. Our findings exposed that they were deeply interlinked much before the allegations. The common link seems to be Nighat Dad. They were all either working with or for her," Ali Zafar said in his testimony while presenting evidence.
On 6 July 2019, lawyer Hassan Niazi in his tweets alleged Shafi's lawyer, Nighat Dad's NGO deleted its audit report and had foreign funding.
Ali Zafar also filed a criminal case of cybercrime in the Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) and tweeted:
Ali Zafar claimed that a social media campaign was launched against him through fake accounts and allegations, proof of which he submitted in his complaint to the FIA Cyber Crime Department. Many such accounts and Facebook pages in support of Shafi were instantly deleted when Zafar highlighted them on social media.
On December 16, 2020, Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) Cyber Crime Wing found Meesha Shafi and 8 others guilty of running a defamatory drive on social media against Ali Zafar damaging his reputation.
In January 2021 the Supreme Court admitted Meesha Shafi’s plea against the dismissal of her appeal
Filmography
Films
Pakistani cinema
Hindi cinema
Television
Appearance in television commercials
Close-Up (toothpaste)
Telenor Pakistan
Tarang Tea Whitener
Pepsi
Lipton
Lay's
Mobilink
LG Mobile KG195
Nokia
QMobile
Sunlight washing powder
Sprite (drink)
Samsung Galaxy J1 Ace
Yamaha YBR125
Nestlé Fruta Vitals
Diamond Supereme Foam
Royal Fans
Good Goodies
Kashmir Cooking Oil & Banaspati
Tecno Mobile Pakistan
Zong 4G
Dabur OxyLife Men Bleach Crème (India)
Other appearances
Music video of "Preeto Mere Naal", by Abrar ul Haq
Discography
Awards and nominations
See also
List of Bollywood films
List of Indian playback singers
Music of Pakistan
History of Pakistani pop music
List of Pakistani actors
References
Notes
External links
Bollywood playback singers
Male actors in Hindi cinema
Living people
National College of Arts alumni
Pakistani male film actors
Pakistani film producers
Pakistani electronic musicians
Pakistani playback singers
Pakistani folk singers
Pakistani male models
21st-century Pakistani male singers
21st-century Pakistani singers
Pakistani pop singers
Pakistani male singer-songwriters
Pakistani singer-songwriters
Performers of Sufi music
Punjabi-language singers
Punjabi people
Government College University, Lahore alumni
Urdu-language singers
Urdu playback singers
Pakistani male television actors
Musicians from Lahore
Beaconhouse School System alumni
Male actors in Urdu cinema
Recipients of the Pride of Performance
1980 births
People from Lahore
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World%20War%20II%20Sherman%20tanks
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Post–World War II Sherman tanks
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This article deals with Sherman tanks extensive use around the world after World War II and catalogues foreign post–World War II use and conversions of Sherman tanks and variants based on the Sherman chassis.
Variant history
US Sherman tanks as foreign military aid
E4/E6 Shermans – Two of what would become the last of the US-produced Sherman tank variants. During the early 1950s, US Ordnance military depots and/or outsourced private civilian contractors installed the 76 mm M1 tank gun in the older small-type turret (designed for the original 75 mm M3 tank gun) of M4A1 and M4A3 Shermans. The USA provided these M4A1E6(76) or M4A3E4(76) Shermans to its various allies and friendly and pro-USA states in Europe and Asia (Denmark, India and Yugoslavia received M4A3E4s and Pakistan received M4A1E6s).
HVSS-type Shermans – The USA also fitted many of their postwar stocks of Sherman tanks with the more advanced Horizontal Volute Spring Suspension (HVSS) system (replacing the earlier Vertical Volute Spring Suspension (VVSS) system) and this upgraded feature would be typically noted after the main vehicle's designation (for instance, an M4A2(76)W HVSS).
Canadian
Sherman Badger – Canada's replacement of its Ram Badger Flame tank, the Sherman Badger was a turretless M4A2 HVSS Sherman with Wasp IIC flamethrower in place of hull machine gun, developed sometime from 1945 to 1949. The 150 gallons at 250 psi was effective to 125 yards, with elevation of +30 to -10 degrees and traverse of 30 degrees left and 23 degrees right. This inspired the US T68.
Sherman Kangaroo – From late World War II to the 1960s, Canada converted/used some Grizzlies (M4A1 Shermans made in Canada with different tracks and radios in 1943), at least one very similar Skink (prototype Anti-aircraft-gun on the Grizzly hull), and M4A2(76)W HVSS Shermans to Kangaroo armored personnel carriers (APCs).
Mexican
M32 Chenca – In 1998, Napco International of the USA upgraded M32B1 TRV Sherman-chassis armoured recovery vehicles with Detroit Diesel 8V-92-T diesel engines.
Indian
Indian units equipped with Sherman Vs fought in Burma. These Sherman Vs were kept in service with the Indian Army after independence and were in use well into the 1960s. India also bought 200 surplus M4A1E4(76)s and M4A3E4(76)s from the US stocks in the 1950s. Some Indian M4s were modified locally with the French 75 mm CN 75-50 cannon and some other with the Soviet 76 mm D-85 cannon. These modifications tried to benefit from the guns of AMX-13 and PT-76 tanks also used by Indian Army. Shermans remained in service with the Indian Army until 1971.
Sherman VA/M4A4(76) – although never a US production type (the 1950s US rearming with 76 mm guns was limited to M4A1 and M4A3), at least one source claims that India had one regiment partly equipped with Sherman V (British/Indian designation of M4A4) with 76 mm guns (the type of the gun is not specified but British practice added an A suffix to denote the 76 mm). India did receive the upgunned M4A3E4.
Upgunned Sherman – two regiments of Shermans re-armed with the French 75 mm gun from the AMX-13 and referred to as upgunned Shermans.
Argentina
Repotenciado – Conversions of British Sherman VC and IC Hybrid to include a diesel engine and a new armament suite, the 105 mm FTR L44/57 gun (an Argentine licensed copy of the CN-105-57 Gun used on the AMX-13), a co-axial MAG-58 machine gun, and turret pintle-mounted M2HB machine gun. (Surviving Argentinian Sherman "repotenciado").
Chilean
M50/60 – Converted Israeli M50 Shermans, which not having guns fitted at time of purchase were refitted with the IMI-OTO 60 mm High Velocity Medium Support (HVMS) gun. Claimed to be the very last fighting Shermans, they remained in Chilean service until 1999, when they were replaced by the Leopard 1V and AMX-30B2.
Egyptian
Egypt is one of the least-known users of the Sherman. Egyptian Sherman tanks saw limited combat in the Arab-Israeli wars in 1956, 1967 and 1973. This included a local version which was installed with a French AMX-13 tank's 75mm gun turret. In all, Egypt only had a small number of Sherman tanks, probably less than 150 total. Most Shermans in their service with of the M4A4 variant, purchased from the British military forces in Egypt after WWII.
M4A4 with FL-10 Turret – M4A4 fitted with the diesel engine of M4A2 and the FL-10 turret of the French AMX-13 light tank.
Israeli
At its birth, Israel had a limited number of armored vehicles, mostly scout cars and truck chassis hastily converted into armored cars. Israeli tank force consisted of old French Hotchkiss H-39 tanks and better tanks were desperately needed. Israelis searched junkyards in Palestine, Europe, and as far away as the Philippines looking for tanks. In Palestine, in a repair depot near the city of Tira, one or two ex-British rusted Shermans were found. In Italy 32 Shermans armed with 105mm howitzers were found and smuggled back to Israel, as tractors. Since these tanks came from junkyards, they were generally unserviceable and required extensive work. Some of the Italian tanks had been demilitarized and the Shermans required hard work before being delivered to the Israeli Army. After the United Nations cease-fire Israelis assembled all the leftover World War II materiél they had. Most of the tanks in service were a varied assortment of Shermans, 32 tanks with only one Sherman lost in combat. The Israelis gave the designation of M1 to its entire Sherman force. They were standardized by re-arming them with M3 guns, but still a mixture of different features existed, and additional Shermans arrived from the Philippines.
More tanks were needed by Israel. By coincidence Israel found France willing to sell surplus Shermans and provide military assistance. About 60 surplus 76mm. Shermans and spare parts and equipment was received, so two new armored Sherman brigades were created. In 1956 Israel requested France to supply 100 improved M50 Shermans, equipped with long-barreled 75mm high-velocity cannon. Many of the Egyptian tanks in the Sinai peninsula were also Shermans, so captured ones joined Israeli army. France developed the M51 Super Sherman, with a 105mm cannon with lower recoil in a modified turret. Some 200 of Israel's 300 Shermans were modified to this version.
Gun tanks
Sherman (Krupp) – Six early salvaged Shermans had a Krupp 75 mm field gun to replace the original gun destroyed during post–World War II scrapping. Later these tanks were rearmed with 105 mm M4 howitzers.
Sherman M-1 – Israeli designation of any Sherman model armed with the 76 mm gun M1.
Super Sherman M-1 – Israeli designation of M4A1(76) fitted with HVSS suspension.
Sherman M-3 (Sherman degem Alef prior to 1956) – Israeli designation of any Sherman model armed with the 75 mm gun M3.
Sherman M-4 (Sherman degem Bet prior to 1956) – Israeli designation of any Sherman model armed with the 105 mm howitzer M4.
Sherman M-50 – Upgraded Sherman with the French CN 75-50 75 mm gun, as used in the French AMX 13 light tank, in the "old" turret fitted with a counterweight. Entered service in 1956. Was used in the Suez Crisis (1956), the Six-Day War (1967) and the Yom Kippur War (1973). Sometimes colloquially misnamed as Super Sherman.
M-50 Continental – subvariant with Continental R-975 gasoline engine and VVSS suspension. 50 units converted.
M-50 Cummins – subvariant with Cummins diesel engine and HVSS suspension.
Sherman M-51 – Upgraded M4A1 (HVSS) with improved engine and T23 turret modified to fit a shortened variant of the French 105 mm Modèle F1 gun with large muzzle brake. Was used in the Six Days War and the Yom Kippur War. Sometimes colloquially referred to as Isherman. About 100 of the remaining tanks of this model were sold to Chile in late 1970s, where they received a new engine and transmission in early 1990s. All of them were replaced by ex-Dutch Leopard 1V in late 1990s
Artillery tanks
See Rocket artillery for rocket/missile tank photos.
M-50 155 mm – The M-50 was an open structured self-propelled artillery piece, mounting a single French Model 50 155 mm howitzer at the back of the hull, which was based on the "long" hull of M4A4 fitted with Continental engine (late production vehicles possibly used "short" hulls from other variants). The gun was developed in the early 1960s by Israeli Ordnance Corps in cooperation with France. Probably about 120 units were produced. In early 1970s M-50s were fitted with HVSS and Cummins diesel engines. It was used in the War of Attrition, Six Day War, Yom Kippur War and the 1982 Lebanon War. Some reserve units were armed with the M-50 at least until 1985.
Ro'em (colloquially known as L-33) – A self-propelled artillery piece mounting Soltam M-68 155 mm L/33 howitzer in large enclosed superstructure. Uses Sherman chassis with Cummins VT-8-460Bi diesel engine and HVSS. Probably about 200 units were produced. The gun saw combat in the Yom-Kippur War and the 1982 Lebanon War. Currently out of active service.
L-39 – Like L-33, but with longer (39 calibers) barrel. Apparently it was not adopted.
Makmat 160 mm – Soltam M-66 160 mm mortar mounted on a Sherman chassis, in an open-topped compartment with folding front plate. It was adopted in 1968 and used in the War of Attrition, the Yom Kippur War and the 1982 Lebanon War.
MAR-240 – In place of the turret, a side-looking launcher for 36 240 mm rockets was fitted. These were Israeli made copies of the Soviet rockets used by the BM-24 multiple launch rocket system. Apparently never reached mass production. MAR stands for Medium Artillery Rocket.
Episkopi – Similar to MAR-240, but mounting a back-looking launcher for four 290 mm ground-to-ground rockets with high-explosive/fragmentation (Ivry-1) or cluster (Haviv) warhead. Was adopted in 1973, saw combat for the first time in the 1982 Lebanon War. Is colloquially known as MAR-290, and the name Ivry is also sometimes applied to the launching vehicle. An improved launcher on the Centurion tank chassis was later developed, but remained experimental. In the 1990s was replaced in active service by the M270 MLRS.
Kilshon (Trident) or Kachlilit – The Kilshon was developed to reduce the losses suffered by SAM suppression aircraft by launching anti-radiation missiles from the ground. The Kilshon was based on turretless hull of the Sherman M-51 on which an AGM-45 Shrike anti-radiation missile launcher was mounted. To deliver the desired range, a specially modified AGM-45 with booster was used. Later a prototype was developed for use with the AGM-78 Standard anti-radiation missile, but with the retirement of Shermans from IDF service the Keres (Hook) system was placed onto a heavy truck chassis for the finalized design instead.
Support tanks
See Armoured recovery vehicle for TRV/ARV photo.
Sherman Morag – Israeli designation of Sherman Crab mine flail vehicle.
Trail Blazer (Gordon) – A recovery/engineering vehicle based on HVSS equipped M4A1s, it featured a large single boom crane (as opposed to the A-Frame of the M32) and large spades at the front and rear of the vehicle to assist in lifting. It could also tow up to 72 tons.
Sherman Medical Evacuation Tank (Ambutank) – A radical conversion of the M4 with the turret removed and the powerplant (changed to a diesel engine) moved to the front of the tank. A medical team and four casualties could be carried in an armoured compartment at the rear. Early vehicles were based on M4A1 hulls with VVSS suspension and are often referred to as "VVSS version". Later vehicles used hulls with HVSS suspension and were fitted with a big boxy superstructure. This version is often referred to as "HVSS version". Many were used during the Israeli-Egyptian War of Attrition (1968–70) and the Yom Kippur War.
Eyal Observation Post Vehicle – A Sherman that had the turret replaced with a 27 m (90 foot) tall hydraulically erected observation platform. This was used near the Suez Canal as a mobile observation post, before the Yom Kippur War.
Japan
A single M4A3(76)W HVSS modified and tested with a T53 turboshaft engine from 1969 to 1971.
Civilian variants
After World War II, demilitarized Shermans were widely available and relatively cheap. Many were heavily modified for use in the construction, forestry, and mining industries. Often, the turret and upper hull were completely removed and replaced with whatever equipment was required for the vehicle's new role.
The Finning Tank Drill, a rock drill used in logging road construction, was produced for many years in British Columbia, with the models M32F and M40F using Sherman chassis. The M32F utilized the standard M4 VVSS suspension while the M40F used the HVSS system. The earlier M4 tank drill used the M4 High Speed Tractor as a carrier. Traxxon also produced a similar machine using the HVSS suspension. Also built and used in British Columbia was the Madill 071 minitower yarder. This was a Sherman undercarriage, either original or a new mild steel copy, with a 45 ft tower and 3 working cable drums mounted on top built for cable logging.
A Canadian company, Morpac Industries, Inc., still produces heavy-duty, off-road load carriers based on Sherman components. These vehicles are used in the construction of electricity transmission lines in remote areas.
In 1947 Vickers produced the Shervick which was a Sherman chassis converted into a heavy tractor. It was designed for clearing land for peanut farming in Tanganyika.
Service history
Canada
Canada left all its wartime Shermans in Europe, giving them to the Dutch and Belgian armies. In 1946, Canada purchased 300 M4A2 76mm (W) HVSS Shermans. Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians) operated a squadron of US-loaned M4A3(76)W HVSS in the Korean War. The Shermans were replaced in the Regular Force with the Centurion in the late 1950s, and remained in use in reserve armoured regiments until 1970.
Canada used Grizzly/Skink Kangaroo APC variants into the 1950s and beginning in 1954 transferred at least 40 to Portugal, some of which were found in a Portuguese scrapyard in 1995. When Canada's post–World War II M4A2(76)W HVSS Shermans were obsolete, it also converted some to Kangaroos and used them into the 1960s until replacement by M113s. A proposed purpose-built Canadian armored vehicle, the Bobcat, never materialized.
Europe
Greece
Greece was believed never to have used the Sherman tank, although several British Shermans were in action in Athens during the Communist insurrection of 1944, in support of government forces. During the Greek Civil War, which followed, in the generally mountainous terrain where fighting invariably took place, like at the battle of Mount Grammos in 1949, the favoured tank was the lighter British Centaur, or "Kentavros" in Greek, a variation of the Cromwell tank, a few of which were made available earlier to the National Army. However, at least until 1985 two Sherman turrets, probably M4A2, single-hatch version, minus the guns and set on concrete bases as improvised bunkers, could be seen in the Greek Army's School for Army Engineers at Loutraki, their presence at odds with the commonly accepted view that the Greek Army used only recovery vehicles based on the Sherman and not gun tanks. Recently digitized footage indicates the use of at least one Sherman Tankdozer, probably a M4A4, by the Hellenic Army seen during a visit to Greece by General Eisenhower (see links section below).
Italy
Italy used Shermans with 75 mm and 17 pdr gun and 105 mm howitzer.
France
France used numerous Shermans until the early 1950s. The French Army used Sherman tanks in the First Indochina War in the Régiment blindé colonial d'Extrême-Orient (RBCEO). It was also used by the French Forces in Germany and during the Algerian War. When more modern tanks were introduced into the French Army, the Shermans were partly taken over by the Gendarmerie who employed them in Paris during the putsch of 1961.
Yugoslavia
When Yugoslavian leader Tito withdrew from and opposed the USSR's influence shortly after the Cold War began from the late 1940s, Yugoslavia received as military aid American tanks and military vehicles, including M4A3E4 tanks that were later retrofitted with the M1A1 76 mm tank gun and designated M-634. Other versions of the M-634 used the M3 76mm tank gun. Both M-634 variants were equipped with two M1919A4 7.62mm machine guns as a secondary armament. Another M4A3E4 was equipped with a 122 mm A-19 cannon, called the SO-122. Some of these Shermans were used during the various conflicts and wars in former Yugoslavia at the dawn of its break-up throughout the 1990s.
Other regional nations
Denmark and Portugal used M4A3E4 Shermans provided by the US, which were armed with the US 76 mm M1 tank gun. Both Belgium and the Netherlands used M4A1 and M4A2 Shermans (Sherman IIs and IIIs respectively) and former British-made Firefly tanks until during the late 1950s, with the howitzer-equipped version of the Sherman remaining under military service for much longer (at least with the Netherlands), with the Dutch Marine Corps finally phasing all of them out by the beginning of the 1970s.
Asia
China
Starting from 1946, a significant number of US-supplied Shermans (together with American M3/M5 Stuart light tanks, received under the Lend-Lease program of WWII, as well) saw combat action with Nationalist Chinese (Kuomintang) forces against communist Chinese troops, especially during the Huaihai Campaign of the Chinese Civil War. A few Nationalist Shermans ended up being captured by communist forces as the former retreated and were forced off the mainland. After the Republic of China relocated to Taiwan in 1949, the United States supplied both M4 and M4A1 Shermans to the Nationalist Chinese military.
India and Pakistan
British Raj possessed a sizeable number of ex-British Shermans at the time of its partition in 1947 and the M4 found itself in both Indian and Pakistani military inventories. During the 1950s, another 200 Shermans were bought by Pakistan from the US. During the 1960s, India operated both M4A3 and M4A4 Shermans equipped with 75 mm main guns and some Shermans displayed as war memorials and military monuments across India still mount the French CN 75-50 75 mm tank gun (the same used on the French AMX-13 light tank). India also upgunned some of its Shermans with Soviet D-56T 76.2mm tank guns that were also carried by Indian PT-76 amphibious light tanks bought from the Soviet Union. During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, the Indian Army sent their Shermans to fight alongside and support their smaller fleet of Centurion main battle tanks (MBTs), with little doubt, the most capable and powerful tank India could field against modern Pakistani armour (such as the American M47 Patton) during the various tank battles of the war, such as at the Battle of Asal Uttar (a major armoured clash in that conflict) and were to remain in frontline combat service with the Indian Army until 1971. A number of similar Sexton self-propelled guns (SPGs) were also in Indian military service until around the 1980s.
Pakistan also received ex-British Shermans in 1947, most of which had the US 76 mm tank gun fitted on. Pakistan also bought 547 M4A1E4(76)s from the USA (one of its major allies since the end of the 1940s) during the 1950s. Around 300 of Pakistan's M4s saw their fair share of combat against various types of Indian armour (ranging from the then-already-obsolete American M3 Stuart light tank, also including same or similar Shermans in Indian military service as well, to the modern British Centurion MBT) in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 and the second one in 1971. After 1971, the Pakistani Army retired their M4s from active military service. At the time of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Pakistan owned 200 Shermans which were armed with 76 mm main guns. The Sherman fought on both Indian and Pakistani sides in the Second Kashmir War (otherwise known more widely as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965) as well as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Some of the surviving Shermans from both wars between the two South Asian nations are on display all across both countries, in India as well as in Pakistan, with the latter having at least one of its Shermans displayed at the Pakistan Army Museum.
Iran
Iran received an unknown number of 76mm gun-armed Shermans (those fitted with the HVSS-type suspension system) from the USA (one of its most important allies during the Cold War until 1979) during the 1950s and at least some were used in combat starting from 1980, when it saw military action against much-more modern Iraqi tanks, such as the Soviet T-55 MBT, during the Iran–Iraq War which began in that same year. The Sherman fared badly in battle against the advanced types of armour (primarily Soviet) fielded by the Iraqi Army and, consequently, many Iranian Shermans were lost, which enabled Iraq to capture a sizeable quantity during the conflict (some of these former Iranian Shermans were even chanced upon and discovered by US troops and Coalition forces when they jointly invaded Iraq in 2003). While it is unknown as to how and when, Iraq also managed to possess at least a single M-50 Sherman (supposedly an Israeli Army tank and a captured one) and has it put on display in the city of Tikrit.
Japan
The Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) received 250 M4A3(76)W HVSS "Easy Eight" Shermans and 80 of the related M32 TRV in 1954. The locally developed and indigenous Type 61 tank only gradually and slowly replaced American-supplied tanks over the decade of the 1960s. Aside from Japan, the Philippine Army was also another Asian operator of the M4 Sherman following WWII, as was the militaries of both Indonesia and South Vietnam.
South Korea
The Republic of Korea Armed Forces received 388 M4A3E8 HVSS Shermans from the US during and after the Korean War. During the war, they were primarily used by the ROK Marine Corps for training armored units. In combat, they provided direct fire support against enemy infantry alongside M36 Jackson tank destroyers of the ROK Army. They were used by both the Army and the Marines into the late 50s and early 60s, before being replaced by the M47 and M48 Patton series tanks.
Middle East
Israel
The Israeli Defense Forces used American M4 Shermans as early as in the 1948 war. Israel obtained her first Shermans through stealing them, buying them in the Philippines or getting demilitarized ones from scrapyards around Europe. The first one, nicknamed Meir, was obtained in May 1948; the British Army intended it for destruction, but soldiers handed it over to Hagana instead, that fitted it with a 75mm gun. One more was found at scrapyard in Israel and armed initially with an external mounted 20mm gun (the tank was named "Tamar") and later a 75mm gun. Other similar covertly acquired ex-British Sherman tanks were named "Ada" and "Ruth II". In November 1948 35 more were purchased from Italian scrapyards. All these were non-operational, only 4 were completely repaired until the end of the war and 14 by November (some necessitated re-arming with the Krupp 75 mm field gun). By late 1953 Israel had 76 operational Shermans and 131 nonoperational.
By 1956, Israel had at least 200 Sherman tanks, including 60 Shermans provided by France, and the Sherman became the standard tank in the Israeli armored units. In March 1956, Israel began to upgrade Shermans with French CN 75-50 75 mm guns to create the Sherman M-50. The first 25 M-50s were finished just in time for the October 1956 Operation Kadesh in the Sinai against the Egyptian Army. The first 50 M-50 tanks had the Continental R-975 gasoline engine and VVSS suspension, the rest had a Cummins diesel engine and HVSS suspension. During the Sinai Campaign Israel captured M4A3 tanks from Egyptians.
After 1956 France sold to Israel its Sherman surplus. In the 1960s, 180 M4A1(76) Sherman tanks began conversion to the diesel-powered Sherman M-51 standard with HVSS and French CN 105 F1 105 mm gun to counter T-54/55 tanks bought by Arab countries. Both M-50s and M-51s saw combat in the Six-Day War and M-50s were also employed in the 1973 Yom Kippur War. All M-50s with Continental engines were retired by 1972.
M-50s with the Cummins engine and M-51s were gradually phased out in the late 1970s to early 1980s. In total, about 620 Sherman tanks were purchased by Israel in 1948–1967, many being converted to local version (howitzer, mortars, etc.).
Egypt
Egypt purchased Shermans from Britain prior to the Arab-Israeli War of 1948 (the first major clash between the newly established state of Israel and its neighbouring Arab states (particularly Egypt) which were extremely hostile to it) and used at least 3 in that conflict against Israel. Egypt purchased more M4A2s (Sherman IIIs) and M4A4s (Sherman Vs) from the UK after 1948 but soon switched to purchasing and operating Soviet tanks and armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs), such as the T-34/85 and the SU-100. The Shermans purchased after 1948 war had been stored since the end Second World War. The Egyptians re-built their Shermans, same as the Israelis did, but had much less success.
The Egyptian military used Sherman tanks against Israel, which was supported by the UK and France, in the Suez Crisis war of 1956, losing about 40 tanks, either destroyed or captured by Israel. Before 1956 Egypt had fitted some of their Shermans with the FL-10 tank turret of the French AMX-13 light tank and changed the diesel engines of their M4A4s with those from their M4A2s. By 1967, surviving Shermans were deemed outdated by the Egyptian military, so Egypt handed over the remaining 30 left to the 20th Palestinian Division based in the Gaza Strip, thus forming their one and only tank battalion. Eventually, at least half of the division's tanks would be captured or destroyed by Israel during the Six-Day War.
Syria
Syria possessed at least one turretless M4A1 tank (possibly converted into an armoured personnel carrier) at some point between 1948 and 1956.
Africa
Uganda acquired a number of ex-Israeli M4A1(76)W tanks (comprising both VVSS-type and HVSS-type Shermans) and at least some of these were fitted with smoke-dischargers and operated them during the early part of the era of the dictatorial regime of Idi Amin (around the time when he was still friendly to Israel and enjoyed Israeli backing and support).
Americas
Many countries in Latin America (a large number of which were closely aligned with or allied with the U.S. throughout much of the era of the Cold War) operated the Sherman for a long period of time following World War II.
North and Central America
Cuba
Cuba purchased at least seven Sherman tanks from the U.S. (the variants are unknown but what is clear is that they were very likely equipped with newer HVSS-type suspension systems and armed with a 76mm main gun) to field in the fighting against the left-wing nationalist guerrillas and rebels under Fidel Castro. Some of these tanks saw combat action against Castro's fighters during the Battle of Santa Clara and at least one was captured by the victorious rebels after the government military forces were defeated. The captured Shermans used by the rebels were displayed on parade when they triumphantly entered Havana while riding on them. While it still remains unclear, it is believed that there was possibly one Sherman used by the defending Cuban Army against the U.S.-sponsored invasion of Castro's Cuba (carried out by anti-communist Cuban exiles backed by the American CIA) at the Bay of Pigs (Playa Girón). Most of the tanks and armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs) the Cuban Army used at the battle were Soviet, such as the T-34/85 and the SU-100.
Nicaragua
In Central America, Nicaragua operated four M4A3 Sherman tanks (mainly HVSS-type Shermans). It was in Nicaragua where the Sherman most likely saw action in combat for the last time, during the civil war raging in the country at the end of the 1970s. During the Sandinista Revolution between 1978 and 1979, the Nicaraguan National Guard made use of their Sherman tanks in pitched urban warfare against the fighting rebels and the insurrection. Shortly after the Sandinistas took over political power and seized control of the whole country, the new (reformed) Nicaraguan Army received more modern Soviet-made tanks (such as the T-55 MBT) and the older Shermans soon disappeared and vanished from the country's military scene (they were most likely scrapped).
Mexico
Mexico only possesses 3 armoured recovery vehicle (ARV) variants of the Sherman (no gun tanks) and in 1998 upgraded them to become the M32 Chenca TRV (Tank Recovery Vehicle).
South America
The Chilean Army acquired ex-Israeli Shermans for conversion to become their M-60 Sherman variant, fitted with a 60 mm Hyper Velocity Medium Support (HVMS) tank gun, which were used until at least 1989 (possibly even much later, probably until 1999), when they were replaced by French AMX-30 and German Leopard 1 main battle tanks (MBTs).
Paraguay had 10 Shermans in active-duty military service as of 2016, which were predominantly used for operational training and support, in addition to another 5 that are kept in storage and were usually deployed for parades. These Shermans were retired from service in April 2018.
Chronological list of wars/conflicts the Sherman tank was involved in
1939–1945: World War II (saw action between 1942 and 1945)
1927–1949: Chinese Civil War (saw action between 1946 and 1949, following WWII)
1945–1949: Indonesian National Revolution
1946–1954: First Indochina War
1948: Arab–Israeli War of 1948
1946–1949: Greek Civil War
1950–1953: Korean War
1956: Suez Crisis
1958: Lebanon Crisis
1953–1959: Cuban Revolution
1961: Bay of Pigs invasion
1963: Azules y colorados revolt in Argentina
1965: Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
1967: Six-Day War
1971: Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
1973: Yom Kippur War
1978–1979: Tanzanian-Ugandan War
1978–1979: Nicaraguan Revolution
1975–1990: Lebanese Civil War
1991–1999 (lasted until as late as 2001): Yugoslav Wars
See also
M50 Super Sherman
M4 Sherman
Lend-Lease Sherman tanks
Israel Defense Forces (IDF)
Japan Self Defense Forces (JSDF)
Republic of Korea Armed Forces (ROK Armed Forces)
Notes
References
Printed
R. P. Hunnicutt, Sherman: A History of the American Medium Tank, Presidio Press, Novato, CA, 1994
Foss, Christopher F; McKenzie, Peter (1988).The Vickers tanks From Landships to Challenger. Patrick Stephens Limited..
Online
Oleg Granovskiy - Names, Designations and Service Figures of IDF Armored Vehicles (Олег Грановский - Названия, обозначения и количества бронетанковой техники АОИ) at Waronline.org
External links
M4 Sherman photo galleries
M4 Sherman photo galleries
Sherman photo galleries
New photo Paraguayan Sherman
Hellenic Army Sherman Tankdozer
Tanks Encyclopedia website - Sherman Repotenciado (accessed 2020-07-11)
Further reading
Sigal Fogliani, Ricardo (1997). Blindados Argentinos, de Uruguay y Paraguay. Ayer y Hoy, Buenos Aires.
Aftermath of World War II
Medium tanks of the Cold War
Sherman
Tanks of Argentina
M4 Sherman tanks
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwai%20Chang%20Caine
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Kwai Chang Caine
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Kwai Chang Caine () is a fictional character and the protagonist of the ABC 1972–1975 action-adventure western television series Kung Fu. He has been portrayed by David Carradine as an adult Caine, Keith Carradine as a younger Caine, Radames Pera as the child Caine, and Stephen Manley as the youngest Caine.
In late 19th century China, Kwai Chang Caine was the orphaned son of an American man and a Chinese woman. He was raised in a Shaolin Monastery in Hunan Province and was trained by the monks to be a Shaolin master. Kwai Chang Caine follows his adventures as he travels to the American Old West (armed only with his skill in martial arts) as he seeks his half-brother, Danny Caine. Although it was his intention to find his brother Danny in a way that would escape notice, the demands of his training as a priest in addition to his sense of social responsibility, which was instilled within him during his childhood, forced Caine to repeatedly come into the open to fight for justice. He would then leave his new surroundings in a further search for anonymity and security.
In the Shaolin arts, monks live in temples and most stay their entire lives. Once they become masters and leave the temple, they are referred to as priests. In real-world Shaolin, both monks and priests shave their heads and some remain celibate. However, Caine grew his hair long and occasionally had intimate relations with women in the series.
Development
Regarding the origins of the character and the series concept, see Kung Fu: Bruce Lee's involvement
Regarding the issue of the actor's casting, see Kung Fu: Casting controversy
In a May 1973 interview by Black Belt Magazine to John Furia Jr., the series story editor, expresses his view of the character: “Essentially, the story is one of contrast. It is about a man of peace and love placed in a violent time and place – the 1870s in the American West. It is parallel to today’s atmosphere. We emphasize love and peace, yet we are experiencing violent times.
“The point of view of the series is enormously appealing to all people. Caine avoids violence as much as he can. When he does occasionally get involved, it is not glamorized. On the contrary, it is depicted as sad and unglamorous.
“The story also deals with inner serenity which comes from a person being in touch and in communion with his own senses and his own self and, hopefully, in touch with his entire universe; or, putting it simply, one with the universe, one with nature. It is tremendously contemporary.
“People today are attempting to live in communes. They want to get away from the clutter, pressure, and brutality of contemporary society. They feel they are depersonalized. There is a tremendous similarity between Caine and them.”
Synopsis
Orphaned after his maternal grandfather's death, Caine eventually found himself outside the local Shaolin temple along with other hopeful candidates. After waiting patiently for several days, Caine and the few other remaining candidates were taken inside the temple where only Caine passed a subtle test in manners. Although taking a student of mixed parentage into the order was unprecedented, the head monk Master Kan (Philip Ahn) sagely noted, "There is a first for everything," and welcomed Caine.
Following his induction into the order, Caine then lived in the temple until adulthood, mastering many of the fighting forms and lessons taught by the Shaolin monks (Crane, Snake, Praying Mantis, Tiger, and Dragon). At one point during his training he was shown the various forms and Master Kan explained that it may take half a lifetime to master one of the forms. Later, while in the US, when asked by a student which forms he teaches, Caine's response was, "All of them" (a tribute to Master Kan, who had answered young Caine similarly when asked the same question).
One of his first instructors was the blind master named Po (Keye Luke). Po considered Caine his favorite pupil and behaved more like an elderly grandfather. Caine was given the nickname "Grasshopper" by Master Po; the reference was from an exchange where the still ignorant young Caine asked the old blind master how he could function without seeing. Po asked Caine to close his eyes and describe what he could hear. Caine explained that he could hear the water flowing in a nearby fountain and birds in a nearby cage. Po then asked if Caine could hear his own heartbeat or the grasshopper at his feet (Caine hadn't noticed the insect until that moment). Incredulous, Caine asked Po, "Old man – how is it that you hear these things?" Po's reply was, "Young man, how is it that you do not?" From that point on, Po affectionately called Caine "Grasshopper".
Years after his graduation, Caine traveled to the Forbidden City to meet Po, whose lifelong ambition had been to travel to a festival at the Temple of Heaven on that date, the full moon of May - the 13th day of the 5th month in the Year of the Dog (May 13, 1874). While they were talking together in the street, the Emperor's nephew and his entourage came along and an altercation ensued when a guard tried to push Po aside and was sent sprawling by the blind Shaolin. While defending himself from the other guards, Master Po was shot by the Emperor's nephew. Before the nephew could reload his pistol, the enraged Caine seized a guard's fallen spear and killed the Imperial nephew. With his dying words, Po gave Caine his pouch containing his few worldly possessions and instructed Caine to flee from China as there would be both no place to hide and a price on his head. Before he fled China, Caine returned to the temple to confess his deed to Master Kan. Later, Imperial guards attacked and stormed the temple, only to find it deserted (the monks had fled before the army's arrival); in retaliation, they burned the temple to the ground.
At first, Caine tried to flee to Tibet but was unsuccessful. He then escaped to the American Old West and in the first-season episode "Dark Angel" discovered from his grandfather Henry Caine (Dean Jagger) that he had a half-brother named Daniel. While he searched for Danny, he was on the run from a steady stream of bounty hunters and Chinese agents, some of whom were also Shaolin priests like himself, searching for him. In the pilot episode when another priest arrived to take him into custody, telling Caine that he had been searching for him for many weeks and that it had long been known he had fled to the US, Caine said to him, "For money? A Shaolin monk does not sell himself for a handful of rice." The monk's reply was, "You are more than a handful of rice" (the price placed on Caine's head by the Imperial government being $10,000 alive, $5,000 dead). Caine's hanfu was seen as gold with a red belt and the symbol of an open hand on the back (indicating that he is a master of all five forms), while his opponent was black with a maroon belt and the symbol of a snake on the back. In the ensuing fight, Caine killed the monk.
The conflict between a desire for anonymity and a sense of social responsibility is conveyed through the frequent use of flashbacks. In these flashbacks, the adult Caine (Carradine) recalls a particular lesson during his training in the monastery, taught to him by Master Po and Master Kan.
During the concluding four episodes of the third and final season, Caine found not only his brother Daniel but his nephew Zeke as well.
Characteristics and skills
Caine's training involved both armed and unarmed combat. He was also tutored in eastern philosophy and herbal medicine. Upon graduation, he attained the rank of Shaolin Master and exited the temple via a special corridor designed as a last test. Barring the exit was a cauldron filled with hot coals, whose rim bore dragon and tiger figures on its underside, directly across from each other. By lifting the cauldron with his forearms and moving it aside, the graduate branded himself with the figures; the burns and the scars they left behind served to indicate his new status. On several occasions, Caine's scars identified him as a Shaolin monk to those familiar with Chinese culture.
Caine is humble, intelligent, inquisitive, and usually very soft-spoken. His only known pastimes are playing a bamboo flute and meditation. Caine is fluent in both Cantonese and English. He is also skilled in herbalism and healing.
Love life
As Caine explained to his brother in the fourth-to-last episode of the series, "Full Circle", the Shaolin life "is not one of restriction". Caine frequently had romantic relationships with women and even contemplated marriage on at least two occasions.
In the first episode, "King of the Mountain", Lara Parker plays a widowed ranch owner with whom Caine finds employment. She offers him money for his labors, but he refuses saying that all he needs is food and place to sleep. She presses him and insists there must be more he needs (i.e., sex). It is subtly implied that she eventually supplies what he needs. It is also implied that she is attracted by the "tattoos" on his forearms.
In the episode "The Tide", Caine falls in love with Su Yen, played by Tina Chen, the daughter of a philosopher and author with whom Caine is familiar. The town Sheriff recognizes Kwai Chang from the Wanted Poster. While in custody, Kwai Chang is wounded. He escapes, and Su Yen hides him in a cave at the beach. There are scenes of passionate kissing, after which Su Yen is shown waking on the sleeping mat and reaching out for Kwai Chang, only to find that he is not there. The scenes strongly indicate that Kwai Chang and Su Yen had made love. It turns out that Su Yen, however, seeks to trade Caine to the Emperor in exchange for her father who is imprisoned in China.
The two-part second-season episode, "Cenotaph", relates an episode from Caine‘s past, when the Emperor's favorite concubine, Mayli Ho (played by Nancy Kwan) takes Caine's virginity. Caine falls in love with her, even contemplating marriage. It is because she truly loves him that Mayli ultimately rejects a devastated Caine, knowing her lifestyle and ways would eventually destroy him and all that he stands for. The third season episode, "The Forbidden Kingdom", depicts Caine's first days on the run after killing the Emperor's nephew. In his efforts to flee China and escape the Emperor's men, Caine meets Po Li, played by Adele Yoshioka. At first, Po Li betrays Caine in order to save her brother who is the Emperor's prisoner. Eventually, she redeems herself and aids in Caine's escape, telling him, "I will have much to remember". Caine will not learn until many years later that this brief, one-time union resulted in the conception of a son, Chung Wang, played by Brandon Lee (Bruce Lee's son) in the 1986 made for TV movie, Kung Fu: The Movie.
In the waning days of her relationship with David Carradine, Barbara Hershey appeared in a season three two-part episode, "Besieged". She played the role of Nan Chi, a half-Chinese, half-Caucasian woman who wanted to become a disciple of the Shaolin. She and Kwai Chang clearly fall in love, but the relationship is never consummated as Kwai Chang, still a disciple in this flashback episode, did not lose his virginity until after he had left the monastery, as previously depicted in the second season. Nan Chi is mortally wounded while saving Kwai Chang's life. As she lies dying, she asks Caine to pretend with her that they are married and have a child. He says, "Only live, Nan Chi, and it will be true."
Caine takes employment from Ellie, a widowed ranch owner who does not feel that food and a place to sleep is enough compensation for all that Caine has done for her. Thus, Caine has sexual relations with her. In this third-season episode, "A Small Beheading", Ellie is played by Rosemary Forsyth.
Teachers
Master Chen Ming Kan: (Philip Ahn)
Master Po: (Keye Luke)
Master Sun: (Richard Loo)
Master Teh: (John Leoning)
Master Ling: (Victor Sen Yung)
Master Ywang Kyu: (James Hong)
Master Hake Tao: (Sam Hiona)
Master Kwan Li: (James Shigeta)
Known relatives
Kung Fu
Father: Thomas Henry Caine (Bill Fletcher)
Mother: Kwai Lin
Half brother: Daniel "Danny" Caine (Tim McIntire)
Uncle: American farmer
Grandfather: Henry Rafael Caine (Dean Jagger)
Grandmother: Elizabeth Hale Caine
Nephew: Ezekiel "Zeke" Caine (John Blyth Barrymore)
Cousin: Margit Kingsley McLean (Season Hubley)
Cousin: John "Johnny" Kingsley McLean (Edward Albert)
Kung Fu: The Movie
Son: Chung Wang (Brandon Lee)
Kung Fu: The Next Generation
Great-grandson: Kwai Chang Caine (David Darlow)
Great-great-grandson: Kwai Chang "Johnny" Caine (Brandon Lee). The youngest Caine in the family line wished to be known as "Johnny" to break the tradition of all the male descendants of the original Caine being named "Kwai Chang". His father is initially reluctant to do so, but eventually accepts his son's wishes.
Kung Fu: The Legend Continues
Distant ancestor: Kwai Chang (the first of the line, 1500 years before the Old West time in which Kung Fu is set, about 350 AD)
Son: Matthew Caine
Grandson: Kwai Chang Caine
Grandson: Damon Caine
Grandson: Martin Bradshaw (half-brother of Kwai Chang Caine and Damon Caine)
Great-grandson: Peter Caine (the last of the line; played as a boy by Nathaniel Moreau and Robert Bednarski, and as an adult by Chris Potter)
Caine's name
The character was called Kwai Chang Caine in the Ed Spielman and Howard Friedlander's original feature movie script, and it was written that way in Caine's wanted poster that appeared in the series from the pilot onwards and until Kung Fu: The Movie.
However, in s3e04 episode A Small Beheading, Captain Brandywine Gage (played by William Shatner) presents Caine with a scroll written in Chinese. As the camera pans down the scroll, the Chinese characters for Caine's name appear for the first time in the series:
note: in Chinese, the surname is written first
The Zhangzhou accented Amoy pronunciation of the characters most closely matches the English spelling of Caine's name. However, in the series, Caine attended the Shaolin Temple in Henan province, where the priests likely spoke Mandarin.
This discrepancy, caused by the series prop department, adds to the mistakes the series writers made regarding Chinese names in general and Caine's in particular. In episode s2e20 Arrogant Dragon, Caine talks with a man called Wu Chang:
"I am Caine. In China, I am called Kwai Chang."
"Of what province?"
"My mother’s family is from Hebei province."
"Then we are both Changs of Hebei. Five hundred years ago, we were of the same family."
Suggesting that "Chang" was a sort of maternal family name, which is not a concept in Chinese surnames. On the other hand, in episode s3e20 The Brothers Caine, the first time Caine meets his brother Danny and this one has him at gunpoint, Caine explains:
"If you cannot believe me, please listen. Our father was Thomas Henry Caine. Our grandfather was Henry Raphael Caine, a maker of stone images. Your mother was Elizabeth Chambers. My mother was Kwai Lin, a Chinese woman our father met on his travels in the East."
This time it is "Kwai" which appears as a maternal surname, contradicting both the other episode and Chinese usage. At any rate, both "Kwai" and "Chang" are Chinese names, and both have a presence as surnames.
Spin-offs
In 1986, Kung Fu: The Movie premiered as a made-for-TV movie. In reality, the movie was the pilot for a new series in which Caine finds himself hunted by the father of the royal nephew killed by Caine in the original pilot. The royal's primary weapon against Caine is a young man named Chung Wang, who is (unknowingly) Caine's adult son (played by Brandon Lee).
In 1993, a new TV series begun, Kung Fu: The Legend Continues, wherein Carradine played the grandson of the original Caine. Identical in appearance to and named after the first Kwai Chang Caine, this Caine was reunited with his son from whom he was separated fifteen years previously (when each thought the other had died in an explosion). Raised by a Los Angeles policeman, the son is now a police detective who has long since abandoned his boyhood Shaolin training. This series ran for four seasons and 88 episodes. This show made no references to previous two TV movies and acts as an alternative sequel to the original series.
David Carradine made one final appearance as Caine in The Gambler Returns: The Luck of the Draw, part of The Gambler telefilm series, which starred singer Kenny Rogers and was inspired by his hit song, “The Gambler”. Luck of the Draw also featured the final appearance of Chuck Connors as Lucas McCain, Hugh O'Brian as Wyatt Earp, and Jack Kelly as Bart Maverick.
Notes
References
Pilato, Herbie J. The Kung Fu Book of Caine: The Complete Guide to TV's First Mystical Eastern Western. Boston: Charles A. Tuttle, 1993.
Television characters introduced in 1972
Adoptee characters in television
Fictional Shaolin kung fu practitioners
Fictional Shé Quán practitioners
Fictional male martial artists
Kung Fu (1972 TV series)
Fictional Buddhist monks
Fictional immigrants to the United States
Orphan characters in television
Western (genre) heroes and heroines
Fictional vigilantes
Fictional musicians
Fictional orphans
Fictional adoptees
Fictional vegan and vegetarian characters
pt:Kwai Chang Caine
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Day%20After%20Tomorrow%20%28TV%20special%29
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The Day After Tomorrow (TV special)
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The Day After Tomorrow (also known as Into Infinity in the United Kingdom) is a 1975 British science-fiction television special produced by Gerry Anderson between the two series of Space: 1999. Written by Johnny Byrne and directed by Charles Crichton, it stars Brian Blessed, Joanna Dunham, Nick Tate, Katharine Levy and Martin Lev, with narration by Ed Bishop. Set in a future where environmental damage on Earth threatens the survival of humanity, The Day After Tomorrow follows the interstellar mission of Altares, a science vessel that uses photon energy to travel at the speed of light. After leaving the Solar System and reaching Alpha Centauri, their primary destination, the crew of Altares push deeper into space; there, they encounter phenomena including a meteor shower, a red giant and, finally, a black hole, which pulls the ship into another universe.
Originally commissioned to produce a child-friendly introduction to Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity, Anderson and Byrne conceived The Day After Tomorrow as a pilot for a TV series, with the episode title "Into Infinity". Anderson was ultimately unable to raise funding for additional episodes, making the pilot a standalone special. With a cast and crew that included veterans of earlier Anderson productions, The Day After Tomorrow was filmed between July and September 1975; this comprised 10 days' principal photography and six weeks' special effects shooting. The visual style of Space: 1999 provided inspiration to both effects artist Martin Bower, who built the scale models, and production designer Reg Hill, who recycled sets from Space: 1999 to create the Altares interiors. The theme music was composed by newcomer Derek Wadsworth.
The Day After Tomorrow was first broadcast in the United States in December 1975 as the third episode of NBC's after-school series Special Treat. In the UK, it was transmitted on BBC1 as a special, first in December 1976 and again in December 1977; a re-edited version aired on BBC Four in November 2014. Critical responses to The Day After Tomorrow have been mixed: while its model effects and music have been praised, it has divided opinion with its "psychedelic" images, which have been compared to the visual style of film director Stanley Kubrick. In addition, the story has been criticised for lacking suspense due to the fact that it was devised primarily to educate, rather than entertain. A novelisation by Douglas R. Mason was cancelled after the planned TV series failed to appear; a new novelisation by Gregory L. Norris was published in 2017.
Plot
In the future, human survival is threatened by rising pollution, environmental damage and depletion of the Earth's natural resources. A narrator (Ed Bishop) introduces the science vessel Altares as the first spacecraft to "harness the limitless power of the photon". This allows it to move at the speed of light, potentially causing "effects predicted by Einstein's theory of relativity – effects that could shrink the very fabric of space, distort time, and perhaps alter the structure of the universe as we understand it."
Altares and a crew of five are due to depart Space Station Delta for Alpha Centauri to seek out Earth-like planets for colonisation. As astronauts travelling at light speed age more slowly than their families on Earth, the crew is made up of two whole "family units": Captain Harry Masters and his daughter Jane, and Doctors Tom and Anna Bowen and their son David. Docking at Delta in a United Nations shuttle, Tom, Anna and David board Altares and Jane leaves her dog Spring in the care of station commander Jim Forbes prior to departure. Captain Masters engages Altares photon drive and the ship begins its 4.3-light-year journey to Alpha Centauri. As Altares leaves the Solar System, Jane and David observe how Pluto turns blue, then red, due to the shortening and lengthening of light waves caused by the Doppler effect.
Arriving at Alpha Centauri, the crew launch a series of satellites to transmit data back to Earth. Having completed their primary objective, they agree to push deeper into space. When Altares encounters a star cluster, Anna tells Jane of Einstein's discoveries in special relativity and unified field theory. Shortly after, the ship is hit by a meteor shower that damages key systems and causes the photon drive to re-activate, hurling the ship through space at incredible speed and knocking the travellers unconscious. A fail-safe halts the ship within the gravitational field of a red giant on the brink of supernova. Captain Masters dons a heat suit and enters the reactor core in a dangerous bid to repair the photon drive by hand. He succeeds, and Anna and Jane pilot the ship away from the star before it explodes.
After detecting a signal from Delta, the travellers are able to calculate their position and set a course for Earth. However, disaster strikes when Altares is caught in the pull of a black hole. Although the ship cannot reach the faster-than-light speeds needed to break free, Anna believes that the hole may lead to another universe and urges her companions not to give up hope. Crossing the event horizon, the travellers experience mind-bending space-time distortions. They emerge on the other side of the hole safe and well, albeit unable to return home. As Altares approaches an unknown planet, the narrator concludes: "One thing is sure – this is not the final word. Not the end, but the beginning. A new universe, a new hope? Only time will tell."
Production
After filming on the first series of Space: 1999 came to an end in the spring of 1975, producer Gerry Anderson was contacted by NBC executive George Heinemann with an idea for an educational science-fiction TV series. This would comprise seven one-hour episodes designed to teach children science in the form of an action-adventure. NBC intended to promote the series by distributing information leaflets to schools. To launch the series, Heinemann commissioned Anderson to produce an episode about Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity, which holds that the speed of light cannot be exceeded and remains constant whether an object is still or moving.
By 1975, Anderson's production company, Group Three, had received no assurance from distributor ITC Entertainment that it would order a second series of Space: 1999. Faced with the prospect of cancellation, Anderson and Space: 1999 story editor Johnny Byrne conceived Heinemann's episode, which they had named "Into Infinity", as a pilot for a new series, provisionally titled The Day After Tomorrow. Anderson was ultimately unable to secure the funding needed to make further episodes, leaving "Into Infinity" – now more commonly known by the series title – as a one-off special.
Writing
Anderson prepared for the production by researching Einstein's work; he later said that he had not understood any of the theories and suggested that some of Einstein's ideas are essentially impossible to demonstrate on TV. Byrne wrote the script, which instructed that the equation – Einstein's formula relating mass to energy – should appear on screen at intervals. According to Anderson, the writing process was "extremely difficult" as it was a challenge to "get over in a few words the problems of time changes that affect long-distance travel. You also have to do it in a language that young people can comprehend."
Byrne – who, like Anderson, did not have a scientific background – found the central concept hard to grasp: "Once I got the go-ahead I suddenly realised I knew very little about the theory of relativity ... I went out and read Relativity for the Layman, and realised I was in deep trouble because there were so many aspects of it." Struggling with the plot, Anderson and Byrne engaged Professor John G. Taylor of the University of London, an expert on black holes, as a scientific adviser. However, according to Byrne, "there wasn't an awful lot [Taylor] could do. In the end the story simplified itself down by necessity. I gave an illustration of the Doppler shift, and gave an idea of how planets destroy themselves, and how they can become a black hole. Then we tried to duplicate the effect of sending people into the black hole."
Despite the focus on relativity, the special also discusses time dilation: an effect whereby time decelerates at a rate proportional to an object's acceleration. For the crew of Altares, which travels at light speed, the journey to Alpha Centauri takes only a few years; during this time, whole decades pass on Earth. Recognising that the child characters Jane and David would serve to represent the young audience's curiosity and ask questions on its behalf, Heinemann wanted them to be "just like real children" rather than "[coming] across like kids do on Saturday morning programmes." Byrne wrote the dialogue so that the characters give only partial explanations of the phenomena that they encounter, the aim being to encourage the audience to study the topics in their own time and develop their research skills.
Casting
Most of the cast had appeared in earlier Anderson productions. Nick Tate had played regular character Alan Carter in Space: 1999, while Brian Blessed and Joanna Dunham had both appeared as guest characters on the same series – Blessed in the episode "Death's Other Dominion", Dunham in "Missing Link". The credits billed Blessed first, Dunham second and Tate third. Don Fellows had played an uncredited role in Space: 1999s first episode, "Breakaway".
Ed Bishop had voiced Captain Blue in the puppet series Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons before taking on the role of Ed Straker in Anderson's first live-action series, UFO. Neither Katharine Levy nor Martin Lev had substantial acting experience, though the filming at Pinewood Studios coincided with that of Bugsy Malone, in which Lev played the role of Dandy Dan. The Masters' dog, Spring, was played by Byrne's pet, called Bones.
Filming
Filming began in July 1975 and ended that September. The production was budgeted at £105,000 (about £ in ). Principal photography was conducted at Pinewood Studios and completed in ten days, while the special effects shooting, which took place at Bray Studios, ran for six weeks. The special was directed by Charles Crichton, who had directed eight episodes of Space: 1999. Other members of the crew – including effects director Brian Johnson, editor David Lane and cinematographer Frank Watts – had also worked on the series. As Anderson's regular composer Barry Gray had other commitments, newcomer Derek Wadsworth was contracted to produce the theme and incidental music (the latter in collaboration with Steve Coe). Wadsworth would later be appointed composer for the second series of Space: 1999, replacing Gray.
In the absence of Bob Bell and Keith Wilson, who were working on The New Avengers and Star Maidens, Anderson's business partner Reg Hill assumed the role of production designer. The Altares interiors were the first sets that Hill had designed for Anderson since the production of Fireball XL5 more than a decade earlier. They were built from parts of the Ultra Probe set originally made for the Space: 1999 episode "Dragon's Domain", along with design elements from other episodes. Other sets and props were also recycled from the earlier series.
The scale models of Altares were designed and built by uncredited model-maker Martin Bower, who took inspiration from the various spaceships that had appeared in Space: 1999 and was initially under the impression that his work was to appear in that series. A model was used for long shots; close-ups used a larger, version, which was fitted with a powerful light for the photon drive as well as freon gas-powered jets to simulate exhaust. The Space Station Delta model was adapted from the SS Daria model that had appeared in "Mission of the Darians". Some of props that were newly made for the special would re-appear in Space: 1999s second series.
Similar to the title sequences of Anderson's earlier productions, The Day After Tomorrow begins with a fast-paced montage of action shots from later in the episode, giving a preview of the story to follow.
Broadcast
The Day After Tomorrow was first broadcast in the United States on 9 December 1975 as the third episode of the NBC anthology series Special Treat. In the UK, it was first shown on 11 December 1976 on BBC1. In the original cut, the opening scenes showed two titles: the series title, The Day After Tomorrow, superimposed on a starfield, followed by the episode title, "Into Infinity", on a model shot of the lift transferring the Masters and Bowen families from Space Station Delta to Altares. As it would be transmitting the programme as a special, rather than an episode of a series, the BBC edited the title sequence to remove the series title, believing that the appearance of two titles would confuse the audience. (In any case, deleting the episode title would have been more difficult as the lift shot was dynamic and had multiple elements.) Consequently, the special was listed in Radio Times and other press as Into Infinity.
The special was repeated on BBC1 on 6 December 1977. In 1997, the BBC deleted the master tape from its archives but retained an edited copy for future repeats. The same year, clips from The Day After Tomorrow and the Space: 1999 episode "Black Sun" were featured in "Black Holes", an instalment of the Channel 4 documentary series Equinox. On 9 November 2014, the special was repeated on BBC Four under the title The Day after Tomorrow: Into Infinity. It was introduced by Professor Brian Cox of the University of Manchester, who stated that he had been a fan of the special since he was a child and praised its scientific accuracy.
Reception
The Day After Tomorrow has attracted a range of comment on its writing, design and effects, as well as the performances of its cast. Some critics have compared the premise to that of Lost in Space or Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey, and view the special effects as an imitation of the latter.
In a review for TV Zone magazine published in 2002, Andrew Pixley praised the acting, music and direction, commenting that the programme "oozes with the charm associated with the golden era of Anderson." However, he added that the premise "falls flat. Rather than making physics a palatable piece of escapist hokum, the format is dragged down to the level of a scantily-illustrated physics textbook ... something isn't quite right." Elizabeth Howell, a science journalist, believes that The Day After Tomorrow is remarkable for its depiction of space exploration "in the colonisation sense, rather than Star Wars and its descendants who show space as a spot to be conquered." She further comments that the themes are "strangely timeless ... the true, unknown part hits you at the very end." Chris Bentley, author of The Complete Gerry Anderson: The Authorised Episode Guide, draws parallels with the Fireball XL5 episode "Faster Than Light", whose plot concerns the problems encountered by the crew of spacecraft traveling at light speed.
In a review for Anderson fanzine Andersonic, Vincent Law describes The Day After Tomorrow as an "oddity" and "uncharacteristically lacklustre" by Anderson's standards, stating that while the special "cracks along at a fair old pace", its educational aspects inhibit the story and characterisation. He argues that Jane is the only character who develops over the course of the plot; meanwhile, the adults are "pretty much peripheral" and David is essentially a "miniature Spock". Law also criticises the narration, remarking that Bishop occasionally sounds "like a presenter of one of those old schools programmes from the '70s, just imparting a string of dry facts." He believes the quality of the design and effects to be lower than that of Space: 1999, praising the miniature model work but suggesting that some of the effects are "more in keeping with Blake's 7". He also regards the "info dump" introduction as a weak imitation of the Space: 1999 opening titles and argues that the repeated appearances of the mass–energy equivalence equation, , only confuse the audience. According to Law, the plot about an accident-prone spaceship reflects shifting public attitudes to space exploration during the 1970s, a time "when optimism in the space programme was on the wane". He considers the special to have aged poorly, noting that while Altares is presented as a "lightship" of the future, some of the on-board equipment resembles 20th-century devices such as slide rules and punched cards.
John Kenneth Muir praises the "lyrical" script, "stunning" photography and "top-notch" effects. Calling The Day After Tomorrow a "high-tech, science-minded update of the whole Lost in Space format", he comments that its plot mixes action with "psychedelic" moments like the fall into the black hole ("a Kubrickian wonder, a montage dominated by double images, slow-motion photography and the use of a creepy distortion lens. Pretty powerful stuff for a kids' show.") Law regards the faster-than-light travel shots as the best effects, negatively comparing the black hole sequence to the ending of 2001: A Space Odyssey: "Kubrick's Star-Gate it is not." He also describes the special as "less minimalist ... in colour and costume" than the first series of Space: 1999, believing that elements like Wadsworth's "hard-hitting, hard-driving" score liven up the proceedings.
Science-fiction writer and critic Christopher Mills likens the special to a 2001 "for kids", noting that the plot features "wonky pseudo-science and insanely improbable coincidences". He considers the slow-motion fall into the black hole "a bit of a hoot", criticising the actors' exaggerated body movements. Mills also expresses surprise at "how 'British' ... the characters [are], facing each new peril with remarkable calm and 'stiff upper lip' stoicism ... they're apparently so resigned to being jerked around by the universe that they just hold hands and calmly await their fate." He sums up The Day After Tomorrow as a "solid little piece of '70s juvenile sci-fi" that is perhaps "not quite as 'scientifically accurate' as it pretends to be, but fun".
Muir describes the special as a "time capsule of once-state-of-the-art science fiction". For Law, it is a "half-forgotten experiment" of interest only to dedicated Anderson fans, but also provides "an interesting look at what might have been" had Anderson gone on to make a full series. David Hirsch of Starlog magazine suggests that the lack of interest from TV networks in funding a series may have been due to the fact that the special's first appearance preceded the release of Star Wars (1977), which triggered a renewal of the science fiction genre. Richard Houldsworth of TV Zone attributes the special's failure as a TV pilot to ITC's decision to order a second series of Space: 1999: "As Anderson concentrated on making 1999 'bigger, better and more exciting than ever', Into Infinity just got swallowed up in its own black hole, and stayed there."
Other media
Douglas R. Mason, an author of several Space: 1999 novels, wrote a novelisation of the special for Futurama Publications. As The Day After Tomorrow was conceived as a pilot, Futurama intended Mason's book to be the first in a series. However, when it became apparent that no further episodes would be made, Futurama cancelled the novelisation, which to date remains unpublished. In 2017, a new novelisation by Gregory L. Norris was published by Anderson Entertainment, followed by a sequel in 2019.
The special has been rated U by the British Board of Film Classification since 1997. In 2002, a DVD of The Day After Tomorrow and Star Laws, Anderson's 1986 pilot for a series that would later be made as Space Precinct, was released by Fanderson as part of its members-only merchandise range. In 2015, the special was re-issued on DVD as part of the compilation release "The Lost Worlds of Gerry Anderson" by Network Distributing.
See also
1975 in British television
Albert Einstein in popular culture
Space stations and habitats in fiction
Stars and planetary systems in fiction
References
Works cited
External links
1975 television specials
Alpha Centauri in fiction
Apocalyptic television episodes
BBC children's television shows
BBC science fiction television shows
British television specials
Educational television episodes
English-language television shows
Environmental television
Fiction about black holes
Fiction about supernovae
Interstellar travel in fiction
NBC television specials
Science fiction television specials
Television episodes about families
Television episodes about parallel universes
Television episodes set in outer space
Television episodes set in the future
Television pilots not picked up as a series
Works about Albert Einstein
Works by Gerry Anderson
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacrosse%20stick
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Lacrosse stick
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A lacrosse stick or crosse is used to play the sport of lacrosse. Players use the lacrosse stick to handle the ball and to strike or "check" opposing players' sticks, causing them to drop the ball. The head of a lacrosse stick is roughly triangular in shape and is strung with loose netting that allows the ball to be caught, carried (known as "cradling"), passed, or shot.
History of lacrosse sticks
Indigenous stick history and variations
Modern day lacrosse descends from and resembles games played by various Native American communities. Many of those games closely resemble what is now known as stickball.
Many early stickball sticks were essentially giant wooden spoons with no netting. More advanced sticks featured one end being bent into a 4 to 5-inch diameter circle. This circle would have netting made of wattup, and later on deer sinew. The tension in the netting of the stick allowed for players to strike the ball as someone would do in tennis. These sticks were typically 2 to 5 feet long and were bent into shape after being softened with steam. This variation was played by many Great Lakes tribes.
Some tribes would use two sticks to play. The player would carry the ball by sandwiching it between the two sticks. This two-stick variation was played by many southeastern and southwestern tribes.
The modern one-stick version of lacrosse is most closely modeled after the Iroquois. The sticks used by the Iroquois featured a U-shaped head rather than a circular one closely resembled the wooden sticks used today.
Traditions and decorations
Lacrosse sticks were often very treasured by their users. Players received a stick when they were born and were buried with their stick when they died. The practice still exists today to some degree, but Native Americans are not to be presented with or buried with a plastic modern lacrosse stick.
Many stickball players decorated their sticks with the hair animals like horses or raccoons hoping to match that animals speed and agility.
During grand matches or special events some players would decorate their sticks with feathers or dye their sticks different colors as a form of customization.
Some sticks would have elaborate carvings on them for spiritual reasons.
Early production of lacrosse sticks (1880's-1968)
Sometime between 1884 and 1893, Frank Lally started the first lacrosse stick factory. He hired various native stickmakers to facilitate the assembly line style process. This company would close during World War Two and sold their equipment to the Chilsholm Lacrosse Manufacturing Company. During the great depression Colin Chisholm, and the Roundpoint brothers (who had worked in the Lally factory previously) started a competing lacrosse manufacturing company known as the Chisholm Lacrosse Manufacturing Company. This company operated on Cornwall Island, part of the Akwesasne Mohawk reserve, and had dozens of Mohawk stick makers working for it. At one point the Chisholm factory was believed to be producing as much as 97-percent of the worlds lacrosse sticks. They also supplied college teams and major lacrosse companies such as Brine with sticks. In 1968, the Chisholm factory burnt down. The ensuing shortage of lacrosse sticks likely sped up the transition to plastic lacrosse sticks.
In 1937, Robert Pool designed the first double walled stick head, it was not used at the time but the design influenced the creation of today's plastic lacrosse heads.
Production of the modern lacrosse stick
Pre-1970
Throughout the 1950's and 1960's companies such as Brine and STX began experimenting with different materials to develop lacrosse sticks. The Brine company was founded in early 1920's and had developed other wooden sticks. It also experimented with materials such as laminated wood, fibreglass, plastic, and aluminum. STX was founded in the 1960's in Baltimore by lacrosse players working for WT Burnett, a plastics company. They were experimenting with various lighter synthetic materials. Brine settled on a Dupont plastic called "Surlyn", while STX settled on Dupont "Adiprene" urethane rubber.
1970's
On April 21, 1970, STX was issued the patent for the first plastic head. The head was placed onto a wooden shaft. Since the stick was symmetrical in shape, it could be used by both left-handed and right-handed individuals, as opposed to traditional sticks which had different designs depending on handedness. The stick was triangular in shape and did not feature the "pinched" sidewalls, where the stick remains narrow throughout the bottom and middle of the head and widens near the top, we now see on modern lacrosse sticks. These sticks were also what is now referred to as "non-offset" or "onset". Offset lacrosse heads would be introduced in the mid-1990's and is extremely common on newer lacrosse heads.
Early lacrosse sticks were extremely basic with little complexity in selecting equipment. Players essentially only needed to select the brand of stick they wanted, and from their selected the stick that brand offered for their position.
On July 2, 1974 the patent was granted to STX for pocket mesh. By the 1980's mesh had largely replaced traditional mesh as the preferred stick stringing method.
1980's
In the early 1980's the first aluminum shafts were developed. The hollow aluminum shafts were lighter than wood and thus led to significantly faster stick movement, shots, and passes.
In the 1981 Brine released the Brine "Magnum" which was an early attempt at a pinched head. In the late-1980's Brine released the Brine "Shotgun" and the "Shotgun II" which further developed the pinched head idea.
1990's
The offset head
On August 18, 1995, Brine filed the patent for the "scooped" head which featured what we now know as offset. As shown in the original patent, offset is when sidewall curves in order to form a scoop-like shape.
On December 5, 1995 Brine filed the patent for the Brine "Edge", it would be the first head to feature an offset design and it quickly began to dominate the playing space. The patent for the offset in the Brine Edge was slightly different than original offset patent, it featured sidewalls that extended from a lower point of the base rather than simply curving from the top of the base.
The creation of offset technology was revolutionary technology for lacrosse heads, it allowed for the ball to sit lower on the axis of the shaft which increased control and feel for the ball. Within a few years offset sticks became the norm. STX responded to the issue of offset heads by creating their own similar technology known as "Forward Cant". STX created both shafts and heads with forward cant. The shafts with forward cant would face no issues, the heads however, were similar to Brines offset technology and would face legal issues.
In 1999, Brine filed a patent infringement against STX for their three offset (or forward cant) heads: the "X2", the "Proton", and the "Octane". After trial, it was ruled that STX had willingly infringed on the patent of the Brine Edge and awarded damages in favor of Brine. STX was also barred from selling their three offset heads, however the X2 and the Proton would later go on to have other variations made.
Traditional stick
A wood lacrosse stick is usually crafted from hickory trees. The lacrosse stick is given its shape through steam bending. Holes are drilled in the top portion of the head and the sidewall (i.e., the side of the stick head), permitting weaving of string, which is then hardened by dipping them in resin. Leather "runners" are strung from the top of the "head" to the "throat" of the stick. Then nylon string is woven in to create the pocket.
The wooden lacrosse stick dates back to the creation of the sport and is still made by craftsmen around the world. Though modern lacrosse sticks made of plastic have become the overwhelming choice for contemporary lacrosse players, traditional wooden lacrosse sticks are still commonly used by box lacrosse goaltenders, senior and masters players, and by women's field lacrosse players. Wooden sticks are still legal under Canadian Lacrosse Association, NCAA, and World Lacrosse rules but are subject to the same size regulations as modern lacrosse sticks. The only exception to this is the Western Lacrosse Association, which prohibited the use of wooden sticks by non-goaltenders some years ago. The last WLA player to use one was A.J. Smith of the Coquitlam Adanacs, c. 2003–04, who had been grandfathered.
Men's modern stick
Head
In 1970, the first patent (US Patent #3,507,495) for a synthetic lacrosse stick was issued to STX. A modern lacrosse stick consists of a plastic molded head attached to a metal or composite shaft. The head is strung with nylon or leather strings to form a pocket. The dimensions of the stick (length, width, sidewall height, and depth of the pocket) are governed by league rules, such as NCAA rules for collegiate players or World Lacrosse rules for international players.
For field players in men's lacrosse, the head of the stick must be wide at its widest point under NCAA rules. In order to prevent the ball from being stuck in the crosse, the two sidewalls cannot be any closer than 3 inches at any point between 1.25 inches from the throat of the head, to 5 inches from the throat of the head. When it reaches 5 inches from the throat of the head, the sidewalls may be between 3.5 inches apart and 4 inches apart on the front of the head, and must be 3.5 inches apart on the back of the head. The head of the stick must also be a minimum of 10 inches in length; length is measured from the outside of the head to the beginning of the throat.
The head of the goalie's stick is much larger and must be between 10 and 12 inches wide under NCAA rules or up to 15 inches (38 cm) wide under World Lacrosse rules. A goalie head may not exceed 16.5 inches in length.
The sidewalls of the head may not be more than two inches (5 cm) tall for all sticks.
The flat table test states that, when laid flat on a table facedown, the furthest point from the tabletop cannot exceed 2.75 inches.
Pocket
The pocket of the head is where the ball is carried and caught. It consists of interwoven string attached to the head. Traditional stringing with leather strings interwoven with nylon has declined in popularity in favor of synthetic mesh stringing. Mesh is typically made of nylon and comes in a variety of diamond configurations, which can affect the pocket's throwing and retention characteristics.
The typical mesh pocket uses four main nylon strings to affix the mesh piece to the head: a topstring, two sidewalls, and a bottom string. The topstring is often made of a slightly thicker string, in order to resist the abrasive forces that come from scooping the ball up. The sidewalls are used to affix individual mesh diamonds to the sidewall holes on the sidewall of the head. The sidewalls have the most effect on the pocket's performance, as they dictate the placement of the pocket in the head, the tightness of the channel of the pocket, and even the pocket depth. The bottom string is used to fine-tune the pocket depth, and serves to keep the ball from slipping through the bottom of the pocket.
In addition to the four strings used to affix the mesh piece, shooting strings are woven through the diamonds of the mesh in order to help fine-tune the pocket's characteristics. They can either be made of typical nylon string, or a hockey style lace. Shooting strings are often used in straight, U, or V shapes. They serve to increase the pocket's hold on the ball, as well as fine-tune the way the stick throws. They can act to change the tension of various portions of the pocket, helping to create a "ramp" for the ball to roll along as it exits the pocket.
As of the 2013 season, the NCAA has passed a rule stating that shooting strings are limited to an area within a 4-inch (10 cm) arc drawn from the top of the plastic of the scoop. This essentially eliminates U- or V-shaped shooting strings, as they almost always cross below the 4-inch (10 cm) line. The pocket depth is governed by rule as well. When the ball is placed in the deepest point, the top of the ball must not be below the bottom of the sidewall. This rule does not apply to the goalie's stick.
Shaft
Modern handles, more commonly referred to as "shafts," are made of hollow metal. They are usually octagonal, instead of round, in order to provide a better grip. Most are made of aluminum, titanium, scandium, or alloy, but some shafts are still made from other materials, including wood, plastic, or fiberglass. The open end of the hollow shaft must be covered with tape or a plug (commonly referred to as the "butt" or "butt end" of the stick), usually made of rubber. The head of the stick is usually attached to the shaft with a screw to keep it in place.
Stick length is governed by NCAA regulations, which require that men's sticks (including the head) be from 40 to 42 inches (102 to 107 cm) long for offensive players, 52 to 72 inches (132 to 183 cm) long for defensemen, and 40 to 72 inches (102 to 183 cm) long for goalies. Offensive players usually prefer their sticks to be the minimum length (40 inches or 102 cm) in order to give them the advantage of having a shorter stick to protect from defensive checks. Conversely, defensive players usually prefer their sticks to be the maximum length (72 inches or 183 cm) to permit them the greatest range in covering their offensive player.
In 2016, a rules clarification was made by the NCAA Men's Lacrosse Rules Committee. Questions have arisen regarding the alteration of the shaft circumference. The circumference of the shaft cannot exceed 3 1/2" (8.9 cm). To be clear, added tape to the shaft must not make the shaft exceed this circumference measurement.
Women's modern stick
This section uses the World Lacrosse official women's field lacrosse rule book. There may be differences in exact measurements throughout different levels of play.
Head
NCAA rules dictate that the head of a woman's stick may be from seven to nine inches wide at its widest point. World Lacrosse rules require the widest point of the head to be a minimum of 16 centimeters or roughly 6.3 inches for plastic heads. The inside width of the stick must continually increase from the ball stop to the widest point of the head.
Goalie sticks have a maximum length of 42 centimeters (16.5 inches). The sidewall height must be a minimum of 2.54 centimeters (1 inch) and a maximum of 5.1 centimeters (2 inches).
Pocket
Up until 2018, nylon mesh was not permitted in women's sticks, although traditional stringing remains a popular option. When strung traditionally, the pocket is allowed to have between two and five runners, and between eight and twelve stitches of cross-lacing. Each runner must run the full length of the head. The stringing of the stick must be attached to the bottom of the sidewall as opposed to the top.
Women's lacrosse sticks are permitted to have two shooting strings. The top shooting string must be attached to the top-third of the head. Unlike in men's lacrosse, the bottom shooting string may be in an "inverted U" shape so long as the shooting string connects to the side wall in the top-half of the head.
The legal depth of a women's stick pocket is determined by the following test: the top of the lacrosse ball, when placed in the pocket, must remain above the top edge of the sidewall.
The rules for stringing a goalie stick differ from a field players stick. When a goalie stick is strung traditionally, they are required to have 6 or 7 runners, while also using eight to twelve stitches of cross-lacing. A goalie has no restrictions for the placement or design of shooter strings so long as the ball can move freely in the stick. A goalie stick may have unlimited pocket depth so long as the ball can move freely.
Shaft
Women's sticks are allowed to be 35.5 to 43.25 inches (90 to 110 cm) long. Goalies may play with a shaft that is 90 to 135 centimeters (35.4 to 53.1 inches) long. Players under the age of 15 are allowed to use sticks shorter than 90 centimeters so that play can be more comfortable. Shafts may be constructed of wood, metal-alloy, or another composite material.
References
External links
Men's lacrosse rules
Women's lacrosse rules
Boys' lacrosse rules
Girls' lacrosse rules
Historical Lacrosse Stick and Equipment Database
Defensive Lacrosse Shaft
Stick
Sports equipment
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los%20Roques%20Archipelago
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Los Roques Archipelago
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The Los Roques Archipelago (Spanish: Archipiélago de Los Roques) is a federal dependency of Venezuela consisting of approximately 350 islands, cays, and islets in a total area of 40.61 square kilometers. The archipelago is located directly north of the port of La Guaira, in the Caribbean Sea.
The islands' pristine coral reef attracts many wealthy visitors, especially from Europe, some of whom come in their own yachts and anchor in the inner, protected shallow waters. Development and tourism are controlled.
Because of the wide variety of seabirds and rich aquatic life, the Venezuelan government declared Los Roques a National Park in 1972.
History
Its first settlers were the Caribbean aborigines who visited the islands to collect botutos, fish, hunt turtles and extract salt. There are still some constructions of salt flats with dikes, stone paths and remains of houses that were created at this time known as the time of exploitation of salt. But the permanent occupation arises with the arrival of fishermen from Margarita Island, who were bringing their families and settling in Los Roques.
The names of the keys and islands originated from the mixture of cultures that grew up on these islands. The indigenous word "cayo" was translated by English-speaking buccaneers to "key" and this ended up being written phonetically in Spanish as "qui". This is where many of the names came from, some examples of this are:
Frank's key that became Francisquí. Crab's key in Crasquí; and mixing the French word "soeur" (sister) with "key" gave rise to the name of the key that today is known as Sarquí.
Spanish Colonization
The islands were sighted by early Spanish navigators, and in 1589 the governor of the Venezuelan province ordered the formal takeover of these islands on behalf of the colony.
The Dutch considered Los Roques to belong to their island territory of Curaçao because of its proximity to Bonaire which also belonged to the Dutch. The author M.D. Teenstra in 1836 still writes (in his book The Dutch West Indies): "The Government of Curaçao also includes the uninhabited islets and rocks Little Curaçao, Aves, Roques and Orchilla."
In the 18th century, the Sociedad Mercantil Real Compañía Guipuzcoana was established on the islands and the first islands of the archipelago (Gran Roque, Carenero, Cayo Sal, etc.) were given their names. Also at that time, temporary fishermen began to arrive, and in the 19th century the exploitation of salt mines and guano began.
Independent Venezuela
In 1871 the Venezuelan president Antonio Guzmán Blanco created by decree the Territorio Colón (Columbus Territory) which included Los Roques and other adjacent islands. The island of Gran Roque was named as the center of territorial government.
Around the year 1886 there is reference to the arrival of inhabitants coming from the nearby Netherlands Antilles, Aruba, Curaçao, etc. They left as a legacy some of the exotic names given to some islands or keys (for example Francisquí, Madrisquí, Krasquí, Selesquí). The suffix "quí" corresponds to the English term (and other languages) "key", which means Island.
At the beginning of the 20th century an epidemic of bubonic plague in La Guaira caused the Venezuelan government to authorize the use of the island of Gran Roque as a quarantine site.
In 1910, the town of Gran Roque began to consolidate with families from Margarita Island, mainly fishermen.
On 20 July 1938 the islands were integrated into the Federal Dependencies of Venezuela, and it was only on 8 August 1972 that the archipelago was declared a national park.
The small population of 484 that inhabited it in 1941 grew to 559 in the year 1950.
After its declaration as a national park, the Los Roques scientific foundation (Fundación Científica de Los
Roques) was created, which established its laboratories and facilities on the island of Dos Mosquises, to carry out works on archeology, fish, turtles, mollusks, corals, sponges, fishing and oceanography.
In 1978 the marine delimitation agreement between Venezuela and the Kingdom of the Netherlands was signed.
In 1987, the Los Roques Scientific Foundation carried out a registry, which allowed them to conclude that there were 847 inhabitants in Gran Roque. Only 663 of these were permanent inhabitants, and the remainder were sailors residing on Isla Margarita.
Autonomy
In order to give greater dynamism to its administration and promote the sustainable development of the islands on 2 November 1990, according to Presidential Decree 1214, the figure of the Single Authority of Los Roques Area (Autoridad Única de Área) was created, which would continue as part of the Federal Dependencies but with a special administrative status.
In October 2011 all the islands of the Los Roques archipelago are integrated to the Miranda Insular Territory (Territorio Insular Francisco de Miranda) according to presidential decree 8549 of 1 November 2011, published in the official gazette N° 39797, a subdivision of the Federal Dependencies with capital in Gran Roque.
In 2012 the Venezuelan National Navy named a Damen Stan Lander 5612 landing craft after the islands. In 2012, the Organic Regulations of the Head of Government of the Insular Territory of Miranda were approved, which establishes the organization of the government in Los Roques, La Orchila and Las Aves. In 2014 the government of the Territory together with the inhabitants of Los Roques established the Norms of Communal Coexistence of the Insular Territory Francisco de Miranda in the Archipelago of Los Roques.
In September 2019 a new airport was inaugurated in Los Roques, with an expanded runway, new facilities with a national and international area, waiting room and other related structures.
Geography
The major islands of the archipelago have an atoll structure, with two external barriers formed by coral communities, and an inner lagoon and sandy shallows. The park consists of , of coral reefs, 42 coral cays surrounding a shallow central lagoon of , two barrier reefs ( east and south) and 300 sand banks, islands and cays, ranging in size from Cayo Grande () to the Gran Roque (). Other important islands are Francisqui, Nordisqui, Madrisqui, and Crasqui.
Climate
The climate is warm and dry, with average annual temperature of in July and August, reaches a maximum of 34 °, and between September and January are presented occasional rain, with relative humidity 83% annually. Rainfall is / year; minimum (April) and maximum (November).
The wind blows constantly throughout the year, tempering the heat. The amount of sunlight in Los Roques is good throughout the year, as clear skies prevail.
Zones of the national park
As a result of its declaration as a national park in 1972, a protection plan was created, which establishes certain regulations on the island
to preserve the state of these ecosystems. This plan is known as zoning, which consists of the separation of zones
management, which are protected depending on their fragility and importance, and depending on this certain activities are allowed. Which means that the more protection an area has, the fewer activities will be allowed
The Archipelago de Los Roques national park has seven management zones, the Integral Protection zone, the Primitive Marina, the Managed Natural Environment, Recreation Zone, of Cultural Historical Interest and Archeopaleontology, Services zone and Special Use zone.
These zones are:
In the first place is found the Integral Protection area, which is the most protected, and which includes the following keys: Sebastopol, Esparquí, Boca de Cote, (for its coral reefs and interesting mangroves); Los Canquises, (for the flamingos and other colonies of seabirds that breed there); Selesqui, (for being an important breeding area for sea turtles and seabirds), and Isla Larga (for the extensive coral reefs, colonies of seabirds, turtles that use this island for their reproduction). Only scientific research is allowed in this area, with prior authorization of the national park authorities.
The second zone called the Primitiva Marina zone comprises the waters around these keys, in addition to the eastern barrier and the keys Sal, Dos Mosquises, Carenero, Cayo de Agua and Bequevé, because they are considered ecologically sensitive areas. The activities allowed in this area are boating, sailing and motor sailing along the indicated routes, swimming, snorkelling, scuba diving, sport fishing, hiking on marked trails and visiting and observing nature. in groups of no more than 15 people.
The Managed Natural Environment zone that encompasses all the keys and peripheral waters of the archipelago and where the same activities as in the Primitiva Marina zone are allowed. The Recreation, Services and Special Use areas are all those keys that have already been intervened, such as the Gran Roque, the navigation channel and the Dos Mosquises key. In this area all the activities mentioned above are allowed, as well as camping with their respective permission from the authorities and water sports.
The area of Historical Cultural Interest and Archeopaleontology that protects all those areas where archaeological finds have been made, some examples of this area are: Bequevé, Cayo de Agua, Dos Mosquises, Noronquí, Cayo Sal and Los Canquises.
Fauna
Due to extreme environmental conditions and a lack of fresh water, land animals are rare. The list is limited to a few species of iguanas and lizards, spiders and insects. The fishing bat (Noctilio leporinus) is the only indigenous land mammal.
It is in the water where the immense richness becomes evident: 280 species of fish, 200 species of crustaceans, 140 species of mollusks, 61 species of corals, 60 species of sponges and 45 species of sea urchins and starfish. Dolphins, whales, manta rays and turtles abound.
The reef of Sebastopol Lagoon in Archipelago Los Roques, is an area that has been previously identified as a nursery area for lemon sharks (Negaprion brevirostris).
The most representative animals are the green turtle (Chelonia mydas), the pink queen conch (Strombus gigas), the spiny lobster (Panulirus argus), typical coral reef fish and 92 species of birds. Los Roques is a meeting point for some 50 species of migratory birds from North America. Among the most frequent birds are the brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis), two species of booby birds, the red-legged one (Sula sula) and the brown booby (Sula leucogaster) and the guanaguanare gull (Larus atricilla). Also some groups of flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber) are usually observed.
Four types of turtles regularly nest in the archipelago that are on the list of threatened species worldwide: loggerhead or loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), green or white turtle (Chelonia mydas), leatherback or cardon turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) and hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata).
In Los Roques National Park, nine different types of octocorals are located. The low concentration of octocorals is possibly due to the deeper average subsidence of the atolls in Los Roques.
This coastline shelters in its waters coral bars with a wide diversity of species.
Flora
Several mangrove species (Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus), extensive seagrass meadows (Thalassia testudinum), halophyte species such as glass grass, red purslane or beach bell (Sesuvium portulacastrum), cactus such as prickly pear guasábara (Opuntia caribea) and the crop or melon (Melocactus caesius).
Government
Los Roques is a Federal Dependency that is administered directly by officials appointed by the central or federal government of Venezuela.
Between 1990 and 2011 the central government appointed a director for the Single Area Authority (Autoridad Única de Área) within the Federal Dependencies, but that last year the central government created the figure of the Miranda Insular Territory (Territorio Insular) that encompasses not only Los Roques but La Orchila and Las Aves Archipelago.
The headquarters of the head of government (Jefe de Gobierno) of the insular territory is the island of Gran Roque to the north of the Los Roques Archipelago.
Additionally in the island there are dependencies of other public organisms such as Inparques (National Parks Institute) since the archipelago is a national park and the National Guard of Venezuela (Guardia Nacional).
Executive Power
According to the provisions of the Organic Regulations of the Head of Government of the Miranda Island Territory, it is composed of a Head of Government, a Secretary of Government, a legal consultancy and various secretariats, coordinating offices and sub-secretariats. The head of government is an official of free appointment and removal by the president of Venezuela. He remains in office as long as he enjoys the confidence of the central government.
Legislative power
Los Roques archipelago has no legislative power of its own. Being part of the Insular Territory of Miranda (a subdivision of the Federal Dependencies of Venezuela) its budget and laws are established by the central or national government of Venezuela, through the national assembly based in Caracas, which sets the budget and controls the action of the government.
Demographics
The archipelago is sparsely populated, having about 1,500 permanent inhabitants; however it receives approximately 70,000 visitors a year, many of them day-visitors who come from Caracas and the mainland.
The population of the Roques concentrates mainly on the island of Gran Roque and to a lesser extent its adjacent islets. In 1941, the population was estimated at 484 people. In 1950 it reached 559, and in 1987 663 permanent inhabitants. According to the Venezuelan census of 2001 1,209 inhabitants were counted. By 2008 it is estimated that the number inhabitants to be around 1,800.
Its growth is limited because of restrictions involving the declaration as a national park in the 1970s. Most of the population is of Margariteño origin who came to the islands mainly to engage in fishing. Since the early twentieth century there has been a small influx of foreigners (mostly Italian).
Tourism
Tourism in Los Roques has had a significant boom in recent decades, before 1990 this territory was not exploited as a tourist destination.
Originally outsiders, wealthy Venezuelans from Caracas and foreigners, who could buy houses within the park, managed the few existing cabins. Access was restricted to light aircraft or private boats. Aerotuy was the only commercial airline operating in Los Roques at the time.
Currently there are more than 60 hostels, 50 travel agencies and six airlines all concentrated on the island of Gran Roque, which is part of the recreational sector where it is authorized to carry out this type of building.
At the beginning of the tourist boom, 60% of the visitors were of other nationalities, most of them from the United States, Italy, Spain, Brazil, Argentina, Germany, France and the United Kingdom, however some Venezuelans also visit the park, over all those, of course, with greater purchasing power due to the high services prices.
Of all the tourists who visit Los Roques, 95% of them arrive by plane while the rest travel by boat. Staying on a sailboat is another option but it is expensive. The cheapest option is camping in the designated areas of INPARQUES. Although Los Roques has a variety of accommodation options, 96% of tourists stay in posadas, 3% in sailboats and less than 1% in camps.
For divers, the Los Roques barrier reef is one of the best preserved in the Caribbean. The warm, clear water offers excellent visibility allowing divers of all skill levels the opportunity to see the great diversity of fish species and colorful aquatic plant life, both during the day and during night dives.
Los Roques also offers several islands suitable for Windsurfing and Kitesurfing as the wind blows constantly throughout the year. In Gran Roque you can rent equipment and find guides and instructors for all activities.
Infrastructure
El Gran Roque is the only populated island in the group. It has an airport suitable for small or STOL aircraft, Los Roques Airport. The airport is controlled from the Maiquetía airport on the mainland.
From El Gran Roque most visitors that arrive, go to the port and travel to the keys in small boats called "peñeros" from 9:00 am to 4:00 pm.
Attractions
Activities include fishing (bonefish, barracuda, tarpon, jack, and Spanish mackerel), birding, snorkeling, diving, paddling, windsurfing, and kitesurfing, and there is a sea turtle research center located on Dos Mosquises. Accommodations include Pez Raton Lodge, a property primarily used to host fishing guests, Posada Mediterraneo, a five-room inn which accommodates non-fishing guests, and dozens more like El Canto de la Ballena and Posada La Gaviota.
See also
Federal Dependencies of Venezuela
List of marine molluscs of Venezuela
List of national parks of Venezuela
List of sponges of Venezuela
References
External links
National Park Institute, Venezuela
Venezuelan islands of the Leeward Antilles
Ramsar sites in Venezuela
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20East%20Timorese%20crisis
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2006 East Timorese crisis
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The 2006 East Timorese crisis began as a conflict between elements of the military of East Timor over discrimination within the military and expanded to a coup attempt and general violence throughout the country, centred in the capital Dili. The crisis prompted a military intervention by several other countries and led to the resignation of Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri.
Background
A pretext for the crisis came from the management of a dispute within the military of East Timor (F-FDTL), when soldiers from the western part of the country claimed that they were being discriminated against, in favour of soldiers from the eastern part of the country. The Lorosae (Tetum for easterners) formed the largest part of Falintil, the guerrilla resistance movement which had resisted Indonesian authority, and which in turn, after final independence in 2002, formed the largest part of F-FDTL. In contrast the Loromonu (Tetum for westerners) were less prominent in the resistance, and less favoured in the military structure. There had also been tension between the military and the police force, which was composed of more westerners and also some former members of the Indonesian military.
404 soldiers, out of the regular strength of about 1500, deserted their barracks on 8 February 2006, joined by 177 more on 25 February. The soldiers were ordered to return in March, but refused, and were relieved of duty. The soldiers were later joined by some members of the police force, and were initially led by Lt. Gastão Salsinha.
The Foreign Minister, José Ramos-Horta, announced early in April that a panel would be established to hear the complaints of the former soldiers, but added that "They are not going to be brought back into the army, except on a case-by-case basis when we establish the responsibilities of each individual in this whole incident".
There were political motivations behind the attacks on soldiers and the government. Those initiating the violence and killings declared loyalty to the then President Xanana Gusmao, who wanted to replace Prime Minister and Fretilin leader Mari Alkatiri.
Violence
On 24 April, the former soldiers and their civilian supporters, mostly unemployed youths, marched through the streets of the capital Dili in protest. The initially peaceful march turned violent when the soldiers attacked a market run by people from the east of the country. The protests continued over the next several days, until on 28 April the former soldiers clashed with FDTL forces, who fired on the crowd. In the resultant violence, five people were killed, more than 100 buildings were destroyed and an estimated 21,000 Dili residents fled the city.
On 4 May, Major Alfredo Reinado, along with 20 military police from a platoon under his command and four other riot police defected and joined the rebel soldiers, taking with them two trucks full of weapons and ammunition. After joining the soldiers, Reinado made his base in the town of Aileu in the hills south-west of Dili. There he and the military police guarded the road leading into the mountains.
On the evening of 5 May, the former soldiers under Salsinha's leadership drafted a declaration calling for President Xanana Gusmão to sack the Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri and abolish the FDTL within 48 hours. When Gusmão contacted Salsinha earlier that day in an attempt to prevent the issuing of the declaration, Salsinha told him that it was "too late".
The rebel soldiers remained in the hills above the capital, where they engaged in sporadic combat with FDTL forces over the next several weeks. Violent gangs also roamed the streets of Dili, burning down houses and torching cars. The civilians who fled Dili camped in tent cities nearby or in churches on the outskirts of the capital. One Catholic convent alone was providing Red Cross assistance to up to 7000 people.
On 8 May a police officer was killed as a crowd of 1000 surrounded a government complex, the office of a regional state secretary, in a town outside Dili. On 9 May, Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri described the violence since 28 April as a coup, with "the aim of blocking the democratic institutions, preventing them to function in a way that the only solution would be for national parliament to be dissolved by the President... which would provoke the fall of the Government." However on 10 May Alkatiri announced that government officials had held negotiations with the rebel soldiers, in which it was agreed that the rebel soldiers would be paid a subsidy equal to their former military wage to assist their families.
The United Nations peacekeeping forces left East Timor on 20 May 2005, and the remaining administrative staff and police at the United Nations Office in Timor Leste (UNOTIL) were scheduled to leave on 20 May 2006, but on 11 May their deadline was extended at least until June. The decision came alongside Foreign Minister Ramos-Horta's request to the UN's High Commissioner for Human Rights to investigate allegations of human rights violations by the East Timorese police forces, as alleged by Human Rights Watch and the United States Department of State. On 12 May, Prime Minister of Australia John Howard announced that although there had not been any formal requests for assistance from the Government of East Timor, Australian forces were standing by in readiness to provide assistance, with the amphibious transport ships HMAS Kanimbla and HMAS Manoora moving to northern waters in preparation.
The violence escalated late in May, as one FDTL soldier was killed and five wounded in a skirmish on 23 May. Foreign Minister Ramos-Horta sent out an official request for military assistance on 24 May, to the governments of Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia and Portugal. On 25 May, as the first international forces were arriving, some renegade soldiers were moving into Dili and engaging in combat with FDTL and police forces, with up to twenty people believed to have been killed. That day, FDTL soldiers acting in disobedience of a ceasefire and safe passage assurance by the Chief of the Armed Forces, General Taur Matan Ruak, massacred 10 unarmed police officers and wounded 27 others.
Intervention
Operation Astute is the name of the international military response to the crisis. Led by the Australian Defence Force, and commanded by Brigadier Michael Slater of the Australian 3rd Brigade, the operation involves forces from four countries.
Australia
The Prime Minister of Australia John Howard announced on 24 May that Australian forces would be deployed to East Timor, with the composition of the force and the terms of engagement to be negotiated over the next few days. Australia initially offered between 1,000 and 1,300 infantry, three Royal Australian Navy ships (HMAS Manoora and HMAS Kanimbla already stationed nearby, and HMAS Tobruk) along with other support capabilities. The first unit sent in was the 4th Battalion, The Royal Australian Regiment 'Commando'.
On the afternoon of 25 May, four Black Hawk helicopters and a C-130 Hercules transport plane landed at Dili airport with the first wave of Australian forces. By 26 May it was expected that all Australian forces would have arrived in East Timor by 27 May, a full day earlier than expected.
The deployment to East Timor coincided with the withdrawal of about 260 of the 400 Australian soldiers deployed to the Solomon Islands. The 140 remaining would be supported by New Zealand and Fijian forces. However, Defence Minister Brendan Nelson said that the deployment to East Timor would not overextend the Defence Force, saying that "we have much more in our back pocket".
Malaysia
Malaysia responded by deploying Malaysian troops, initially consisted of 219 army paratroopers and commandos. The soldiers were drawn from the 10th Brigade Paratroopers based in Camp Terendak, Malacca (Malaysia), and a unit of the army special force from Mersing Camp, Johor (Malaysia), headed by Col Ismeth Nayan Ismail. These formed part of the group of 275 military and 200 police personnel who have been put on alert for possible deployment. Malaysia had planned to send in a total of 500 personnel earlier. By 23 June, there were already 333 Malaysian personnel from both the police and military forces stationed in Dili.
Two Royal Malaysian Navy vessels—KD Mahawangsa and KD Sri Indera Sakti—ferried the equipment of the Malaysian troops, including armoured carriers, to Dili, arriving on 3 June. The troops had been taught the basics of the Tetum language, the spoken language of the locals, to introduce themselves as peacekeepers.
Upon arrival, Malaysian forces secured embassies, port, power stations, oil depot and hospitals in East Timor. The diplomatic enclaves' security was given priority. Earlier, East Timorese President Xanana Gusmão had requested Malaysia guard the East Timor-Indonesia border to prevent civilians from fleeing the country. Malaysia, however, refused to do so.
By mid-June, Malaysia announced a plan to send 250 police officers to East Timor. The Malaysian police had trained the local police force four years previously. According to Radio Televisyen Malaysia, the 250-strong police force would leave for East Timor at the end of June.
New Zealand
On 25 May 2006, Prime Minister of New Zealand Helen Clark requested more information as to exactly what support East Timor would require from New Zealand, before committing any forces. She said that "It's very important not to walk into what is a factional dispute in some respects and be seen to be taking sides," and "It's also important to be mindful that the Security Council is having consultations as we speak."
On 26 May, New Zealand deployed 42 troops, with a second contingent of 120 troops leaving Christchurch on 27 May, en route to Townsville, Queensland before being sent to East Timor. Prime Minister Clark said that the forces would be deployed where needed by the Australian command.
Portugal
The Portuguese Foreign Minister Freitas do Amaral announced an initial deployment of 120 Republican Guards on 24 May. They joined a group of eight high level officers from the Special Operations Group of the Portuguese Polícia de Segurança Pública. The Portuguese Air Force evacuated more than 600 Portuguese citizens residing in Timor.
The President of the Republic, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, as well as Prime Minister José Sócrates, called for an end to the violence. In a meeting with the Foreign Ministers of the European Union, the Foreign Minister also called for members of the EU to denounce the violent acts of the rebels.
United Nations and other bodies
On 25 May, UNOTIL opened a refugee camp outside Dili expected to house up to 1000 people. However, on 27 May as the violence escalated, the UN announced that they planned to withdraw the majority of their staff from the country.
The chief executive of World Vision Australia, Reverend Tim Costello, announced on 27 May that he would travel to Dili to assess the situation, to help displaced civilians. He also expressed concern over reports that one World Vision worker had been killed.
Continuing violence
Despite hopes that the presence of international troops would quell the unrest, violence continued throughout Dili and other parts of East Timor.
On 27 May, gangs from different parts of the country fought in the streets of Dili, destroying cars and houses and fighting with knives, machetes and slingshots leaving at least 3 East Timorese hacked to death. Dili residents continued to flee the city, with some seeking refuge at the Australian embassy and some going to the airport. A UN official expressed concerns that the regionally based conflict in the military was igniting wider regional conflict in the civilian population, saying "It's basically payback time between the different groups." A Catholic priest similarly described the street violence as "...east against west, soldiers against soldiers, police against soldiers, everyone against everyone... It's total madness."
The media were targeted for the first time when an AFP car, with two reporters and one photographer inside, also containing an AP photographer was attacked after one easterner forced his way into the vehicle and another jumped on the roof while attempting to escape a pursuing mob of westerners.
Australian troops were attacked as they endeavoured to keep the gangs apart, while they helped civilians escape to safety through back alleys. The Australians did not return fire, instead discouraging the gangs by advancing towards them and "shouting orders and threats". The rescued civilians were then rushed to the UN compound nearby. The Major commanding the troops said that the gangs were using mobile phones to co-ordinate their attacks, but that the attacks would likely cease as more international troops arrived and completely secured the city.
On 29 May, Brigadier Slater met with military and civilian leaders in East Timor, and had secured the return of FDTL soldiers to their barracks. Australian Defence Minister Brendan Nelson also said that the East Timorese authorities should expand the rules of engagement of the international forces, to give them police powers to combat the gangs, saying that "It's clear there needs to be political leadership as far as the policing is concerned ... what we need is a policing strategy across Dili." Also on 29 May, Australian Prime Minister John Howard rejected criticisms that Australian troops had not secured Dili quickly enough, saying that the crisis was possibly more dangerous than the violence following independence from Indonesia in 1999, and that "We cannot have a situation around the world and particularly in our region where Australia is told to respect the independence of a country and that it's a bully boy if it seeks to express a view or to intervene, but when something goes wrong Australia is then criticised for not having, quote, intervened earlier."
Council of State meeting
Throughout 29 and 30 May, President Xanana Gusmão held crisis talks with the Council of State, an advisory body composed of community leaders. The Council, which has the ability to authorise the President to dismiss the National Parliament, was the first meeting between Gusmão and Prime Minister Alkatiri since the escalation of violence in the previous week. The meeting was also attended by Foreign Minister Ramos-Horta (leading to speculation that Ramos-Horta might be appointed as a temporary Prime Minister if Alkatiri were to be sacked), the Bishop of Dili, the UNOTIL representative Sukehiro Hasegawa and United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan's personal representative Ian Martin, who was previously the UN representative to East Timor in the leadup to the independence referendum in 1999. Gusmão emerged from the meeting in the afternoon of 29 May to urge crowds gathered outside, composed of supporters of Gusmão and Ramos-Horta and opponents of Alkatiri, to put down their weapons and return home, saying "If you trust me, west and east, embrace each other in your home, be calm and help each other to stay calm".
Late on 30 May, after the Council meeting and following an emergency meeting with his cabinet, Gusmão announced that he was declaring a state of emergency to last for 30 days, during which time Gusmão, as Commander-in-Chief, would have sole command of both the military and the police forces, and would personally co-ordinate with the international forces, and to combat the gang violence both internal and international forces would have increased policing powers. There had been some speculation that the Council would advise Gusmão to dissolve the Parliament and sack Prime Minister Alkatiri, however under the emergency arrangements Alkatiri would remain in office, albeit with reduced authority. Gusmão said that he was taking personal responsibility of both the military and police to "prevent violence and avoid further fatalities". Gusmão said that the decision to assume control was taken in "close collaboration" with Alkatiri, despite some members of the government, including Foreign Minister Ramos-Horta, attributing some of the blame for the crisis directly to Alkatiri.
On 1 June, Gusmão visited a refugee camp near the United Nations headquarters, telling people "The best thing you can do is go back to your homes", and urging them not to take security matters into their own hands. On the same day, Interior Minister Rogerio Lobato and Defence Minister Roque Rodrigues resigned, Lobato blaming the crisis on opponents to the government resorting to violence rather than political means. Foreign Minister Ramos-Horta subsequently took over the Defence ministry, while Malaysian Foreign Minister Syed Hamid Albar urged Ramos-Horta to act strongly in his new capacity, in the interests of achieving political stability, while emphasising that the United Nations should be prepared to resume greater role.
Civil unrest in Dili
On the night of 31 May, gangs in the capital Dili burned down a market and several houses in arson attacks.
On 2 June, a large crowd of about 1000 people who had waited in vain for several hours for food handouts raided a government warehouse in Dili, taking computer equipment, furniture and other supplies to trade them for food. Australian soldiers present at the warehouse were unable to prevent the looting due to a lack of police powers, and although they summoned Portuguese police, the warehouse was practically empty. On the same day a crowd of 500 to 600 people protested outside Government House again calling for the resignation of Prime Minister Alkatiri. A group of East Timorese police who arrived to confront the demonstration were stopped and searched by Australian troops, who confiscated their only weapons, several cans of pepper spray, as part of a policy of removing all weapons from the streets.
Meanwhile, also on 2 June, the commander of the Australian forces Brigadier Slater met with rebel leader Major Reinado, at his base in Aileu above Dili. Reinado reiterated his calls for Prime Minister Alkatiri to resign, but Alkatiri rejected the calls, instead saying that all "irregular forces" ought to hand in their weapons. In interviews, Slater said that he did not ask Reinado to surrender or participate in negotiations because the situation was not ready for discussions, as not all groups were ready to participate. Slater said that some of the violence seemed coordinated, and that he had been co-operating with the military, the police, the government, and Reinado in an attempt to find those planning the violence.
On the night of 2 and 3 June, looting and gang violence destroyed another dozen houses in Dili, and forced the temporary closure of the main road between Dili and the airport to the west of the city, where the international forces were based, although Australian and Malaysian forces quickly secured the road.
Over the next few days, violence continued to occur in the suburb of Comoro, the area to the west of the city centre on the road to the airport (also known as Comoro Airfield) where many groups from both the east and the west of the country lived nearby. On 5 June, rival gangs, with over a hundred members each, clashed in the streets armed with spears, machetes and slingshots, before being separated by Australian troops. However at the same time in the centre of Dili, the unrest had all but ended, with commercial areas re-opening and some of the damaged buildings and shops being repaired.
Protests, allegations and investigations
On 6 June, a convoy of anti-Alkatiri protestors from the west of the country drove to Dili, through the western suburb of Comoro and to the National Parliament and government buildings in the heart of the city. The convoy consisted of at least thirty trucks, along with buses and motorbikes, and were accompanied by Malaysian and Australian forces in armoured personnel carriers and an Australian Army Black Hawk helicopter. However, there was little or no violence accompanying the convoy, aside from some stones thrown as the convoy passed through Comoro, indicative of the level of support for the protest, which one reporter described as "a very impressive show of people power". In a deal brokered by Foreign Minister Ramos-Horta to ensure a peaceful protest, the convoy consisting of up to 2,500 people gathered in Tibar outside the Malaysian checkpoint to the west of the airport, where they surrendered any weapons before proceeding through Dili.
The crowd chanted for the resignation of Prime Minister Alkatiri, while also expressing support for President Gusmão. Gusmão later addressed the crowd from atop a car outside his office, saying "Let me bring peace to East Timor and then we will resolve others matters." He was said to be in tears at times, and said "The priority now is to stop people burning, and guns shooting." The convoy completed a loop around the inner city, before peacefully dispersing again.
On 7 June, Alkatiri agreed to a United Nations investigation into allegations that he was responsible for several incidents in April and May which sparked the crisis. UNOTIL representative Sukehiro Hasegawa, having met separately with Alkatiri and rebel leaders including Tarak Palasinyar and Reinado, said that Alkatiri was "agreeable to the investigations to be carried out... He's very transparent. He insists that truth should be known, what happened." Meanwhile, Australian Defence Minister Brendan Nelson said that the East Timorese judicial system was beginning to deal successfully with the problem of violent street gangs, saying that "We are detaining people, we are bringing them before a magistrate, and if they are found guilty, then, they are further being detained."
On 8 June, claims emerged that former Interior Minister and Alkatiri ally Rogerio Lobato (who had resigned a week earlier), acting on Alkatiri's instructions, recruited and armed a civilian militia to "eliminate" opponents of Alkatiri. The group consisted of about thirty civilians, and were allegedly armed with "18 assault rifles, 6,000 round sic of ammunition, two vehicles and uniforms." The leader of the group, referred to as Commander Railos, said that they had instructions to kill all of the rebel soldiers, but after losing five of the group in armed combat in Dili came to "appreciate that the cost of arming civilians was bloodshed and deaths on all sides" and was prepared to surrender to President Gusmão. Alkatiri strenuously denied the claims, saying that his government had not armed any civilians. Foreign Minister Ramos-Horta also said that he found it "very hard to believe that our own Prime Minister would... arm civilians".
On 9 June, Lieutenant Gastão Salsinha, the original leader of the rebel soldiers, reiterated the claims of Commander Railos, saying that Lobato had distributed 200 rifles stolen from the police armoury to civilians. He also claimed that on 28 April, the same day as the clash between the military and rebel soldiers that sparked the crisis, soldiers loyal to Alkatiri had shot and killed 60 civilians, before burying them in a mass grave outside Dili. The United Nations announced on 12 June that they would hold an inquiry into the crisis, but that they would not investigate the allegations made against Lobato and Alkatiri.
Meanwhile the violence in Dili appeared to be subsiding, despite sporadic outbreaks, as international peacekeepers continued to secure the city. By 16 June, rebel soldiers were ready to hand in their weapons, in exchange for protection from the international military forces, following more than a week of negotiations. At camps in Gleno and Maubisse, rebels including Alfredo Reinado surrendered weapons, including several M16 rifles, which were then sealed in a shipping container. Brigadier Slater expressed doubts that all weapons would be handed in, but said that the presence of international forces around the rebel bases "will enable them to confidently enter into negotiations with the president and other members of the government."
On 20 June, the East Timorese Prosecutor-General issued an arrest warrant for Rogerio Lobato for arming Commander Railos and other civilians. Although there was initially some speculation as to whether Lobato had fled the country, by 21 June he was under house arrest in Dili.
On 20 June, the United Nations Security Council issued Resolution 1690, extending UNOTIL's mandate until 20 August and expressing support for the existing international peacekeeping effort. A controversy ensued as to whether the military component of the next UN mission would be under UN or Australian command, and the Security Council, unable to reach agreement, extended the mission for an additional five days on 20 August. Five days later, the Council adopted Resolution 1704 creating the new United Nations Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT). Australia was allowed to retain command over the joint military task force, although the UN Secretary-General and Security Council will revisit this question by 25 October.
Resolution
Change of leadership
On 22 June, President Gusmão delivered an ultimatum on a national television broadcast, saying that he would resign as President the following day if Prime Minister Alkatiri did not resign. He had earlier told Alkatiri that he had lost confidence in him, and in his broadcast said that "Fretilin has to choose, ask Mari Alkatiri to take responsibility for the major crisis, about the sacrifices of the state, the law and democracy." The announcement followed reports the preceding day originating from Alkatiri's office that Alkatiri had intended to step back from an active role as Prime Minister on the morning of 22 June. The reports indicated that a plan had been developed which would see Alkatiri remain officially as Prime Minister for another month, but that two deputies would be appointed, who would have in fact governed in his place.
After Gusmão's broadcast, several thousand of his supporters began protesting in Dili, imploring that he not resign, with two or three thousand assembled by the afternoon of 23 June. Gusmão did not in fact resign that day, and indeed announced to the protestors that he would fulfil his constitutional duties, apparently indicating that he would not resign. Alkatiri said that he would only resign if his party Fretilin wanted him to, and on 25 June, a meeting of Fretilin leaders confirmed Alkatiri's status as Prime Minister. In response, Foreign and Defence Minister José Ramos-Horta resigned from office "because the government is not functioning properly", according to his spokesperson.
The next day, 26 June up to eight more ministers threatened to resign, and Ramos-Horta was beginning a press conference discussing his resignation when he received a phone call; after answering it, he said to the media "Please, we cancel our press conference because it is irrelevant anyway now. You are invited to go to the residence of the Prime Minister. He wants to make an announcement." There, Alkatiri announced his resignation, saying:
After the announcement, mobs in the streets of Dili began to celebrate rather than protest. Australian Prime Minister John Howard said he was pleased with the resignation, insofar as it was "part of the process of working out the difficulty, resolving the impasse".
On 27 June, Alkatiri was issue with a summons to appear in court to give evidence relating to the accusations that Rogerio Lobato armed a group of civilians, prosecutors suggesting that Alkatiri may also be charged over allegations about his role in the matter.
Following Alkatiri's resignation, Ramos-Horta withdrew his resignation to contest the prime ministership, and was appointed Prime Minister on 8 July 2006 by President Gusmão.
Consequences
The crisis has affected the political landscape of East Timor. On 11 May 2006, Foreign Minister José Ramos-Horta suggested that Fernando Lasama, the leader of the Democratic Party, had encouraged the unrest. He also warned other parties not to exploit the violence and unrest for electoral gain, calling "on all parties to know that those who want to spread disunity, scare or threaten the people will not be chosen by the people in the 2007 elections."
By August 2006, troops had withdrawn from some points of the country and the rebels' leader, Alfredo Reinado, was able to escape from Becora Prison, in Dili.
On 2 October 2006, the United Nations Independent Special Commission of Inquiry made a number of recommendations including that several individuals be prosecuted. Notably, it found that Interior Minister Rogerio Lobato, and Defence Minister Roque Rodrigues and Defence Force Chief Taur Matan Ruak acted illegally in transferring weapons to civilians during the crisis.
Documentary films
Breaking the News (2011) 53 mins, is about local and foreign journalists covering the crisis. The filming completed in 2010 and the documentary post-production was completed in 2011.
See also
1999 East Timorese crisis
External links
Report of the United Nations Independent Special Commission for East Timor, 2 October 2006
Anatomy of a conflict: the 2006–2007 communal violence in East Timor, James Scambary, Conflict, Security & Development, Volume 9, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 265–288
References
Notes
Further reading
East Timor crisis
Crisis
Military history of East Timor
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space%20%28mathematics%29
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Space (mathematics)
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In mathematics, a space is a set (sometimes called a universe) with some added structure.
While modern mathematics uses many types of spaces, such as Euclidean spaces, linear spaces, topological spaces, Hilbert spaces, or probability spaces, it does not define the notion of "space" itself.
A space consists of selected mathematical objects that are treated as points, and selected relationships between these points.
The nature of the points can vary widely: for example, the points can be elements of a set, functions on another space, or subspaces of another space. It is the relationships that define the nature of the space. More precisely, isomorphic spaces are considered identical, where an isomorphism between two spaces is a one-to-one correspondence between their points that preserves the relationships. For example, the relationships between the points of a three-dimensional Euclidean space are uniquely determined by Euclid's axioms, and all three-dimensional Euclidean spaces are considered identical.
Topological notions such as continuity have natural definitions in every Euclidean space.
However, topology does not distinguish straight lines from curved lines, and the relation between Euclidean and topological spaces is thus "forgetful". Relations of this kind are treated in more detail in the Section "Types of spaces".
It is not always clear whether a given mathematical object should be considered as a geometric "space", or an algebraic "structure". A general definition of "structure", proposed by Bourbaki, embraces all common types of spaces, provides a general definition of isomorphism, and justifies the transfer of properties between isomorphic structures.
History
Before the golden age of geometry
In ancient Greek mathematics, "space" was a geometric abstraction of the three-dimensional reality observed in everyday life. About 300 BC, Euclid gave axioms for the properties of space. Euclid built all of mathematics on these geometric foundations, going so far as to define numbers by comparing the lengths of line segments to the length of a chosen reference segment.
The method of coordinates (analytic geometry) was adopted by René Descartes in 1637. At that time, geometric theorems were treated as absolute objective truths knowable through intuition and reason, similar to objects of natural science; and axioms were treated as obvious implications of definitions.
Two equivalence relations between geometric figures were used: congruence and similarity. Translations, rotations and reflections transform a figure into congruent figures; homotheties — into similar figures. For example, all circles are mutually similar, but ellipses are not similar to circles. A third equivalence relation, introduced by Gaspard Monge in 1795, occurs in projective geometry: not only ellipses, but also parabolas and hyperbolas, turn into circles under appropriate projective transformations; they all are projectively equivalent figures.
The relation between the two geometries, Euclidean and projective, shows that mathematical objects are not given to us with their structure. Rather, each mathematical theory describes its objects by some of their properties, precisely those that are put as axioms at the foundations of the theory.
Distances and angles cannot appear in theorems of projective geometry, since these notions are neither mentioned in the axioms of projective geometry nor defined from the notions mentioned there. The question "what is the sum of the three angles of a triangle" is meaningful in Euclidean geometry but meaningless in projective geometry.
A different situation appeared in the 19th century: in some geometries the sum of the three angles of a triangle is well-defined but different from the classical value (180 degrees). Non-Euclidean hyperbolic geometry, introduced by Nikolai Lobachevsky in 1829 and János Bolyai in 1832 (and Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1816, unpublished) stated that the sum depends on the triangle and is always less than 180 degrees. Eugenio Beltrami in 1868 and Felix Klein in 1871 obtained Euclidean "models" of the non-Euclidean hyperbolic geometry, and thereby completely justified this theory as a logical possibility.
This discovery forced the abandonment of the pretensions to the absolute truth of Euclidean geometry. It showed that axioms are not "obvious", nor "implications of definitions". Rather, they are hypotheses. To what extent do they correspond to an experimental reality? This important physical problem no longer has anything to do with mathematics. Even if a "geometry" does not correspond to an experimental reality, its theorems remain no less "mathematical truths".
A Euclidean model of a non-Euclidean geometry is a choice of some objects existing in Euclidean space and some relations between these objects that satisfy all axioms (and therefore, all theorems) of the non-Euclidean geometry. These Euclidean objects and relations "play" the non-Euclidean geometry like contemporary actors playing an ancient performance. Actors can imitate a situation that never occurred in reality. Relations between the actors on the stage imitate relations between the characters in the play. Likewise, the chosen relations between the chosen objects of the Euclidean model imitate the non-Euclidean relations. It shows that relations between objects are essential in mathematics, while the nature of the objects is not.
The golden age of geometry and afterwards
The word "geometry" (from Ancient Greek: geo- "earth", -metron "measurement") initially meant a practical way of processing lengths, regions and volumes in the space in which we live, but was then extended widely (as well as the notion of space in question here).
According to Bourbaki, the period between 1795 (Géométrie descriptive of Monge) and 1872 (the "Erlangen programme" of Klein) can be called "the golden age of geometry". The original space investigated by Euclid is now called three-dimensional Euclidean space. Its axiomatization, started by Euclid 23 centuries ago, was reformed with Hilbert's axioms, Tarski's axioms and Birkhoff's axioms. These axiom systems describe the space via primitive notions (such as "point", "between", "congruent") constrained by a number of axioms.
Analytic geometry made great progress and succeeded in replacing theorems of classical geometry with computations via invariants of transformation groups. Since that time, new theorems of classical geometry have been of more interest to amateurs than to professional mathematicians. However, the heritage of classical geometry was not lost. According to Bourbaki, "passed over in its role as an autonomous and living science, classical geometry is thus transfigured into a universal language of contemporary mathematics".
Simultaneously, numbers began to displace geometry as the foundation of mathematics. For instance, in Richard Dedekind's 1872 essay Stetigkeit und irrationale Zahlen (Continuity and irrational numbers), he asserts that points on a line ought to have the properties of Dedekind cuts, and that therefore a line was the same thing as the set of real numbers. Dedekind is careful to note that this is an assumption that is incapable of being proven. In modern treatments, Dedekind's assertion is often taken to be the definition of a line, thereby reducing geometry to arithmetic. Three-dimensional Euclidean space is defined to be an affine space whose associated vector space of differences of its elements is equipped with an inner product. A definition "from scratch", as in Euclid, is now not often used, since it does not reveal the relation of this space to other spaces. Also, a three-dimensional projective space is now defined as the space of all one-dimensional subspaces (that is, straight lines through the origin) of a four-dimensional vector space. This shift in foundations requires a new set of axioms, and if these axioms are adopted, the classical axioms of geometry become theorems.
A space now consists of selected mathematical objects (for instance, functions on another space, or subspaces of another space, or just elements of a set) treated as points, and selected relationships between these points. Therefore, spaces are just mathematical structures of convenience. One may expect that the structures called "spaces" are perceived more geometrically than other mathematical objects, but this is not always true.
According to the famous inaugural lecture given by Bernhard Riemann in 1854, every mathematical object parametrized by n real numbers may be treated as a point of the n-dimensional space of all such objects. Contemporary mathematicians follow this idea routinely and find it extremely suggestive to use the terminology of classical geometry nearly everywhere.
Functions are important mathematical objects. Usually they form infinite-dimensional function spaces, as noted already by Riemann and elaborated in the 20th century by functional analysis.
Taxonomy of spaces
Three taxonomic ranks
While each type of space has its own definition, the general idea of "space" evades formalization. Some structures are called spaces, other are not, without a formal criterion. Moreover, there is no consensus on the general idea of "structure".
According to Pudlák, "Mathematics [...] cannot be explained completely by a single concept such as the mathematical structure. Nevertheless, Bourbaki's structuralist approach is the best that we have."
We will return to Bourbaki's structuralist approach in the last section "Spaces and structures", while we now outline a possible classification of spaces (and structures) in the spirit of Bourbaki.
We classify spaces on three levels. Given that each mathematical theory describes its objects by some of their properties, the first question to ask is: which properties? This leads to the first (upper) classification level. On the second level, one takes into account answers to especially important questions (among the questions that make sense according to the first level). On the third level of classification, one takes into account answers to all possible questions.
For example, the upper-level classification distinguishes between Euclidean and projective spaces, since the distance between two points is defined in Euclidean spaces but undefined in projective spaces.
Another example. The question "what is the sum of the three angles of a triangle" makes sense in a Euclidean space but not in a projective space. In a non-Euclidean space the question makes sense but is answered differently, which is not an upper-level distinction.
Also, the distinction between a Euclidean plane and a Euclidean 3-dimensional space is not an upper-level distinction; the question "what is the dimension" makes sense in both cases.
The second-level classification distinguishes, for example, between Euclidean and non-Euclidean spaces; between finite-dimensional and infinite-dimensional spaces; between compact and non-compact spaces, etc.
In Bourbaki's terms, the second-level classification is the classification by "species". Unlike biological taxonomy, a space may belong to several species.
The third-level classification distinguishes, for example, between spaces of different dimension, but does not distinguish between a plane of a three-dimensional Euclidean space, treated as a two-dimensional Euclidean space, and the set of all pairs of real numbers, also treated as a two-dimensional Euclidean space. Likewise it does not distinguish between different Euclidean models of the same non-Euclidean space.
More formally, the third level classifies spaces up to isomorphism. An isomorphism between two spaces is defined as a one-to-one correspondence between the points of the first space and the points of the second space, that preserves all relations stipulated according to the first level. Mutually isomorphic spaces are thought of as copies of a single space. If one of them belongs to a given species then they all do.
The notion of isomorphism sheds light on the upper-level classification. Given a one-to-one correspondence between two spaces of the same upper-level class, one may ask whether it is an isomorphism or not. This question makes no sense for two spaces of different classes.
An isomorphism to itself is called an automorphism. Automorphisms of a Euclidean space are shifts, rotations, reflections and compositions of these. Euclidean space is homogeneous in the sense that every point can be transformed into every other point by some automorphism.
Euclidean axioms leave no freedom; they determine uniquely all geometric properties of the space. More exactly: all three-dimensional Euclidean spaces are mutually isomorphic. In this sense we have "the" three-dimensional Euclidean space. In Bourbaki's terms, the corresponding theory is univalent. In contrast, topological spaces are generally non-isomorphic; their theory is multivalent. A similar idea occurs in mathematical logic: a theory is called categorical if all its models of the same cardinality are mutually isomorphic. According to Bourbaki, the study of multivalent theories is the most striking feature which distinguishes modern mathematics from classical mathematics.
Relations between species of spaces
Topological notions (continuity, convergence, open sets, closed sets etc.) are defined naturally in every Euclidean space. In other words, every Euclidean space is also a topological space. Every isomorphism between two Euclidean spaces is also an isomorphism between the corresponding topological spaces (called "homeomorphism"), but the converse is wrong: a homeomorphism may distort distances. In Bourbaki's terms, "topological space" is an underlying structure of the "Euclidean space" structure. Similar ideas occur in category theory: the category of Euclidean spaces is a concrete category over the category of topological spaces; the forgetful (or "stripping") functor maps the former category to the latter category.
A three-dimensional Euclidean space is a special case of a Euclidean space. In Bourbaki's terms, the species of three-dimensional Euclidean space is richer than the species of Euclidean space. Likewise, the species of compact topological space is richer than the species of topological space.
Such relations between species of spaces may be expressed diagrammatically as shown in Fig. 3. An arrow from A to B means that every is also a or may be treated as a or provides a etc. Treating A and B as classes of spaces one may interpret the arrow as a transition from A to B. (In Bourbaki's terms, "procedure of deduction" of a from a Not quite a function unless the classes A,B are sets; this nuance does not invalidate the following.) The two arrows on Fig. 3 are not invertible, but for different reasons.
The transition from "Euclidean" to "topological" is forgetful. Topology distinguishes continuous from discontinuous, but does not distinguish rectilinear from curvilinear. Intuition tells us that the Euclidean structure cannot be restored from the topology. A proof uses an automorphism of the topological space (that is, self-homeomorphism) that is not an automorphism of the Euclidean space (that is, not a composition of shifts, rotations and reflections). Such transformation turns the given Euclidean structure into a (isomorphic but) different Euclidean structure; both Euclidean structures correspond to a single topological structure.
In contrast, the transition from "3-dim Euclidean" to "Euclidean" is not forgetful; a Euclidean space need not be 3-dimensional, but if it happens to be 3-dimensional, it is full-fledged, no structure is lost. In other words, the latter transition is injective (one-to-one), while the former transition is not injective (many-to-one). We denote injective transitions by an arrow with a barbed tail, "↣" rather than "→".
Both transitions are not surjective, that is, not every B-space results from some A-space. First, a 3-dim Euclidean space is a special (not general) case of a Euclidean space. Second, a topology of a Euclidean space is a special case of topology (for instance, it must be non-compact, and connected, etc). We denote surjective transitions by a two-headed arrow, "↠" rather than "→". See for example Fig. 4; there, the arrow from "real linear topological" to "real linear" is two-headed, since every real linear space admits some (at least one) topology compatible with its linear structure.
Such topology is non-unique in general, but unique when the real linear space is finite-dimensional. For these spaces the transition is both injective and surjective, that is, bijective; see the arrow from "finite-dim real linear topological" to "finite-dim real linear" on Fig. 4. The inverse transition exists (and could be shown by a second, backward arrow). The two species of structures are thus equivalent. In practice, one makes no distinction between equivalent species of structures. Equivalent structures may be treated as a single structure, as shown by a large box on Fig. 4.
The transitions denoted by the arrows obey isomorphisms. That is, two isomorphic lead to two isomorphic .
The diagram on Fig. 4 is commutative. That is, all directed paths in the diagram with the same start and endpoints lead to the same result. Other diagrams below are also commutative, except for dashed arrows on Fig. 9. The arrow from "topological" to "measurable" is dashed for the reason explained there: "In order to turn a topological space into a measurable space one endows it with a σ-algebra. The σ-algebra of Borel sets is the most popular, but not the only choice." A solid arrow denotes a prevalent, so-called "canonical" transition that suggests itself naturally and is widely used, often implicitly, by default. For example, speaking about a continuous function on a Euclidean space, one need not specify its topology explicitly. In fact, alternative topologies exist and are used sometimes, for example, the fine topology; but these are always specified explicitly, since they are much less notable that the prevalent topology. A dashed arrow indicates that several transitions are in use and no one is quite prevalent.
Types of spaces
Linear and topological spaces
Two basic spaces are linear spaces (also called vector spaces) and topological spaces.
Linear spaces are of algebraic nature; there are real linear spaces (over the field of real numbers),
complex linear spaces (over the field of complex numbers), and more generally, linear spaces over any field. Every complex linear space is also a real linear space (the latter underlies the former), since each complex number can be specified by two real numbers. For example, the complex plane treated as a one-dimensional complex linear space may be downgraded to a two-dimensional real linear space. In contrast, the real line can be treated as a one-dimensional real linear space but not a complex linear space. See also field extensions. More generally, a vector space over a field also has the structure of a vector space over a subfield of that field.
Linear operations, given in a linear space by definition, lead to such notions as straight lines (and planes, and other linear subspaces); parallel lines; ellipses (and ellipsoids). However, it is impossible to define
orthogonal (perpendicular) lines, or to single out circles among ellipses, because in a linear space
there is no structure like a scalar product that could be used for measuring angles. The dimension of a linear space is defined as the maximal number of linearly independent vectors or, equivalently, as the minimal number of vectors that span the space; it may be finite or infinite. Two linear spaces over the same field are isomorphic if and only if they are of the same dimension. A complex linear space is also a real linear space.
Topological spaces are of analytic nature. Open sets, given in a topological space by definition, lead to such notions as continuous functions, paths, maps; convergent sequences, limits; interior, boundary, exterior. However, uniform continuity, bounded sets, Cauchy sequences, differentiable functions (paths, maps) remain undefined. Isomorphisms between topological spaces are traditionally called homeomorphisms; these are one-to-one correspondences continuous in both directions. The open interval (0,1) is homeomorphic to the whole real line (−∞,∞) but not homeomorphic to the closed interval [0,1], nor to a circle. The surface of a cube is homeomorphic to a sphere (the surface of a ball) but not homeomorphic to a torus. Euclidean spaces of different dimensions are not homeomorphic, which seems evident, but is not easy to prove. The dimension of a topological space is difficult to define; inductive dimension (based on the observation that the dimension of the boundary of a geometric figure is usually one less than the dimension of the figure itself) and Lebesgue covering dimension can be used. In the case of a Euclidean space, both topological dimensions are equal to n.
Every subset of a topological space is itself a topological space (in contrast, only linear subsets of a linear space are linear spaces). Arbitrary topological spaces, investigated by general topology (called also point-set topology) are too diverse for a complete classification up to homeomorphism. Compact topological spaces are an important class of topological spaces ("species" of this "type"). Every continuous function is bounded on such space. The closed interval [0,1] and the extended real line [−∞,∞] are compact; the open interval (0,1) and the line (−∞,∞) are not. Geometric topology investigates manifolds (another "species" of this "type"); these are topological spaces locally homeomorphic to Euclidean spaces (and satisfying a few extra conditions). Low-dimensional manifolds are completely classified up to homeomorphism.
Both the linear and topological structures underlie the linear topological space (in other words, topological vector space) structure. A linear topological space is both a real or complex linear space and a topological space, such that the linear operations are continuous. So a linear space that is also topological is not in general a linear topological space.
Every finite-dimensional real or complex linear space is a linear topological space in the sense that it carries one and only one topology that makes it a linear topological space. The two structures, "finite-dimensional real or complex linear space" and "finite-dimensional linear topological space", are thus equivalent, that is, mutually underlying. Accordingly, every invertible linear transformation of a finite-dimensional linear topological space is a homeomorphism. The three notions of dimension (one algebraic and two topological) agree for finite-dimensional real linear spaces. In infinite-dimensional spaces, however, different topologies can conform to a given linear structure, and invertible linear transformations are generally not homeomorphisms.
Affine and projective spaces
It is convenient to introduce affine and projective spaces by means of linear spaces, as follows. A linear subspace of a linear space, being itself a linear space, is not homogeneous; it contains a special point, the origin. Shifting it by a vector external to it, one obtains a affine subspace. It is homogeneous. An affine space need not be included into a linear space, but is isomorphic to an affine subspace of a linear space. All affine spaces over a given field are mutually isomorphic. In the words of John Baez, "an affine space is a vector space that's forgotten its origin". In particular, every linear space is also an affine space.
Given an affine subspace A in a linear space L, a straight line in A may be defined as the intersection of A with a linear subspace of L that intersects A: in other words, with a plane through the origin that is not parallel to A. More generally, a affine subspace of A is the intersection of A with a linear subspace of L that intersects A.
Every point of the affine subspace A is the intersection of A with a linear subspace of L. However, some subspaces of L are parallel to A; in some sense, they intersect A at infinity. The set of all linear subspaces of a linear space is, by definition, a projective space. And the affine subspace A is embedded into the projective space as a proper subset. However, the projective space itself is homogeneous. A straight line in the projective space corresponds to a linear subspace of the (n+1)-dimensional linear space. More generally, a projective subspace of the projective space corresponds to a linear subspace of the (n+1)-dimensional linear space, and is isomorphic to the projective space.
Defined this way, affine and projective spaces are of algebraic nature; they can be real, complex, and more generally, over any field.
Every real or complex affine or projective space is also a topological space. An affine space is a non-compact manifold; a projective space is a compact manifold. In a real projective space a straight line is homeomorphic to a circle, therefore compact, in contrast to a straight line in a linear of affine space.
Metric and uniform spaces
Distances between points are defined in a metric space. Isomorphisms between metric spaces are called isometries. Every metric space is also a topological space. A topological space is called metrizable, if it underlies a metric space. All manifolds are metrizable.
In a metric space, we can define
bounded sets and Cauchy sequences. A metric space is called complete if all Cauchy sequences converge. Every incomplete space is isometrically embedded, as a dense subset, into a complete space (the completion). Every compact metric space is complete; the real line is non-compact but complete; the open interval (0,1) is incomplete.
Every Euclidean space is also a complete metric space. Moreover, all geometric notions immanent to a Euclidean space can be characterized in terms of its metric. For example, the straight segment connecting two given points A and C consists of all points B such that the distance between A and C is equal to the sum of two distances, between A and B and between B and C.
The Hausdorff dimension (related to the number of small balls that cover the given set) applies to metric spaces, and can be non-integer (especially for fractals). For a Euclidean space, the Hausdorff dimension is equal to n.
Uniform spaces do not introduce distances, but still allow one to use uniform continuity, Cauchy sequences (or filters or nets), completeness and completion. Every uniform space is also a topological space. Every linear topological space (metrizable or not) is also a uniform space, and is complete in finite dimension but generally incomplete in infinite dimension. More generally, every commutative topological group is also a uniform space. A non-commutative topological group, however, carries two uniform structures, one left-invariant, the other right-invariant.
Normed, Banach, inner product, and Hilbert spaces
Vectors in a Euclidean space form a linear space, but each vector has also a length, in other words, norm, . A real or complex linear space endowed with a norm is a normed space. Every normed space is both a linear topological space and a metric space. A Banach space is a complete normed space. Many spaces of sequences or functions are infinite-dimensional Banach spaces.
The set of all vectors of norm less than one is called the unit ball of a normed space. It is a convex, centrally symmetric set, generally not an ellipsoid; for example, it may be a polygon (in the plane) or, more generally, a polytope (in arbitrary finite dimension). The parallelogram law (called also parallelogram identity)
generally fails in normed spaces, but holds for vectors in Euclidean spaces, which follows from the fact that the squared Euclidean norm of a vector is its inner product with itself, .
An inner product space is a real or complex linear space, endowed with a bilinear or respectively sesquilinear form, satisfying some conditions and called an inner product. Every inner product space is also a normed space. A normed space underlies an inner product space if and only if it satisfies the parallelogram law, or equivalently, if its unit ball is an ellipsoid. Angles between vectors are defined in inner product spaces. A Hilbert space is defined as a complete inner product space. (Some authors insist that it must be complex, others admit also real Hilbert spaces.) Many spaces of sequences or functions are infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces. Hilbert spaces are very important for quantum theory.
All real inner product spaces are mutually isomorphic. One may say that the Euclidean space is the real inner product space that forgot its origin.
Smooth and Riemannian manifolds
Smooth manifolds are not called "spaces", but could be. Every smooth manifold is a topological manifold, and can be embedded into a finite-dimensional linear space. Smooth surfaces in a finite-dimensional linear space are smooth manifolds: for example, the surface of an ellipsoid is a smooth manifold, a polytope is not. Real or complex finite-dimensional linear, affine and projective spaces are also smooth manifolds.
At each one of its points, a smooth path in a smooth manifold has a tangent vector that belongs to the manifold's tangent space at this point. Tangent spaces to an smooth manifold are linear spaces. The differential of a smooth function on a smooth manifold provides a linear functional on the tangent space at each point.
A Riemannian manifold, or Riemann space, is a smooth manifold whose tangent spaces are endowed with inner products satisfying some conditions. Euclidean spaces are also Riemann spaces. Smooth surfaces in Euclidean spaces are Riemann spaces. A hyperbolic space is also a Riemann space. A curve in a Riemann space has a length, and the length of the shortest curve between two points defines a distance, such that the Riemann space is a metric space. The angle between two curves intersecting at a point is the angle between their tangent lines.
Waiving positivity of inner products on tangent spaces, one obtains pseudo-Riemann spaces, including the Lorentzian spaces that are very important for general relativity.
Measurable, measure, and probability spaces
Waiving distances and angles while retaining volumes (of geometric bodies) one reaches measure theory. Besides the volume, a measure generalizes the notions of area, length, mass (or charge) distribution, and also probability distribution, according to Andrey Kolmogorov's approach to probability theory.
A "geometric body" of classical mathematics is much more regular than just a set of points. The boundary of the body is of zero volume. Thus, the volume of the body is the volume of its interior, and the interior can be exhausted by an infinite sequence of cubes. In contrast, the boundary of an arbitrary set of points can be of non-zero volume (an example: the set of all rational points inside a given cube). Measure theory succeeded in extending the notion of volume to a vast class of sets, the so-called measurable sets. Indeed, non-measurable sets almost never occur in applications.
Measurable sets, given in a measurable space by definition, lead to measurable functions and maps. In order to turn a topological space into a measurable space one endows it with a The of Borel sets is the most popular, but not the only choice. (Baire sets, universally measurable sets, etc, are also used sometimes.)
The topology is not uniquely determined by the Borel for example, the norm topology and the weak topology on a separable Hilbert space lead to the same Borel .
Not every is the Borel of some topology.
Actually, a can be generated by a given collection of sets (or functions) irrespective of any topology. Every subset of a measurable space is itself a measurable space.
Standard measurable spaces (also called standard Borel spaces) are especially useful due to some similarity to compact spaces (see EoM). Every bijective measurable mapping between standard measurable spaces is an isomorphism; that is, the inverse mapping is also measurable. And a mapping between such spaces is measurable if and only if its graph is measurable in the product space. Similarly, every bijective continuous mapping between compact metric spaces is a homeomorphism; that is, the inverse mapping is also continuous. And a mapping between such spaces is continuous if and only if its graph is closed in the product space.
Every Borel set in a Euclidean space (and more generally, in a complete separable metric space), endowed with the Borel is a standard measurable space. All uncountable standard measurable spaces are mutually isomorphic.
A measure space is a measurable space endowed with a measure. A Euclidean space with the Lebesgue measure is a measure space. Integration theory defines integrability and integrals of measurable functions on a measure space.
Sets of measure 0, called null sets, are negligible. Accordingly, a "mod 0 isomorphism" is defined as isomorphism between subsets of full measure (that is, with negligible complement).
A probability space is a measure space such that the measure of the whole space is equal to 1. The product of any family (finite or not) of probability spaces is a probability space. In contrast, for measure spaces in general, only the product of finitely many spaces is defined. Accordingly, there are many infinite-dimensional probability measures (especially, Gaussian measures), but no infinite-dimensional Lebesgue measures.
Standard probability spaces are especially useful. On a standard probability space a conditional expectation may be treated as the integral over the conditional measure (regular conditional probabilities, see also disintegration of measure). Given two standard probability spaces, every homomorphism of their measure algebras is induced by some measure preserving map. Every probability measure on a standard measurable space leads to a standard probability space. The product of a sequence (finite or not) of standard probability spaces is a standard probability space. All non-atomic standard probability spaces are mutually isomorphic mod 0; one of them is the interval (0,1) with the Lebesgue measure.
These spaces are less geometric. In particular, the idea of dimension, applicable (in one form or another) to all other spaces, does not apply to measurable, measure and probability spaces.
Non-commutative geometry
The theoretical study of calculus, known as mathematical analysis, led in the early 20th century to the consideration of linear spaces of real-valued or complex-valued functions. The earliest examples of these were function spaces, each one adapted to its own class of problems. These examples shared many common features, and these features were soon abstracted into Hilbert spaces, Banach spaces, and more general topological vector spaces. These were a powerful toolkit for the solution of a wide range of mathematical problems.
The most detailed information was carried by a class of spaces called Banach algebras. These are Banach spaces together with a continuous multiplication operation. An important early example was the Banach algebra of essentially bounded measurable functions on a measure space X. This set of functions is a Banach space under pointwise addition and scalar multiplication. With the operation of pointwise multiplication, it becomes a special type of Banach space, one now called a commutative von Neumann algebra. Pointwise multiplication determines a representation of this algebra on the Hilbert space of square integrable functions on X. An early observation of John von Neumann was that this correspondence also worked in reverse: Given some mild technical hypotheses, a commutative von Neumann algebra together with a representation on a Hilbert space determines a measure space, and these two constructions (of a von Neumann algebra plus a representation and of a measure space) are mutually inverse.
Von Neumann then proposed that non-commutative von Neumann algebras should have geometric meaning, just as commutative von Neumann algebras do. Together with Francis Murray, he produced a classification of von Neumann algebras. The direct integral construction shows how to break any von Neumann algebra into a collection of simpler algebras called factors. Von Neumann and Murray classified factors into three types. Type I was nearly identical to the commutative case. Types II and III exhibited new phenomena. A type II von Neumann algebra determined a geometry with the peculiar feature that the dimension could be any non-negative real number, not just an integer. Type III algebras were those that were neither types I nor II, and after several decades of effort, these were proven to be closely related to type II factors.
A slightly different approach to the geometry of function spaces developed at the same time as von Neumann and Murray's work on the classification of factors. This approach is the theory of Here, the motivating example is the , where X is a locally compact Hausdorff topological space. By definition, this is the algebra of continuous complex-valued functions on X that vanish at infinity (which loosely means that the farther you go from a chosen point, the closer the function gets to zero) with the operations of pointwise addition and multiplication. The Gelfand–Naimark theorem implied that there is a correspondence between commutative and geometric objects: Every commutative is of the form for some locally compact Hausdorff space X. Consequently it is possible to study locally compact Hausdorff spaces purely in terms of commutative Non-commutative geometry takes this as inspiration for the study of non-commutative If there were such a thing as a "non-commutative space X," then its would be a non-commutative ; if in addition the Gelfand–Naimark theorem applied to these non-existent objects, then spaces (commutative or not) would be the same as so, for lack of a direct approach to the definition of a non-commutative space, a non-commutative space is defined to be a non-commutative Many standard geometric tools can be restated in terms of and this gives geometrically-inspired techniques for studying non-commutative .
Both of these examples are now cases of a field called non-commutative geometry. The specific examples of von Neumann algebras and are known as non-commutative measure theory and non-commutative topology, respectively. Non-commutative geometry is not merely a pursuit of generality for its own sake and is not just a curiosity. Non-commutative spaces arise naturally, even inevitably, from some constructions. For example, consider the non-periodic Penrose tilings of the plane by kites and darts. It is a theorem that, in such a tiling, every finite patch of kites and darts appears infinitely often. As a consequence, there is no way to distinguish two Penrose tilings by looking at a finite portion. This makes it impossible to assign the set of all tilings a topology in the traditional sense. Despite this, the Penrose tilings determine a non-commutative and consequently they can be studied by the techniques of non-commutative geometry. Another example, and one of great interest within differential geometry, comes from foliations of manifolds. These are ways of splitting the manifold up into smaller-dimensional submanifolds called leaves, each of which is locally parallel to others nearby. The set of all leaves can be made into a topological space. However, the example of an irrational rotation shows that this topological space can be inaccessible to the techniques of classical measure theory. However, there is a non-commutative von Neumann algebra associated to the leaf space of a foliation, and once again, this gives an otherwise unintelligible space a good geometric structure.
Schemes
Algebraic geometry studies the geometric properties of polynomial equations. Polynomials are a type of function defined from the basic arithmetic operations of addition and multiplication. Because of this, they are closely tied to algebra. Algebraic geometry offers a way to apply geometric techniques to questions of pure algebra, and vice versa.
Prior to the 1940s, algebraic geometry worked exclusively over the complex numbers, and the most fundamental variety was projective space. The geometry of projective space is closely related to the theory of perspective, and its algebra is described by homogeneous polynomials. All other varieties were defined as subsets of projective space. Projective varieties were subsets defined by a set of homogeneous polynomials. At each point of the projective variety, all the polynomials in the set were required to equal zero. The complement of the zero set of a linear polynomial is an affine space, and an affine variety was the intersection of a projective variety with an affine space.
André Weil saw that geometric reasoning could sometimes be applied in number-theoretic situations where the spaces in question might be discrete or even finite. In pursuit of this idea, Weil rewrote the foundations of algebraic geometry, both freeing algebraic geometry from its reliance on complex numbers and introducing abstract algebraic varieties which were not embedded in projective space. These are now simply called varieties.
The type of space that underlies most modern algebraic geometry is even more general than Weil's abstract algebraic varieties. It was introduced by Alexander Grothendieck and is called a scheme. One of the motivations for scheme theory is that polynomials are unusually structured among functions, and algebraic varieties are consequently rigid. This presents problems when attempting to study degenerate situations. For example, almost any pair of points on a circle determines a unique line called the secant line, and as the two points move around the circle, the secant line varies continuously. However, when the two points collide, the secant line degenerates to a tangent line. The tangent line is unique, but the geometry of this configuration—a single point on a circle—is not expressive enough to determine a unique line. Studying situations like this requires a theory capable of assigning extra data to degenerate situations.
One of the building blocks of a scheme is a topological space. Topological spaces have continuous functions, but continuous functions are too general to reflect the underlying algebraic structure of interest. The other ingredient in a scheme, therefore, is a sheaf on the topological space, called the "structure sheaf". On each open subset of the topological space, the sheaf specifies a collection of functions, called "regular functions". The topological space and the structure sheaf together are required to satisfy conditions that mean the functions come from algebraic operations.
Like manifolds, schemes are defined as spaces that are locally modeled on a familiar space. In the case of manifolds, the familiar space is Euclidean space. For a scheme, the local models are called affine schemes. Affine schemes provide a direct link between algebraic geometry and commutative algebra. The fundamental objects of study in commutative algebra are commutative rings. If is a commutative ring, then there is a corresponding affine scheme which translates the algebraic structure of into geometry. Conversely, every affine scheme determines a commutative ring, namely, the ring of global sections of its structure sheaf. These two operations are mutually inverse, so affine schemes provide a new language with which to study questions in commutative algebra. By definition, every point in a scheme has an open neighborhood which is an affine scheme.
There are many schemes that are not affine. In particular, projective spaces satisfy a condition called properness which is analogous to compactness. Affine schemes cannot be proper (except in trivial situations like when the scheme has only a single point), and hence no projective space is an affine scheme (except for zero-dimensional projective spaces). Projective schemes, meaning those that arise as closed subschemes of a projective space, are the single most important family of schemes.
Several generalizations of schemes have been introduced. Michael Artin defined an algebraic space as the quotient of a scheme by the equivalence relations that define étale morphisms. Algebraic spaces retain many of the useful properties of schemes while simultaneously being more flexible. For instance, the Keel–Mori theorem can be used to show that many moduli spaces are algebraic spaces.
More general than an algebraic space is a Deligne–Mumford stack. DM stacks are similar to schemes, but they permit singularities that cannot be described solely in terms of polynomials. They play the same role for schemes that orbifolds do for manifolds. For example, the quotient of the affine plane by a finite group of rotations around the origin yields a Deligne–Mumford stack that is not a scheme or an algebraic space. Away from the origin, the quotient by the group action identifies finite sets of equally spaced points on a circle. But at the origin, the circle consists of only a single point, the origin itself, and the group action fixes this point. In the quotient DM stack, however, this point comes with the extra data of being a quotient. This kind of refined structure is useful in the theory of moduli spaces, and in fact, it was originally introduced to describe moduli of algebraic curves.
A further generalization are the algebraic stacks, also called Artin stacks. DM stacks are limited to quotients by finite group actions. While this suffices for many problems in moduli theory, it is too restrictive for others, and Artin stacks permit more general quotients.
Topoi
In Grothendieck's work on the Weil conjectures, he introduced a new type of topology now called a Grothendieck topology. A topological space (in the ordinary sense) axiomatizes the notion of "nearness," making two points be nearby if and only if they lie in many of the same open sets. By contrast, a Grothendieck topology axiomatizes the notion of "covering". A covering of a space is a collection of subspaces that jointly contain all the information of the ambient space. Since sheaves are defined in terms of coverings, a Grothendieck topology can also be seen as an axiomatization of the theory of sheaves.
Grothendieck's work on his topologies led him to the theory of topoi. In his memoir Récoltes et Semailles, he called them his "most vast conception". A sheaf (either on a topological space or with respect to a Grothendieck topology) is used to express local data. The category of all sheaves carries all possible ways of expressing local data. Since topological spaces are constructed from points, which are themselves a kind of local data, the category of sheaves can therefore be used as a replacement for the original space. Grothendieck consequently defined a topos to be a category of sheaves and studied topoi as objects of interest in their own right. These are now called Grothendieck topoi.
Every topological space determines a topos, and vice versa. There are topological spaces where taking the associated topos loses information, but these are generally considered pathological. (A necessary and sufficient condition is that the topological space be a sober space.) Conversely, there are topoi whose associated topological spaces do not capture the original topos. But, far from being pathological, these topoi can be of great mathematical interest. For instance, Grothendieck's theory of étale cohomology (which eventually led to the proof of the Weil conjectures) can be phrased as cohomology in the étale topos of a scheme, and this topos does not come from a topological space.
Topological spaces in fact lead to very special topoi called locales. The set of open subsets of a topological space determines a lattice. The axioms for a topological space cause these lattices to be complete Heyting algebras. The theory of locales takes this as its starting point. A locale is defined to be a complete Heyting algebra, and the elementary properties of topological spaces are re-expressed and reproved in these terms. The concept of a locale turns out to be more general than a topological space, in that every sober topological space determines a unique locale, but many interesting locales do not come from topological spaces. Because locales need not have points, the study of locales is somewhat jokingly called pointless topology.
Topoi also display deep connections to mathematical logic. Every Grothendieck topos has a special sheaf called a subobject classifier. This subobject classifier functions like the set of all possible truth values. In the topos of sets, the subobject classifier is the set , corresponding to "False" and "True". But in other topoi, the subobject classifier can be much more complicated. Lawvere and Tierney recognized that axiomatizing the subobject classifier yielded a more general kind of topos, now known as an elementary topos, and that elementary topoi were models of intuitionistic logic. In addition to providing a powerful way to apply tools from logic to geometry, this made possible the use of geometric methods in logic.
Spaces and structure
According to Kevin Carlson,
Neither of these words ["space" and "structure"] have a single mathematical definition. The English words can be used in essentially all the same situations, but you often think of a "space" as more geometric and a "structure" as more algebraic. [...] So you could think of "structures" as places we do algebra, and "spaces" as places we do geometry. Then a lot of great mathematics has come from passing from structures to spaces and vice versa, as when we look at the fundamental group of a topological space or the spectrum of a ring. But in the end, the distinction is neither hard nor fast and only goes so far: many things are obviously both structures and spaces, some things are not obviously either, and some people might well disagree with everything I've said here.
Nevertheless, a general definition of "structure" was proposed by Bourbaki; it embraces all types of spaces mentioned above, (nearly?) all types of mathematical structures used till now, and more. It provides a general definition of isomorphism, and justifies transfer of properties between isomorphic structures. However, it was never used actively in mathematical practice (not even in the mathematical treatises written by Bourbaki himself). Here are the last phrases from a review by Robert Reed of a book by Leo Corry:
Corry does not seem to feel that any formal definition of structure could do justice to the use of the concept in actual mathematical practice [...] Corry's view could be summarized as the belief that 'structure' refers essentially to a way of doing mathematics, and is therefore a concept probably just as far from being precisely definable as the cultural artifact of mathematics itself.
For more information on mathematical structures see Wikipedia: mathematical structure, equivalent definitions of mathematical structures, and transport of structure.
The distinction between geometric "spaces" and algebraic "structures" is sometimes clear, sometimes elusive. Clearly, groups are algebraic, while Euclidean spaces are geometric. Modules over rings are as algebraic as groups. In particular, when the ring appears to be a field, the module appears to be a linear space; is it algebraic or geometric? In particular, when it is finite-dimensional, over real numbers, and endowed with inner product, it becomes Euclidean space; now geometric. The (algebraic?) field of real numbers is the same as the (geometric?) real line. Its algebraic closure, the (algebraic?) field of complex numbers, is the same as the (geometric?) complex plane. It is first of all "a place we do analysis" (rather than algebra or geometry).
Every space treated in Section "Types of spaces" above, except for "Non-commutative geometry", "Schemes" and "Topoi" subsections, is a set (the "principal base set" of the structure, according to Bourbaki) endowed with some additional structure; elements of the base set are usually called "points" of this space. In contrast, elements of (the base set of) an algebraic structure usually are not called "points".
However, sometimes one uses more than one principal base set. For example, two-dimensional projective geometry may be formalized via two base sets, the set of points and the set of lines. Moreover, a striking feature of projective planes is the symmetry of the roles played by points and lines. A less geometric example: a graph may be formalized via two base sets, the set of vertices (called also nodes or points) and the set of edges (called also arcs or lines). Generally, finitely many principal base sets and finitely many auxiliary base sets are stipulated by Bourbaki.
Many mathematical structures of geometric flavor treated in the "Non-commutative geometry", "Schemes" and "Topoi" subsections above do not stipulate a base set of points. For example, "pointless topology" (in other words, point-free topology, or locale theory) starts with a single base set whose elements imitate open sets in a topological space (but are not sets of points); see also mereotopology and point-free geometry.
List of mathematical spaces
Affine space
Algebraic space
Baire space
Banach space
Base space
Bergman space
Berkovich space
Besov space
Borel space
Calabi-Yau space
Cantor space
Cauchy space
Cellular space
Chu space
Closure space
Conformal space
Complex analytic space
Drinfeld's symmetric space
Eilenberg–Mac Lane space
Euclidean space
Fiber space
Finsler space
First-countable space
Fréchet space
Function space
G-space
Geometric space
Green space (topological space)
Hardy space
Hausdorff space
Heisenberg space
Hilbert space
Homogeneous space
Inner product space
Kolmogorov space
Lp-space
Lens space
Liouville space
Locally finite space
Loop space
Lorentz space
Mapping space
Measure space
Metric space
Minkowski space
Müntz space
Normed space
Paracompact space
Perfectoid space
Planar space
Polish space
Probability space
Projective space
Proximity space
Quadratic space
Quotient space (disambiguation)
Riemann's Moduli space
Sample space
Sequence space
Sierpiński space
Sobolev space
Standard space
State space
Stone space
Symplectic space (disambiguation)
T2 space
Teichmüller space
Tensor space
Topological space
Topological vector space
Total space
Uniform space
Vector space
See also
Dimension#In mathematics
Mathematical structure
Transport of structure
Set (mathematics)
Notes
Footnotes
References
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External links
Matilde Marcolli (2009) The notion of space in mathematics, from Caltech.
da:Rum#Matematik
es:Espacio#Matemáticas
fr:Espace (notion)#Mathématiques
gl:Espazo#Matemática
ko:공간#수학
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta%20thalassemia
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Beta thalassemia
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Beta thalassemias (β thalassemias) are a group of inherited blood disorders. They are forms of thalassemia caused by reduced or absent synthesis of the beta chains of hemoglobin that result in variable outcomes ranging from severe anemia to clinically asymptomatic individuals. Global annual incidence is estimated at one in 100,000. Beta thalassemias occur due to malfunctions in the hemoglobin subunit beta or HBB. The severity of the disease depends on the nature of the mutation.
HBB blockage over time leads to decreased beta-chain synthesis. The body's inability to construct new beta-chains leads to the underproduction of HbA (adult hemoglobin). Reductions in HbA available overall to fill the red blood cells in turn leads to microcytic anemia. Microcytic anemia ultimately develops in respect to inadequate HBB protein for sufficient red blood cell functioning. Due to this factor, the patient may require blood transfusions to make up for the blockage in the beta-chains.
Repeated blood transfusions cause severe problems associated with iron overload.
Signs and symptoms
Three main forms have been described: thalassemia minor, thalassemia intermedia, and thalassemia major which vary from asymptomatic or mild symptoms to severe anemia requiring lifelong transfusions. Individuals with beta thalassemia major (those who are homozygous for thalassemia mutations, or inheriting 2 mutations) usually present within the first two years of life with symptomatic severe anemia, poor growth, and skeletal abnormalities. Untreated thalassemia major eventually leads to death, usually by heart failure; therefore, prenatal screening is very important. Those with beta thalassemia intermedia (those who are compound heterozygotes for the beta thalassemia mutation) usually present later in life with mild to moderate symptoms of anemia. Beta thalassemia trait (also known as beta thalassemia minor) involves heterozygous inheritance of a beta-thalassemia mutation and patients usually have borderline microcytic, hypochromic anemia and they are usually asymptomatic or have mild symptoms. Beta thalassemia minor can also present as beta thalassemia silent carriers; those who inherit a beta thalassemic mutation but have no hematologic abnormalities nor symptoms. Some people with thalassemia are susceptible to health complications that involve the spleen (hypersplenism) and gallstones (due to hyperbilirubinemia from peripheral hemolysis). These complications are mostly found in thalassemia major and intermedia patients.
Excess iron (from hemolysis or transfusions) causes serious complications within the liver, heart, and endocrine glands. Severe symptoms include liver cirrhosis, liver fibrosis, and in extreme cases, liver cancer. Heart failure, growth impairment, diabetes and osteoporosis are life-threatening conditions which can be caused by beta thalassemia major. The main cardiac abnormalities seen as a result of beta thalassemia and iron overload include left ventricular systolic and diastolic dysfunction, pulmonary hypertension, valvulopathy, arrhythmias, and pericarditis. Increased gastrointestinal iron absorption is seen in all grades of beta thalassemia, and increased red blood cell destruction by the spleen due to ineffective erythropoiesis further releases additional iron into the bloodstream.
Additional symptoms of beta thalassemia major or intermedia include the classic symptoms of moderate to severe anemia including fatigue, growth and developmental delay in childhood, leg ulcers and organ failure. Ineffective erythropoiesis (red blood cell production) can also lead to compensatory bone marrow expansion which can then lead to bony changes/deformities, bone pain and craniofacial abnormalities. Extramedullary organs such as the liver and spleen that can also undergo erythropoiesis become activated leading to hepatosplenomegaly (enlargement of the liver and spleen). Other tissues in the body can also become sites of erythropoiesis, leading to extramedullary hematopoietic pseudotumors which may cause compressive symptoms if they occur in the thoracic cavity or spinal canal.
Cause
Mutations
Two major groups of mutations can be distinguished:
Nondeletion forms: These defects, in general, involve a single base substitution or small insertions near or upstream of the β globin gene. Most often, mutations occur in the promoter regions preceding the beta-globin genes. Less often, abnormal splice variants are believed to contribute to the disease.
Deletion forms: Deletions of different sizes involving the β globin gene produce different syndromes such as (βo) or hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin syndromes.
Mutations are characterized as (βo) if they prevent any formation of β globin chains, mutations are characterized as (β+) if they allow some β globin chain formation to occur.
mRNA assembly
Beta thalassemia is a hereditary disease affecting hemoglobin. As with about half of all hereditary diseases, an inherited mutation damages the assembly of the messenger-type RNA (mRNA) that is transcribed from a chromosome. DNA contains both the instructions (genes) for stringing amino acids together into proteins, as well as stretches of DNA that play important roles in regulating produced protein levels.
In thalassemia, an additional, contiguous length or a discontinuous fragment of non-coding instructions is included in the mRNA. This happens because the mutation obliterates the boundary between the intronic and exonic portions of the DNA template. Because all the coding sections may still be present, normal hemoglobin may be produced and the added genetic material, if it produces pathology, instead disrupts regulatory functions enough to produce anemia. Hemoglobin’s normal alpha and beta subunits each have an iron-containing central portion (heme) that allows the protein chain of a subunit to fold around it. Normal adult hemoglobin contains 2 alpha and 2 beta subunits. Thalassemias typically affect only the mRNAs for production of the beta chains (hence the name). Since the mutation may be a change in only a single base (single-nucleotide polymorphism), on-going efforts seek gene therapies to make that single correction.
Risk factors
Family history and ancestry are factors that increase the risk of beta thalassemia. Depending on family history, if a person's parents or grandparents had beta thalassemia major or intermedia, there is a 75% (3 out of 4) probability (see inheritance chart at top of page) of the mutated gene being inherited by an offspring. Even if a child does not have beta thalassemia major or intermedia, they can still be a carrier, possibly resulting in future generations of their offspring having beta thalassemia.
Another risk factor is ancestry. Beta thalassemia occurs most often in people of Italian, Greek, Middle Eastern, Southern Asian, and African ancestry.
Diagnosis
Abdominal pain due to hypersplenism, splenic infarction and right-upper quadrant pain caused by gallstones are major clinical manifestations. However, diagnosing thalassemia from symptoms alone is inadequate. Physicians note these signs as associative due to this disease's complexity. The following associative signs can attest to the severity of the phenotype: pallor, poor growth, inadequate food intake, splenomegaly, jaundice, maxillary hyperplasia, dental malocclusion, cholelithiasis, systolic ejection murmur in the presence of severe anemia and pathologic fractures. Based on symptoms, tests are ordered for a differential diagnosis. These tests include complete blood count; hemoglobin electrophoresis; serum transferrin, ferritin, total iron-binding capacity; urine urobilin and urobilogen; peripheral blood smear, which may show codocytes, or target cells; hematocrit; and serum bilirubin. The expected pattern on hemoglobin electrophoresis in people with beta-thalassemia is an increased level of hemoglobin A2 and slightly increased hemoglobin F. The diagnosis is confirmed with hemoglobin electrophoresis or high performance liquid chromatography.
Skeletal changes associated with expansion of the bone marrow:
Chipmunk facies: bossing of the skull, prominent malar eminence, depression of the bridge of the nose, tendency to a mongoloid slant of the eye, and exposure of the upper teeth due to hypertrophy of the maxillae.
Hair-on-end (or "crew cut") on skull X-ray: new bone formation due to the inner table.
DNA analysis
All beta thalassemias may exhibit abnormal red blood cells; a family history is followed by DNA analysis. This test is used to investigate deletions and mutations in the alpha- and beta-globin-producing genes. Family studies can be done to evaluate carrier status and the types of mutations present in other family members. DNA testing is not routine, but can help diagnose thalassemia and determine carrier status. In most cases the treating physician uses a clinical prediagnosis assessing anemia symptoms: fatigue, breathlessness and poor exercise tolerance. Further genetic analysis may include HPLC should routine electrophoresis prove difficult.
Prevention
Beta thalassemia is a hereditary disease allowing for a preventative treatment by carrier screening and prenatal diagnosis. It can be prevented if one parent has normal genes, giving rise to screenings that empower carriers to select partners with normal hemoglobin. A study aimed at detecting the genes that could give rise to offspring with sickle cell disease. Patients diagnosed with beta thalassemia have MCH ≤ 26 pg and an RDW < 19. Of 10,148 patients, 1,739 patients had a hemoglobin phenotype and RDW consistent with beta thalassemia. After the narrowing of patients, the HbA2 levels were tested presenting 77 patients with beta thalassemia. This screening procedure proved insensitive in populations of West African ancestry because of the indicators has high prevalence of alpha thalassemia. Countries have programs distributing information about the reproductive risks associated with carriers of haemoglobinopathies. Thalassemia carrier screening programs have educational programs in schools, armed forces, and through mass media as well as providing counseling to carriers and carrier couples. Screening has shown reduced incidence; by 1995 the prevalence in Italy reduced from 1:250 to 1:4000, and a 95% decrease in that region. The decrease in incidence has benefitted those affected with thalassemia, as the demand for blood has decreased, therefore improving the supply of treatment.
Treatment
Beta thalassemia major
Affected children require regular lifelong blood transfusions. Bone marrow transplants can be curative for some children. Patients receive frequent blood transfusions that lead to or potentiate iron overload. Iron chelation treatment is necessary to prevent damage to internal organs in cases of iron overload. Advances in iron chelation treatments allow patients with thalassemia major to live long lives with access to proper treatment. Popular chelators include deferoxamine and deferiprone.
The oral chelator deferasirox was approved for use in 2005 in some countries. Bone marrow transplantation is the only cure and is indicated for patients with severe thalassemia major. Transplantation can eliminate a patient's dependence on transfusions. Absent a matching donor, a savior sibling can be conceived by preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) to be free of the disease as well as to match the recipient's human leukocyte antigen (HLA) type.
Serum ferritin (the storage form of iron) is routinely measured in those with beta thalassemia to determine the degree of iron overload; with increased ferritin levels directing the use of iron chelation therapy. The three iron chelators; subcutaneous deferoxamine, oral deferiprone and oral deferasirox can be used as monotherapy or in combination, they have all been shown to decrease serum/systemic iron levels, hepatic and cardiac iron levels as well as decreasing the risk of cardiac arrhythmia, heart failure and death. Hepatic and myocardial MRI is also used to quantify the iron deposition in target organs, especially the heart and liver, to guide therapy.
Scientists at Weill Cornell Medical College have developed a gene therapy strategy that could feasibly treat both beta-thalassemia and sickle cell disease. The technology is based on delivery of a lentiviral vector carrying both the human β-globin gene and an ankyrin insulator to improve gene transcription and translation, and boost levels of β-globin production.
On June 10, 2022, a U.S. federal advisory panel recommended that the FDA approve a gene therapy treatment for use with beta thalassemia. The manufacturer Bluebird bio charges $2.8 million in the United States for its one-time treatment Zynteglo (Betibeglogene autotemcel).
Gene editing therapies aimed at increasing fetal hemoglobin production in beta thalassemia as well as sickle cell anemia by inhibiting the BCL11A gene are also being explored.
Surgical
Patients with thalassemia major are more inclined to have a splenectomy. The use of splenectomies have been declining in recent years due to decreased prevalence of hypersplenism in adequately transfused patients. Splenectomy is also associated with increased risk of infections and increased morbidity due to vascular disease, as the spleen is involved in scavenging to rid the body of pathologic or abnormal red blood cells. Patients with hypersplenism are more likely to have a lower amount of healthy blood cells in their body than normal and reveal symptoms of anemia. The different surgical techniques are the open and laparoscopic method. The laparoscopic method requires longer operating time but a shorter recovery period with a smaller and less prominent surgical scar. If it is unnecessary to remove the entire spleen a partial splenectomy may occur; this method preserves some of the immune function while reducing the probability of hypersplenism. Those undergoing splenectomy should receive an appropriate pneumococcal vaccine at least one week (preferably three weeks) before the surgery.
Therapeutic
Long-term transfusion therapy (in those with transfusion dependent beta thalassemia) is a treatment used to maintain hemoglobin levels at a target pre-transfusion hemoglobin level of 9–10.5 g/dL (11-12 g/dL in those with concomitant heart disease). To ensure quality blood transfusions, the packed red blood cells should be leucoreduced. By having leucoreduced blood packets, the patient is at a lower risk to develop adverse reactions by contaminated white cells and preventing platelet alloimmunisation. Patients with allergic transfusion reactions or unusual red cell antibodies must receive washed red cells or cryopreserved red cells. Washed red cells have been removed of plasma proteins that would have become a target of the patient's antibodies allowing the transfusion to be carried out safely. Cryopreserved red cells are used to maintain a supply of rare donor units for patients with unusual red cell antibodies or missing common red cell antigens. These regular transfusions promote normal growth, physical activities and suppress bone marrow hyperactivity.
Pharmaceutical
During normal iron homeostasis the circulating iron is bound to transferrin. But with iron overload (such as with frequent blood transfusions), the ability for transferrin to bind iron is exceeded and non-transferrin bound iron accumulated. This unbound iron is toxic due to its high propensity to induce oxygen species and is responsible for cellular damage. The prevention of iron overload protects patients from morbidity and mortality. The primary aim is to bind to and remove iron from the body and a rate equal to the rate of transfusional iron input or greater than iron input. Iron chelation is a medical therapy that may prevent the complications of iron overload. Every unit of transfused blood contains 200–250 mg of iron and the body has no natural mechanism to remove excess iron. The excess iron can be removed by iron chelators (deferoxamine, deferiprone and deferasirox).
Luspatercept (ACE-536) is a recombinant fusion protein that is used as a treatment in adults with transfusion dependent beta thalassemia. It consists of a modified extra-cellular domain of human activin receptor type IIB bound to the Fc portion of the human IgG1 antibody. The molecule binds to select transforming growth factor beta superfamily ligands to block SMAD2 and 3 signaling, thus enhancing erythroid maturation. The medication has been shown to reduce the transfusion burden by 33% in adults with transfusion dependent beta thalassemia as compared to placebo and was also associated with decreased ferritin levels (with no significant decreases in liver or cardiac iron levels).
Beta thalassemia intermedia
Patients with beta thalassemia intermedia require no transfusions or may require episodic blood transfusions during certain circumstances (infection, pregnancy, surgery). Patients with frequent transfusions may develop iron overload and require chelation therapy. Transmission is autosomal recessive; however, dominant mutations and compound heterozygotes have been reported. Genetic counseling is recommended and prenatal diagnosis may be offered.
Beta thalassemia minor
Patients with beta thalassemia minor are usually asymptomatic and are often monitored without treatment. Beta thalassemia minor may coexist with other conditions such as chronic hepatitis B, chronic hepatitis C, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and alcoholic liver disease that, when combined or co-existing, may cause a person to have iron overload of the liver and more severe liver disease.
Epidemiology
The beta form of thalassemia is particularly prevalent among the Mediterranean peoples and this geographical association is responsible for its naming: thalassa (θάλασσα) is the Greek word for sea and haima (αἷμα) is the Greek word for blood. In Europe, the highest concentrations of the disease are found in Greece and the Turkish coastal regions. The major Mediterranean islands (except the Balearics) such as Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Cyprus, Malta and Crete are heavily affected in particular. Other Mediterranean peoples, as well as those in the vicinity of the Mediterranean, also have high incidence rates, including people from West Asia and North Africa. The data indicate that 15% of the Greek and Turkish Cypriots are carriers of beta-thalassaemia genes, while 10% of the population carry alpha-thalassaemia genes.
Evolutionary adaptation
The thalassemia trait may confer a degree of protection against malaria, which is or was prevalent in the regions where the trait is common, thus conferring a selective survival advantage on carriers (known as heterozygous advantage), thus perpetuating the mutation. In that respect, the various thalassemias resemble another genetic disorder affecting hemoglobin, sickle-cell disease.
Incidence
The disorder is more prevalent in certain ethnicities and age groups. Beta thalassemia is most prevalent in the "thalassemia belt" which includes areas in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Mediterranean extending into the Middle East and Southeast Asia. This geographical distribution is thought to be due to beta-thalassemia carrier state (beta thalassemia minor) conferring a resistance to malaria. In the United States, thalassemia's prevalence is approximately 1 in 272,000 or 1,000 people. There have been 4,000 hospitalized cases in England in 2002 and 9,233 consultant episodes for thalassemia. Men accounted for 53% of hospital consultant episodes and women accounted for 47%. The mean patient age is 23, with only 1% of consultants being older than 75, and 69% being 15–59. It is estimated that 1.5% of the world's population are carriers and 40,000 affected infants are born with the disease annually. Beta thalassemia major is usually fatal in infancy if blood transfusions are not initiated immediately.
See also
Alpha-thalassemia
Anisopoikilocytosis
Delta-thalassemia
Hemoglobinopathy
References
Further reading
External links
Disorders of globin and globulin proteins
Hereditary hemolytic anemias
Rare diseases
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Troyes
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Roman Catholic Diocese of Troyes
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The Diocese of Troyes (Latin: Dioecesis Trecensis; French: Diocèse de Troyes) is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Catholic Church in Troyes, France. The diocese now comprises the département of Aube. Erected in the 4th century, the diocese is currently a suffragan diocese in the ecclesiastical province of the metropolitan Archdiocese of Reims. It was re-established in 1802 as a suffragan of the Archbishopric of Paris, when it comprised the départements of Aube and Yonne and its bishop had the titles of Troyes, Auxerre, and Châlons-sur-Marne. In 1822, the See of Châlons was created and the Bishop of Troyes lost that title. When Sens was made an archdiocese, the episcopal title of Auxerre went to it and Troyes lost also the département of Yonne, which became the Archdiocese of Sens. The Diocese of Troyes covers, besides the ancient diocesan limits, 116 parishes of the ancient Diocese of Langres and 20 belonging to the ancient diocese of Sens. On 8 December 2002, the Diocese of Troyes was returned to its ancient metropolitan, the Archbishop of Reims. , there was one priest for every 2,710 Catholics.
When Troyes was the seat of the Bishop as well as of the Comte de Champagne, there was always tension between the two in terms of power and influence. After 1314, when Louis de Navarre became King Louis X of France, the competition was more distant but the competitor far more powerful. The Capitular Church of Saint-Étienne became a royal church, and the King tolerated no interference from the Bishop in his prerogatives.
History
The catalogue of bishops of Troyes is first found in manuscripts of the 12th century, though it can be shown that there was a list of bishops by the 9th century. In the opinion of Louis Duchesne, the list is worthy of confidence, at least from the 5th century on. The putative first bishop, St. Amator, seems to have preceded by a few years Bishop Optatianus who probably ruled the diocese about 344.
During his term, Bishop Ottulph (870-883) began to rebuild the cathedral, which had fallen in ruins due to neglect; coincidentally, he discovered the body of Saint Frobert, which became an object of veneration. In 878, he was host to Pope John VIII who had abandoned Italy, fleeing from the violence of Lambert, Duke of Spoleto. In 889, during the administration of Bishop Bodon, the entire town of Troyes was reduced to ashes by an invasion of Northmen.
There have been several councils held at Troyes, including those of 867, 878 (over which Pope John VIII presided), 1078, 1104 and 1107 (over which Pope Paschal II presided).
Cathedral, Collegiate Churches, Parishes
The Cathedral of Troyes is a fine Gothic structure begun in the 12th century, and completed in the 15th. The Cathedral Chapter has eight dignities: the Dean (who is elected by the Canons), the Treasurer, the Cantor, the Great Archdeacon (the Archdeacon of Troyes), the Archdeacon of Sessana, the Archdeacon of Arceis (Arcis), the Archdeacon of Brienne, and the Archdeacon of S. Margarita (Margerie). There were thirty-seven Canons, one of whom was the Prior of S. Georges de Gannayo. The Canons were appointed alternately by the Bishop and by the King. The most famous of the Deans of Troyes was Petrus Comestor (ca. 1110–1179), who was born in Troyes and became a priest of the diocese; he was then professor of theology in Paris, and Chancellor of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris.
In the diocese of Troyes, there were ten collegiate churches:
Saint-Étienne, in Troyes, a college royale
Saint-Urbain, in Troyes (founded by Pope Urban IV ca. 1264)
Saint Nicolas de Sézanne (founded 1164)
Lirey (founded 1353)
Broyes (founded 1081)
Pleurs (founded 1180)
Pougy (founded 1154)
Plancy (founded 1206)
Villemaur (founded 1124)
Beaufort-Montmorency
At the beginning of the fifteenth century, there was a grand total of 185 Canons in the diocese of Troyes. By the beginning of the eighteenth, there were only 117.
Also at the beginning of the fifteenth century, there were 358 parishes in the diocese.
The ancient collegiate Church of St. Urbain is a Gothic building whose lightness of treatment is reminiscent of La Sainte-Chapelle at Paris. Its construction was begun by Urban IV in 1262; the choir was completed in 1265, though the edifice was damaged by fire in 1266. The nave and façade are of the 19th and 20th centuries. Urban was a native of Troyes, and he prevailed upon the nuns of Notre-Dame-aux-Nonnans to sell him the land on which his father's house stood for a new church; on one of the stained-glass windows he caused his father to be depicted, working at his trade of tailor. The College of twelve Canons was headed by a Dean, and there was a Cantor and a Treasurer.
On 20 June 1353, Geoffroy de Charny, Lord of Savoisy and Lirey, founded at Lirey a collegiate church with six canonries, in honour of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary, and in this church he exposed for veneration a Holy Shroud. Opposition arose on the part of the Bishop of Troyes, who declared after due inquiry that the relic was nothing but a painting, a fact to which the creator of the "relic" confessed. Therefore, the Bishop opposed its being exhibited. Clement VI, persuaded by interested parties, issued four Bulls on 30 January 1354, approving the exposition as lawful, and two more, on 3 August 1354 (granting indulgences) and 5 June 1357. In 1418 during the civil wars, the Canons entrusted the Winding Sheet to Humbert, Count de La Roche, Lord of Lirey. Margaret, widow of Humbert, never returned it but gave it in 1452 to the Duke of Savoy. The requests of the canons of Lirey were unavailing, and the Lirey shroud is claimed to be the same that is now on display in Turin.
Revolution
The diocese of Troyes was abolished during the French Revolution by the Legislative Assembly, under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790). Its territory was subsumed into the new diocese, called the 'Aube', which was part of the Metropolitanate called the 'Metropole de Paris' (which included seven new 'départements'). The majority of clergy in the diocese of Troyes took the oath to the Constitution. The legitimate bishop, Louis-Mathias-Joseph de Barral, refused to take the oath, departed Troyes on 11 March 1791, and emigrated to Switzerland by way of Trier. Many of the non-jurors emigrated in September 1792, eighty-three of them seeking refuge in Switzerland. Those who were too old or ill were rounded up and incarcerated in the College of the Oratory. The diocesan seminary did not have enough teachers or students to continue to function; the building was used as a detention center for suspicious persons.
In Switzerland, Bishop de Barral conferred with a number of his fellow exiles from the episcopal college, who came to the opinion that one might swear the Constitutional oath. Bishop de Barral left them and travelled to London, where he found the episcopal sentiment much more rigorous. Nonetheless, in 1791, he wrote a letter in which he approved the submission, though without blaming the recusants. In 1800, he declared himself for taking the oath. After Napoleon came to power on 18 Brumaire 1799, de Barral wrote to the priests of his diocese that it was acceptable to take the oath to the Consulate. On 5 October 1801, he resigned his bishopric, following the demand of Pope Pius VII for the resignation of all French bishops. He returned to France, and was named Bishop of Meaux on 18 April 1802.
As for those left behind, on 20 March 1791 the electors of 'Aube' met and elected as their Bishop Fr. Augustin Sibille, who had been curé of the parish of Saint-Pantaleon in Troyes for thirty years. He was consecrated in Paris on 3 April by Constitutional Bishops Jean Baptiste Gobel (Paris), Miroudot and Gouttes. The consecration was valid, but it was illicit and schismatic; no bulls of consecration had been issued by Pope Pius VI. Bishop Sibille took possession of his cathedral in Troyes on Palm Sunday, 17 April 1791. At the end of 1793, however, the closing of all churches and the abolition of religion was decreed by the Conventionist Alexandre Rousselin. Sibille resigned the priesthood on 18 November 1793, which saved him from certain death at the hands of the Terror. He died on 11 February 1798.
On 1 July 1791, all of the members of the mendicant religious orders in the seven or eight convents which they occupied in Troyes were ordered to take up residence at the Convent of the Capucines where they were to live in common; they numbered some twenty persons. The Carthusians as well were rounded up and sent to the same place. Their properties and goods were to be sold. The Abbey of Saint-Loup was sold and its goods sold off, except for the relics, which were taken by Bishop Sibille to the Cathedral. Similar actions were carried out at Saint-Étienne, Saint-Pierre and Saint Lyé. Even the remains of the Counts of Champagne, Henri the Liberal and Thibault III, were exhumed and taken to the Cathedral. When the turn of Clairvaux came for the goods to be confiscated and the buildings demolished, Bernard of Clairvaux and Malachy of Armagh were turned out of their reliquaries and tombs. The locals of Clairvaux, according to the official story, preserved the remains, and Bishop Emmanuel-Jules Ravinet had those gathered up in 1875 and brought to the Cathedral in Troyes, where they are still kept.
Religious Houses
The Abbey of Nesle la Riposte was founded before 545 near Villenauxe, perhaps by Queen Clotilde. In the 16th century, after the Wars of Religion and the depredations of the Huguenots, the abbey was united to that at Saint-Vannes, and the monks caused the original doorway of Nesle Abbey to be rebuilt at Villenauxe, with the actual stones which they brought from Nesle. The Benedictine Mabillon undertook to interpret its carvings, among which might be seen the statue of a reine pédauque (i.e. a web-footed queen) supposed to be St. Clotilde.
The Abbey of Notre Dame aux Nonnains, founded by St. Leucon, was an important abbey for women. Alcuin and St. Bernard corresponded with its abbesses. At his installation the bishop went to the abbey on the previous evening; the bed he slept on became his property, but the mule on which he rode became the property of the abbess. The abbess led the bishop by the hand into the chapter hall; she put on his mitre, offered him his crozier, and in return the bishop promised to respect the rights of the abbey. The Jansenists in the 18th century made a great noise over the pretended cure by the deacon François Paris of Marie Madeleine de Mégrigny, a nun of Notre Dame aux Nonnains.
The part of the Diocese of Troyes which formerly belonged to the Diocese of Langres contained the famous Abbey of Clairvaux, though the Abbey of Clairvaux and its possessions were exempt from episcopal interference and were dependent directly on the pope.
The Abbey of the Paraclete was founded by the poet and theologian Abelard. In it the Abbess Heloise died in 1163; her body was interred there, and the remains of Abelard were buried there as well, until ejected by fanatics of the Revolution in 1792. Their present whereabouts is a matter of dispute. Nothing remains of the abbey.
Religious Orders at Troyes in the 17th and 18th centuries
Cardinal Pierre de Bérulle (1575–1629) was brought up on the Bérulle estate in the diocese. He preached at Troyes before founding the Oratorians. An Oratory was opened at Troyes in 1617; it was suppressed in 1792. Charles-Louis de Lantage, b. at Troyes in 1616, d. in 1694, was one of the chief helpers of Jean-Jacques Olier, founder of the Sulpicians.
Religious Orders at Troyes in the 19th century
Before the application of the Associations Law (1901), which instituted the separation between church and state in France, there were, in the Diocese of Troyes, Benedictines, Jesuits, Lazarists, Oblates of St. Francis of Sales, and Brothers of the Christian Schools. Many female congregations arose in the diocese, among others the Ursulines of Christian Teaching, founded at Moissy l'Evêque in the eighteenth century by Gilbert Gaspard de Montmorin, Bishop of Langres; the Sisters of Christian Instruction, founded in 1819, with motherhouse at Troyes; the Oblate Sisters of St. Francis de Sales, a teaching order, founded in 1866, with motherhouse at Troyes; Sisters of Notre Dame de Bon Secours, a nursing community with motherhouse at Troyes.
Bishops of Troyes
To 1000
Amator, c. 340
Optatius, 346–347
Léon Heraclius
Saint Mellonius (Melaine), 390–400
Aurelius
Saint Ursus of Auxerre, 426)
Saint Lupus I (426–478)
Saint Camelianus (Camelien) (479–536 or 511–525)
Saint Vincent, 536–546 or 533–541
Ambrosius, 549
Gallomagnus, 573–582
Agrecius, 585–586
Lupus II
Evodius, c. 631
Modegisil
Ragnegisil
Saint Leuconius (Leucoin), 651–656
Saint Nicolas de Matthieu
Bertoald
Abbon, 666–673
Waimer, 675–678
Vulfred
Ragembert
Aldebert
Gaucher
Ardouin
Censard, c. 722
Saint Bobinus (Bobin), 750–766, previously Abbot of Monstier la Celle<ref>Gallia christiana XII, p. 538–540, 542.</ref>
Amingus
Adelgar, c. 787
Bertulf
Elie, c. 829–936
Adalbert, 837–845
Saint Prudentius, 845–861, who wrote against Gottschalk and Eriugena
Folcric, 861–869
Ottulf, c. 880
Bodon, c. 890
Riveus, c. 895
Otbert, c. 910
Ansegisel, 914–970
Walon, 971
Ayric
Milon I, 980–982
Manasses(Menasses), 991 or 985–993
Renaud I.
1000 to 1300
attested 998–1034: Frotmundus (Fromond I.)
1034–1049: Mainard
1050: Fromond II.
1075: Hugo I. de Paris
1075: Gauthier
1075–1082: Hugo II. de Moeslain (House of Dampierre)
1083–1121: Philippe de Pont (Milon II)
1121–1122: Renaud II (Houses of Montlhéry and Le Puiset)
1122–1145: Atton (or Hatton)
1145–1169: Heinrich von Sponheim (Spanheimer), O.Cist.
1169–1180: Matthieu
1181–1190: Manassés II (de Pougy)
1190–1193: Barthélémy
1193–1205: Garnier de Traînel
1207–1223: Hervée
1223–1233: Robert
1233–1269: Nicolas
1269–1298: Jean de Nanteuil
1299–1314: Guichard
1300 to 1500
1314–1317: Jean d'Auxois
1317–1324: Guillaume Méchin (transferred to Dol)
1324–1326: Jean de Cherchemont (transferred to Amiens)
1326–1341: Jean d'Aubigny
1342–1353: Jean V. (transferred to Auxerre)
1354–1370: Henri de Poitiers
1370–1375: Jean de Bracque
1375–1377: Pierre de Villiers
1377–1395: Pierre d'Arcis
1395–1426: Etienne de Givry (appointed by Benedict XIII of the Avignon Obedience)
1426–1450: Jean Léguisé
1450–1483: Louis I Raguier
1483–1518: Jacques Raguier
1500 to 1800
1519–1527 : Guillaume II.
1528–1544 : Odard Hennequin
1545–1550 : Louis de Lorraine-Guise
1551–1561 : Antonio Caracciolo, C.R.S.A.
1562–1593 : C. de Beauffremont
1604–1641 : Renée de Breslay
1641–1678 : F. Malier du Houssay
1678–1697 : François Bouthillier de Chavigny (Resigned, in favor of his nephew)
1697–1716 : Denis-François Bouthillier de Chavigny (Appointed as Archbishop of Sens)
1716–1742 : Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet II (Retired)
1742–1758 : Mathias Poncet de la Rivière (Resigned)
1758–1761 : Jean-Baptiste-Marie Champion de Cicé (Appointed as Bishop of Auxerre)
1761–1790 : Louis-Claude-Mathias-Joseph Conte de Barral (Retired)
1790–1801 : Louis-Mathias-Joseph de Barral (Resigned)
1791–1793 : Augustin Sibille (Constitutional Bishop of Aube)
1798–1801 : Jean-Baptiste Blampoix (Constitutional Bishop of Aube)
From 1800
Marc-Antoine de Noé (11 April 1802 – 21 September 1802 Died)
Louis-Apolinaire de La Tour du Pin-Montauban (30 September 1802 – 28 November 1807 Died)
Etienne-Marie de Boulogne (8 March 1808 – 13 May 1825 Died)
Jacques-Louis-David de Seguin des Hons (22 Jun 1825 – 31 Aug 1843 Died)
Jean-Marie-Mathias Debelay (19 November 1843 – 16 October 1848 Appointed, Archbishop of Avignon)
Pierre-Louis Coeur (16 October 1848 – 9 October 1860 Died)
Emmanuel-Jules Ravinet (11 Dec 1860 – 2 August 1875 Retired)
Pierre-Louis-Marie Cortet (3 August 1875 – 16 February 1898 Died)
Gustave-Adolphe de Pélacot (22 March 1898 – 15 June 1907 Appointed, Archbishop of Chambéry)
Laurent-Marie-Etienne Monnier (6 October 1907 – 7 July 1927 Died)
Maurice Feltin (19 December 1927 – 16 August 1932 Appointed, Archbishop of Sens)
Joseph-Jean Heintz (7 December 1933 Appointed – 15 February 1938 Appointed, Bishop of Metz)
Joseph-Charles Lefèbvre (27 July 1938 Appointed – 17 June 1943 Appointed, Archbishop of Bourges)
Julien Le Couëdic (4 November 1943 Appointed – 21 February 1967 Retired)
André Pierre Louis Marie Fauchet (21 February 1967 Appointed – 4 April 1992 Retired)
Gérard Antoine Daucourt (4 April 1992 Succeeded – 2 July 1998 Appointed Bishop of Orléans)
Marc Camille Michel Stenger (30 April 1999 Appointed – 28 December 2020 Resigned)
Alexandre Joly (11 December 2021 Appointed – )
Saints connected with the diocese
Among the many saints specially honoured or connected with the diocese are:
Sabinian of Troyes, Apostle of Troyes
St. Romanus, Archbishop of Reims, founder of the Monastery of SS. Gervasus and Protasius at Chantenay in the diocese of Troyes (d. c. 537);
St. Frobert, founder and first Abbot of Montier le Celle (d. 688);
St Aderaldus, canon and archdeacon of Troyes, who died in 1004 on returning from the Crusade, and who founded the Benedictine monastery of the Holy Sepulchre in the diocese;
St. Simon, Count de Bar-sur-Aube, solitary, acted as mediator between Pope Gregory VII and Robert Guiscard, and died in 1082;
St. Robert, founder of Molesme and Cîteaux, a native of the diocese (1024–1108);
St. Elizabeth of Chelles, foundress of the monastery of Rosoy (d. c. 1130);
St Hombelina, first Abbess of Jully-sur-Sarce, and sister of St. Bernard (1092–1135);
Blessed Peter, an Englishman, prior of Jully-sur-Sarce (d. 1139);
St. Bernard of Clairvaux, first Abbot of Clairvaux (1091–1153)
Marguerite Bourgeoys (1620–1700), foundress of the Congregation of Notre Dame at Montreal, a native of the diocese;
Marie de Sales Chappuis, superioress of the Visitation Convent at Troyes (d. 1875).
St. Exuperantia, a virgin associated with the Isle of Aumont.
See also
List of bishops of Troyes
G-Catholic'', Diocese of Troyes France, retrieved: 2016-09-22.
Diocèse de Troyes
Relics of St. Bernard, Treasury, Cathedral of SS. Peter and Paul, Troyes. Retrieved: 2016-09-26.
References
Bibliography
Reference works
pp. 642–644. (Use with caution; obsolete)
(in Latin) pp. 493–494.
(in Latin) p. 254.
p. 317.
p. 342.
p. 386-387.
p. 413.
Studies
[Revolution, Consulate, Restoration, 1st half of 19th century]
[the ultramontane point-of-view]
External links
Centre national des Archives de l'Église de France, L'Épiscopat francais depuis 1919 , retrieved: 2016-12-24.
Acknowledgment
Goyau, Georges. "Troyes." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. Retrieved: 2016-09-22. [obsolete]
Troyes
Aube
Troyes
4th-century establishments in Roman Gaul
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Limoges
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Roman Catholic Diocese of Limoges
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The Diocese of Limoges (Latin: Dioecesis Lemovicensis; French: Diocèse de Limoges) is a Latin Church diocese of the Catholic Church in France. The diocese comprises the départments of Haute-Vienne and Creuse. After the Concordat of 1801, the See of Limoges lost twenty-four parishes from the district of Nontron which were annexed to the Diocese of Périgueux, and forty-four from the district of Confolens, transferred to the Diocese of Angoulême; but until 1822 it included the entire ancient Diocese of Tulle, when the latter was reorganized.
Since 2002, the diocese has been suffragan to the Archdiocese of Poitiers, after transferral from the Archdiocese of Bourges. Until 20 September 2016 the see was held by François Michel Pierre Kalist, who was appointed on 25 Mar 2009. He was promoted to the See of Clermont. Since May 2017, the bishop of Limoges is Pierre-Antoine Bozo.
Early history
Early Mythology
Saint Gregory of Tours names St. Martial, who founded the Church of Limoges, as one of the seven bishops sent from Rome to Gaul in the middle of the 3rd century. An anonymous life of St. Martial (Vita primitiva), discovered and published by Abbé Arbellot, represents him as sent to Gaul by St. Peter. Controversy has arisen over the date of this biography. The discovery in the library at Karlsruhe of a manuscript copy written at Reichenau by Regimbertus, a monk who died in 846, places the original before that date. The biography is written in rhythmical prose; Charles-Félix Bellet thinks it belongs to the 7th century, while Charles De Smedt and Louis Duchesne maintain that the "Vita primitiva" is much later than Gregory of Tours (died 590). Charles Ferdinand de Lasteyrie du Saillant gives 800 as the date of its origin.
In addition to the manuscript already cited, the Abbey of St. Martial at the beginning of the 11th century possessed a circumstantial life of its patron saint, according to which, and to the cycle of later legends derived from it, St. Martial was one of the seventy-two disciples who witnessed the Passion and Ascension of Christ, was present on the first Pentecost and at the martyrdom of St. Stephen. followed St. Peter to Antioch and to Rome, and was sent to Gaul by the Prince of the Apostles, who assigned Austriclinium and Alpinian to accompany him. The three were welcomed at Tulle and turned away from Ahun. They set out towards Limoges, where St. Martial erected on the site of the present cathedral a shrine in honour of St. Stephen. A pagan priest, Aurelian, wished to throw St. Martial into prison, but was struck dead, then brought to life, baptized, ordained and later consecrated bishop by the saint. Aurelian is the patron of the guild of butchers in Limoges. Forty years after the Ascension, Christ appeared to Martial, and announced to him the approach of death. The churches of Limoges celebrate this event on 16 June. After labouring for twenty-eight years as a missionary in Gaul, the saint died at the age of fifty-nine, surrounded by his converts of Poitou, Berry, Auvergne and Aquitaine.
The writer of this "Life" pretends to be Aurelian, St. Martial's disciple and successor in the See of Limoges. Louis Duchesne thinks it not unlikely that the real authorship of this "apocryphal and lying" work should be attributed to the chronicler Adhémar de Chabannes, noted for his fabrications. M. de Lasteyrie however is of the opinion that the Life was written about 955, before the birth of Adhémar. Be that as it may, this "Vita Aureliana" played an important part at the beginning of the 11th century, when the Abbot Hugh (1019–1025) brought before several councils the question of the Apostolic date of St. Martial's mission. Before the Carolingian period there is no trace of the story that St. Martial was sent to Gaul by St. Peter. It did not spread until the 11th century and was revived in the seventeenth by the Carmelite Bonaventure de Saint-Amable, in his voluminous "Histoire de St. Martial". Duchesne and M. de Lasteyrie assert that it cannot be maintained against the direct testimony of St. Gregory of Tours, who places the origin of the Church of Limoges about the year 250.
Saintly patrons
The diocese specially honours the following: St. Sylvanus (Silvain), a native of Ahun, martyr; St. Adorator disciple of St. Ambrose, suffered martyrdom at Lubersac; St. Victorianus, an Irish hermit; St. Vaast, a native of the diocese who became Bishop of Arras and baptized king Clovis (5th–6th century); St. Psalmodius, a native of Britain, died a hermit at Eymoutiers; St. Yrieix, d. in 591, chancellor to Theudebert II King of Austrasia and founder of the monastery of Attanum (the towns of Saint-Yrieix are named after him); St. Etienne de Muret (1046–1126), who founded the famous Benedictine abbey of Grandmont.
Councils of Limoges
The Council of Limoges, held in 1031, is noted not only for its decision with regard to St. Martial's mission, but because, at the instigation of Abbot Odolric, it proclaimed the "Truce of God" and threatened with general excommunication those feudal lords who would not swear to maintain it. Another council was held at Limoges by Pope Urban II in December 1095, at which Bishop Humbauld was deposed.
Middle Ages
The Cathedral of St-Étienne was served by a Chapter, composed of three dignities (The Dean, The Precentor, and the Archdeacon), and twenty-nine canons. The Dean held a prebend, as did the Precentor. There was only one Archdeacon in the diocese, the Archdeacon of Limoges (sometimes called the Archdeacon of Malemort). The prebends were assigned by the Chapter, except those which belonged ex officio to the Bishop, the Dean, the Precentor, the Abbot of Benevent and the Prior of Aureil. By the seventeenth century the city of Limoges had a population of around 4,000, divided into two parishes; there was one collège (high school). By 1730 the population had risen to 30,000, and there were twelve urban parishes, but still only one college. In the city there were ten religious houses of men and eight monasteries of monks. The entire diocese was divided up into approximately 1,000 parishes, supervised by seventeen Archpriests.
The ecclesiastics who served the crypt of St. Martial organized themselves into a monastery in 848, and built a church beside that of St.-Pierre-du-Sépulchre which overhung the crypt. This new church, which they called St-Sauveur, was demolished in 1021 and replaced in 1028 by a larger edifice in Auvergnat style. Urban II came in person to reconsecrate it in 1095. In the 13th century the chapel of St. Benedict arose beside the old church of St-Pierre-du-Sépulchre. It was also called the church of the Grand Confraternity of St. Martial. The different organizations which were grouped around it, anticipated and solved many important sociological questions.
In the Middle Ages, Limoges comprised two towns: one called the "City", the other the "Chateau" or "Castle". The government of the "Castle" belonged at first to the Abbots of St. Martial who claimed to have received it from king Louis the Pious. Later, the viscounts of Limoges claimed this authority, and constant friction existed until the beginning of the 13th century, when owing to the new communal activity, consuls were appointed, to whose authority the abbots were forced to submit in 1212. After two intervals during which the English kings imposed their rule, king Charles V of France in 1371 united the "Castle" with the royal demesne, and thus ended the political rule of the Abbey of St. Martial. Until the end of the old regime, however, the abbots of St. Martial exercised direct jurisdiction over the Combes quarter of the city.
In 1370 the city was completely sacked by Prince Edward, the Black Prince, causing a diminution in the size of the population of more than 3,000 persons. The city had been handed over to the French in an act of treachery by the Bishop, Jean de Cros, who had been a personal friend and Councillor of the Black Prince, and when the city was taken, the English revenge was all the more vigorous. Bishop de Cros was captured by the English, and the Prince threatened to have the bishop's head cut off. Only the intervention of the Duke of Lancaster saved Bishop le Cros.
Early modern period
It was at the priory of Bourganeuf in this diocese that Pierre d'Aubusson received the Ottoman prince Zizim, son of Sultan Mehmed II, after he had been defeated in 1483 by his brother, Bayezid II.
In 1534, Abbot Matthieu Jouviond, finding that the monastic spirit had almost totally died out in the abbey of St. Martial, thought best to change it into a collegiate church, and in 1535 King Francis I and Pope Paul III gave their consent. The Collegiate Church was suppressed in 1791, and early in the 19th century even the buildings had disappeared. In the 13th century, the Abbey of St. Martial possessed the finest library (450 volumes) in France after that of Cluny Abbey (570 volumes). Some have been lost, but 200 of them were bought by Louis XV in 1730, and to-day are part of the collections in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris. Most manuscripts, ornamented with beautiful miniatures, were written in the abbey itself. M. Émile Molinier and M. Rupin admit a relation between these miniatures of St. Martial and the earliest Limoges enamels, but M. de Lasteyrie disputes this theory. The Franciscans settled at Limoges in 1223. According to the chronicle of Pierre Coral, rector of St. Martin of Limoges, St. Anthony of Padua established a convent there in 1226 and departed in the first months of 1227. On the night of Holy Thursday, it is said, he was preaching in the church of St. Pierre du Queyroix, when he stopped for a moment and remained silent. At the same instant he appeared in the choir of the Franciscan monastery and read a lesson. It was doubtlessly at Châteauneuf in the territory of Limoges that took place the celebrated apparition of the Infant Jesus to St. Anthony.
Mention must also be made of the following natives of Limoges: Bernard Guidonis (1261–1313), born at La Roche d'Abeille, Bishop of Lodève and a celebrated canonist; the Aubusson family, one of whom, Pierre d'Aubusson (1483–1503), was Grand Master of the Order of Jerusalem and one of the defenders of Rhodes against the Ottomans; Marc Antoine Muret, called the "Orator of the Popes" (1526–1596). Three popes came from the Diocese of Limoges: Pierre Roger, born at Maumont (today part of the commune of Rosiers-d'Égletons), elected pope in 1342 as Clement VI, died in 1352; Etienne Albert, or Étienne d'Albret, born at Monts, elevated to the papacy in 1352 as Innocent VI, died in 1362. Pierre Roger de Beaufort, nephew of Clement VI, also born at Maumont, reigned as Gregory XI from 1371 till 1378. Maurice Bourdin, Archbishop of Braga (Portugal), antipope for a brief space in 1118, under the name of Gregory VIII, also belonged to this diocese. St. Peter Damian came to Limoges in 1062 as papal legate, to compel the monks to accept the supremacy of the Order of Cluny.
A benefit to Limoges before the Revolution was the appointment of Anne Robert Jacques Turgot as Intendant of the genéralité of Limoges (1761–1774). He managed to get a major reduction in the tax burden of the province, had a new survey completed which made possible a more just imposition of taxes, and replaced the corvée (compulsory labor) with a tax which was used to hire professional road builders, thereby greatly improving communications in the area. In the famine of 1770–1771, he required land owners to relieve the want of the poor. On 10 February 1770, he issued the "Lettre-circulaire aux curés", in which he advised the clergy on the steps which had to be taken to form local charity bureaus. He placed the Bishop of Limoges, Louis-Charles du Plessis d'Argentré, at the head of the bureau of charity in his episcopal city. The bishop and Turgot had been fellow students at the Sorbonne and were friends. Turgot also promoted the growing of the potato, the use of the spinning wheel, and the manufacture of porcelain.
Since the separation of churches and state in 1905
Before the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State, there were in the diocese of Limoges Jesuits, Franciscans, Marists, Oblates of Mary Immaculate and Sulpicians. The principal congregations of women which originated here are the Sisters of the Incarnation founded in 1639, contemplatives and teachers, who were restored in 1807 at Azerables, and have houses in Texas and Mexico. The Sisters of St. Alexis, nursing sisters, founded at Limoges in 1659. The Sisters of St. Joseph, founded at Dorat in February, 1841, by Elizabeth Dupleix, who had visited the prisons at Lyons with other pious women since 1805. The Congregation of Our Saviour and the Congregation of the Blessed Virgin, a nursing and teaching congregation founded at la Souterraine, in 1835, by Joséphine du Bourg.
The Sisters of the Good Shepherd (also called 'Marie Thérèse nuns'), nursing sisters and teachers, had their mother-house at Limoges.
In 2016 there were 97 female religious and 10 male religious serving in the Diocese of Limoges, a decline of 47 since 2013.
Bishops
To 1000
Saint Martial, 3rd century
Saint Aurelian, 3rd century
Ebulus
?
Alticus
?
Emerinus
?
Hermogenian
?
Adelfius I
?
Dativus 4th century
Adelfius II 4th century
Exuperius 4th century
Astidius 4th century
Peter du Palais 506
Ruricius 507
Ruricius II 535–553
Exochius 6th century
Ferreolus 575–597
Asclepius 613
Saint Loup 614–631
Simplicius 7th century
Felix ca. 650.
Adelfius III
Rusticus 669
Autsindus 683
Hergenobert 7th century
Ermenon 8th century
Salutaris 8th century
Saint Sacerdos 720
Ausuindus 8th century
Agericus
Saint Cessadre 732]].
Rorice III. 8th century
Ebulus I. 752–768
Asclepius ca. 793
Reginbert 794-817.
Odoacre 821–843
Stodilus 850–861
Aldo 866
Geilo 869
Anselm 869–896
Turpin D'Aubusson 905–944
Ebalus II 958–963
Hildegaire 977–990
Alduin 990–1012
1000 to 1300
Géraud I 1012–1020
Jourdain de Laront 1029–1051
Itier Chabot 1052–1073
Guy de Laront 1076–1086
Humbauld de Saint-Sèvère 1087–1095
Guillaume D'Uriel 1098–1100
Pierre Viroald 1100–1105
Eustorge 1106–1137
Gérald II du Cher 1142–1177
Sébrand Chabot 1179–1198
Jean de Veyrac 1198–1218
Bernard de Savène 1219–1226
Guy de Cluzel 1226–1235
[Guillaume du Puy] 1235
Durand<ref>Durandus had been Provost of S. Junianus and Canon of Limoges. He was the subject of a disputed election, which was taken up by Pope Gregory IX on 18 January 1238. On 1 August 1240 Pope Gregory wrote to the Bishop of Bourges to ordain Durandus a priest and consecrate him a bishop. His bulls of consecration and installation were approved on 10 October 1240. Durandus died on 29 December 1245. A. Potthast, Regesta pontificum Romanorum I (Berlin 1874), p. 924, no. 10922. Eubel, I, p. 301, with note 1.</ref> 1240–1245
Aymeric de La Serre 1246–1272
Gilbert de Malemort 1275–1294
Raynaud de La Porte 1294–1316
1300 to 1500
Gérard Roger 1317–1324
Hélie de Talleyrand 1324–1328
Blessed Roger le Fort 1328–1343
Nicolas de Besse 1343–1344 (never consecrated)
Guy de Comborn 1346–1347
Jean de Cros 1347–1371
Aymeric Chati de L'Age-au-Chapt 1371–1390
Bernard de Bonneval 1391–1403 (Avignon Obedience)
Hugues de Magnac 1403–1412
Ramnulfe de Peyrusse des Cars 1414–1426
Hugues de Rouffignac 1426–1427
Pierre de Montbrun 1427–1456
Jean de Barthon I. 1457–1484
Jean de Barthon II. 1484–1510
1500 to 1800
René de Prie 1514–1516
Philippe de Montmorency 1517–1519
Charles de Villiers de L`Isle-Adam 1522–1530
Antoine de Lascaris 1530–1532
Jean de Langeac 1533–1541
Jean du Bellay 1541–1544
Antoine Senguin 1546–1550
César des Bourguignons 1555–1558
Sébastien de L'Aubespine 1558–1582
Henri de La Marthonie 1587–1618
Raymond de La Marthonie 1618–1627
François de Lafayette 1628–1676
Louis de Lascaris D'Urfé 1676–1695
François de Carbonel de Canisy 1695–1706, † 1723
Antoine de Charpin de Genetines (13 Sep 1706 Appointed – 1729 Resigned. 21 Jun 1739 Died)
Charles de la Roche Aymon (Auxiliary Bishop : 1725–1729)
Benjamin de l'Isle du Gast (14 August 1730 – 6 September 1739)
Jean-Gilles du Coëtlosquet (1739–1758)
Louis-Charles du Plessis d'Argentré (3 Sep 1758 Appointed – 28 Mar 1808 Died)
Léonard Gay-Vernon (Constitutional Bishop of Haute-Vienne) (1791–1793)
From 1800
Marie-Jean-Philippe Dubourg (29 Apr 1802 Appointed – 31 Jan 1822 Died)
Jean-Paul-Gaston de Pins (1822–1824)
Prosper de Tournefort (13 Oct 1824 Appointed – 7 Mar 1844 Died)
Bernard Buissas (21 Apr 1844 Appointed – 24 Dec 1856 Died)
Florian Desprez (4 Feb 1857 Appointed – 30 Jul 1859 Appointed, Archbishop of Toulouse)
Relix-Pierre Fruchaud (1859–1871)
Alfred Duquesnay (16 Oct 1871 Appointed – 17 Feb 1881 Appointed Archbishop of Cambrai)
Pierre Henri Lamazou (17 Feb 1881 Appointed – 3 Jul 1883 Appointed Bishop of Amiens)
François-Benjamin-Joseph Blanger (3 Jul 1883 Appointed – 11 Dec 1887 Died)
Firmin-Léon-Joseph Renouard (28 Feb 1888 Appointed – 30 Nov 1913 Died)
Hector-Raphaël Quilliet (24 Dec 1913 Appointed – 18 Jun 1920 Appointed Bishop of Lille)
Alfred Flocard (16 Dec 1920 Appointed – 3 Mar 1938 Died)
Louis-Paul Rastouil (21 Oct 1938 Appointed – 7 Apr 1966 Died)
Henri Gufflet † (7 Apr 1966 Succeeded – 13 Jul 1988 Retired)
Léon-Raymond Soulier (13 Jul 1988 Succeeded – 24 Oct 2000 Retired – 25 December 2016 Died)
Christophe Dufour (24 Oct 2000 Appointed – 20 May 2008 Appointed Bishop of Aix en Provence)
François Michel Pierre Kalist (17 May 2009 – 20 Sept 2016 Appointed Bishop of Clermont-Ferrand)
Pierre-Antoine Bozo (10 April 2017 Appointed – )
Pilgrimages and Feasts
In 994, when the district was devastated by a plague (mal des ardents''), the epidemic ceased immediately after a procession ordered by Bishop Hilduin on the Mont de la Joie, which overlooks the city. The Church of Limoges celebrates this event on 12 November.
The principal pilgrimages of the diocese are those of: Saint Valéric at Saint-Vaury (6th century); Our Lady of Sauvagnac at Saint-Léger-la-Montagne (12th century); Notre-Dame-du-Pont, near Saint-Junien (14th century), twice visited by Louis XI; Notre-Dame d'Arliquet, at Aixe-sur-Vienne (end of the 16th century); Notre-Dame-des-Places, at Crozant (since 1664).
See also
Catholic Church in France
References
Bibliography
Studies
Reference works
pp. 548–549. (Use with caution; obsolete)
p. 301. (in Latin)
p. 175.
p. 219.
External links
Centre national des Archives de l'Église de France, L'Épiscopat francais depuis 1919, retrieved: 2016-12-24.
Haute-Vienne
Roman Catholic dioceses in France
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Sharp%20%28mountaineer%29
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David Sharp (mountaineer)
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David Sharp (15 February 1972 – 15 May 2006) was an English mountaineer who died near the summit of Mount Everest. His death caused controversy and debate because he was passed by a number of other climbers heading to and returning from the summit as he was dying, although a number of others tried to help him.
Sharp had previously summited Cho Oyu and was noted as being a talented rock climber who seemed to acclimatise well, and was known for being in good humour around mountaineering camps. He appeared briefly in season one of the television show Everest: Beyond the Limit, which was filmed the same season as his ill-fated expedition to Everest.
Sharp had a degree from the University of Nottingham and pursued climbing as a hobby. He had worked for an engineering firm and took time off to go on adventures and climbing expeditions, but had been planning to start work as a school teacher in the autumn of 2006.
Early life
David Sharp was born in Harpenden, near London, and later attended Prior Pursglove College and the University of Nottingham. He graduated with a Mechanical Engineering degree in 1993. He worked for global security company QinetiQ. In 2005 he quit this job and took a teacher training course, and was planning to start work as a teacher in the autumn of 2006. David Sharp was also an experienced and accomplished mountaineer, and had climbed some of the world's tallest mountains including Cho Oyu in the Himalayas. Sharp did not believe in using a guide for mountains he was familiar with, local climbing assistance or artificial enhancements, such as high altitude drugs or supplementary oxygen, to reach the top of a mountain.
Expeditions and summits
Mountaineering summary
While growing up in England, Sharp climbed Roseberry Topping. At university, he was a member of the Mountaineering Club.
Sharp also took a six-month sabbatical from his job to go on a backpacking trip through South America and Asia.
In May 2002, Sharp summited the Cho Oyu with Jamie McGuinness and Tsering Pande Bhote. Cho Oyu is the sixth highest peak in the world and is near Mount Everest. The leader of the Cho Oyu expedition, impressed with Sharp's strength, acclimatisation abilities, and rock climbing talent, invited him to join an expedition to Everest the next year.
2001 Gasherbrum II expedition
In 2001, Sharp went on an expedition to Gasherbrum II, an mountain located in the Karakoram, on the border between Gilgit–Baltistan province, Pakistan-administered Kashmir, and Xinjiang, China. The expedition, led by Henry Todd, did not summit due to bad weather.
2002 Cho Oyu expedition
In 2002, Sharp went on an expedition to Cho Oyu, an peak in the Himalayas, with a group led by Richard Dougan and Jamie McGuinness of the Himalayan Project. They did make it to the summit, but one member died from falling into a crevasse; this opened up a slot on the group's trip to Everest the next year. Dougan regarded Sharp as a strong climber, but noted that he was tall and skinny, possessing a light frame with little body fat; in cold-weather mountaineering, body fat can be critical to survival.
2003 Mount Everest expedition
Sharp's first Mount Everest expedition was in 2003 with a group led by British climber Richard Dougan. The party also included Terence Bannon, Martin Duggan, Stephen Synnott, and Jamie McGuinness. Only Bannon and McGuinness reached the summit, but the group incurred no fatalities. Dougan noted that Sharp had acclimatised well and was their strongest team member. In addition, Sharp was noted for being a pleasant person at camp and had a talent for rock climbing. However, when Sharp started to get frostbite on the group's ascent, most of the group agreed to turn back with him from the summit.
Dougan and Sharp helped a struggling Spanish climber who was heading up at that time, and gave him some extra oxygen. Sharp lost some of his toes to frostbite on this climb.
2004 Mount Everest expedition
In 2004, Sharp joined a Franco-Austrian expedition to the north side of Mount Everest, climbed to , but did not reach the summit. Sharp could not keep up with the others and stopped before the First Step. The expedition's leader was Hugues d’Aubarede, a French climber who was later killed in the 2008 K2 disaster (his third attempt to climb that mountain), but who became, on this 2004 expedition, the 56th French person to summit Everest. D'Aubarede's group reached the summit on the morning of 17 May and included Austrians Marcus Noichl, Paul Koller, and Fredrichs "Fritz" Klausner as well as Nepalis Chhang Dawa Sherpa, Lhakpa Gyalzen Sherpa, and Zimba Zangbu Sherpa (also known as Ang Babu).
D'Aubarede said Sharp disagreed with him that it was wrong to climb alone and to attempt summiting without using supplementary oxygen. This is confirmed by Sharp's emails to other climbers in which he stated he did not believe in using extra oxygen. He joined four climbers on this expedition, so Sharp relented on that point of disagreement, but only for a time, as he would return in 2006 for his solo attempt. As a result of his 2004 attempt, Sharp incurred frostbite on his fingers during the expedition.
2006 Mount Everest expedition
Two years later, Sharp returned to Everest to reach the summit on a solo climb arranged through Asian Trekking. This attempt would ultimately cost him his life. Sharp was climbing alone and had intended to reach the summit without using supplementary oxygen, which is considered to be extremely risky even for very strong acclimatised mountain climbers, such as Sherpas. However, Sharp apparently did not consider it a challenge to climb Everest with supplementary oxygen.
Sharp was climbing with a bare-bones "basic services" package from Asian Trekking that does not offer support after a certain altitude is reached on the mountain or a Sherpa to climb with as a partner, although this option was available to Sharp for an additional fee. He was grouped with 13 other independent climbers – including Vitor Negrete, Thomas Weber, and Igor Plyushkin who also died attempting to summit that year – on the International Everest Expedition. This package only provided a permit, a trip into Tibet, oxygen equipment, transportation, food, and tents up to the Mount Everest "Advance Base Camp" (ABC) at an elevation of about . The group Sharp was with was not really an expedition and had no leader, although it is considered good climbing etiquette that members of the group make some effort to keep track of one another.
Before Sharp booked his trip with Asian Trekking, his friend McGuinness, an experienced climber and guide, invited him to join his organised expedition at a discount. Sharp acknowledged this as a good deal but declined so he could act independently and climb at his own pace. Critically, Sharp opted to climb alone without a Sherpa, deciding not to bring sufficient supplementary oxygen (reportedly only two bottles, which is enough for about 8 to 10 hours of climbing at high altitude) and without a radio to call for help if he encountered problems.
Sharp was transported by vehicle to the Base Camp, and his equipment was transported by yak train to the Advance Base Camp, as part of the Asian Trekking "basic services" package. Sharp remained there for five days to acclimatise to the altitude. He made several trips up and down the mountain to set up and stock his upper camps and further acclimatise himself. Sharp likely set out from a camp high on the mountain below the Northeast Ridge to make a summit attempt during the late evening of 13 May. He needed to climb what is referred to as the "Exit Cracks", traverse the Northeast Ridge, including the Three Steps, reach the summit, then climb down to return to his high camp. It was reported that Sharp carried a limited supply of supplementary oxygen with him, which he intended to use only in an emergency.
Sharp either managed to reach the summit or turned back near the summit to descend very late in the day on 14 May. In the end, he was forced to bivouac on the mountain during his descent in the dark at about under a rocky overhang known as Green Boots' Cave situated near the so-called First Step. There he was overcome by the elements, without any remaining supplementary oxygen, possibly experiencing equipment problems, and likely also suffering from some degree of altitude sickness due to a lack of oxygen, all on one of the coldest nights of the season.
Sharp's predicament was not immediately known for several reasons: he was not climbing with an expedition that would monitor climbers' locations; he had not told anyone beforehand of his summit attempt (although other climbers spotted him on his ascent); he did not have a radio or satellite phone with him to let anyone know where he was or that he was in trouble and two other more inexperienced climbers from his group went missing at around the same time. One of the two missing climbers was Malaysian Ravi Chandran (also known as Ravichandran Tharumalingam), who was eventually found but required medical attention after getting frostbite.
Some members of the group of climbers Sharp was with, including George Dijmarescu, realised Sharp was missing when he did not return later in the evening on May 15 and nobody reported seeing him. Sharp was an experienced climber who had previously turned around when he had experienced problems and it was surmised that Sharp had sought shelter at one of the higher camps or bivouacked somewhere higher up on Everest, so his failure to return to camp did not initially cause serious concern. High-altitude bivouacs are very risky but are sometimes recommended in certain extreme situations.
Sharp ultimately died under the rocky overhang, sitting with arms clasped around his legs, next to Green Boots. The "cave" is situated approximately above the high camps, commonly called Camp 4 but the extreme cold, fatigue, lack of oxygen and darkness made a descent to Camp 4 very dangerous or next to impossible.
Accounts of the fatal climb
Himex expedition – first team
Himex organised several teams to climb Everest during the 2006 climbing season expedition. The first team was guided by mountain climber and guide Bill Crouse. At around 01:00 on 14 May, Crouse's expedition team passed by Sharp during their ascent near the location on the North route known as the "Exit Cracks". When Crouse's team descended around 11:00, they saw Sharp once again but this time he was higher up on the mountain at the base of the Third Step. By the time Crouse's expedition had descended to the Second Step, more than one hour later, they looked back to see that Sharp was above the Third Step but was climbing very slowly and had only moved about .
Turkish team
Another source of information about Sharp were reports from a team of Turkish climbers. They left their high camp in the evening on 14 May and were essentially traveling in three separate groups.
Late in the evening to early morning, the Turkish team members encountered Sharp in the darkness while they were ascending. The first group encountered Sharp around midnight, noticed he was alive and thought that he appeared to be a climber taking a short break. Sharp supposedly waved them on. Some time later, others who noticed Sharp thought he was already dead; recovery of a dead climber's body is almost impossible due to the conditions so far up the mountain. It is thought that Sharp might have fallen asleep between these two encounters. The fact that Sharp wanted to sleep was noted by other climbers who encountered him later on, and a quote attributed to him telling people that he wanted to sleep was later reported in some news media stories.
Some of the Turkish team summited early in the morning on 15 May while some turned back near the summit due to difficulties one of their team members was having. The Turkish team members who turned back encountered Sharp again at about 07:00 and one of them was the Turkish team leader, Serhan Pocan, who had previously passed Sharp in the night and thought Sharp was a climber who had recently died. In the daylight, Pocan realised that Sharp was alive and in serious trouble.
Sharp had no oxygen left, had serious frostbite and some limbs were frozen. Two of the Turkish climbers stayed, gave him something to drink and tried to help him move. When they themselves began to run low on oxygen, they were forced to leave but with the intent to return with more oxygen. Their initial effort to help was complicated by their own problems trying to get Burçak Özoğlu Poçan down safely; she was the climber in their group having medical problems. Serhan Pocan placed radio calls to the rest of the team coming down from the summit about Sharp and continued descending with Burçak. At about 08:30, two other members of the Turkish team cleaned out Sharp's iced up mask to give him oxygen but they had started to run out themselves and had to descend. The remaining Turks later attempted to further help Sharp along with some Himex expedition members.
Himex expedition – Second team
The vanguard of the second team of Himex climbers included Max Chaya, New Zealand double-amputee Mark Inglis, Wayne Alexander (who designed Inglis' prosthetic climbing legs), Discovery cameraman Mark Whetu, experienced climbing guide Mark Woodward, and their Sherpa support team, including Phurba Tashi. The team left their high camp around late in the evening near midnight on 14 May. Chaya and the Sherpa porter/guide he was climbing with were out in front by about half an hour.
At about 01:00, Woodward and his group (including Inglis, Alexander, Whetu and some Sherpa porters) encountered Sharp, who Woodward knew should not be there. He was neither conscious nor moving, was suffering from severe frostbite but they could see that he was breathing. Woodward noticed Sharp had thin gloves and no oxygen and said that they yelled at Sharp to get up, get moving and follow the headlamps back to the high camps. Woodward shined his headlamp in Sharp's eyes, but Sharp was unresponsive.
Woodward thought he was almost dead and in a hypothermic coma, commenting, "Oh, this poor guy, he's stuffed," and believed Sharp could not be rescued. Woodward attempted to radio their Advanced Base Camp about Sharp but got no reply. Alexander commented, "God bless... Rest in peace", before the group moved on. Woodward said it was not an easy decision to make but his chief responsibility was the safety of his own team members. Stopping in the extreme cold at that time would have risked the lives of his entire team. At that elevation, one has to be conscious and able to walk to attempt a rescue.
Maxime Chaya reached the summit at around 06:00. During his descent, Chaya and the Sherpa porter/guide he was with, Dorjee, encountered Sharp a little after 09:00, noticed he was shivering and tried to help him. Chaya also notified the Himex expedition manager Russell Brice over the group's radio. He had not seen Sharp in the darkness of the ascent. Chaya observed that Sharp was unconscious, shivering severely and was wearing a thin pair of wool gloves with no hat, glasses or goggles. Sharp was severely frostbitten, had frozen hands and legs and was found with only one empty oxygen bottle.
At one point Sharp stopped shivering, leading Chaya to believe he had died; some time later he started shivering again. They attempted to give him oxygen, but there was no response. After about an hour, Brice advised Chaya that he was running out of oxygen and there was nothing he could do, so he needed to come down. Chaya told The Washington Post: "it almost looks like he [David Sharp] had a death wish".
Soon after Chaya descended, some of the others from the second Himex group and a Turkish group encountered Sharp again during their descent and attempted to help him. Phurba Tashi, the lead Sherpa guide for Himex, and a Turkish Sherpa guide gave Sharp oxygen from a spare bottle they found, patted him to try to get circulation going and tried to give him something to drink. At one point Sharp mumbled a few sentences. The group tried to get Sharp to his feet, but he was not able to stand, even with assistance. They moved Sharp into the sunlight and descended. It took the two strongest Sherpa climbers about 20 minutes just to move Sharp about four steps into the sunlight, so they could not have taken Sharp with them.
Mark Inglis controversy
Following David Sharp's death, Mark Inglis was initially severely criticised by the media and others, including Sir Edmund Hillary, for not helping Sharp. Inglis stated that Sharp had been passed by 30 to 40 other climbers heading for the summit who made no attempt at a rescue, but he was criticised for not helping Sharp simply because he was more well known. Inglis said he believed that Sharp was ill-prepared, lacking proper gloves, not bringing enough supplementary oxygen and was already doomed by the time of his ascent. He also initially stated, "I... radioed, and [expedition manager Russell Brice] said, 'Mate, you can't do anything. He's been there X number of hours without oxygen. He's effectively dead.' Trouble is, at 8500 meters it's extremely difficult to keep yourself alive, let alone keep anyone else alive".
Statements by Inglis suggest that he believed that Sharp was probably so close to death as to have been beyond help by the time the Inglis party passed him during his group's ascent and the reported radio calls to their base camp. However Brice, who was initially criticised for reportedly advising Inglis during his ascent to move on without assessing the situation at that time or the possibility of rescue for Sharp, denies the claim that any radio call was received about the stranded climber until he was notified some eight hours later by climber Maxime Chaya, who had not seen Sharp in the darkness of the ascent. At this time Sharp was unconscious and shivering violently with severe frostbite, with no gloves or oxygen. It was revealed that Brice kept detailed logs of radio calls with his expedition members, recorded all radio traffic, and that the Discovery channel was filming Brice during this time, all of which confirmed that Brice was first notified of Sharp being in trouble when climber Chaya contacted Brice at about 09:00.
In the documentary Dying for Everest, Mark Inglis stated: "From my memory, I used the radio. I got a reply to move on and there is nothing that I can do to help. Now I'm not sure whether it was from Russell [Brice] or from someone else, or whether you know... it's just hypoxia and it's ... it's in your mind." It is believed that if Inglis did in fact have a radio conversation where he was told that "he's been there X number of hours without oxygen" that it must have been on Inglis' descent, as there was no way for Brice or other climbers to have known how long Sharp had been where he was found during the climber's ascent. In July 2006 Inglis retracted his claim that he was told to continue his ascent after informing Brice of a climber in distress, blaming the extreme conditions at altitude for the uncertainty in his memory.
The Discovery Channel was filming the Himex expedition for a documentary Everest: Beyond the Limit, including an HD camera carried by Whetu (that became unusable during the ascent due to the extreme cold) and helmet cameras for some of the Himex Sherpas, which included footage indicating that Sharp was only found by Inglis's group on their descent. However, the group of climbers with Inglis confirmed that they did discover Sharp on the ascent, but they do not confirm that Brice was contacted regarding Sharp during the ascent. By the time the Inglis group reached him on the descent and contacted Brice they were low on oxygen, heavily fatigued, with several cases of severe frostbite and other problems on the mountain, making any rescue by them impossible.
Jamie McGuinness
New Zealand mountaineer Jamie McGuinness reported about a Sherpa that reached Sharp on the descent, "...Dawa from Arun Treks also gave oxygen to David and tried to help him move, repeatedly, for perhaps an hour. But he could not get David to stand alone or even stand resting on his shoulders. Dawa had to leave him too. Even with two Sherpas it was not going to be possible to get David down the tricky sections below".
McGuinness was part of an expedition that successfully climbed Cho Oyu with Sharp in 2002. He also was on the 2003 expedition to Mount Everest with Sharp and other climbers, and in 2006 offered Sharp the opportunity to climb Everest with his organised expedition for little more than what he ultimately paid Asian Trekking, which Sharp declined as he wanted to climb Everest independently. In the documentary Dying For Everest, McGuiness noted that Sharp did not expect to be rescued - "absolutely not, he was clear to me that he understood the risks and he did not want to endanger anyone else".
Discovery Channel TV series
David Sharp was briefly caught on a camera in the morning on 15 May during filming of the first season of a television show Everest: Beyond the Limit, which was filmed the same season as his ill-fated expedition. The footage was from the helmet camera of a Himex Sherpa who encountered Sharp, along with one of the Himex group of climbers who included Mark Inglis, during their descent, and was attempting to help Sharp along with a Turkish Sherpa.
Reactions
Sir Edmund Hillary
Sir Edmund Hillary was highly critical of the decision not to try to rescue Sharp, as reported by the media at that time, saying that leaving other climbers to die is unacceptable, and the desire to get to the summit has become all-important. He also said, "I think the whole attitude towards climbing Mount Everest has become rather horrifying. The people just want to get to the top. It was wrong if there was a man suffering altitude problems and was huddled under a rock, just to lift your hat, say good morning and pass on by". He told the New Zealand Herald that he was horrified by the callous attitude of today's climbers. "They don't give a damn for anybody else who may be in distress and it doesn't impress me at all that they leave someone lying under a rock to die", and that, "I think that their priority was to get to the top and the welfare of one of the ... of a member of another expedition was very secondary." Hillary also called Mark Inglis "crazy".
Sharp's mother
Linda Sharp, David's mother, does not blame other climbers. She told The Sunday Times, "Your responsibility is to save yourself – not to try to save anybody else."
David Watson
Mountaineer David Watson, who was on Everest that season on the North side, commented to The Washington Post: "It's too bad that none of the people who cared about David knew he was in trouble", because "the outcome would have been a lot different." Watson thought it was possible to save Sharp, and he said Sharp had worked with other climbers in 2004, to save a Mexican climber who had gotten into trouble. Watson was alerted the morning of 16 May by Phurba Tashi. Watson went to Sharp's tent and showed Sharp's passport to Tashi, who confirmed his identity. Around this time, a Korean team gave a radio report that the climber in red boots [Sharp] was dead. He had his rucksack with him, but his camera was missing, so it is not known if he summited.
Fate of the body
Sharp's body remains on the mountain, but was removed from sight in 2007.
See also
1996 Mount Everest disaster
Beck Weathers
Lincoln Hall (climber)
List of people who died climbing Mount Everest
List of Mount Everest expeditions
References
Further reading
Dr. Morandeira: "Could David Sharp have been saved? Definitely", includes a chronology of the incident – mounteverest.net
Everest 2006: "My name is David Sharp and I am with Asian Trekking" – everestnews.com
External links
Picture of where David Sharp died
List of deceased UK Everest climbers (archived 16 May 2016)
1972 births
2006 deaths
British summiters of Mount Everest
Deaths from hypothermia
English mountain climbers
Mountaineering deaths on Mount Everest
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20Super%2014%20season
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2007 Super 14 season
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The 2007 Super 14 season started in February 2007 with preseason matches held from mid-January. It finished on 19 May with the final at Kings Park Stadium in Durban, in the first final between two South African teams in the history of Super Rugby. The visiting Bulls won the 2007 Super 14 Final, scoring a try in the 83rd minute and narrowly defeating the Sharks 20–19, thereby becoming the first South African side to win the Super Rugby title in the professional era.
Super 14 is a provincial rugby union competition with 14 teams from New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. This season is the second of the expansion, which led to the name change to the Super 14. The 2007 season saw an old team emerge with a new name, as the Cats changed their name to the Lions effective 8 September 2006.
There was also some confusion over the inclusion of the Southern Spears franchise, who were in the end not included. The season is also notable of the New Zealand sides resting several All Blacks players in the first half of the season. There were 94 matches held over the 3½ months, with each team playing one full round robin against the 13 other teams, 2 semi-finals and a final. Every team will get one bye over the 14 rounds.
Player withdrawal
With the Rugby World Cup in September, all three countries would have some of their top players rested, to avoid injuries. All Blacks coach Graham Henry made clear his wish for up to 30 of New Zealand's best players to miss around half of the Super 14, with the five New Zealand franchises supporting him in May 2006. The mandatory stand-down period meant that the 30 players who toured at the end of 2006 would miss at least the first week of competition.
John Connolly, the Wallabies coach, was also interested in lightening the load for his top players. It was expected that the Australians would want to rest only a few players, especially veterans such as Stephen Larkham and George Gregan, as they are seen as key to Australia's World Cup chances. Springboks coach Jake White met the board of SA Rugby, the commercial arm of the South African Rugby Union, in Cape Town on 25 May 2006 to put forward his suggestion to rest key players between then and the World Cup at regular intervals. White was also keen to rest some players during the Boks' 2006 mid-year internationals against Scotland and France.
It was revealed in September 2006 that the All Blacks would rest 22 players, who would go into a "conditioning group" for the first 7 weeks of competition. The 22 players named were: Jerry Collins, Jason Eaton, Carl Hayman, Andrew Hore, Chris Jack, Richie McCaw, Chris Masoe, Keven Mealamu, Anton Oliver, Greg Somerville, Rodney So'oialo, Reuben Thorne, Ali Williams, Tony Woodcock, Dan Carter, Byron Kelleher, Leon MacDonald, Aaron Mauger, Mils Muliaina, Joe Rokocoko, Sitiveni Sivivatu and Piri Weepu. Seven of these players were from the Crusaders, six from the Hurricanes, four from the Blues, three from the Chiefs and two from the Highlanders. These players would be available for their franchises from Week 8. From these 22 players, Jason Eaton and Piri Weepu didn't make the final All Blacks squad for the 2007 Rugby World Cup.
After the NZRU announced the resting of 22 leading players, Pat Wilson, Australian High Performance Manager, revealed that leading Wallabies would only be rested for one match, which was to be chosen by their state's union. This decision has drawn criticism from former Wallabies coach and current Queensland Reds coach Eddie Jones, who said that while resting the older players could be beneficial, it is better for younger players, such as his own Rodney Blake, to receive game time.
The SARU decided against resting their top players for the 2007 Super 14 but conceded that it was likely that players would be rested for some games. It is expected that News Corp and the other SANZAR nations will request compensation from the New Zealand Rugby Union.
Southern Spears saga
During the 2006 Super 14 season, SA Rugby announced that, contrary to the original plans, the Southern Spears would not replace the lowest ranked South African based side.
In August 2006, however, the Spears won a court case for inclusion into the 2007 season, which would be at the expense of the Cats, who changed their name to the Lions the following month. SA Rugby and the South African Rugby Union were expected to appeal the High Court of South Africa's decision. In November 2006, SA Rugby and the Spears reached a settlement. The financially troubled Spears abandoned the court case. They will still exist as an organisation to promote and develop rugby in the Southern and Eastern Cape region, with the support of SA Rugby and the SARU, but will now not be a part of Super Rugby in the foreseeable future. With the settlement, the season's Super 14 line-up was set, with the Lions taking up the final South African place.
Table
Results
The draw for the 2007 season was released on 2006-10-13. The season started 8 days earlier than the 2006 season, with the first match being between the Blues and the Crusaders at Auckland's Eden Park, the second time in the last two years the Blues had hosted the first match. In total, 94 matches were played, comprising 91 regular season matches, 2 semi-finals and the final. There were 29 Friday night match-ups and 61 Saturday matches. One match, the Brumbies-Waratahs regional derby in Week 10, was played on a Sunday night.
Round 1
The 2007 Super 14 started in contrast to that of 2006. The game of the week was the Blues from Auckland beating the defending champions the Crusaders, which was the first loss to a New Zealand side that the Crusaders had suffered since May 2004 and was ironically the Blues' first win over a New Zealand team for two years. The other upset was 2006 Finalists the Hurricanes losing to last years 12th placed Queensland Reds.
Round 2
Week two saw the New Zealand teams have a strong week with the Hurricanes, Crusaders, Blues notching wins. Western Force began to show vast improvement from 2006 winning only their second match since entering the competition in 2006. Apart from the Force all other Australian teams suffered a loss.
Round 3
In week three a Super rugby record was broken, although not one to be proud of. The Reds and Brumbies played in the lowest scoring match ever, a dire affair that resulted in a Brumbies win 6–3. The 22 All Blacks missing from New Zealand teams started to have a visible effect on the kiwi sides with only the Hurricanes claiming a tight win over the Blues. Another relatively low scoring match saw even the last years powerhouse champions the Crusaders beaten by last years 13th placed Lions, it was the first match in six years the Crusaders hadn't scored a single try.
* Note: This match was the lowest-scoring in Super Rugby history at the time.
Round 4
Week Four saw the Brumbies lose their second game by conceding a try in the final seconds to the Hurricanes (the first was to the Blues in Week Two). The Blues convincingly put away the Queensland Reds while the Force surrendered in the final seconds to the Lions leaving them yet to win a home game. The Bulls beat the Chiefs while the Crusaders began the show the form that they have displayed in past years by beating the Cheetahs 49–28.
Round 5
Week 5 saw the Blues defeat the Highlanders, the Chiefs drew with the Cheetahs in the final moments of the game, the Hurricanes lost at | home to bottom placed Stormers and the Crusaders suffered their 3rd defeat of the season losing in the final minute because of a blunder by Rico Gear. The Brumbies also suffered a loss at | home to the Bulls whereas the controversial game of the round saw the Waratahs draw with the Western Force because of a blunder by Waratahs utility back Sam Norton-Knight who decide to run with the ball in the final minute instead of taking the penalty shot which could have won them the game and for his mistake Lote Tuqiri shoved him and walked off the pitch looking very disappointed.
Round 6
Week 6 saw the Reds travel to the "House of Pain" to play the Highlanders. Recent signing Andrew Walker was rushed into the starting team, however the Reds lost 17–33. The next game saw the Brumbies looking to rectify a three-game losing streak at their home ground. They did so with a convincing 26–13 win against the Stormers. The Force were also looking to end a | home ground hoodoo against the Hurricanes. Seeking their first ever victory at Subiaco the Force looked to have squandered an 11–10 lead upon conceding a try with two minutes left to put the score at 17–11. However a try on the sideline and followed by an unlikely conversion by Force wing Cameron Shepherd gave the Force a maiden | home victory. The next day opened with the Blues thrashing an in-form Lions outfit 41–14. The game saw Doug Howlett score two tries and in doing so becoming the equal highest try scorer in Super Rugby history (with Joe Roff of the Brumbies). The Waratahs then played a | home game against the Bulls – who won 32–19 thanks to two tries apiece to Bryan Habana and Fourie du Preez.
Note: Doug Howlett became the joint top try scorer in Super Rugby with Joe Roff on 57 Tries
Round 7
The Chiefs put on a convincing win against the Lions to start week seven. This was followed later that evening with the Force easily putting away the bottom of the table Reds in Perth. The Crusaders began to show their regular form with a win against the Bulls and the Waratahs season slumped to a new low with a home loss at the hands of the Stormers. The Cheetahs pulled off an unexpected win against the Brumbies and the undefeated Sharks continued their streak – beating the Hurricanes.
Round 8
The Waratahs fell to another loss – being convincingly beaten by the Blues in Auckland. The Bulls were not worried about the "House of Pain" moniker of Carisbrook – instead they turned in on the Highlanders to win 22–13. The Crusaders continued their quick ascent up the ladder with a bonus-point win over the Stormers. Queensland slipped to another loss – albeit a close one – against the Chiefs. The Sharks suffered their first loss of the season as the Brumbies recording a big upset at ABSA Stadium. It was also the Brumbies first ever away win against the Sharks. The Lions continued the Hurricanes bad season with an easy win.
Round 9
The Highlanders recorded a home win over the Cheetahs to open the round before the Force subjected the Sharks to their second loss in as many matches in Perth. The Hurricanes pulled off a win over the Bulls and the Blues put in a hard-fought win over the Chiefs. The Blues' Doug Howlett took sole possession of the all-| time try scoring lead in Super Rugby during the latter match. The Crusaders pulled away from the Waratahs early in the game before slacking off in the second half and seeing their lead evaporate to 34–28. The Waratahs scored a try late in the game to seemingly secure a win with the kick to come – but Peter Hewat missed a relatively easy kick to hand the Crusaders a 34–33 win. The Brumbies won a second game in South Africa – this time a close encounter against the Lions. A late Julian Huxley try securing a 14–9 win for the Canberra-based side.
Round 10
The Blues easily put away the Cheetahs in the sole Good Friday game. The next day saw the Chiefs beat the Highlanders before a startling mountain backdrop in Queenstown. The Crusaders annihilated the Force 53–0. It was the largest score ever conceded by the Force and the largest losing margin – but for the Crusaders it didn't come close to their 96–19 win against the Waratahs in 2002. The Sharks continued the high scoring – putting 57 points on the Reds in Brisbane for a big win. The Stormers upset the Lions 30–8 in Cape Town. In the sole Easter Sunday clash the Waratahs failed to resurrect their season against the Brumbies – going down 36–10 in the interstate grudge match between the rivals. The win put the Brumbies into the top four for the first time in 2007.
Round 11
This week saw the Hurricanes take on the Cheetahs and Hosea Gear became the Hurricanes' hero after scoring a 90-metre try in the final moments of the game. It was also the team's fourth try of the game which gave them a bonus point on top of the win. The following day, the Chiefs thrashed the Western Force 64–36, a game which saw a total of 14 tries being scored, nine of which were scored by the Chiefs, with Roy Kinikinilau and Brendon Leonard each getting hat-tricks. The Crusaders then defeated the Highlanders to climb to the top of the table. The Blues lost to the Sharks at home, going down by 7 points, and the Waratahs won only their second game this season, defeating the Reds, who sit at the bottom of the table. In the last match of the week, the Bulls thrashed the Stormers 49–12.
Round 12
The Crusaders defeated the Hurricanes in a thrilling encounter which saw Jerry Collins being stretchered off after injuring his neck in a tackle on Rua Tipoki. The Brumbies defeated the Western Force in an all-Australian derby by just two points and the Reds won their second game of the season defeating the Cheetahs. Ben Tune (who is leaving the club after the season) scored the winning try in that match, but the match of the round saw the Chiefs defeat the Sharks to put themselves in contention for a semi-final spot. The Waratahs lost to the Highlanders by a point after Peter Hewat missed another conversion, and in a South African derby, the Bulls thrashed the Lions 31–7. Finally, the Blues lost their away match to the Stormers, but they remain second in the table nonetheless.
Round 13
With the semi-final week just around the corner, Week 13 saw some close matches including the opener between the Highlanders and the Hurricanes at the cake tin. The score was 22 – 16 to the Hurricanes at 80 minutes but a final minute try to Toby Morland in the corner turned things around. Nick Evans needed to get the kick over to win the game but was unsuccessful allowing the Hurricanes to win the game lucky to not have the same situation when the Hurricanes lost to the Force in week 6. The force continued their up and down season by comfortably beating the cheetahs. The Waratahs narrowly lost going down to the chiefs. The Brumbies pulled an upset win over the Crusaders to keep their semi final hopes alive. The Sharks dominated the lions to make sure they would at least get a home semi final. The Blues lost their third game in a row going down to the Bulls which slimmed the chances of the Blues securing a semi final spot and helped the Bulls secure a semi final spot. The last game of the week saw the stormers easily put away the Reds.
Round 14
This was an exciting week for the two South African contenders the Bulls and the Sharks, both with possibilities of a home semi final. The action-packed weekend started with an upset, the in-form Chiefs beating the Crusaders 30–24 at Lancaster Park. This result gave the Sharks the opportunity to take the top spot if they won in Cape Town. The Blues smashed the Western Force 33–6 to keep their title dreams alive. Later, the Brumbies kept their semi final hopes alive by defeating the tired and weary Highlanders 29–10. Waratahs defeated the Hurricanes away in Wellington 38–14. Cheetahs gave the Lions the South African wooden spoon by beating them 16–10. The first main game of the day was the Stormers vs the Sharks. The Sharks played an efficient and professional game whilst the Stormers played their usual erratic hot and cold game that had seen them beat some good teams during the season, but in the end the Sharks easily claimed a 36–10 victory to be the first South African side to finish at the top of the table at the end of the round-robin stage in the Super 14 competition's history. The last game of the weekend promised to be a huge one for the Bulls, who were chasing a semi final spot. They came up against a feeble Reds team, who after going ahead 3–0 in the beginning, had no idea of the onslaught they were going to receive. The Bulls, who needed a bonus-point win to reach the semifinals, easily achieved this goal a quarter of the way into the "match". Early in the second half they reached the 45-point margin needed to push them up to third place. Then the impossible became possible. If the Bulls went 72 points clear of the Reds, they would leapfrog to second, giving them a home semifinal in the high-altitude cauldron of noise that is Loftus Versfeld. They seemed to reach this goal with little effort against a humiliated Reds side, setting a new Super Rugby record for winning margin of 89 points.
Finals
Semi finals
Grand final
The match had four tries – two by each team, and the last of which was scored by Bulls' wing Bryan Habana in the 82nd minute to give his team the trophy. It was the first Super rugby final to be played in South Africa, as well as the first all South African final, and the first final with a South African winner.
Man of the Match:Victor Matfield (Bulls)
Assistant referees:Lyndon Bray (New Zealand)Bryce Lawrence (New Zealand)
Television match official:Kelvin Deaker (New Zealand)
Assessor: Tappe Henning (South Africa)
Player statistics
Leading try scorers
Leading point scorers
References
2007
2007 rugby union tournaments for clubs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridge%20Racer%20%281993%20video%20game%29
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Ridge Racer (1993 video game)
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is a 1993 racing video game developed and published by Namco. It was released initially on the Namco System 22 arcade system board and ported to the PlayStation console in 1994. It is the first title in the Ridge Racer series released for arcades and home consoles.
Development took eight months, and the game is based on a trend among Japanese car enthusiasts, which involves racing on mountain roads while drifting around corners. It was also the first arcade video game with 3D texture-mapped graphics, with its System 22 hardware capable of texture mapping and Gouraud shading. The first home version was released in Japan in 1994 as a launch title for the PlayStation; the versions for North America and Europe were released in 1995, also as a launch title for both regions. It was re-released in Japan for the PlayStation The Best range in 1997, and for the Greatest Hits and Platinum ranges in North America and PAL regions respectively the same year. Ridge Racer played a major role in establishing the new system and gave it an early edge over its nearest competitor, the Sega Saturn; it was considered a rival to Sega's Daytona USA.
Ridge Racer received a highly positive reception. Reviewers praised the 3D texture-mapped graphics, audio, drifting mechanics, and arcade racing gameplay, although some were critical of the lack of strong artificial intelligence and a multiplayer mode. The arcade version was followed in 1994 by a sequel, Ridge Racer 2, whereas the PlayStation sequel, Ridge Racer Revolution, was released in 1995 in Japan, and in 1996 in North America and PAL regions. The soundtrack was remixed and released on the Namco Game Sound Express Vol. 11 album.
Gameplay
Players choose a course, a car, a transmission (automatic or six-speed manual), and a song. The cars' specifications vary: some have a high top speed, others excel at acceleration or turning, and some present a balance of the three. Certain cars are named after other Namco games such as Solvalou, Mappy, Bosconian, Nebulasray, and Xevious. The racetrack can be observed from a first-person perspective or, for the PlayStation version, from a third-person perspective. Namco's NeGcon controller can be used to play the game. Because Ridge Racer is an arcade-style racing game, collisions cause no damage, and merely slow the player down. There is a time limit, which ends the race if counted down to zero.
A single course is featured comprising four configurations of increasing difficulty: Novice, Intermediate, Advanced and Time Trial (the latter two are extended). The player races eleven opponents except in Time Trial, where there is only one. The greater the difficulty, the faster the cars run; Time Trial is the fastest. Each race consists of three laps (two on the beginner course). Checkpoints that grant additional time when passed through are present throughout. In the PlayStation version, after every race is won, reversed ones become available, and an additional opponent is encountered in Time Trial: the 13th Racing (also known as the "Devil" car), the fastest car. On winning, the car is unlocked. The PlayStation version features a hidden "mirror" version of the tracks. It becomes a "mirror image" of itself; left turns become right turns and vice versa, and the surroundings switch sides of the road. In the arcade version, the winning player's score is saved in action-replay highlights after finishing the game.
In the PlayStation version, a mini-game of Galaxian can be played as the game loads. If won, eight additional cars become available. Once the game has loaded, the CD is only needed to play six music tracks. The disc can be replaced during gameplay, although the game does not update; regardless of what disc is inserted, there will always be six tracks, corresponding to the starting points of the tracks on the game disc.
Development and release
At the Japan Amusement Machinery Manufacturers Association (JAMMA) 1992 Amusement Machine Show (AM Show) in Japan, held during 17–19 August, Namco debuted a racing game called Sim Drive for the Namco System 22 arcade system board. It was a sequel to Eunos Roadster Driving Simulator, a Mazda MX-5 driving simulation arcade game that Namco developed with Mazda and released in 1990. Its 3D polygon graphics stood out for the use of Gouraud shading and texture mapping. After a location test at the show, where it was previewed in the November issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly, Sim Drive had a limited Japanese release in December 1992, but did not get a mass-market release. It served as a prototype for Ridge Racer.
Ridge Racer had a development cycle of eight months. The development team was under pressure to complete it before their rivals, and designer Fumihiro Tanaka commented that "the other company" (Sega) was in the same position. Ridge Racer was originally planned to be an F1 racing game, but the concept was replaced with one based on a trend among Japanese car enthusiasts at the time. Namco Bandai's general manager, Yozo Sakagami, explained that they liked racing on mountain roads and did not want to slow down around corners, so drifted around them instead. Therefore, the team decided to create a game which allowed players to test their driving skills and experience cars' manipulation at high speeds while mastering drifting. The team did not worry about how Ridge Racer would be received outside Japan: Tanaka explained that it was a naïve time when Japanese developers could develop games for players in general, rather than for specific markets.
During the release for arcade system board, Namco described Ridge Racer as "the most realistic driving game ever". It featured three-dimensional polygon graphics with texture mapping. In Japan, the game was demonstrated at the 1993 AM Show, held in August 1993.
Ridge Racer Full Scale
The Ridge Racer Full Scale arcade version was released along with the standard arcade version in 1993. This version was designed to give the player a more realistic driving experience. Players (a passenger could sit in the car next to the driver) sat inside an adapted red Eunos Roadster, the Japanese right-hand drive version of the Mazda MX-5 Miata and controlled the same car on-screen. The game was played in front of a wide, front-projected triple screen (which benefited from dimmed ambient lighting), with the wheel, gear stick and pedals functioning as the controls. The ignition key was used to start, the speed and RPM gauges were functional, and fans blew wind on the player from inside the air vents. Speakers concealed inside the car provided realistic engine and tire sounds; overhead speakers provided surround music.
The Ridge Racer Full Scale cabinet cost £150,000 or to purchase in 1994.
PlayStation
Development of the PlayStation version began in April 1994. Because of the differences, it had to be produced essentially from scratch, and took nearly as long to develop as the arcade version, being half-complete in November. It was mostly complete by December, with the graphics 70 per cent finished. This version was developed by the same team. Because of technical limitations, it was difficult to program and run at a lower resolution, lower framerate (30 frames per second for NTSC, 25 for PAL), and was less detailed. Specialised graphics libraries were developed because it was felt the standard ones provided by Sony were too limited. Visual director Yozo Sakagami remarked that the hardest element to port was the experience of driving a car. It was felt that the NeGcon controller would provide a more analogue feel than the standard PlayStation controller. Sakagami was concerned about loading times because of the CD-ROM format; the team countered this by having all the data loaded into memory by the time the title screen appeared and having the player play a mini-game of Galaxian while waiting. Sakagami chose to include Galaxian because he was part of its arcade team and wanted to honour his former boss. Because CDs were cheaper to produce, the retail price was less than cartridge games despite an increase in development costs. 13th Racing's design was meant to be futuristic, according to Tanaka, because the team was considering the future of sports cars. The team settled on a black car "no-one had ever driven before", and at one point it was known as "The Cockroach" because of its performance. There was a rumour that the PlayStation version would include Ridge Racer 2s link-up mode, which Namco denied.
The PlayStation version was shown at the 1995 Electronic Entertainment Expo event and was an innovation in the use of three-dimensional polygons. Ridge Racer was released in Japan on 3 December 1994, in North America on 9 September 1995, and in Europe on 29 September 1995 as a launch title for the PlayStation.
Music
The soundtrack was produced at the same time as the game by Shinji Hosoe, with contributions from Nobuyoshi Sano and Ayako Saso, as the development team did not have enough time to produce them separately. Initially, the team did not plan to have music, but ended up producing techno, hardcore and gabber, which Tanaka believed helped players to enjoy a fun feeling while playing. Later Ridge Racer series composer Hiroshi Okubo believed techno would give a feeling of energy, journey, and speed, and commented that the genre was chosen because it embodied the game's "unrealistic speed and tension". This was commemorated by the release of Namco Game Sound Express Vol. 11 by Victor Entertainment on 21 January 1994 in Japan, which features remixed versions of the themes.
Reception
Arcade
In Japan, Game Machine listed it on their 1 December 1993 issue as being the most-successful upright/cockpit arcade game of the month. It went on to be the highest-grossing dedicated arcade game of 1994 in Japan. In North America, Play Meter listed Ridge Racer to be the third most-popular arcade game in February 1994. In the United Kingdom, it was London's top-grossing arcade game in early 1994.
Upon release in arcades, Ridge Racer received critical acclaim, particularly for its graphics and sound. Following its AM Show demonstration in August 1993, Edge magazine said that the game's custom-designed real-time texture mapping and rendering system pumps out the most photorealistic image ever seen in the arcades. He also said that Namco managed to put Virtua Racing from Sega firmly in the shade with the release of own title. RePlay magazine praised the graphics, calling it "the first" video game with "next-generation computer texture-mapping" graphics. Following its European debut at the Amusement Trades Exhibition International (ATEI) in January 1994, Edge considered Ridge Racer the most visually impressive 3D game at the time. In March, Computer and Video Games writer Paul Rand gave high marks, remarking that it was "far and away the most realistic arcade game ever seen" on reviewing the arcade machine (based on the full-scale unit). Compared to Virtua Racing, he considered Ridge Racer to have the better "drop-dread stunning" graphics and Virtua Racing to have the better gameplay.
PlayStation
In Japan, the PlayStation version sold 859,085 units by 1995. In the United States, it sold 609,422 units, including 60,958 bundled units and 548,464 standalone units. This adds up to units sold in Japan and the United States.
The PlayStation port also received positive reviews from critics. In a review of its Japanese console release, GamePro called the PlayStation version "a near carbon copy of the original" and praised the graphics, soundtrack, and the entire game being loaded into the PlayStation's RAM, eliminating mid-game loading and giving the option of removing the game disc and using the PlayStation as a music CD player during gameplay. Although they criticised the graphical glitches and slowdown, the game was recommended. Next Generation applauded the conversion's faithful recreation of the arcade version, smooth graphics, and additional cars. Although they noted the lack of variety in the different cars' performance and the absence of a multiplayer mode as downsides, they found the game remarkable overall and commented that Ridge Racer was an early game for the PlayStation, and a rushed project at that, making it "an excellent harbinger of what's to come". GamePros review of the later North American release judged that the game surpassed competitor Daytona USA in graphics, audio, and control responsiveness, and called it the best racing game to date for home systems. Commenting on the realism, Game Informer remarked that Ridge Racer better captures the feel of high performance car racing than any existing driving game.
Electronic Gaming Monthlys two sports reviewers praised the gameplay and music. Maximum commented that Ridge Racer has only one track and the game lacks the attractive crash sequences of Daytona USA, but they commented positively on the feeling of smoothness and speed, the "distinctly European" dance music, the engine sounds, and the unrealistically exaggerated driving manoeuvres. In 1996, two years after its release, IGN commented that the game has stood the test of time, but complained of lacking two-player mode and that the cars don't really vary in performances. AllGame's Shawn Sackenheim praised the game, particularly the graphics and audio. Coming Soon Magazine praised its "ultra fluid and very realistic" graphics, but criticised the game for being too short. The Electric Playgrounds Victor Lucas gave top marks, remarking: "The experience of playing RR supersedes the thrills generally attributed to playing other racing video games. I really can't stress enough how deserving of your video game dollars Ridge Racer is". Edge praised the "dazzling" graphics and "arcade-perfect" music.
Despite positive reviews, the game was criticised by 1UP.com for the arcade style of gameplay. The lack of artificial intelligence has received criticism - the movement of the computer-controlled cars is restricted to predetermined waypoints. The game was reviewed in 1995 in Dragon No. 221 by Jay & Dee in the "Eye of the Monitor" column, where Dee called it "just another racing game".
Ridge Racer was awarded Best Driving Game of 1995 by Electronic Gaming Monthly. In 1996, GamesMaster ranked the game 23rd on their "Top 100 Games of All Time."
Legacy
Ridge Racer was listed as one of the best games of all time by Game Informer in 2001, Yahoo in 2005,
Electronic Gaming Monthly in 2006,
Guinness World Records in 2008 and 2009, NowGamer in 2010,
and FHM in 2012.
According to RePlay and Play Meter magazines, Ridge Racer was the first arcade game with texture-mapped 3D graphics. Greg Reeves in Play Meter said the game's texture mapping combined "the depth, perspective, and distance" of Virtua Racing with the enhanced "scenery details" of OutRunners (1992), resulting in "scenery such as rocks, trees, and roads" that looked realistic.
Ridge Racer influenced the development of rival Sega's arcade game Daytona USA. Sega mandated that Daytona USA had to be better than Ridge Racer. Whereas Ridge Racer focused on simulation, Daytona USA instead aimed for "funky entertainment". Daytona USA shares some features with Ridge Racer, including a drifting mechanic.
Ridge Racer has been followed by many sequels and helped establish the PlayStation's popularity. IGN stated that Ridge Racer was "one of PlayStation's first big system pushers" and an excellent port of the arcade version that showed the true potential of Sony's 32-bit wonder. UGO Networks's Michael Hess and Chris Plante said that it set the stage for Gran Turismo by adding an option to choose between automatic and manual transmission. John Davison of 1UP.com said that Ridge Racer was an "unbelievable demonstration of what the PlayStation could do".
Other releases
The PlayStation version was re-released for The Best, Greatest Hits, and Platinum ranges in 1997. A PC port was cancelled. Ridge Racer received a number of ports and spin-offs:
Ridge Racer: 3 Screen Edition
A version with three screens was released for arcades to give a peripheral vision effect. The machine used multiple System 22 arcade boards to drive the additional monitors and was only available in the sit down version.
Pocket Racer
is a super deformed version with cars resembling Choro-Q models, aimed at children. Released in 1996 in Japan, it was only available in an upright cabinet version, and uses Namco System 11 hardware. A similar game is included in Ridge Racer Revolution using the same cars under the name Pretty Racer (also known as buggy mode), the inspiration for this game.
Ridge Racer Turbo
R4: Ridge Racer Type 4 (released on 3 December 1998 in Japan, 1 May 1999 in North America, and on 1 September in Europe) includes a bonus disc containing a new version of the original Ridge Racer, called Ridge Racer Turbo in North America, Ridge Racer Hi-Spec Demo in Europe, and in Japan. It features improved graphics, runs at 60 frames per second (50 for PAL), as opposed to the original 30, and supports vibration feedback and the Jogcon controller. There is only one opponent (two in time trial boss races), and the White Angel from Ridge Racer Revolution appears in addition to the 13th Racing as a boss and unlockable car. A Time Attack mode is added, in which the player attempts to beat the time record with no opponent cars. This is distinct from Time Trial, where there are opponent cars.
Mobile versions
A version for mobile phones (J2ME platform) was released on 31 December 2005. It received mixed reviews. GameSpot's Jeff Gerstmann gave the game 6.1/10. He praised graphics as "somewhat impressive for a mobile game", but criticised the steering. Levi Buchanan of IGN gave Ridge Racer 6.2/10, complaining about the problematic controls and saying that the game without the analogue control "feels really lacking". In 2005, a version of Ridge Racer was released for mobile phones under the name Ridge Racer 3D (not to be confused with the later Ridge Racer 3D for the Nintendo 3DS). This version was ported to Zeebo in August 2009.
References
Notes
Footnotes
Sources
External links
1993 video games
Arcade video games
Cancelled PC games
Mobile games
Namco arcade games
Namco System 22 games
PlayStation (console) games
Ridge Racer
Sony Interactive Entertainment games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Shinji Hosoe
Video games with custom soundtrack support
Zeebo games
Single-player video games
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1945 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1945 in the United Kingdom. This year sees the end of World War II and a landslide general election victory for the Labour Party.
Incumbents
Monarch – George VI
Prime Minister - Winston Churchill (Coalition) (until 26 July), Clement Attlee (Labour) (starting 26 July)
Parliament
37th (until 15 June)
38th (starting 1 August)
Events
2 January – General Bernard Montgomery holds a press conference at Zonhoven describing his contribution to the Battle of the Bulge.
23 January – announcement of the establishment of the Industrial and Commercial Finance Corporation (ICFC; predecessor of 3i) by the Bank of England and the major commercial banks to provide long-term investment funding for small and medium-sized enterprises.
4 February – Prime Minister Winston Churchill attends the Yalta Conference (ends 11 February).
13 February – the RAF Bomber Command begins the strategic bombing of Dresden in Saxony, Germany, resulting in a lethal firestorm which kills tens of thousands of civilians.
10 March – sixty-seven German prisoners of war tunnel their way out of Island Farm Camp 198 at Bridgend, the biggest escape attempt by German POWs in the UK during the War.
14 March – the RAF uses the Grand Slam bomb for the first time on the Bielefeld railway viaduct.
17 March – 13 people are killed and 22 injured when a lone Heinkel 111 bomber opens fire and drops bombs on people leaving a cinema in Kingston upon Hull.
27 March – last day of V-2 rocket attacks aimed at the UK. One hits Hughes Mansions, Stepney in East London, killing 134 and the last falls in Orpington with one fatality.
29 March – the last V-1 flying bomb attack on the UK takes place. The last enemy action of any kind on British soil occurs when one strikes Datchworth in Hertfordshire without any fatalities or injuries.
13 April – the first Scottish National Party Member of Parliament, Robert McIntyre, is elected to the Parliament of the United Kingdom after his victory at the Motherwell by-election.
15 April – British troops liberate the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp; Richard Dimbleby reports on it for the BBC.
19 April – Geoffrey Fisher enthroned as Archbishop of Canterbury.
April – Sybil Campbell is appointed a stipendiary magistrate in London, the first woman to become a professional judge in the UK.
7 May – at 23:00 the is torpedoed and sunk by German submarine U-2336 off the Firth of Forth with two killed, the last British-flagged merchant ship lost to German action.
8 May – eight days after the suicide of Adolf Hitler in Berlin and the collapse of Nazi rule in Europe, V-E Day is celebrated throughout the UK. Prime Minister Winston Churchill makes a victory speech and appears on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with George VI, Queen Elizabeth and Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret. Street parties take place throughout the country.
9 May – German forces in the Channel Islands, the only occupied part of the British Isles, surrender.
23 May – Churchill forms a "caretaker" Conservative Party administration, pending an election, officially ending the wartime Coalition government.
28 May – American-born Irish-raised William Joyce, known as "Lord Haw-Haw" is captured on the German border. He is later charged with high treason in London for his English-language wartime propaganda broadcasts on German radio. He is hanged in January 1946.
1 June – the UK takes over administration of Lebanon and Syria.
4 June – Churchill, in a broadcast election speech, claims that a future socialist government "would have to fall back on some form of Gestapo".
7 June – Benjamin Britten opera Peter Grimes is first performed at Sadler's Wells Theatre in London with Peter Pears in the title role.
13 June – Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts renamed Arts Council of Great Britain.
15 June – Parliament passes the Family Allowances Act to provide payments to families with children.
18 June – the demobilisation of the wartime armed forces begins.
5 July – polling day for the first general election to be held since 1935; a few constituencies delay polling due to local Wakes weeks and the vote count is not made for another three weeks (see below) so that votes from the servicemen overseas can be added to the total.
17 July – Potsdam Conference – the three main Allied leaders begin their final summit of the war. The meeting will end on 2 August.
26 July – general election results are announced; Winston Churchill resigns as prime minister after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party, who have a majority of 146 seats, and Clement Attlee becomes the new Prime Minister. However, Churchill will remain as Leader of the Conservative Party, in opposition. It will be the first time that a Labour government with a majority in the House of Commons has governed Britain. Among the new Labour members of parliament is 29-year-old Harold Wilson, MP for Ormskirk in Lancashire, who will become the next Labour Prime Minister in 1964. A notable casualty of the election is Harold Macmillan, who has now lost the Stockton-on-Tees seat twice for the Conservative Party. Ernest Brown, leader of the National Liberal Party, loses his seat at Leith to Labour and Sir Archibald Sinclair, leader of the Liberal Party, comes third in the poll at Caithness and Sutherland, while their parties are reduced to 11 and 12 seats respectively. Robert McIntyre loses his newly won Scottish National Party seat. On 27 July, Alfred Dobbs, newly elected as Labour MP for Smethwick, near Birmingham, is killed in a car crash.
29 July – the BBC Light Programme radio station is launched, concentrating on the broadcasting of mainstream light music and entertainment, superseding the BBC General Forces Programme within the UK using its longwave frequency from the Droitwich Transmitting Station.
2 August - Clement Davies replaces Sir Archibald Sinclair as leader of the Liberal Party.
5 August – the Giles family cartoon first appears in the Sunday Express.
13 August – Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to talk about the establishment of the state of Israel.
14 August
The 1945 Prime Minister's Resignation Honours are announced, to mark the resignation of Winston Churchill.
Polish-Jewish orphans liberated from Theresienstadt concentration camp arrive in England for rehabilitation.
Late this evening, the new Prime Minister, Clement Attlee, and his Foreign Secretary, Ernest Bevin, broadcast news of the surrender of Japan to the nation and Empire, speaking from 10 Downing Street.
15 August – V-J Day is celebrated in the UK as the first of two days of national holiday, marking the end of World War II.
16 August – in the House of Commons, Leader of the Opposition Winston Churchill speaks of an "Iron Curtain" descending across Europe.
17 August – George Orwell's political allegory Animal Farm is published.
30 August – British sovereignty of Hong Kong restored following the end of the Japanese occupation of the territory.
2 September
Press censorship ends.
Lend-Lease from the United States terminates.
September – J. B. Priestley's drama An Inspector Calls is premièred (in Russian translation) in Leningrad.
2 October – Piccadilly Circus tube station becomes the first to be lit by fluorescent light.
24 October – the British government signs the United Nations Charter.
14 November – Harold Macmillan begins his third term as a Conservative MP, after winning the by-election in Bromley, Kent.
15 November – Gainsborough Pictures releases the period melodrama The Wicked Lady starring Margaret Lockwood, Patricia Roc and James Mason.
26 November – J. Arthur Rank releases David Lean's film of Noël Coward's Brief Encounter starring Celia Johnson and Trevor Howard.
28 November – British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason and is immediately sentenced to hang.
December
Alexander Fleming and Ernst Boris Chain win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly with Howard Florey "for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases".
John Maynard Keynes secures a fifty-year $3,750,000,000 Anglo-American loan for the Government from the United States at 2%, effective from 1946.
Bernard Lovell establishes the Jodrell Bank Observatory in Cheshire.
10 December – forced repatriation of Liverpool Chinese seamen begins.
31 December – Britain receives its first shipment of bananas since the beginning of the war.
Undated – the grammar school at Windermere reorganises itself to become Britain's first comprehensive school.
Publications
Rev. W. V. Awdry's children's book The Three Railway Engines, first of The Railway Series.
Agatha Christie's novel Sparkling Cyanide.
E. B. Ford's book Butterflies, first of the New Naturalist series.
Winston Graham's novel Ross Poldark, first of the Poldark Novels.
Henry Green's novel Loving.
C. S. Lewis' novel That Hideous Strength.
Nancy Mitford's novel The Pursuit of Love.
George Orwell's novel Animal Farm.
Karl Popper's book The Open Society and its Enemies.
Bertrand Russell's book History of Western Philosophy.
Evelyn Waugh's novel Brideshead Revisited
Births
3 January – David Starkey, English historian
6 January – Barry John, Welsh rugby union footballer
10 January
Jennifer Moss, actress (died 2006)
Rod Stewart, rock singer
15 January – Princess Michael of Kent, German-born wife of Prince Michael of Kent
18 January – Rocco Forte, hotelier
21 January – Martin Shaw, English actor
25 January – Dave Walker, rock musician
26 January
Jacqueline du Pré, English cellist (died 1987)
Ashley Hutchings, folk rock musician
23 January – Richard Dearlove, English intelligence officer
29 January – Jim Nicholson, Northern Irish Unionist politician and MEP for Northern Ireland
30 January – Mike Kenny, paralympian swimmer
31 January – Brenda Hale, Baroness Hale of Richmond, President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
3 February – Roy 'Chubby' Brown, born Royston Vasey, stand-up comedian
5 February – Charlotte Rampling, English actress
7 February – Gerald Davies, Welsh rugby player
13 February
Keith Nichols, jazz musician and manager (died 2021)
Simon Schama, historian
14 February – Martin Sorrell, businessman
15 February – John Helliwell, English saxophonist and keyboard player
16 February – Jeremy Bulloch, actor (died 2020)
20 February – Alan Hull, English folk rock singer-songwriter (died 1995)
25 February – Elkie Brooks, English singer
26 February – Michael Marmot, English epidemiologist
22 March – Peter Williams, English physicist and academic
30 March – Eric Clapton, English rock guitarist
2 April – Roger Bootle-Wilbraham, 7th Baron Skelmersdale, politician (died 2018)
6 April – Rodney Bickerstaffe, English trade union leader (died 2017)
7 April – Gerry Cottle, English circus owner (died 2021)
14 April – Ritchie Blackmore, English rock guitarist (Deep Purple)
20 April – Alistair Cooke, Baron Lexden, historian and author
21 April
Ian Bruce, author and academic
Diana Darvey, actress, singer and dancer (died 2000)
29 April – Hugh Hopper, English rock guitarist (died 2009)
6 May – Hilary Dwyer, actress, businessperson and film producer (died 2020)
9 May
Peter J. Hammond, academic economist
Nicholas Wilson, Lord Wilson of Culworth, lawyer and judge
12 May
Alan Ball Jr., England footballer (died 2007)
Nicky Henson, actor (died 2019)
14 May – George Nicholls, English rugby league footballer
16 May – Nicky Chinn, English songwriter (Sweet and Suzi Quatro)
19 May
Diana Maddock, Baroness Maddock, politician (died 2020)
Pete Townshend, English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter (The Who)
29 May – Gary Brooker, English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter (Procol Harum) (died 2022)
1 June – Ray Harford, footballer and manager (died 2003)
2 June – Lord David Dundas, musician and actor
3 June
Brian Barnes, golfer (died 2019)
John Derbyshire, English-American journalist and author
Roger Lane-Nott, admiral
8 June
Len Badger, footballer (died 2021)
Anthony Bagnall, air chief marshal
12 June – Pat Jennings, Northern Irish football goalkeeper
14 June – Rod Argent, singer and keyboardist
15 June – Nicola Pagett, actress (died 2021)
17 June – Ken Livingstone, politician
19 June – John Hind, English bishop and theologian
28 June
Ken Buchanan, Scottish lightweight boxer (died 2023)
David Knights, English rock guitarist (Procol Harum)
3 July – Iain MacDonald-Smith, English racing yachtsman
4 July – David McWilliams, Northern Irish singer-songwriter (died 2002)
7 July – Michael Ancram, Conservative politician and MP for Devizes
10 July
John Motson, football commentator (died 2023)
Virginia Wade, tennis player
16 July – Barry Dudleston, English first-class cricketer and umpire
19 July – Richard Henderson, Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate
20 July – John Lodge, English rock singer/songwriter (The Moody Blues)
21 July
Wendy Cope, English poet
John Lowe, English darts player
24 July – Martin Edwards, football executive
26 July
Suzanna Leigh, actress (died 2017)
Helen Mirren, actress
1 August – Laila Morse, English television actress
5 August – Martin Lambie-Nairn, production designer (died 2020)
6 August – Ron Jones, television director (died 1993)
8 August – Tom O'Carroll, paedophilia advocate
9 August – Posy Simmonds, English cartoonist and illustrator
13 August
Robin Jackman, cricketer (died 2020)
Howard Marks ("Mr Nice"), Welsh cannabis smuggler, writer and campaigner (died 2016)
14 August – Jennifer d'Abo, entrepreneur (died 2003)
19 August – Ian Gillan, English hard rock singer (Deep Purple)
24 August – Ken Hensley, singer-songwriter (Uriah Heep) (died 2020)
31 August – Van Morrison, Northern Irish singer-songwriter
8 September – Kelly Groucutt, English rock guitarist (Electric Light Orchestra) (died 2009)
14 September – Martin Tyler, sports broadcaster
18 September – John McAfee, British-American computer programmer and businessman (died 2021)
21 September – Shaw Clifton, General of The Salvation Army
24 September – John Rutter, choral composer
26 September – Bryan Ferry, pop rock singer and musician
27 September – Bob Spiers, television director (died 2008)
5 October
Brian Connolly, Scottish musician (died 1997)
Geoff Leigh, English saxophonist and flute player
15 October – Dave Hill, actor
19 October – Angus Deaton, Scottish-born economist, Nobel Prize laureate
23 October
Hugh Fraser, actor
Maggi Hambling, painter and sculptor
31 October – Al Jones, folk singer (died 2008)
10 November – Terence Davies, English film director and screenwriter (died 2023)
14 November – Louise Ellman, academic and politician
17 November – Gordon Phillips, English football player and manager (died 2018)
25 November – Bobby Knutt, English actor and comedian (died 2017)
26 November – John McVie, English rock bass guitarist (Fleetwood Mac)
30 November
Hilary Armstrong, politician
Mary Millington, pornographic film actress (suicide 1979)
7 December – Clive Russell, English actor
16 December – Tony Hicks, guitarist and singer (The Hollies)
17 December
David Mallet, director
Jacqueline Wilson, English children's writer
19 December – Ron Hunt, English footballer (died 2018)
24 December – Ian "Lemmy" Kilminster, bassist and singer (Motörhead) (died 2015)
25 December
Eve Pollard, newspaper editor
Noel Redding, rock musician (died 2003)
30 December – Davy Jones, English-born pop singer and actor (died 2012)
Deaths
2 January – Sir Bertram Ramsay, admiral; killed on active service (born 1883)
6 January – Herbert Lumsden, general; killed in action (born 1897)
9 January – Dennis O'Neill, Welsh child manslaughter victim (born 1932)
30 January – William Goodenough, admiral (born 1867)
21 January – Archibald Murray, Army general (born 1860)
31 January – Les Adams, rugby league player (born 1909)
21 February – Eric Liddell, athlete and missionary; died in Weixian Internment Camp (born 1902)
5 March – Albert Richards, war artist; killed on active service (born 1919)
7 March – Daniel Everett, RAF pilot; killed in action (born 1920)
8 March – Frederick Bligh Bond, architect, archaeologist and psychical researcher (born 1864)
20 March – Lord Alfred Douglas, poet and former lover of Oscar Wilde (born 1870)
23 March – Sir Napier Shaw, meteorologist (born 1854)
26 March – David Lloyd George, former Prime Minister (born 1863)
29 March – Jack Agazarian, spy; executed (born 1916)
7 April – Elizabeth Bibesco, writer and socialite (born 1897)
11 April – Cecil Griffiths, athlete, winner of gold medal in 4 × 400 m relay at the 1920 Summer Olympics (born 1901)
18 April – Sir John Ambrose Fleming, electrical engineer and physicist (born 1849)
3 May – Herbert Farjeon, man of the theatre (born 1887)
15 May
Kenneth J. Alford (Frederick J. Ricketts), composer of military marches (born 1881)
Charles Williams, author (born 1886)
27 July – Alfred Dobbs, politician (born 1882)
6 September – Maximilian von Herff, Waffen-SS officer and Knight's Cross recipient (born 1893 in Germany)
18 September – C. H. Middleton, gardening broadcaster (born 1886)
22 September – Thomas Burke, fiction writer (born 1886)
31 October
Henry Ainley, actor (born 1879)
Alfred Edward Taylor, philosopher (born 1869)
20 November – Francis William Aston, chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1877)
4 December – Arthur Morrison, writer (born 1863)
5 December – Cosmo Gordon Lang, former archbishop of Canterbury (born 1864)
14 December – Princess Maud, Countess of Southesk, granddaughter of Edward VII (born 1893)
26 December
Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes, admiral (born 1872)
Charlie Trigg, jockey (born 1881)
See also
List of British films of 1945
Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II
References
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
1945 by country
1940s in the United Kingdom
1945 in Europe
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5311413
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NZR%20JA%20class
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NZR JA class
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{{DISPLAYTITLE:NZR JA class}}
The NZR JA class was a class of fifty-one 4-8-2 steam locomotives operated by the New Zealand Railways Department (NZR). The locomotives were built in two batches; the first batch was constructed in-home at the Hillside Workshops at Dunedin between 1946 and 1956, while the second batch was produced by the North British Locomotive Company (NBL) of Glasgow, Scotland in 1951. To differentiate between the two batches, the locomotives were identified by their builder.
The JA class was the last steam locomotive class to be produced by the NZR, with the Hillside-built JA 1274 being the final steam locomotive ever built. The North British JAs were also the last steam locomotives imported for the NZR.
The JA class had relatively short lives of between 12 and 24 years as they were replaced by diesel locomotives as part of the dieselisation process of the NZR. However, nine JAs managed to last until the end of steam on 26 October 1971.
Hillside JA of 1946
Introduction
The class was an improved version of the J class locomotives. Unlike the J class, which were built overseas by the North British, the new locomotives were instead constructed by the NZR's Hillside Workshops in Dunedin. Much of the components, such as the bar frames, were still sourced from NBL as the Hillside lacked the means to construct such components.
In most other respects, the class was virtually identical to the earlier J class, except for being fitted with a bullet-nose streamlining. However, in mechanical respects, the JAs class had some notable improvements from the J class. These include the use of the Westinghouse cross-compound pump, Ashton double pressure gauge, the Sellars injector in the cab, and combined gauges in the cab. Instead of taking steam for the pump from the outlet on the steam dome, these were collected from the manifold in the cab. Except for the first two JAs to be produced, No. 1242 and 1243, the locomotives were fitted with roller bearings to their driving and connecting rods. On the rest of the locomotives numbered in the 124X range, roller bearings were only present at the connection between the driving and connecting rods.
The first of the JA class was constructed in 1946, but it was not until 1953 that the last ten Hillside JA boilers and two spare boilers were delivered by NBL. For this and several other factors, the last member of the class was not turned out from the workshops until December 1956. That last locomotive, JA 1274, turned out to be the last steam locomotive constructed for and by the NZR.
In service
The JA class was intended for fast passenger trains in the South Island before the introduction of 88-seater railcars in 1956 and the decline in long-distance rail passenger services. Thus the class only ever worked in the South Island during their NZR career. Initially, the first members were based out of Dunedin, despite being intended for allocation to Christchurch. Over time, enough of the class were in service to displace the 10 members of the J class based out of Dunedin, which then headed north to join the rest of their class members on the North Island.
The JAs were mainly used for both express passenger and express freight services running from Invercargill to Christchurch. However, during their brief prime on the South Island Main Trunk, they extended their duties from Bluff to Parnassus in the north, and as far west as Arthur's Pass on the Midland Line. Before the full delivery of the JA class, English Electric diesel locomotives had already taken over the main freight services and summer express on the Dunedin-Oamaru section. The class was also restricted from running on long branch lines like the Otago Central Railway or Kingston Branch for being too large.
Despite some restrictions, the JAs remained the mainstay of the South Island network. They proved to be excellent when hauling the South Island Limited between Invercargill and Christchurch. All of the roller-bearing equipped JA locomotives, Nos. 1265-1270 were allocated to the Linwood locomotive depot in Christchurch and were used to haul this service wherever possible between 1952 and 1968. Of these locomotives, the fastest was JA 1270 (scrapped in mid-1969). They were particularly efficient on the relatively flat Invercargill-Dunedin section, as well as the fast run across the Canterbury Plains between Christchurch and Oamaru. The evening run back on train 144 to Christchurch was well known for being speedy, especially when the train was running late and racing to get to the Lyttelton-Wellington Ferry prior to its sailing.
Although the official passenger train speed limit in New Zealand in that era was , the class was known to operate at higher speeds, especially across the Canterbury Plains, where they were officially allowed to run at . For instance, JA 1267 pulled ten carriages weighing 300 tons and covered the from Tinwald to Washdyke at .
According to anecdotal accounts around the performance of the JAs on the South Island Limited during the late 1960s, the speedometer was reading over , and the train was moving away rapidly from the traffic on State Highway 1 adjacent to the railway. Rail writer David Leitch believed that the drivers' accounts of running were accurate. Additional support comes from an official source, the 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, which states that "The speedy and graceful "JA" has demonstrated its remarkable performance in express service on the level plains of Canterbury, and on occasions has attained speeds in excess of 70 miles an hour." The official NZR speed record of was set by a Vulcan RM class railcar on a delivery trial run in 1940.
Withdrawal and disposal
The JA 1249 and 1272 were the first of their class and were not withdrawn until March 1968, in contrast to their J, JB, and North British JA cousins. Twelve JAs, in addition to four Js, were fully overhauled in 1966. These were followed by six more in 1967 and two in 1968.
The use of steam locomotives on freight trains on the East Coast of the South Island ended in March 1969. However, 15 JAs and three Js (rebuilt with North Island JA tenders and trailing engine bogies) remained operational.
The NZR provided a full overhaul on the last JA 1267 in November 1968 with extensive use of parts from JA 1268, including fitting a different boiler. JA 1273 and 1274 had their low mileage boilers transferred to other class members in 1967-68, and continued in service until 1971 with older boilers. The last three Js and these locomotives were frequently used on the South Island Limited in 1968 and 1969, on train 143 out of Christchurch and train 144 return of the Oamaru-Christchurch leg, providing one of the last high-speed steam-hauled passenger services in the world. They continued on that role until November 1970, when diesel-hauled Southerner replaced them.
It was also planned to dieselise the overnight Friday and Sunday express with surplus steam heat vans when the North Island Limited was replaced by the Silver Star, but delayed arrival of the carriages from Japan by a year meant that steam heat vans, which allowed diesel to operate night trains, would not be available until late 1971. Thus the JAs remained ready for service into November, but in the end were never called upon.
Some locomotives like JA 1271 were often sidelined due to mechanical defects or repairs. These locomotives were commonly used as stationary boilers and stripped of parts to keep the rest of the fleet operational, as was common practice at the time.
North British JA of 1951
Introduction
It was evident in 1950 that additional motive power was required in the North Island, but dieselisation had not yet begun. Consequently, the NZR decided to order new locomotives from NBL to the design of the successful J class of 1939.
In January 1951, the order was placed for 16 JA class locomotives as coal burners, which made NBL regard it as essentially a repeat order for the J class. However, in April of the same year, the NZR Chief Mechanical Engineer requested the order be changed to oil-burning due to the perceived long-term coal shortage caused by the 1951 New Zealand waterfront dispute. The associated strike by miners, unavailability of shipping for coal, the expected long-term high imported coal price, and the long time it would take to build up coal stocks to safe levels were the main reasons for the change. The locomotives were eventually completed with oil burning equipment, with no grate, ash pan, or fire door, making them the only locomotives on the NZR to be built entirely as oil burners.
These engines had several differences from both the J class and the Hillside JA class. They were manufactured with the cross-compound pump, and had roller bearings limited at the connection between the driving and connecting rods, while mechanical lubrication was employed.
ACFL blowdown was incorporated late in their construction. A significant improvement was made with the incorporation of French TIA, blowdown equipment which enabled rapid ejection of boiler sludge, reduced boiler scale, and enabled much faster turnaround and higher availability. The system of injection of the oil flow into the burners was different and far more effective than in 1948–1950 conversion of 12 J class locomotives to oil burning.
Other detail differences were the use of Stone's headlights and electrical generator instead of the usual Pyle National equipment, the "Butterfly" number boards on the front headlight, and the absence of a smokebox number plate (although a smokebox plate was specified by the NZR).
In service
The North British JAs were constrained to the North Island and were mostly used on routes that were commonly worked by oil-burning locomotives. Described by the author Stewart as "fine clean-lined machines", they handled almost every express train in that region for about twelve years.
The first eleven locomotives, JA 1275–1285, were based in Auckland, while the other five, JA 1286–1290, were initially based at Palmerston North before being moved to Napier in 1963.
The Auckland-based locomotives were regarded as the specialised express engines and were more impressive performers than the KA class locomotives by most Auckland engine drivers. They were regularly assigned to the North Auckland Line (NAL), the Opua Express until 1959, the Helensville local until 1966, and the North Island Main Trunk (NIMT) services, such as the Auckland–Wellington, 227/626 Express Mail train, and faster Night Limited, and Auckland–Wellington express goods train 627. However, there are accounts of them being used elsewhere. For instance, there are surviving accounts of JA 1279 running on the Waiuku Branch in the early 1960s, and later on the Raetihi Branch during the same decade after coal-fired AB 700 caused several lineside fires. When working with other 4-8-2s on the NAL, they were required to have a bogie wagon such as a UB flat wagon between them to distribute weight more evenly on the light bridges along that line.
The five Palmerston North-based engines, by contrast, were less frequently assigned to the NIMT trains. Instead, they ran over the Marton - New Plymouth Line to Wanganui and the Palmerston North - Gisborne Line as far as Gisborne. By comparison, the Palmerston North-based JAs spent more time working freight trains, particularly with the arrival of the 88-seater railcars.
The rest of the steam fleet, excluding the J and JB classes, experienced increased mechanical failures and repair costs while moving the heavier post-war traffic on the NIMT. By 1955, the K and X classes of 4-8-2 locomotives were worn out. The 9 K class was rebuilt with KA frames in 1955–57 since it was unacceptable to write off the K class locomotives and retain useful Baldwin AA. However, the superiority of the DA class diesels and JAs meant that an A-grade overhaul for a K class member in 1961 turned out to be the last such work for that class.
An analysis done in 1959 found that the North British JA matched the availability of the new DA class, with each JA available for 252 days a year on the North Island. The cost per mile for the JA was much higher, with the locomotives achieving 82% of the DA class' mileage.
After the start of dieselisation in the 1960s, the locomotives were transferred to Frankton Junction. Although JA 1286 was briefly transferred to Auckland in the mid-1960s, it was felt that it did not perform as well as the eleven Auckland-based locomotives and was quickly reallocated to Frankton. After this, the locomotives were mostly assigned to the old East Coast Main Trunk Railway between Hamilton, Tauranga, and Taneatua, again largely on freight trains due to the reduction of passenger services from Taneatua to Te Puke, which was by then handled by the 88-seater railcars.
Withdrawal and disposal
Although being a relatively young class, some of the North British JA members were among the first of the J types to be withdrawn. In 1964, JA 1279 was the first of the class to be withdrawn and sent to Hillside Workshops without at least one driving wheelset, which was taken to repair JA 1275 after it suffered an axle fracture while passing through Mercer that year. The rest of the locomotive became a source of spare parts for the J and Hillside JA class locomotives in the South Island. The oil-fired boiler was converted to coal-firing before being fitted to Greymouth-based J 1212 during a C-grade overhaul.
As the locomotives were withdrawn, most of them were stripped of parts to keep the South Island J and Hillside JA class locomotives running, along with the remaining North British JAs which, by then, were based out of Frankton Junction.
In November 1966, tenders from JA 1287, 1288, and 1290, which were in relatively good condition, were transferred south. They were rebuilt to accommodate a coal bunker in place of the fuel oil tank and coupled to J class locomotives whose original 1939-built tenders were life-expired. Other surplus North Island JA parts were also refitted, including the trailing trucks, and approval was given to fit the JA 1288's boiler. Most of the North Island JA was withdrawn too late in 1967 or early 1968 to be reprocessed, as A-grade South Island J overhauls had ceased with dieselisation. However, JA 1281's boiler was refitted to J 1236 in an A-grade Hillside overhaul in 1967, with the firebox converted from oil to coal burning, but with all the oil firing fittings left in place, making it easier for restoration and reconversion to oil burning in 1991-2001 for rail excursions.
The boiler of JA 1278 was withdrawn in March 1968 and installed that year in a C-grade overhaul of JA 1252 in Dunedin.
Only three of the North British JA class managed to reach the end of North Island steam in 1968, JA 1275 being one of them. After the withdrawal and removal of all useful parts, the North British JAs were sold to Sims Pacific Metal Industries and towed to Sims Otahuhu scrapyard, adjacent to the Otahuhu Workshops, for scrapping. JA 1275 was the only locomotive to avoid this fate.
Preservation
Six of the Hillside JAs survived to be preserved; by contrast, only one North British JA remains. Additionally, two preserved J class locomotives have North British JA tenders.
Hillside JAs
JA 1240 "Jessica" was preserved by Blenheim man Peter Coleman, and was stored serviceable at his Blenheim property. In 1988 after his death, JA 1240 was purchased by Ian Welch, and in 1990 travelled to the Mainline Steam Heritage Trust's Parnell depot. This locomotive's restoration for mainline use (as a coal burner) has been completed and is based in Christchurch. It has been named after one of owner Ian Welch's granddaughters.
JA 1250 "Diana" was preserved by the Railway Enthusiasts Society in 1972. It was used on their Steam Safari train excursions before being purchased by Phil Goldman, who renamed it after his wife, Diana. The Glenbrook Vintage Railway (GVR) restored the engine for use on their railway, and it was even used in the 1983 feature film Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence. In 1985, JA 1250 was selected along with another engine to be used on the first mainline steam-hauled trip since the end of steam. After that, the locomotive traveled around the country and was a notable presence at the 1988 Rail 125 celebrations. Between 1994 and 1998, JA 1250 underwent a substantial overhaul and returned to mainline and GVR service. However, from 2006, its mainline certification lapsed, and it was restricted to use on the GVR. In 2011, the locomotive was re-certified for mainline running and made its return to the main line with a doubleheader from Glenbrook to Hamilton alongside JA 1271. After two more years of mainline running, Diana retired to the GVR for the remainder of her boiler ticket. On Auckland Anniversary Weekend in 2017, a Farewell Weekend was held for the engine, and it continued to operate for another four months before its last day in service on April 30, 2017. The locomotive is now undergoing an overhaul.
JA 1260 was preserved by the Ashburton Railway and Preservation Society in May 1972. The locomotive was used on the Plains Railway's line for a short time before being leased to the Weka Pass Railway for a year in 1986. After being returned to Plains, JA 1260 was dismantled for an overhaul. However, the overhaul was delayed due to other pressing projects. In 2007, the work began and JA 1260 was back in service on the railway in May 2008. It is worth noting that JA 1260 is the only preserved member of the class that operates at a lower boiler pressure of 180 psi instead of 200 psi. This was done because of the limited nature of operations at The Plains Vintage Railway & Historical Museum.
JA 1267 was preserved by a syndicate and stored at the Te Awamutu Railway Museum at Te Awamutu in 1972. It remained on static display under a rudimentary shelter until 2008 when it was put up for auction due to the winding up of the museum and discord amongst the syndicate. Ian Welch purchased the locomotive and transferred it to the Mainline Steam Heritage Trust's Parnell depot. It is currently stored there, awaiting eventual overhaul to mainline running.
JA 1271 was preserved by Reid McNaught and Russell Gibbard in 1978. At the time of purchase the locomotive was incomplete and in a bad condition, having been used as a stationary boiler plant since 1970 after a motion failure. It was then taken to Steam Incorporated's Paekakariki base for a comprehensive restoration to mainline running. In 1997, it made its debut with a tour of the South Island, before returning north where it became a very active mainline locomotive. It played a significant role in hauling the 2003 50th Anniversary Commemoration train of the Tangiwai disaster and the 100th Anniversary of the Parliamentary Special.
JA 1274 was preserved by the New Zealand Railway and Locomotive Society Otago branch in 1971. It was placed on display in a specially erected shelter at the Otago Settlers Museum in 1974 and remained on display there until 2011. Later, a new shelter was built for its display closer to the station building. There are no plans for restoring this locomotive to its working order.
North British JAs
JA 1275 "Julie Anne" was preserved by Les Hostick in 1967 and stored at the Te Awamutu Railway Museum at Te Awamutu, 1972. The locomotive was stored with BB 144 at the Te Awamutu Railway Museum in 1972 and remained on static display under a rudimentary shelter until 1994 when it was leased to Ian Welch. The locomotive was then transferred to the Mainline Steam Heritage Trust's Parnell depot for restoration to mainline running condition. The restoration work began in 2001 and was completed in 2004, after which JA 1275 returned to the mainline.
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
NZR Steam locomotives – JA class
Railway Enthusiasts Society
Owners and Operators of JA 1271
Plains Railway – home of JA 1260
Mainline Steam – JA 1275, JA 1240 and JA 1267
Ja class
4-8-2 locomotives
NBL locomotives
3 ft 6 in gauge locomotives of New Zealand
Railway locomotives introduced in 1947
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5311782
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmoud%20Jaballah
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Mahmoud Jaballah
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Mahmoud Es-Sayyid Jaballah () is an Egyptian who has been detained in Canada without charge on a "security certificate" since August 2001 due to his association with members of al-Jihad. He has consistently asserted that he does not believe in violence, and just because he phones or visits people, does not mean that he shares their beliefs.
Life
While studying at the University of Zagazig in Egypt, Jaballah was involved in a student group named Badr which distributed pamphlets, a weekly periodical and arranged field trips for students. He stated that the University dean eventually expelled the professor who organised the group for his "anti-government political activity".
He was arrested in 1981 and accused of membership in al-Jihad and of participating in the assassination of Anwar Sadat, but was found innocent at trial. He was re-arrested in 1987 and again accused of membership in the group, but the court again found him innocent of all charges.
Jaballah left Egypt in July 1991 and worked in Pakistan from November 1991 through June 1994, first as a biology teacher and then as a school principal under the International Islamic Relief Organization. He has denied claims from the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) that he also fought in Afghanistan and Chechnya.<ref name=TorStar> Jaballah denies terrorist training , Toronto Star', May 18, 2006</ref>
He claims to have stayed in Azerbaijan from September 1995 through March 1996.
He married Husnah Mojammad El-Sayyed El-Mashtouli, with whom he has six children. She and four of the children have been granted refugee status in Canada.
In Canada
Jaballah entered Canada on May 11, 1996 and applied for refugee status. He admitted that he was using a false Saudi passport, that had stamps indicating the bearer had traveled from Egypt to Saudi Arabia, entered Pakistan ten days before al-Jihad's attack on the Egyptian Embassy in Pakistan, and visited Yemen, Azerbaijan, Jordan, Turkey, and Germany successively. stated that he had also used a false Iraqi passport in the past, in order to travel from Pakistan to Yemen, and from there to Azerbaijan, from 1994 to 1996. Muayyed Nureddin offered to drive him around the city if necessary because he was a newcomer without transportation, but the two never became friends.
By November 2006, he had arranged a postal box in the city [what city?], and registered [with whom and for what reason?] under the name Bellal. He was visited by CSIS agents shortly after arriving. His son maintains that the CSIS agents were upset because Jaballah refused to spy for them. The agency has denied that it attempted to recruit Jaballah.
Alleged associations
The month after entering Canada, CSIS alleges Jaballah began phoning suspected al-Jihad members still living in Pakistan and spoke of acquiring new clothing, which Canadian authorities allege was a code word for travel documents. He also remained in contact with al-Jihad ruling council members Ahmad Salama Mabruk and Thirwat Salah Shehata, the latter had served as Jaballah's lawyer in Egypt and married Jaballah's sister.Tab 11, MCI et al. v. Mahmoud Jaballah, DES-4-01, Transcript of Proceedings, July 11,
2006, pp. 856-858 He denied any relationship with Mabruk.
In September, Jaballah was advised to use caution when contacting "the father", believed to be a reference to Ayman al-Zawahiri. He responded that he was usually contacted by the father, not vice versa. Two months later, he mentioned to Shehata that he hadn't heard from the father, but was assured that he was all right and just had some difficulties communicating recently. In a later phone call to Yemen, he asked a colleague to deliver a message to the father from him. In April 1997, Jaballah received a telephone call from the father who asked him how he was faring in Canada. Ten months later, he was given the number for an Inmarsat satellite phone to contact "Mohammed", which Canadians allege was a reference to Mohammed al-Zawahiri, and phoned it frequently.
In October 1996, al-Jihad's London leader Adel Abdel Bary contacted Jaballah to say that he was shipping him several books and periodicals, including al-Mujahideen and al-Faqr for distribution in Canada, and copies of the Shifaa and some audio cassettes he asked to be forwarded on to Shehata. He also offered to ship him a phone card printing machine to ensure he was able to easily communicate overseas.
In November 1996, Shehata, his brother-in-law told Jaballah that he was in Syria and preparing to go stay with "Daoud", believed to be a reference to Ibrahim Eidarous who was staying in Azerbaijan. That same month, he was informed by a friend that Mohammad Zeki Mahjoub had moved to Toronto, whom both had known in Afghanistan. He later met Mahjoub briefly while picking his wife up from the Khadr's house where Mahjoub was also visiting. Jaballah returned the greeting, introducing himself to Ibrahim by the kunya name Abu Ahmad and left. Although Mahjoub was found with the phone number of Jaballah's son at the time of his arrest, 289-2361 under the name Abu Ahmed ("Father of Ahmed"), Jaballah denied having ever spoken on the phone with him.Transcript of Proceedings, Volume 7, Between Minister of Citizenship and Immigration and Solicitor General of Canada and Mohamed Zeki MAHJOUB, p .687.
On December 13, Jaballah was informed that his friend "Najib" had been hospitalised, which authorities suggest was a reference to Ahmad Salama Mabruk being imprisoned along with Ayman al-Zawahiri and Mahmud Hisham al-Hennawi by Russian authorities as they tried to cross into Chechnya. Jaballah promised to raise funds in Canada to help Nijab while Shehata did the same in Azerbaijan. Hani Yusef al-Sebai contacted him at this time, explaining that he was staying near Shehata and helping with the fundraising for Mabruk's release. During one telephone call, Jaballah hung up abruptly on al-Sebai explaining he had security concerns and they should speak on his cell phone in the future. He contacted Eidarous on January 1 to ask how he would arrange a cash transfer from the British Bank Middle East to Azerbaijan under the name Khalil Yaseen Mohammed Mahmoud, and a few days later phoned Shehata to say he was unable to transfer the funds to him. Shehata told him to just send the funds for Mabruk's release to Daoud's postal box in London.
In September 1997, Bary was replaced by Ibrahim Eidarous as the leader of the London organisation, and Jaballah began phoning him instead, still referring to him as "Daoud", to discuss matters.
In July 1998, Jaballah phoned Ibrahim Ismail Allam and passed on a message Shehata had asked him to deliver. A month later, Shehata phoned Jaballah and told him that he'd moved to Lebanon, but didn't have a phone in his new location. He never again contacted Jaballah.Testimony of Husnah Mojammad El-Sayyed El-Mashtouli, August 20, 1999 before the Federal Court of Canada. p. 688.
In the summer of 1998, following the bombings of two American embassies, Eidarous, Bary, al-Sebai, Khalid al-Fawwaz and Sayyid Ahmed al-Maqsud were among eight men arrested in London, England for their relationship with al-Jihad. Canadian authorities interviewed Jaballah on September 21 and again on the 26th to question him since he had phoned all five men. Jaballah said that he had read of the London arrests on the al-Hayat website but hadn't heard who specifically had been arrested. When shown a list of the arrested men's names in Arabic, he claimed to not recognise any of them, and when challenged retorted that perhaps he had known them by other names since he knew a lot of people overseas, but didn't recognise the names in front of him. He was asked to name everybody he'd contacted who lived overseas and give CSIS their telephone numbers. Jaballah refused. He further stated that the bombings were likely carried out by the Egyptian Intelligence Service to allow them to arrest those opposed to the regime. After the interviews, Jaballah phoned Eidarous and told him that Canadian authorities had asked about him, and even referred to him as Daoud.
He has since argued that he knew Bary due to his role as director of the International Office for the Defence of Egyptian People, and was seeking help preparing for his upcoming hearings before the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, although he admitted having contacted him a month after arriving in Canada, several months before he began preparing for his IRB hearing.MCI et al. v. Mahmoud Jaballah, DES-4-01, Transcript of Proceedings, July 12, 2006, pp. 958-959.
In 1998, Barakat Fahim Ali Mohamed was contacted by Jaballah, who wanted an immediate set of false documentation for himself and his family in case Canadian authorities declined his request for refugee status or pursued him. In October 1998, he asked Mohamed whether he had received the necessary photographs of his children and was disappointed to learn that he had not. In March 1999, Jaballah unsuccessfully tried to send Mohamed a fax with his address details, and phoned him repeatedly. He was told that "the thing" was ready for him, and would be sent out after Eid, assuming the fax had been received by then. He was given details about a Yemeni post office box where it is believed he sent money to pay for the fake identification. By the end of April, Canadian authorities allege that Mohamed sent a letter postmarked in Yemen and signed "Murad", which was addressed to "Bellal", but sent to Jaballah's postal box. It simply stated that the sender was sorry to have not heard from him since Eid, and that he hoped he would get in contact soon.
Jaballah has described a casual relationship with Ahmed Khadr, stating that his wife had gone grocery shopping with Khadr's mother-in-law, and he had thus invited Khadr into his house for fifteen minutes during which the two drank tea and discussed their respective relief work in Peshawar, Pakistan. He said his wife had bought the Khadr family groceries when Khadr came to Canada as a refugee. He said he met Khadr when he dropped by to pick up items being given to his family during a period of time when Khadr's family was in need and consistent with Muslim charity, he offered Khadr some tea. Jaballah has said that he never met Khadr while in Peshawar, though Khadr's sons Abdullah and Abdurahman have said that they had seen Jaballah around Peshawar and knew him as an Arabic tutor in the city who went by the patronymic Abu Ahmed.Freeze, Colin. The Globe and Mail, "I only buy and sell weapons for al-Qaeda", November 3, 2006 It was later claimed by the government that he had in fact taught the Khadrs while working as a teacher at two schools in the city, and that his wife had asked the family to deny any closer connection than what he'd previously mentioned to the authorities.
Jaballah and Mustafa Krer met through mutual friends, and Jaballah has said that he phoned Krer for help finding Egyptian newspaper articles he felt could help his refugee claim, and that Krer occasionally visited Jaballah in Toronto. The only time they met in Montreal was when Krer met Jaballah and his wife at Hassan Farhat's apartment to celebrate the birth of a child while Jaballah was in the city seeking cheaper car insurance than he could obtain in Toronto.Hanes, Allison. National Post, "Jaballah claims purely innocent dealings with other terror suspects , July 12, 2006 Jaballah met Farhat in 1996 at the Medina Mosque in Toronto, and received help finding a local apartment and learning English.MacLeon, Ian. Ottawa Citizen, "The warning lights were all blinking red ", February 23, 2008 Farhat introduced Jaballah to Ali Hussein, and later moved to Winnipeg, Montreal and then back to Toronto. Jaballah also visited him in Winnipeg, and phoned him 41 times, once telling him that Kassem Daher would appreciate any religious audiocassettes that Farhat and Jaballah could send him.MCI et al. v. Mahmoud Jaballah, DES-04-01 Transcript of Proceedings, July 11,
2006, pp. 884-907, July 13, 2006, pp. 1018-1022.
Recruiting
In July 1997, a fax believed to have been sent by Mabruk, was sent to Jaballah offering advice on how to approach and recruit Canadians to al-Jihad. He sent a reply stating that he had already begun making contacts in the community, and had found several Muslim Brotherhood members whose loyalty he had "tested" and that he was convinced they were reliable friends. He was congratulated and reminded that al-Jihad could use as many brothers as they could find.
Arrest
Jaballah was arrested in 1999 on a security certificate alleging he was a key member of al-Jihad. The courts found the evidence unsatisfactory and he was released several months later. Islamic groups accused the Canadian government of bowing to pressure from Egypt to extradite Jaballah back for a third attempt to convict him of membership in al-Jihad.
In August 2001, Jaballah was arrested on a second security certificate. He was held at Toronto West Detention Centre until April 2006, when he and the other security certificate detainees were moved to a newly constructed facility two hours north of Toronto named Kingston Immigration Holding Centre.
In March 2002, his lawyer Rocco Galati made headlines when he simply walked out of the courtroom referring to the legal process holding Jaballah as "a travesty of justice" since security officials were meeting alone with the judge, and the accused was not allowed to know or challenge the evidence against him.
In October 2006, Jaballah's lawyers Paul Copeland and Barbara Jackman again sought bail, this time noting the support of former Iraqi hostage James Loney and the release of Mohamed Harkat on bail from a security certificate four months earlier.Perkel, Colin. Canadian Press, " Former Iraq hostage Loney supports bail for accused Egyptian terrorist Jaballah", October 4, 2006
Release
On April 14, 2007, Jaballah was released on house arrest by judge Carolyn Layden-Stevenson, a day after Mohammad Zeki Mahjoub was similarly released and escorted to his family home. A CSIS agent identified only as J.P.'', the Deputy Chief of Counterterrorism and Counterproliferation in the Ottawa Regional Office as of 2005, testified against the petitions for release by Almrei, Jaballah and Charkaoui. Under the conditions of his release, Jaballah is not allowed to leave his house without approval, nor have visitors who haven't been cleared by security. His mail is opened and his phone is tapped, and he is prohibited from using a cellphone or internet connection.
In December 2007, security officials petitioned Layden-Stevenson to allow them to install 14 surveillance cameras inside the Jaballah home to watch the day-to-day activities of the family. When asked to review clandestine photographs the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) identified as his house, Jaballah "stunned the court" by appearing perplexed and answering that these were not even photos of his house. The agents had accidentally submit photos from the wrong stakeout, instead labeling photos of Tamil gang-leader Jothiravi Sittampalam's house as being the Jaballah residence, The court also noted complaints that Muslim women are only able to walk around without their niqab or hijab inside the home away from the eyes of strangers; and that federal agents would be intruding on their privacy.
The same month, it was discovered that despite the federal order barring the Jaballah household from access to the internet, the City of Toronto government had actually made Afnan Essayyid, one of Jaballah's high school-age daughters, the recipient of its Kids@Computers scholarship program meant to assist children living in welfare situations, and brought the family a free internet line. Jaballah had phoned Bell after the internet line was installed in the kitchen, and was told that the account was being set up and paid for by the city. Jaballah's lawyer John Norris questioned the city's agents in court, and was told that the CBSA had never mentioned anything about the scholarship program.
Ultimately, it was decided that Jaballah could not continue to teach at the Um Al Qura school he had founded in Scarborough, nor hold Arabic-language or Koranic classes at his home.
Following the release of information that CSIS had been illegally monitoring the privileged conversations between Mohammad Zeki Mahjoub and his lawyer, Jaballah and Mahjoub filed a joint motion alleging that the conditions of their house arrest were unreasonable; stating their tracking-bracelets, wiretapped phones and curfews were acceptable intrusions on their lives, while having their family photographed and physically followed at every opportunity and their mail seized were unreasonable. Judge Anne MacTavish ruled against this motion.
The Summary Report drafted by CSIS in 2008 had a number of demonstrable errors, including identifying Amr Hamed and Essam Marzouk as the same person, stating that four of Ahmed Khadr's sons had attended training camps when only two had, that Mustafa Krer was arrested on December 18, 2004, rather than May 2, 2002, and alternatingly referring to the same interview occurring on either August 21 or September 21.
References
External links
Justice for Mohamed Harkat (Sub-section: Mahmoud Jaballah)
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Zagazig University alumni
Egyptian emigrants to Canada
Egyptian expatriates in Pakistan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtitle%20B%20of%20Title%20III%20of%20the%20Patriot%20Act
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Subtitle B of Title III of the Patriot Act
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The USA PATRIOT Act was passed by the United States Congress in 2001 as a response to the September 11 attacks in 2001. It has ten titles, with the third title ("Title III: International Money Laundering Abatement and Financial Anti-Terrorism Act of 2001") written to prevent, detect, and prosecute international money laundering and the financing of terrorism.
Title III is itself divided into three subtitles. The second subtitle, entitled Subtitle B: Bank Secrecy Act Amendments and Related Improvements, largely modifies the Bank Secrecy Act (BSA) to make it harder for money launderers to operate, and to make it easier for law enforcement and regulatory agencies to police money laundering operations. The BSA was amended to allow the designated officer or agency who receives suspicious transaction reports to notify U.S. intelligence agencies. It also addresses issues of record keeping and reporting by making it easier to undertake the reporting of suspicious transactions; by making it a requirement that financial institutions report suspicious transactions; through the creation of anti-money laundering programs and by better defining anti-money laundering strategy; and by making it a requirement that anyone who does business file a report for any coin and foreign currency receipts that are over US$10,000. The subtitle increases civil and criminal penalties for money laundering and introduces penalties for violations of geographic targeting orders and certain recordkeeping requirements.
Subtitle B legislated for the creation of a secure network which can be used by financial institutions to report suspicious transactions and which can also give them alerts of relevant suspicious activities. Subtitle B also makes FinCEN a bureau of the United States Department of Treasury. The subtitle allows the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System to authorize personnel to act as law enforcement officers to protect the premises, grounds, property and personnel of any U.S. Federal reserve bank, and allows them to delegate this authority to U.S. Federal Reserve Banks. It instructs any United States Executive Directors of international financial institutions to use their voice and vote to support any country that has taken action to support the U.S.'s War on Terrorism, and to require such Executive Directors to provide ongoing auditing of disbursements made from their institutions to ensure that no funds are paid to persons who commit, threaten to commit, or support terrorism.
Dissent
Title III of the USA PATRIOT Act was passed with very little debate and the final vote in the United States House of Representatives was 412-1. The sole dissenting voice of an earlier version of the Act (the Financial Anti-Terrorism Act) was Republican U.S. Representative for Texas and former presidential nominee of the Libertarian Party Ron Paul. Paul in particular objected to a similar section to subtitle B's section 356, which makes it a requirement of brokers and dealers to report suspicious activities. Congressman Paul stated in Congress:
Among the most obnoxious provisions of this bill are: expanding the war on cash by creating a new federal crime of taking over $10,000 cash into or out of the United States; codifying the unconstitutional authority of the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) to snoop into the private financial dealings of American citizens; and expanding the `suspicious activity reports' mandate to broker-dealers, even though history has shown that these reports fail to significantly aid in apprehending criminals. These measures will actually distract from the battle against terrorism by encouraging law enforcement authorities to waste time snooping through the financial records of innocent Americans who simply happen to demonstrate an `unusual' pattern in their financial dealings.
Sec. 351. Amendments relating to reporting of suspicious activities
The Bank Secrecy Act (BSA) was amended to give financial institutions legal immunity from liability for any disclosures of suspicious transactions or activities to appropriate authorities, or for failing to notify any person identified in such a disclosure. The section also prohibits any employee or owner of a financial institution, or any officer or employee of any branch of the U.S. government, from notifying any person involved in a reported transaction that the transaction has been reported. The prohibition does not extend to employee references made under the Federal Deposit Insurance Act or in a written termination notice or employment reference made under the rules of any self-regulated organisation registered with the Security and Exchange Commission (SEC) or the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC), although the reference must not state that the disclosure was reported. It is noted that institutions are not required to include such information in their termination notices or employee references.
Sec. 352. Anti-money laundering programs
The BSA was amended in 2004 to make financial institutions implement anti money laundering programs. Institutions must implement, at a minimum, the development of internal policies, procedures, and controls; the designation of a compliance officer; an ongoing employee training program; and an independent audit function to test programs. The Secretary of the Treasury is given authority to set minimum standards of these programs but may exempt from the application of those standards any financial institution that is not subject to the provisions of the rules contained in part 103 of title 31, of the Code of Federal Regulations. The section also orders the Secretary of Treasury to produce regulations "commensurate with the size, location, and activities of the financial institutions to which such regulations apply". These regulations were jointly produced by FinCEN and U.S. Treasury as 31 C.F.R. 103.137 on December 5, 2001 and largely focus on requiring insurance companies to form anti-money laundering programs — depository institutions were not targeted because the Bank Secrecy Act already requires them to have anti-money laundering programs.
Sec. 353. GTOs: penalties and lengthening of period
There are two sections that specify civil and criminal penalties for those who violate the BSA or a regulation prescribed under the BSA: title 31, section 5321 of the U.S. Code deals with civil penalties, while title 31, section 5322 of the U.S. Code deals with criminal penalties. Both sections were amended by section 353 of the Patriot Act to extend penalties to apply to violations of any orders made under the BSA. Penalties were also made to apply for violations of regulations prescribed under section 21 of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act and section 123 of Public Law 91-508. Under it is against U.S. Law to attempt to evade such reporting, to cause or attempt to make the report contain a material omission or misstatement of fact, or to "structure or assist in structuring, or attempt to structure or assist in structuring, any transaction with one or more domestic financial institutions." This section was modified to include as the reporting requirements section 21 of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act and section 123 of Public Law 91-508.
Section 123 of Public Law 91-508 specifies regulations that govern recordkeeping for uninsured banks or institutions, or any other institution defined in , while section 21 of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act specifies regulations that govern recordkeeping for insured depository institutions.
The section also lengthens the effective period of geographic targeting orders from 60 days to 180 days.
Sec. 354. Anti-money laundering strategy
The BSA specifies that "the President, acting through the Secretary and in consultation with the Attorney General, shall develop a national strategy for combating money laundering and related financial crimes." In the development of that strategy, the legislation gives a list of areas that address any area the President, acting through the Secretary and in consultation with the Attorney General, considers appropriate. Section 354 added a new area to be addressed in the strategy: "Data concerning money laundering efforts related to the funding of acts of international terrorism, and efforts directed at the prevention, detection, and prosecution of such funding".
Sec. 355. Written employment references and illegal activity
The Federal Deposit Insurance Act was amended to allow written employment references to contain suspicions of involvement in illegal activity in response to a request from another financial institution. The amendment makes clear that it allows such disclosures but does not require it, and also makes clear that the amendment does not shield from liability anyone who makes a disclosure that is found to have been made with malicious intent.
Sec. 356. Reporting suspicious activities of brokers and dealers
Section 356 deals with suspicious activity reports (SARs). Part (a) states that the Secretary of Treasury was required to create regulations that require brokers and dealers registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 to submit suspicious activity reports under section 5318(g) of title 31, United States Code. The regulations filed were 31 CFR 103.11(ii), which amended the definition of a transaction to encompass any instrument within the definition of security in the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, and 31 CFR 103.19, which requires suspicious transactions over $US5,000 be reported to FinCEN. 31 CFR 103.19 provides details on filing procedures, details several exceptions to the filing requirement and specifies that records must be retained for a period of 5 years by dealer-brokers. It also requires that reports made to FinCEN remain confidential and gives limited liability to the reporting broker-dealer for any disclosures to appropriate authorities. Failure to file reports may be a violation of the BSA.
Part (b) of the section states that the Secretary of Treasury may prescribe regulations requiring futures commission merchants, commodity trading advisors and commodity pool operators registered under the Commodity Exchange Act to submit suspicious activity reports.
Investment company study
Part (c) specified that a report be produced jointly by the Secretary of Treasury, the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, and the Securities and Exchange Commission with recommendations for effective regulations to apply the requirements of the BSA with regards to investment companies. This report was submitted to Congress on December 31, 2001. It gives a background to money laundering and how the BSA and Anti-Money Laundering Act (AML) was developed to counter increasingly sophisticated money laundering schemes and gives an overview of the general process criminals use to undertake money laundering, and how they use investment companies in each stage of the process. In order for effective regulations to apply to the BSA, the report acknowledges that different types of investment companies have different susceptibilities to money laundering and thus regulations must deal with them differently.
The report firstly defines what is meant by the term "investment companies". It defines an investment company as being either registered or unregistered. For registered investment companies, it found that mutual funds are the most susceptible to money laundering because money launders can get easy access to their money. The report found closed-end funds and interval funds were not as susceptible because investors must go through broker-dealer or banks, which are subject to anti-money laundering regulations already. The report also similarly found that unit investment trusts (UITs) to be of low risk of being used for money-laundering purposes.
For unregistered investment companies, the report found that hedge funds to be the most vulnerable to money laundering. This was because of the relatively high liquidity of their structure and interests. Hedge funds have relatively short periods where money is kept locked up, and a hedge fund's structure makes them vulnerable because domestic hedge funds do not need to identify the source of their funding, and offshore hedge fund structures are complex and more likely to allow "anonymous" investments. The report notes that commodity pools are highly regulated and that private equity funds and venture capital funds are long term investments that provide little opportunity to redeem their investments. The report also noted that Real Estate Investment Trust (REITs) investments "[tend] to be illiquid because the investors have no right to redeem their interests and the REIT often restricts the transfer of interests to comply with other [Internal Revenue Code] requirements".
The report makes a proposed rule which would apply the BSA to unregistered investment companies (67 CFR 21117 temporarily excluded unregistered companies from the requirements of the BSA). It was acknowledged in the report that listing all types of unregistered investment companies would,
unnecessarily burden businesses that money launderers are unlikely to use... [and] would bring within the scope of the BSA's anti-money laundering requirements as to tax the resources of the federal regulators charged with oversight of financial institutions and, thus, diminish the effectiveness of that oversight.
Therefore FinCEN proposed to apply the same definition to all investment companies except commodity pools and those funds that only primarily invest in real estate. Due to the broad scope of such a definition it was further narrowed to those investment companies that permit an investor to redeem part of their investment with two years after the investment was made; exclude investment companies with less than US$1,000,000 in assets by the end of the calendar quarter; and to funds that were organized in the U.S., that are organized or sponsored in by a U.S. person, or that sells ownership interest to U.S. people. Unregistered companies exclude family companies, employee securities companies and some types of employee benefit plans.
The report was also meant to look into anti-money regulations for personal holdings accounts, but no recommendations were given as this was an issue the U.S. Treasury decided they needed to continue to study.
Sec. 357. Report on administration of bank secrecy provisions
A report was required to be submitted to Congress on the role of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) in the administration of the BSA. The report was to recommend whether it was "advisable to shift the processing of information reporting to the Department of the Treasury under the BSA provisions to facilities other than those managed by the IRS". The report also needed to recommend whether, "in light of the objective of both anti-money-laundering programs and Federal tax administration, the Internal Revenue Service to retain authority and responsibility for audit and examination of the compliance of money services businesses and gaming institutions with those Bank Secrecy Act provisions".
The report was submitted on April 26, 2002 and concluded that,
...in light of the expertise, resources and focus of the IRS, the IRS should continue to perform the information processing and examination functions. The IRS has cultivated substantial anti-money laundering expertise over the years and contributed significantly to the administration of the BSA since its enactment in 1970. In recent years, the partnership forged by the IRS and FinCEN has been aimed at improving the administration of the BSA and prioritizing the challenges both agencies recognize need to be addressed.... It would be both wasteful of resources and disruptive to the administration of the BSA to transfer these functions, especially since there is no other comparable agency with a similar combination of expertise and resources that could readily assume them.
Sec. 358. Bank secrecy provisions & anti-terrorism activities
The BSA was amended to allow the designated officer or agency who receives suspicious transaction reports to notify U.S. intelligence agencies. The stated purposes of the BSA, Section 123(a) of Public Law 91-508 and Section 21(a) of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act were amended to allow reports or records to be provided to agencies who conduct intelligence or counterintelligence activities, including analysis, in order to protect against international terrorism.
The BSA was also amended to direct the Secretary of Treasury to make available reports to agencies, U.S. intelligence, or self-regulatory organizations that are registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission or the Commodity Futures Trading Commission upon the request of the head of that agency or organisation. Exemptions for disclosure are made for circumstances covered under the Privacy Act of 1974.
The Right to Financial Privacy Act of 1978 was amended to allow financial records obtained under the Act to be transferred to another agency if they are relevant to intelligence or counter-intelligence activities related to international terrorism. None of the special procedures spelled out in the Financial Privacy Act under section 1114 apply to U.S. government authorities who conduct investigations or intelligence or counter-intelligence activities in relation to domestic or international terrorism. Financial records that are obtained under a subpoena from a Federal grand jury can now also be used for the purposes of counter-terrorism
The Fair Credit Reporting Act was amended to require consumer reporting agencies provide customer reports of a customer and all other information in a customer's file available to a government agency that is authorized to conduct counter-terrorism activities when presented with a written certificate by the agency. The consumer agency may not disclose to anyone that they have provided such information to the agency who requested the information. The consumer reporting agency, and any employee of the agency, is given safe harbor for providing such information, if it can be proven that it was done in good faith.
All the amendments made by section 358 of the Patriot Act apply with respect to reports filed or records maintained on, before, or after the date of enactment of the Act.
Sec. 359. Reporting of suspicious activities by underground banking systems
Under the BSA, any person or group of people who transfer money as a business are defined as a money services business in order to bring those who operate informal value transfer systems outside of the mainstream financial system under the law. The amendments include "a licensed sender of money or any other person who engages as a business in the transmission of funds, including any person who engages as a business in an informal money transfer system or any network of people who engage as a business in facilitating the transfer of money domestically or internationally outside of the conventional financial institutions system" in the definition of a "financial institution" under the BSA. The BSA definition of a "money transmitting business" was also similarly amended. The rules promulgated under section 21 of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act was amended to apply to "any person that engages as a business in the transmission of funds, including any person who engages as a business in an informal money transfer system or any network of people who engage as a business in facilitating the transfer of money domestically or internationally outside of the conventional financial institutions system". This makes it easier for authorities to regulate, and investigate anti-money laundering operations in this segment of the U.S. economy.
The section also called for a report to congress on the need for any additional legislation relating to such people. The report found that:
Existing BSA regulations are applicable to the U.S.-based operators of informal value transfer systems.
That research did not suggest an immediate need for additional legislation, and neither did it suggest a need to change the threshold for the filing of Suspicious Activity Reports.
The adequacy of the existing BSA rules should be reexamined over the course of U.S. Treasury's multi-year effort to enhance regulatory compliance among the operators of informal value transfer systems.
The law enforcement and regulatory communities should undertake a comprehensive program to enhance their knowledge concerning the range of mechanisms used in informal value transfer systems in order to better understand them and to determine whether they think that any additional legislation is needed.
Sec. 360. Use of authority of U.S. Executive Directors
The Patriot Act allows the United States President to instruct any United States Executive Directors of the international financial institutions (for example, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank) to use their authority (termed "voice and vote") to support any loan or other utilization of the funds of respective institutions for countries that have shown to "take actions that contribute to efforts of the United States to respond to, deter, or prevent acts of international terrorism". The Secretary of Treasury is also given the authority to instruct the Executive Directors to aggressively use the voice and vote of the Executive Director to require an auditing of disbursements made from their institutions to ensure that no funds are paid to persons who commit, threaten to commit, or support terrorism.
Sec. 361. Financial crimes enforcement network
FinCEN, established in 1990, was made a bureau in the U.S. Department of the Treasury. The head of the bureau is now appointed by the Secretary of Treasury and was formally given a variety of responsibilities and powers, including:
Providing advice and making recommendations on matters relating to financial intelligence, financial criminal activities and other financial activities to the Under Secretary of the Treasury for Enforcement.
Maintain a government-wide data access service, with access, in accordance with applicable legal requirements, to:
the information collected by the Department of the Treasury, including report information filed under the BSA;
information regarding national and international currency flows;
other records and data maintained by other Federal, State, local, and foreign agencies, including financial and other records developed in specific cases; and
other privately and publicly available information
Analyze and disseminate the available data in order to deal with financial crime.
Establish and maintain a financial crimes communications center to furnish law enforcement authorities with intelligence information related to emerging or ongoing investigations and undercover operations.
Furnish research, analytical, and informational services to financial institutions, appropriate Federal regulatory agencies with regard to financial institutions, and appropriate Federal, State, local, and foreign law enforcement authorities, in accordance with policies and guidelines established by the Secretary of the Treasury or the Under Secretary of the Treasury for Enforcement, in the interest of detection, prevention, and prosecution of terrorism, organized crime, money laundering, and other financial crimes.
Assist Federal, State, local, and foreign law enforcement and regulatory authorities in combatting the use of informal, nonbank networks and payment and barter system mechanisms that permit the transfer of funds or the equivalent of funds without records and without compliance with criminal and tax laws.
Provide computer and data support and data analysis to the Secretary of the Treasury for tracking and controlling foreign assets.
Coordinate with financial intelligence units in other countries on anti-terrorism and anti-money laundering initiatives, and similar efforts.
Administer the requirements of the BSA, chapter 2 of title I of Public Law 91-508, and section 21 of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act, to the extent delegated such authority by the Secretary of the Treasury.
Such other duties and powers as the Secretary of the Treasury may delegate or prescribe.
The U.S. Secretary of Treasury is also given responsibility for administering the government-wide data access service and the financial crimes communications center maintained by FinCEN. also gave FinCEN guaranteed funding for the period of 2002 to 2005.
This section of the Patriot Act makes it a requirement of the Secretary of Treasury to report yearly on how to improve compliance of , which deals with the records and reports on foreign financial agency transactions. The Secretary submitted the initial report on April 24, 2002, and has submitted one every year except in 2004.
Sec. 362. Establishment of highly secure network
The U.S. Secretary of Treasury was charged with establishing a highly secure network to allow financial reports required under the BSA, chapter 2 of Public Law 91-508 or section 21 of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act to be filed electronically. The legislation also requires the secure network to send alerts and other information in relation to suspicious activities to financial institutions. The network was required to be finished within 9 months of the enactment of the Patriot Act. According to the testimony of Dennis Lormel, Chief of the Terrorist Financing Operations Section of the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Counterterrorism Division, the USA Patriot Act Communication System was developed by FinCEN from such requirements.
Sec. 363. Increase in penalties for money laundering
The Secretary of Treasury was given the authority to issue money penalties in an amount equal to not less than twice the amount of the transaction, but not more than US$1,000,000, on any financial institution or agency who commits a civil or criminal violation of International counter money laundering measures.
Sec. 364. Uniform protection authority for Federal Reserve facilities
The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System are given authority to authorize personnel to act as law enforcement officers to protect the premises, grounds, property and personnel of any U.S. Federal reserve bank, as well as any operations conducted by or on behalf of the Board. The Board may also delegate this authority to a U.S. Federal reserve bank, so long as the reserve bank makes sure they follow the regulations proscribed by the Board and which are approved by the U.S. Attorney General. Law enforcement personnel are authorized to carry firearms and to make arrests for felonies committed while on the grounds or within the buildings of the Board or a reserve bank. Law enforcement officers must have successfully completed law enforcement training and be authorized to carry firearms and make arrests.
Sec. 365. Reports relating to coins and currency
Section 5331 ("Reports relating to coins and currency received in nonfinancial trade or business") was added to the BSA. It makes anyone who does business file a report for any coin and foreign currency receipts that are over US$10,000. The report must contain the name, address and any other identifying information so required by the U.S. Secretary of Treasury; the amount of coins or foreign currency received; the date and nature of the transaction and any other information required by the Secretary of Treasury. However, should a transaction be made that involves foreign currency then the report does not need to be made, and instead reports should be made through the relevant regulations covered under . Transactions that are made entirely outside of the United States are also not covered under . , which prohibits the structuring of transactions in such a way as to evade reporting requirements, was also amended to include the reporting of any coin and foreign currency receipts over US$10,000. The term "nonfinancial trade or business" was made to mean "any trade or business other than a financial institution that is subject to the reporting requirements of section 5313 and regulations prescribed under such section."
Sec. 366. Efficient use of CTRs
In 1970, U.S. Congress established currency transaction reporting requirements via the BSA. However, though government agencies found the reports to be extremely useful in criminal, tax and regulatory investigations, it soon became apparent that the sheer volume of such reports was becoming overwhelming. Therefore, in 1986, Congress passed the Money Laundering Control Act (MLCA), which did two things: firstly, it made it easier to report this information (previously, tellers had to contact an agent directly, the Act allowed tellers to merely fill in a form and submit it to the agency); and secondly, it gave legal immunity to financial institutions that did report such transactions. The MLCA also made mandatory exceptions to certain reports that had little use to U.S. law enforcement agencies. In 2001, however, Congress found that some financial institutions were not utilizing the exemption system and, once again, the volume of reports was interfering with law enforcement. In fact, the number of Currency transaction reports (CTRs) filed on in the 2002 financial year was 12.3 million. Though this represented a decrease from the 13 million filed in the 2000 financial year, only 118,678 exemptions were made: a tiny fraction of the total amount of CTRs filed.
Congress ordered a study to be made to determine why the volume of CTRs were being made and how this problem could be alleviated. The study was completed in October 2002, and found that the most frequently cited reasons by survey respondents for not using the exemption system were:
The fear of regulatory action if an exemption turns out to be wrong;
Difficulty in determining whether a customer is eligible for exemption;
The additional costs associated with due diligence;
Lack of staff time to review CTRs for possible exemptions; and
The transactions requiring CTR filings are too infrequent. According to the study:
This response reflects the fact that smaller depository institutions, which are less likely to conduct large cash transactions, constituted the majority of depository institutions in the survey, and, in fact, outnumber such large institutions.
Based on the findings, the Secretary offered the following recommendations for legislative and/or regulatory change:
"FinCEN should work with the federal bank regulators, as well as banks, to reduce, as appropriate, fear of adverse regulatory consequences from making incorrect exemption determinations, including issuing an Advisory encouraging the use of the exemption process.
"FinCEN, in conjunction with the federal bank regulators, should draft and disseminate a new exemption handbook with a view to making the exemption system easier for bank personnel to understand.
"FinCEN should revise the waiting period requirement for non-listed customers to permit banks to use a risk-based approach in determining when to exempt a customer.
"FinCEN should amend the exemption regulation to simplify and make less burdensome the biennial certification and monitoring system requirement for non-listed customers.
"The exemption process should not be made mandatory, nor are any other statutory changes necessary at this time. FinCEN should continue to seek ways to improve the efficiency and efficacy of the CTR reporting system. It should also work toward achieving an accurate measurement of the success of the system. These steps will help achieve the goal of finding the optimal balance between the value of the BSA reporting system and database and the burdens imposed to create and maintain it."
References and notes
Title III, Subtitle A
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Keurig Dr Pepper
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Keurig Dr Pepper Inc., formerly Green Mountain Coffee Roasters (1981–2014) and Keurig Green Mountain (2014–2018), is a publicly traded American beverage and coffeemaker conglomerate with headquarters in Burlington, Massachusetts and Frisco, Texas. Formed in July 2018, with the merger of Keurig Green Mountain and Dr Pepper Snapple Group (formerly Dr. Pepper/7up Inc.), Keurig Dr Pepper offers over 125 hot and cold beverages. The company's Canadian business unit subsidiary operates as Keurig Dr Pepper Canada (formerly Canada Dry Motts).
The company's east-coast division manufactures Keurig brewing systems; sources, produces and sells coffee, hot cocoa, teas and other beverages under various brands for its Keurig machines; it also sells coffee beans and ground coffee in bags and fractional packs. As of 2018, the newly merged conglomerate also sells sodas, juices and other soft drinks via its Dr Pepper Snapple division based in Texas.
Green Mountain Coffee Roasters (GMCR) was established in 1981. After regional and national expansion in the late 1980s, and an IPO in 1993, the company completed its acquisition of the brewing-machine manufacturer Keurig, Inc. in 2006, enabling rapid growth through the high-margin sales of its many varieties of single-serve K-Cup pods. In March 2014, GMCR changed its name to Keurig Green Mountain.
A publicly traded company from 1993 through 2015, Keurig Green Mountain was acquired by a group of investors led by JAB Holding Company in March 2016 for $13.9 billion in cash. Keurig Green Mountain became a privately held company for two years, and was an independent entity run by its pre-existing management team and a new CEO.
On July 9, 2018, Keurig Green Mountain acquired the Dr Pepper Snapple Group in an $18.7-billion deal. The combined company was renamed Keurig Dr Pepper, and traded publicly again on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker "KDP" until 2020 when it switched to Nasdaq while retaining the same ticker. Shareholders of Dr Pepper Snapple Group own 13% of the combined company, with Keurig shareholder Mondelez International owning 13% to 14% of that fraction. JAB Holdings owns the remaining 73-74%.
In 2021, Keurig Dr Pepper opened up its second headquarters in Frisco, Texas.
History
Beginnings
Green Mountain Coffee Roasters (GMCR) began when entrepreneur Bob Stiller was near a Vermont ski resort, where he consumed a cup of coffee which he enjoyed and looked for its source. In 1981, he and a partner bought a two-thirds stake in the small speciality coffee roasting company in Waitsfield, Vermont, that produced the roasted beans. The store and cafe sold beans, grounds, and coffee to the public and a few restaurants. Stiller dedicated himself to coffee-roasting, using arabica coffee beans. By 1982, the company had around 30 employees, and moved its production facilities to Waterbury, Vermont.
Stiller bought out his two partners for $100,000 and became sole proprietor of the company within two years of his original purchase, but it took four years to turn a profit. To grow the business, Stiller sold the coffee to high-end restaurants and gas stations alike, and gave out free samples as he could not afford advertising. In 1986, he launched a mail-order business which he advertised in gourmet magazines, and acquired his first supermarket-chain customer, Kings.
Stiller adopted technology to track customers' orders; to regulate roasting-heat levels appropriate to each bag; and to track distribution, manufacturing, sales, and personnel (adopting PeopleSoft in 1997). By 1983, employees composted used coffee grounds at its retail stores, and by 1986, Green Mountain introduced its first organic coffee in a retail market test. The company became one of the largest suppliers of double-certified fair-trade and organic coffee in the world.
As American tastes in coffee changed, sales of Green Mountain roasted coffee beans grew. In 1991, GMCR had seven retail outlets, 1,000 wholesale clients, $11 million in sales, and $200,000 in profits. By 1993, the company had 2,400 wholesale accounts and sales of about $10 million, and Green Mountain Coffee Roasters, Inc. started trading publicly, under the ticker "GMCR". The company expanded its retail locations, food-service distribution, mail-order business, and wholesale business.
In 1994, Green Mountain began exporting to Canada and Taiwan. In the late 1990s, it broadened its national supermarket chain distribution, gas-station and convenience-store distribution throughout the northeast, and it sold its product on airlines and Amtrak, specialty coffee stores, and venues such as LL Bean, Weight Watchers International, and Staples.
Keurig and launch of K-Cups
In 1993, three engineering entrepreneurs from a Massachusetts start-up called Keurig approached GMCR about developing a single-cup coffee brewing system, marking GMCR's first investment in Keurig. In 1996, GMCR invested further in Keurig, buying a 35% interest in the company. The following year, GMCR became the first roaster to offer coffee in a K-Cup pod for the Keurig Single-Cup Brewing System; in 1998 Keurig delivered its first brewing system, designed for office use. The launch of the first K-Cups with Green Mountain Coffee helped GMCR begin to further compete with Starbucks by allowing people to brew their own single servings of premium coffee.
Also in 1997, a deal with Poland Spring opened the office-worker market by distributing Green Mountain Coffee to thousands of offices in the Northeast. In 1998, GMCR closed its 12 retail shops in favor of the burgeoning direct-mail and online market, its growing distributions to business offices and other national venues, and its wholesale market. That year, the company signed an exclusive deal with American Skiing Company, offered its first corporate gifts catalogue, sold its certified organic coffee in ExxonMobil's national and international On the Run convenience stores, and expanded its supermarket distribution to 500 stores. In 1999, it expanded its export market, including to Great Britain.
In 2000, Green Mountain reached an agreement to promote and sell fair trade coffee, committing to making at least 3% of its sales fair trade—certified by TransFair USA. In 2001, the company acquired Frontier Organic Coffee, and in 2002, it signed an agreement to sell fair trade coffee under the Newman's Own Organics label. In late 2005, GMCR reached a deal to sell its Newman's Own Organics Blend coffee in more than 600 McDonald's restaurants in New England and Upstate New York.
Acquisition of Keurig, Inc.
In 2006, Green Mountain had a 43% ownership of Keurig, Inc, which it accomplished by successively investing in and acquiring increasing percentage ownership the company between 1993 and 2003, helping to complete its full acquisition of the single-cup brewing systems manufacturer. The subsequent acquisition allowed Green Mountain to adopt a multi-brand portfolio, and multichannel distribution of brands in a variety of settings. It also fuelled substantial revenue growth, and allowed GMCR to transition fully from deriving 95% of its revenue from its low-margin wholesale coffee business in the late 1990s (approximately $65 million), to deriving 95% of its revenue from high-margin sales of K-Cups as of 2014 (more than $4.3 billion).
Green Mountain also acquired the four additional Keurig licensees in 2009 and 2010:
In March 2009, it purchased Seattle-based Tully's Coffee brand and its wholesale coffee business for $40.3 million.
In November 2009, it acquired the wholesale division of Canadian coffee provider Timothy's World Coffee for $157 million.
In December 2009, it purchased the California-based Diedrich Coffee for $290 million.
In 2010, Green Mountain Coffee bought the Canadian distributor, Quebec-based coffee services company Van Houtte, for $915 million. In 2010, GMCR Canada was founded, and officially became the Canadian Business Unit of Green Mountain Coffee Roasters, Inc. the following year. (It has been known as Keurig Canada Inc. since March 2014, and now Keurig Dr Pepper Canada.)
On September 28, 2010, GMCR's stock rose to what was then an all-time high; however, the company disclosed after the markets closed that the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) had requested documents and data related to an inquiry into how it accounted for revenue. The company announced that U.S. regulators had inquired into some of Green Mountain's accounting practices, including revenue recognition, and the large inventory with a single vendor, M. Block and Sons, Inc. Most analysts felt that the company practices were sound. The SEC ended the probe in October 2014, and brought no enforcement action against Green Mountain or its employees.
In February 2011, Green Mountain announced an agreement with Dunkin' Donuts to make Dunkin’ Donuts coffee available in single-serve K-Cup pods for use with Keurig Single-Cup Brewers. In addition, participating Dunkin’ Donuts restaurants on occasion offer Keurig Single-Cup Brewers for sale. In March 2011, Green Mountain Coffee and Starbucks announced a similar deal whereby the latter would sell its coffee and tea in Keurig single-serve pods, and would in return sell Keurig machines in their stores as part of the deal.
New brewers, and company name change
Green Mountain Coffee Roasters introduced the Keurig Vue brewer, paired with its new Vue packs, in February 2012, seven months before patents on the K-Cup expired in September 2012. The Vue system was announced as having customizable features so consumers had control over the strength, size, and temperature of their beverages, and the Vue pack is made of recyclable #5 plastic. In November 2012, GMCR released its espresso, cappuccino, and latte brewer, the Rivo, co-developed with the Italian coffee company Lavazza. In the fall of 2013, the company released a full-pot brewer, the Keurig Bolt, for use mainly in offices.
In February 2014, The Coca-Cola Company purchased a 10% stake in the company, valued at $1.25 billion, with an option to increase their stake to 16%, which was exercised in May 2014. The partnership was part of Coca-Cola's support of a cold beverage system to be developed by Keurig that allows customers to make Coca-Cola and other brand soft drinks at home. In January 2015, the company made a similar deal with Dr Pepper Snapple Group, but without a stockholder stake.
In early March 2014, Green Mountain Coffee Roasters shareholders voted to change its name to Keurig Green Mountain to reflect its business of selling Keurig coffee makers. Its stock-market symbol remained "GMCR".
In the fall of 2014, Keurig Green Mountain introduced the Keurig 2.0 brewer, with technology to prevent old or unlicensed pods being used in the brewer. The digital lock-out sparked hacking attempts and antitrust lawsuits. The 2.0 brewer also has the capacity to brew full carafes in addition to single servings, via the use of the new K-Carafe portion pack.
In March 2015, it launched the K-Mug pod, a recyclable pod which brews large travel mug–sized portions. In mid 2015 Keurig debuted the K200, a smaller Keurig 2.0 model that can brew single cups or four-cup carafes and comes in a variety of colors. General Electric announced that its new Café French Door refrigerator, due out in late 2015, would have a Keurig coffee machine built into the door.
In September 2015, Keurig launched a line of Campbell's Soup available in K-Cups. The kits come with a packet of noodles and a K-Cup pod of soup, and the varieties include Chicken Noodle and Southwest Style Chicken Noodle.
Also in September 2015, Keurig launched Keurig Kold, a brewer which created a variety of cold beverages including soft drinks, functional beverages, and sparkling waters. The machine brewed beverages from The Coca-Cola Company and the Dr Pepper Snapple Group, in addition to Keurig's own line of flavored sparkling and non-sparkling waters and teas, sports drinks, and soda-fountain drinks. The company's primary competitor in this market area was SodaStream. In June 2016 Keurig announced it was discontinuing the machine and offered refunds to purchasers.
Acquisition by JAB and other investors
On December 7, 2015, an investor group led by private-equity firm JAB Holding Company—an investment firm dealing in high-end consumer goods, whose holdings include Peet's Coffee & Tea—announced its intent to acquire Keurig Green Mountain for $13.9 billion. The minority investors in the KGM purchase included shareholders in the global coffee and tea company Jacobs Douwe Egberts, which owns Tassimo. The agreement was unanimously approved by Keurig Green Mountain's board of directors.
The selling price, at $92 per share, represented a 77.9% premium over the closing price of Keurig Green Mountain (stock ticker "GMCR") on December 5, 2015. The Coca-Cola Company, Keurig Green Mountain's largest shareholder at 17.4%, announced its support for the JAB takeover since the sale of its stock holding would provide Coca-Cola with a substantial financial benefit.
The acquisition closed in March 2016. Keurig Green Mountain became a privately held company, and remained an independent entity run by its existing management team, retaining its head office in Waterbury, Vermont. In a statement, JAB's chairman Bart Becht said that "Keurig Green Mountain will operate as an independent entity.... The company’s management team...will continue to run Keurig."
Acquisition of Dr Pepper Snapple Group
In July 2018, Keurig Green Mountain acquired Dr Pepper Snapple Group in a deal worth $18.7 billion. Legally, Dr Pepper Snapple Group was the surviving company; it remained publicly traded and changed its name to Keurig Dr Pepper. This created the third largest beverage company in North America. On July 10, shares in Keurig Dr Pepper (KDP) began trading on the New York Stock Exchange. Its stock switched to NASDAQ in 2020. Dr Pepper Snapple Group continues to operate as a business unit under the Keurig Dr Pepper parent company.
Corporate affairs
Sustainability
GMCR began to embrace an environmental ethos within two years of its founding, and environmentalism and sustainability were important policies for which Green Mountain became well known. Among other initiatives within Green Mountain's first decade, in 1983 employees began composting used coffee grounds at its retail stores; in 1986 the company introduced its first organic coffee in a retail market test; in 1989 it formed an Employee Environmental Committee, and began a recycling program; and in 1990 it introduced Rain Forest Nut coffee to sponsor rainforest preservation, donating 10% of the product's profits to Conservation International and the Rainforest Alliance, and it introduced the first earth-friendly, oxygen-whitened, dioxin-free coffee filters. In 1992 it formed a Stewardship Program to promote sustainability and sound environmental practices; in 1997 it pioneered the first biodegradable bag for bulk coffee purchases; and in 2006 it introduced the ecotainer, a to-go cup for hot beverages made entirely out of renewable materials.
In 2005, Green Mountain was the first coffee company to support the United Nations' Global Reporting Initiative mission to develop globally accepted sustainability reporting guidelines. In 2008 GMCR's board of directors added a social and environmental responsibility committee. During that time period GMCR also established a vice president for environmental affairs reporting directly to the CEO. As of 2015, Keurig Green Mountain has a Chief Sustainability Officer.
The company offsets 100% of its direct greenhouse gases, and prioritizes waste reduction and responsible energy use, and sustainability over the life-cycle of its products. In addition to other awards and recognition for sustainable practices, GMCR was on Sustainable Businesss "World's Top 20 Sustainable Business Stocks" annually from 2002 to 2007, and as of 2015 it is on the EPA's National Top 100 of green power users in the U.S. In 2014, Keurig Green Mountain announced a multi-faceted effort to address the long-term challenges of the global water crisis, and instituted an initial commitment of $11 million to support nonprofits working to promote water security.
Environmental advocates and journalists have criticized the company for the billions of non-recyclable and non-biodegradable K-Cups consumers purchase and dispose of every year, and for the dichotomy between the company's historic environmentally conscious image and the impact of K-Cups on the environment. In 2015, the company's chief sustainability officer stated that every new K-Cup spin-off product introduced since 2006 – including the Vue, Bolt, and K-Carafe cups – is recyclable if disassembled into paper, plastic, and metal components. In its 2014 Sustainability Report, released in February 2015, Keurig Green Mountain re-affirmed that a priority for the company is ensuring that 100% of K-Cup pods are recyclable by 2020.
Corporate social responsibility
From its inception, and in tandem with its environmentally conscious outlook, Green Mountain has had a culture grounded in social responsibility, community mindedness, philanthropy, and respect for employees. Among other recognition and awards for its corporate social responsibility (CSR), GMCR was in the top ten of the "100 Best Corporate Citizens" each year from 2003 to 2007, and was ranked #1 in 2006 and 2007. GMCR was not under consideration for the ranking in 2008, because the focus switched to exclusively large-cap companies. It re-entered the "100 Best Corporate Citizens" list in 2010 and 2013.
In 2005, Green Mountain released its first Corporate Social Responsibility Report. In 2008, GMCR's board of directors added a social and environmental responsibility committee overseeing the company's social responsibilities. It also established a vice president for corporate social responsibility who reports directly to the CEO. In addition to its environmental oversight, the company's Sustainability Committee focuses on areas including the financial and environmental viability, health, and resiliency of its coffee-growing and manufacturing supply chains; community outreach; and corporate and employee social responsibility and awareness.
GMCR was a pioneer in the Fair Trade movement in 2000, guaranteeing farmers a steady minimum price far above market value. Since 2010 Green Mountain has been the largest purchaser of Fair Trade coffee in the world. In addition, the company was from its beginnings known for its long-term relationships and fair dealings with coffee-growing suppliers, and for its large percentage of farmer-direct coffee purchases. Since the early 1990s, the company has annually sent groups of employees on trips to coffee farms in Latin America, to gain first-hand experience in the lives of coffee growers.
GMCR has prioritized initiatives to alleviate poverty and hunger in coffee-growing communities. These include Coffee Kids, an international non-profit which improves the lives of children and families in remote coffee-growing villages; and the FomCafe cooperative's quality-control training program, which helps farmers earn higher profits for coffee. In 2002, GMCR was the first corporate investor of the non-profit micro-loan organization Root Capital, and through it Green Mountain has provided millions of dollars in loans to cash-strapped coffee farmers. In 2002 Green Mountain also formed a joint alliance with the U.S. Agency for International Development, to improve the livelihoods of those in impoverished coffee-growing regions.
Internally, GMCR has cultivated and maintained a flat corporate culture, where employee buy-in, enthusiasm and vision, collaboration, and input is important. The company offers employees continuous training and development opportunities; tuition for outside education; profit-sharing; financial education; and continuous career-advancement support. Employees are paid for up to 52 hours of volunteer work in their community per year. GMCR has been on Forbes list of Best Small Companies five times, and has been recognized as a "Best Place to Work" in HR Magazine.
Business segments and brands
Keurig Green Mountain operates in two business segments: domestic and Canada. The domestic segment produces and sells coffee, hot cocoa, teas and other beverages, to be prepared hot or cold, in Keurig pods; it also sells coffee in traditional packaging, including whole beans and ground coffee in bags, and ground coffee in fractional packs. It also sells patented Keurig single-cup brewing systems for use both at home and away from home.
The Canadian business unit – Keurig Canada Inc. – sells Keurig brewers, and produces and sells coffees, teas, and other beverages in a variety of packaging formats, including Keurig pods, as well as coffee in traditional packaging such as bags, cans, and fractional packs. It sells under a variety of brands, including Van Houtte, Brulerie St. Denis, Brulerie Mont-Royal, and Orient Express, and its licensed Bigelow and Wolfgang Puck brands.
Through its owned brands and through its partnerships and licensing, Keurig Green Mountain's K-Cup pods offer more than 400 varieties of coffee, tea, and other beverages from 60 brands, including the top ten best-selling coffee brands in the U.S.
Corporate governance
Founder Bob Stiller was president and CEO of the company from its inception in 1981 until 2007, when he stepped down but remained chairman until May 2012. Lawrence J. Blanford became Green Mountain's president and CEO in 2007. Brian Kelley, previously chief product supply officer of Coca-Cola Refreshments, became the company's president and CEO in December 2012.
In March 2016, JAB Holding Company and other investors acquired Keurig Green Mountain. Robert Gamgort, previously CEO of Pinnacle Foods, took over as KGM's new CEO in May 2016. The pre-existing management team, with Gamgort as its new CEO, continued to run Keurig Green Mountain as an independent entity, following its acquisition by JAB Holding Company. Following the 2018 merger with Dr Pepper Snapple, Gamgort became CEO of Keurig Dr Pepper, and Larry Young, who had been president and CEO of Dr Pepper Snapple, retired from those positions and joined the new company's board of directors.
Brands
50/50
7 Up (U.S. only)
A&W Root Beer (worldwide except Canada)
A&W Cream Soda
Bai Brands
Cactus Cooler
Canada Dry
Sussex Golden
Core Brands (Water/Fitness Nutrition)
Crush
Dejà Blue
Diedrich Coffee
Dr Pepper (U.S. only)
Gloria Jean's Coffees
Green Mountain Coffee
Hawaiian Punch (U.S. only)
Hires Root Beer
IBC Root Beer
Keurig
K-Cups
Mott's
Clamato
Mr & Mrs T
Peñafiel
ReaLemon and ReaLime
RC Cola (U.S. only)
Diet Rite
Nehi
Rose's
Schweppes (North America)
Snapple
Squirt
Stewart's Fountain Classics
Straight Up Tea
Sun Drop
Sunkist
Timothy's World Coffee
Tully's Coffee
Van Houtte
Venom Energy
Vernors
Yoo-hoo
References
External links
Coffee brands
Companies based in Burlington, Massachusetts
Food and drink companies based in Massachusetts
Food and drink companies established in 1981
1981 establishments in Vermont
Drink companies of the United States
2016 mergers and acquisitions
2018 mergers and acquisitions
Soft drinks manufacturers
Multinational food companies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregation%20of%20the%20Holy%20Spirit
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Congregation of the Holy Spirit
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The Congregation of the Holy Spirit (officially the Congregation of the Holy Spirit under the protection of the Immaculate Heart of the Virgin Mary; ) is a male religious congregation of the Catholic Church. Members are often known as Holy Ghost Fathers or, in continental Europe and the Anglosphere, as Spiritans, and members use the postnominals CSSp.
History
Claude Poullart des Places
Claude Poullart des Places was born on 26 February 1679, in Rennes, the capital city of Brittany, France. He was the eldest child and only son of Francis des Places and Jeanne le Meneust. Claude was tutored at home before being enrolled at the age of nine or ten as a day student in the nearby Jesuit College of St. Thomas, thus beginning his lifelong association with the Society of Jesus. Graduating at 16, Claude studied at the University of Caen, Normandy, before graduating at 22 with a Licentiate in Law from the Law School of Nantes.
In 1701 Claude Poullart began his studies for the priesthood, as a boarder at the Jesuit College in Paris. However, he soon left his college room to share lodgings with the poorer day students who often struggled to find food, lodgings, and facilities for their studies. With a dozen of such students, Poullart des Places opened the Seminary of the Holy Spirit. It gradually developed into a religious society.
Foundation
The Spiritans were founded in Paris on Whit Sunday (Pentecost), 1703. Having opted for the priesthood, Claude Poullart des Places wanted to form a religious institute for young men who had vocations to become priests but were too poor to do so. He became especially interested in such students, and supported them with his own funds and donations from friends. In 1707 Poullart was ordained a priest. His work grew rapidly; and the foundation developed. But Poullart developed pleurisy and died on 2 October 1709, at age thirty-one.
After the founder's death, the Congregation of the Holy Spirit continued to progress. It became fully organized, and received the approbation of civil and ecclesiastical authorities. Formed in dedication to the Holy Spirit to minister to the poor and to provide chaplains in hospitals, prisons, and schools, the community soon developed a missionary role: some volunteered for service in the Far East and North America.
In 1765 the Holy See entrusted it with direct care of South American missions, in colonies such as French Guiana. Spiritans also sent missionaries to China, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand (Siam), and India under the auspices of the Paris Foreign Missions Society. In 1779 the first Spiritan missionaries arrived in Senegal, Africa.
Those in France served in various dioceses or alongside the de Montfort missionaries, due to the close friendship between Poullart and Louis de Montfort. The Congregation had trained 1,300 priests in the years leading up to 1792, when the seminary was suppressed by the French Revolution. Some Spiritans sought refuge in England, Switzerland, and Italy.
Merger
After the French Revolution, only one member, James Bertout, remained. He had survived miraculously, through a series of vicissitudes – shipwreck on the way to his destined mission in French Guiana, enslavement by the Moors, and a sojourn in Senegal, where he had been sold to the English, who then ruled there. On his return to France, after peace was restored to the Church, he re-established the congregation and continued its work. But it was found impossible to recover adequately from the disastrous effects of the dispersion caused by the Revolution, and the restored society was threatened with extinction.
The congregation's numbers in Europe declined sharply until 1802, when the Napoleonic government allowed the seminary to reopen. The congregation was asked to supply missionary priests for work in the French colonies in Africa, the West Indies, and the Indian subcontinent. In 1824, Rome approved the “Rules” of the Congregation of the Holy Spirit; prior to that it had been a diocesan congregation.
In 1842, Francis Libermann had founded the "Society of the Holy Heart of Mary," a society dedicated to serve mainly the emancipated black slaves in the French colonies. The taking-up of the African missions by Libermann was due to the initiative of two American prelates, under the encouragement of the first Council of Baltimore. Already in 1833, John England, Bishop of Charleston, had drawn attention to the West Coast of Africa, and had urged sending missioners to those regions. This appeal was renewed at the Council of Baltimore, and the assembled fathers commissioned Edward Barron to undertake missionary work at Cape Palmas. Barron went over the ground carefully for a few years, and then repaired to Rome to give an account of the work, and to receive further instructions. He was consecrated bishop and appointed Vicar-Apostolic of the Two Guineas. But as he had only one priest and a catechist at his disposal, he went to France to recruit missioners. Libermann supplied him at once with seven priests and three coadjutor brothers. By 1844, five members of this first group had died, either in Africa or at sea. The first missionaries suffered high mortality from tropical diseases; all but one died within a few months.
Discouraged, Barron returned to America, where he devoted himself to missionary work. He died during the 1853 yellow fever epidemic in Savannah, Georgia, aged 52.
In 1848, the Holy See requested Libermann to merge the relatively new Society of the Holy Heart of Mary with the older Congregation of the Holy Spirit, as they shared missions. Libermann was made first superior general of the united societies; he is credited with renewing the Congregation of the Holy Spirit, whose name became known as "...under the protection of the Immaculate Heart of Mary", reflecting the merger.
The new superior general first concentrated on strengthening service to the old French colonies. He developed bishoprics and provided for the supply of clergy through the Seminary of the Holy Ghost. His disciples worked largely in Africa. Libermann recruited and educated missionaries, both lay and clerical. He negotiated with Rome and with the French government over the placement and support of his personnel.
Father Libermann and his associates retained the African mission; gradually they established new Christian communities on the continent. By 1913, nearly 700 missionaries had died while serving in Africa. Their work resulted in establishing the Diocese of Angola and the eight Vicariates of Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Gabon, Ubangi (or French Upper Congo), Loango (or French Lower Congo), on the West Coast; and Northern Madagascar, Zanzibar, Bagamoyo, on the East Coast. Prefectures were developed in Lower Nigeria, French Guinea, Lower Congo (Landana), and a mission at Bata in Spanish West Africa.
Besides the missions in Africa, the Congregation of the Holy Spirit started missions in Mauritius, Réunion, and the Rodriguez Islands. In the Western Hemisphere, they had missions in Trinidad, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Haiti, and Amazonia. In addition, they conducted such educational institutions as the French Seminary at Rome, the colonial seminary at Paris, the colleges of Blackrock, Rockwell, and Rathmines in Ireland; St. Mary's College in Trinidad, the Holy Ghost College of Pittsburgh (now Duquesne University), Pennsylvania; and the three colleges of Braga, Porto, and Lisbon in Portugal.
20th century
By the early 20th century the congregation was organized into the following provinces: France, Ireland, Portugal, United States, and Germany. The whole society was under the jurisdiction of the Cardinal Prefect of the Propaganda. Houses have been opened in England, Canada,
Belgium, and the Netherlands, intended to develop into distinct provinces, so as to supply the colonies of these respective countries with an increase of missionaries.
On 31 December 1961 twenty Spiritans: nineteen Belgians and one Dutch man, were killed in Kongolo, in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, by government troops during the Katanga secession rebellion.
In Rome, on 24 April 1979, Pope John Paul II presided over the beatification ceremony for Jacques-Désiré Laval, the first member of the Spiritans to be so honoured.
Today
The Spiritans' goal is always to establish a viable local faith community with its own leadership, while incorporating the language and customs of the people. Spiritans live in community and practice the evangelical counsels. The congregation's international headquarters is in Rome. The 2019 General Chapter was held in Tanzania. As of 2019, more than 2,800 Spiritans served in 62 countries on five continents. They are often associated with schools and chaplaincy, and missionary work.
Some noted English-speaking Spiritans in the late 20th-century include Fathers Vincent J. Donovan, Adrian Van Kaam, and Henry J. Koren. Father Donovan (1926–2000) wrote Christianity Rediscovered. He worked in Tanzania, most notably among the Maasai, from 1955 to 1973. During this period, the Maasai Creed was composed, with support from the Spiritans as a culturally relevant creed. Father Van Kaam was notable for his work in psychology and spirituality. He also wrote a key work on Venerable Father Libermann, one of the Spiritans' founders. Father Koren was a historian of the Congregation and a philosopher.
In other countries, such as Mexico, the Spiritans were invited by local Catholic bishops to minister to Catholics in remote areas where there were not enough diocesan priests to serve the growing numbers of faithful.
Superiors general
the Congregation has had twenty-four superiors general since its foundation in 1703:
Spiritans around the world
British Province
The British Province covers Great Britain, but not Northern Ireland, although a part of the United Kingdom.
The Spiritans came to Britain 200 years after their foundation when the anti-Catholic government in France was starting to close convents and monasteries. In 1903 they rented Prior Park, a mansion near Bath in Somerset as a refuge abroad. In 1907 Castlehead at Grange-over-Sands, Lancashire, opened as a junior seminary. Father John Rimmer from Widnes was the first British Spiritan, having joined in France in 1894. He was appointed as Superior of Castlehead and gradually under his leadership the school flourished and boys were put through their secondary studies before going to France for the novitiate and training for the missionary priesthood. The school was closed in 1978 due to declining vocations.
In 1939, the Spiritans bought a property in Nottinghamshire to act as a senior seminary, but the house was requisitioned to provide a home for a school for partially sighted children who had been evacuated from Sussex during the Second World War. In 1940, 30 seminarians escaped from France aboard a Polish troopship. The refugees from France shared Castlehead for two years with the junior students. Then they moved to Sizergh Castle near Kendal and continued their studies for the priesthood. On average, four new priests were ordained every year and posted to missions in Sierra Leone, Nigeria, and East Africa. When the war ended, the senior students moved into Upton Hall near Newark. Later, as vocations declined, the seminary was sold and the students joined the Missionary Institute in London.
In 1947, a house was acquired in Bickley, Kent, and used as headquarters for the English Province and a centre for late vocations. Ex-servicemen were applying to join and some needed help to complete their studies prior to going to the novitiate. In the early 1990s with elderly missionaries living longer and returning home, the Bickley community centre of Provincial administration was converted to a retirement home. The Administration moved to Northwood. the Provincial office was in Chester, and the Provincial residence in Salford.
In 1956 the Holy Ghost Fathers set up a community at Uddingston on the outskirts of Glasgow, Scotland. In 1970 the Congregation transferred to the Old parish house and church in Carfin, where it continued . It was opposite the Carfin Grotto, a place of Catholic pilgrimage which had been established during the 1920s.
After the Second Vatican Council the various missionary societies in England pooled their resources and started the Missionary Institute London (MIL) in 1969. As one of the founding members, the Holy Ghost Fathers closed their center in Willesborough, moving their students to London and opened a community house in Aldenham Grange, near Watford, Hertfordshire.
From the late 1980s there was a decision to concentrate on work with young people, in order to develop strong committed young catholic leaders. The "Just Youth" ministry was established in order to foster these aims. It provides chaplaincy facilities for several high schools in the Salford Diocese and undertakes outreach work in schools throughout the north of England. Since early 2008 Just Youth has been based in Lower Kersal, Salford, at the former Catholic University Chaplaincy, now re-opened as the Spiritan Youth Centre.
From the Salford community has also grown the group of Lay Spiritans. These are married or single Catholics inspired by the Spiritan way of life and wishing to share in it. They bring their professional skills to the various ministries.
In 2001, two Lay Spiritans of the Salford community founded Revive, a voluntary social work agency committed to the long-term support of asylum seekers and refugees. This work, in conjunction with the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salford and the British Red Cross, involved the support of all asylum seekers, including the destitute whose asylum claims had been refused. Revive also had a significant role in the training of student social workers to work with asylum seekers and refugees in partnership with Manchester University, Manchester Metropolitan University, and Salford University. Revive is based in Salford and is considered to be a missionary work of the Congregation, who are its principal funders.
In 2009, a report from Caritas - Social Action highlighted the work of Revive as an example of good practice with asylum seekers and refugees in the Catholic Church in England and Wales. Lay Spiritan involvement in the management of Revive ceased in 2009. the Revive Web site listed a Spiritan priest as manager.
One former Lay Spiritan, Ann-Marie Fell, was the recipient of a Catholic Women of the Year award in 2010 for her work as a prison chaplain.
The UK Spiritan Provincial Philip Marsh CSSp spent much of his time travelling and meeting with the various communities and works of the Province, with a base in Whitefield, Bury, where the small Provincial Residence Community is located.
Canada
In 1732 the first Spiritan missionaries arrived in North America under Father Louis Bouic, to work among the Miꞌkmaq and Acadians in French Canada. Unfortunately, the settlers and natives of this region were caught in the political and military clash between the French and the British. One of the most famous Spiritans was Pierre Maillard, named "the Apostle of the Micmacs". After arduous learning over eight years, he wrote the first Micmac grammar.
Father Maillard tried to attenuate the savagery of brutal warfare (instigated at times by the French and the British). Many more missionaries, such as John Le Loutre, came but later had to flee with the Micmacs as the British conquered these areas. Maillard himself was captured in Louisbourg and deported to a Boston jail.
In 1791, the British expelled the Spiritans, who were all from France, from Canada. But they continued their apostolate in the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon. In 1954, Spiritans from Ireland opened their first mission in English speaking Canada.
Neil McNeil High School
Francis Libermann Catholic High School
Regina Pacis Catholic Secondary School - closed 2002
Marian Academy - closed 2002
Germany
See Heilig-Geist-Gymnasium
Province of Ghana
The Spiritan mission in Ghana was started in 1971 by a group of Irish Spiritans who left Nigeria after the civil war. With more than forty years of Spiritan mission, the Province of Ghana continues to flourish with more than 100 members working both at home and abroad. Ghana is a democratic constitutional republic divided into ten administrative regions, with a multi-ethnic population of around 24 million as of 2010. Fourteen percent of the population is estimated to be Catholic. Located along the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean, in West Africa, Ghana has a land mass of 238,535 km2, with 2,093 kilometres of international land borders. In Ghana, Spiritans are ministering in sixteen parishes in nine of the eighteen dioceses. Many of the parishes are in a situation of primary evangelization in rural and deprived areas. The Province gives attention to basic and primary education in all of its twelve parishes. The Spiritan Technical Vocational School in Ada Nkwame, the Computer school in Kumasi, the Libermann Senior High School in Elubo, and the Spiritan University College in Ejisu are all examples of the Spiritan commitment to evangelization through education. Thirty-five Spiritans from Ghana are on mission outside their home country in fifteen different countries.
Irish Province
The Irish Province covers the island of Ireland (the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland).
The first Spiritan house was opened in 1859 by Jules Leman. The Spiritans run five schools in Ireland:
Blackrock College was founded by the Holy Ghost Fathers in 1860.
Rockwell College was founded in 1864 and is located near Cashel, County Tipperary.
St. Michael's College, Dublin, was bought by Blackrock College in 1944 as a second feeder school with Willow Park. In December 1970, St Michael's officially became independent from Blackrock College.
St Mary's College, Rathmines, Dublin, was founded in 1892.
Templeogue College was founded in 1966 and is located in Templeogue, Dublin.
Novitiates, Seminaries and Colleges
Kilshane House, County Tipperary, operated as a junior novitiate from 1933 to 1983.
Holy Ghost Missionary College, Kimmage Manor, Dublin,
Holy Ghost Missionary College, bought by the spiritans in 1911, as a seminary, students studying theology and philosophy, and also taking degrees in UCD. From 1924 until 1933 the Holy Ghost Fathers studied theology at Blackrock Castle, before returning to Kimmage Manor. In 1917 the House of Philosophy moved to St. Mary's, then in 1926 it moved to Blackrock, before moving back to Kimmage in 1938.
Kimmage Development Studies Centre (KDSC), was founded in 1974, and operating until 2018 when it was merged into Maynooth University.
Kimmage Mission Institute (KMI) – Institute of Theology and Cultures, Kimmage Manor, Dublin, founded 1991 (in association with other missionary congregations), moved to Milltown Institute of Theology and Philosophy in 2003, formally merged with Milltown in 2006.
Spiritans of the Irish Province and Spiritan Associates serve in some 20 countries including Ireland. They administer a number of parishes in west Dublin as well as one in the Diocese of Elphin. St. Mary's School, Nairobi, founded in the Parklands area of Nairobi in 1939 from Blackrock College in Dublin, Ireland.
Notable Irish Spiritans include William Patrick Power, first head of Duquesne University, Pittsburgh; John Charles McQuaid, Archbishop of Dublin 1940–73; Denis Fahey, founder of Maria Duce; Aengus Finucane, who organised food shipments to the Ibo during the Biafra War; John C. O'Riordan, former Bishop of Kenema, Sierra Leone; Robert Ellison, current Bishop of Banjul, Gambia. Mauritian-born, Cardinal Maurice Piat CSSp, studied with the Irish province, in Kimmage.
Irish Provincial Superiors
Jules Botrel
Richard Harnett
Brian McLaughlin
Enda Watters (1976-1982)
Roddy Curran (1988-1994)
Brian Starken (2006-2012)
Marc Whelan (2012-2018)
Martin Kelly (since 2018)
Mauritius
Spiritans in the 1840s dedicated themselves to working with newly freed slaves on the islands of Haiti, Mauritius and Réunion. The Spiritans created the college du Saint Esprit, a French and English speaking college in Mauritius.
Mexico
Today, Mexican-born Spiritans outnumber Spiritan missionaries from other countries. Spititans run a seminary program in Mexico.
Netherlands
The Dutch congregation was founded by Albert Sebire in 1905. A number of Spiritans from the Netherlands have played a significant role for the order, including Frans Timmermans who served as Superior, Bishops Bernhard Gerhard Hilhorst and Herman Jan van Elswijk who served as Bishops of Morogoro in Tanzania, which the province was in charge of.
Trinidad and Tobago
The Spiritans run three schools in Trinidad and Tobago:
Saint Mary's College established in 1863
Our Lady of Fatima College established in 1945
Saint Anthony's College (Trinidad)
United States Province
In 1794 a Spiritan refugee of the French Revolution in Guiana started a new mission in the U.S. However, it was only after Archbishop John Baptist Purcell repeatedly asked between 1847 and 1851 for personnel to staff a seminary in Cincinnati that Spiritans arrived steadily. Other dioceses such as Savannah, Florida, Philadelphia, and Natchez also requested personnel.
The province of the United States, founded in 1873, had a novitiate and senior scholasticate at Ferndale in the Diocese of Hartford, and an apostolic college at Cornwells near Philadelphia. The main object of these institutions was to train missionaries to work among the poor, especially ethnic minorities.
The Spiritans concentrated on the Pittsburgh area. Despite knowing of four failures of setting up a Catholic college in Pittsburgh, the Spiritans persisted in setting up an institution which became Duquesne University.
In East Africa, where most of the American Spiritans now serve, they began to work in the 1860s by buying men and women out of slavery in Zanzibar. They opened schools and hospitals, taught people marketable skills, and gave property to those who needed it. The Spiritans pioneered modern missionary activity in Africa and ultimately sent more missionaries there than any other religious institute in the Catholic Church.
For decades the Spiritans worked closely with Katherine Drexel in the apostolate to African-Americans in the urban North and in small towns and cities of the South and Southwest. The Spiritans in America concentrate on work among immigrants, black parishes, and education in Duquesne University and Holy Ghost Preparatory School, near Philadelphia. Historically, they have sent missionaries to Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Puerto Rico, Latin America, and Ethiopia. As of 2022 Spiritans are focusing on Brazil, Mexico, the Philippines, and Taiwan. In 1964 there was a separation at the Mississippi River between a Western Province and an Eastern Province, but both provinces reunited. Candidates in theological formation are sent to Catholic Theological Union in Chicago where several Spiritans teach.
Vietnam
The Spiritans arrived in Vietnam in September 2007. the Congregation has three communities in Ho Chi Minh City, with more than 40 members.
Child sexual abuse
Members of the Spiritans have been associated with a number of child sexual abuse cases in Ireland; the Spiritans acknowledged in 2022 that they had paid out over €5m (£4.4m) in settlements for sexual abuse cases since 2004. In 2022 the Garda Síochána (Irish police) were involved in the investigation; 233 people had made allegations against 77 members of the Spiritans. Martin Kelly, leader of the Spiritans, admitted and apologised for abuse. At least six abusers are known to have operated at Blackrock College. The allegations concern cases in Ireland; there is evidence that perpetrators taught in Sierra Leone and Nigeria.
References
Sources
Koren, Henry. To the Ends of the Earth. Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1983.
External links
Spiritans of France
Spiritans in Puerto Rico
Spiritans in Trinidad
Spiritans of the United Kingdom
Spiritians in Vietnam
Catholic-Hierarchy: Its Bishops and Dioceses, Current and Past
Catholic teaching orders
Catholic missionary orders
1703 establishments in France
Religious organizations established in the 1700s
Catholic religious institutes established in the 18th century
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Dragon%20Can%27t%20Dance
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The Dragon Can't Dance
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The Dragon Can't Dance (1979) is a novel by Trinidadian author Earl Lovelace, his third to be published. Set in Port of Spain, the novel centres on the life of Aldrick Prospect, a man who spends the entire year recreating his dragon costume for Carnival. Aldrick's interactions with other people who live in his neighbourhood (including Fisheye, a local hoodlum, and Pariag, a rural Indian who moves to the city to get away from his familial heritage) form the backdrop for their individual struggles for self-definition in a society dominated by its racial divisions and colonial legacies. The story culminates with Aldrick and Fisheye, along with a small number of followers, hijacking a police van and taking two police officers hostage. The events surrounding the hostage-taking, and the aftermath of the event, lead the reader on a journey through the colonial psyche, and expose the deep-seated problems of a society that still has not reconciled itself with its colonial past and racial divisions.
Characters
Aldrick, main protagonist, embodies "the dragon"
Sylvia, love interest of the Hill, represents youth and sexuality
Belasco "Fisheye" John, the "bad-john" of the Hill
Pariag, the Indian, represents racial discrimination and exclusion
Philo, original member of the Band, becomes a rich Calypso singer
Ms. Cleothilda, "Queen" of the hill, Philo's love interest
Ms. Olive, Sylvia's mother
Mr. Guy, Sylvia's boyfriend
Dolly, Pariag's wife
Ms. Caroline
Historical context
Recorded history of Trinidad began when Christopher Columbus arrived on 31 July 1498. Trinidad was inhabited by Amerindian peoples of the Arawak group, who had lived there for many centuries, and by Island Caribs who had begun to raid the island long before 1498 and had established settlements by the end of the sixteenth century. After its discovery by Columbus the Spanish began to settle on the island and the production of tobacco and cocoa began during the seventeenth century, but because they lacked the essentials for economic development and shipping, the capacity to develop a productive base was crippled; Spain failed to develop the productive industrial and commercial base necessary to maintain an empire.
"By 1783, the Spanish government had recognized that French planters, with their slaves, capital and expertise in the cultivation of tropical staples, would have to be attracted if Trinidad was to develop as a plantation colony. The result of this conviction was the Cedula (Decree) of Population, issued on 24 November 1783. The principal incentive that the Cedula offered was a free grant of land to every settler who came to Trinidad with his slaves with two stipulations: the emigrant had to be a Roman Catholic and the subject of a nation friendly to Spain. This meant that the settlers would be almost exclusively French for only French planters could fulfil the requirements of Roman Catholicism and alliance with Spain", thus a large French and slave population began to immigrate to Trinidad and the island's economy began to flourish.
Sugar quickly became Trinidad's most important crop, and as the sugar industry boomed, so did the Atlantic slave trade, bringing even more enslaved Africans to the island. This greatly affected the dominant culture of Trinidad. Creole culture became the norm of the black community and French influence could be seen in dress, music, and dance.
"Along with the immigration of diverse cultural communities came more stratified social hierarchies. As early as 1779, Roume de St Laurent held the office of alcalde extraordinario of the cabildo. Those who sat on the cabildo, were without exception wealthy white land-owners and slave-holders whose politics were royalist and conservative, men committed to the preservation of slavery and white ascendancy." The cabildo became known as the ruling elite class of Trinidad.
"By the 1790s British merchants had conducted a flourishing trade with Trinidad. Its geographical position made it an ideal base, which guaranteed that Trinidad would be safe from the British Navy."
"In July 1795 a peace treaty between Spain and Republican France was signed, making Spain (and in turn the colony of Trinidad) to be firmly allied with France. Then, in October 1796, the French government succeeded in forcing Spain to declare war Britain which meant that Trinidad was now exposed to the British navy." With an ill-equipped military, Spain surrendered Trinidad on 18 February 1797, making the island a colony of Britain.
"Britain continued to import slaves to work the sugar plantations into the 1800s although anti-slavery campaigns were beginning to gain popularity in England. In 1807, Britain saw the abolition of the British slave trade, though the colony continued to use slave labour to work the plantations. It was not until 1833 that the Act of Emancipation was passed and became law on 1 August 1834."
"After the abolition of slavery, the British found a new populace to immigrate and work the plantations: East Indians. Between 1845 and 1917 145,000 Indians went to Trinidad to work as indentured servants. The Indians were imported to Trinidad the stable and manageable labour force which, the sugar planters believed, had been lost to them since the full emancipation of the blacks." "The system was established in such a way that male Indians who had lived in Trinidad for 10 years could be granted 10 acres of Crown lands in commutation of all claims to a free return passage to India", for which many Indians opted.
"This immigration of Indians to Trinidad marked a new element to the already stratified society. Planters, officials, upper-class whites, educated coloured and black Creoles and the black working class all reacted unsympathetically to the arrival of the Indians. Interaction between the races was at a low level, and the Indians were quickly consigned to the lowest level of the socio-economic culture. This was due to many reasons, some of which were a religion differing from the norm (especially Hinduism), the lower economic status with which Indians were subjected to, and they were judged as morally unprincipled and degraded." "Indians were considered to be deceitful, prone to perjury, and abnormally fond of litigation."
"The black community was also still experiencing discrimination and had begun to form their own sub-culture apart from the dominant British and Christian ideals. The nuclear group consisted of Creole ex-slaves and their descendants. They had developed a common set of cultural characteristics, which combined to form the mainstream of the cultural pattern of Trinidad, though many Europeans still refused to accept African religious practices as genuine forms of worship and treated the devotees of African religions badly But the masses combined elements of Catholicism with non-Christian religious practices: African gods and spirits were equated with Catholic saints. The membership of these Afro-Christian sects was exclusively lower-class and black."
"Hostility and contempt were also the predominant upper and middle class attitudes towards artistic forms of African or slave derivation. African musical forms were subject to legal restrictions all through the nineteenth century. The instrument that evoked the most hostility was the 'African drum'. Drum dances like the Calenda, Belaire, and Bong, performed to the accompaniment of drums, were viewed with special horror even though the dances did not permit bodily contact between the sexes."
"In 1883 the government introduced a Music Bill which prohibited the playing of drums between the hours of 6am to 10 pm except with a police license, and after 10 pm they were absolutely prohibited. The bill was withdrawn and the Ordinance II of 1883 took its place. The Ordinance tried to put down drum dances by making every owner or occupier responsible for crowds assembling in their yards, and prohibition on the use of African drums continued. This triggered musicians to turn to tambour-bamboo bands which flourished after the early 1880s as accompaniment for calypsos and for Carnival music"; the use of the tambour-bamboo ignited the calypso music that began to dominate the music of Trinidad.
"Before emancipation, Carnival had been an elegant social affair of the upper-class Creole whites. It was introduced by the French as a series of masquerade balls (profile Trinidad), but after 1838 the ex-slaves and the lower orders generally participated. By the 1860s Carnival was taken over almost entirely by the jamets of urban slums and organized into yard bands who challenged rival bands to show off prowess in song, dance, and stick-fighting."
"Canboulay was an important feature of the jamet Carnival. This was a procession of band members, usually masked, carrying lighted torches, accompanied by drumming, singing, and shouting." What was more objectionable than band conflicts and Canboulay was the obscenity of the jamet Carnival. There were bands of prostitutes who roamed the streets, traditional masques with explicit sexual themes, and the Pissenlit (played by masked men dressed as women in long transparent nightdresses)."
"Once Canboulay was permanently abolished in 1884 and the fighting had been forcibly put down, the upper-classes began, again, to participate in Carnival, and by about 1890 businessmen were beginning to recognize the commercial benefits of Carnival. Organized calypso competitions were introduced to Port of Spain in order to improve the festival's moral tone. From 1890 onwards Carnival moved towards the place it holds today as acceptable to nearly all sectors of the population."
Trinidad and Tobago obtained self-governance in 1958 and independence from the British Empire in 1962 with the assent of the British government. Many racial and socio-economic divisions still remain.
The effects of colonial rule and slavery in the history of Trinidad and Tobago continue to affect the country in the 21st century. "Although rooted in the material history of colonialism and slavery, the dominance of this tiny (historically heterogeneous but increasingly coherent) minority of Europeans and European descendants was inseparable from beliefs about the prestige of white skin". According to scholar Neptune Harvey, during the colonial era, as in other colonized regions, "whiteness was synonymous with political, economic, and social privilege and maintaining this equivalence was an official priority and an elite preoccupation. In order to maintain this racial segregation, white men had a crucial responsibility: whenever their sexual partners were nonwhite, the exercise of discretion was paramount." Integration of blacks and whites was frowned upon, which allowed for the reinforcement of the repression of the black people and community. The effects of racism are evident throughout Lovelace's novel, namely through his portrayal of Miss Cleothilda (the "queen"). She is the only mulatto woman of the Calvary Hill, and as such, has declared herself as being above the other residents of the Hill. When she begins to date Philo, a black man, the other residents of the Hill begin to see Miss Cleothilda in a new light: as humble and as an equal to everyone else.
In 1865 the American civil engineer Walter Darwent discovered and produced oil at Aripero, Trinidad. Efforts in 1867 to begin production by the Trinidad Petroleum Company at La Brea and the Pariah Petroleum Company at Aripero were poorly financed and abandoned after Walter Darwent died of yellow fever.
In 1893 Mr. Randolph Rust, along with his neighbour, Mr. Lee Lum, drilled a successful well near Darwent's original one. By early 1907 major drilling operations began, roads were built and infrastructure built. Annual production of oil in Trinidad reached 47,000 barrels by 1910 and kept rapidly increasing year by year. The production of oil marked the beginning of the globalization and investment of capital in Trinidad, a theme that is apparent throughout The Dragon Can't Dance and is the source of much conflict of the novel.
Plot summary
Prologue
The main stage for the development of the plot, Calvary Hill, is introduced through a series of descriptive elements that portray it as being something close to a slum, favela, or barrio. The mood of the hill is described through the lifestyle of Aldrick Prospect, the novel's main character: "[he] would get up at midday from sleep, yawn, stretch, then start to think of where he might get something to eat, his brain working in the same smooth unhurried nonchalance with which he moved his feet". Carnival is set as the central theme of the novel and is portrayed as the only phenomenon that is able to bring the hill to life and corrupt everyday life in Trinidad. The power and soul of Carnival, however, lies in calypso, the songs that "announce the new rhythms of the people, rhythms that climb over the red dirt and stone, break away rhythms that laugh through the bones of these enduring people".
1. Queen of the Band
The first chapter follows a conversation between Miss Olive and Miss Caroline and their criticisms of Miss Cleothlida, a proud mulatto widow who owns a parlor store but runs it as "if she were doing a favour to the Hill, rather than carrying on a business from which she intend[s] to profit" (18). Miss Cleothilda has chosen her costume for this year's Carnival and it comes as no surprise when she reveals that like every year, she will be playing Queen of the Band. Miss Cleothlida's arrogance stems from her preserved beauty and her ability to continue to attract men at her age. Philo, a calypsonian man, has been chasing after her for 17 years without success, but with continuous temptation. The neighbors note that Miss Cleothilda only treats people well during Carnival because of the natural ambiance of the Hill and so she can defend her insults throughout the year. As soon as Carnival is over, she will continue to look down upon the people who are blacker than her and the Hill will return to its slumber.
2. The Princess
At 17 years of age, Sylvia is the most desired woman on the hill. The novel moves back in time to reveal how she has constantly been a symbol of temptation and sexuality. When Miss Olive fails to come up with money to pay the rent, Sylvia is asked to go up to Mr. Guy's house and perform sexual favors. However, as hard as many men have tried, Sylvia has outsmarted all of them and has managed to retain her virginity. The men on the Hill are aware that this year Sylvia does not have a man or a costume for Carnival. Mr. Guy is quick to promise her any costume she desires in an effort to become her man, however, his attempt is interrupted by Miss Cleothilda, who is aware of the situation and purposely intrudes by offering Sylvia one of her old dresses. That night, Sylvia creeps out of her house in the middle of the night. Aldrick is able to observe her silhouette in the dark from his window, but hesitates to approach her as he believes that she is the most dangerous women on the hill because she has the ability to "capture him in passion but to enslave him in caring, to bring into his world those ideas of love and home and children that he [has] spent his whole life avoiding" (31). Nonetheless, their first verbal exchange is full of desire and temptation as she questions him about love and reveals that Mr. Guy will be the one buying her a costume that year. While the conversation drags on regarding costumes for Carnival, the real meaning and significance is of Sylvia and Aldrick revealing an attraction for one another.
3. The Dragon
Aldrick is in his small room working on his dragon costume, which he recreates every year for Carnival. While at work, thoughts of Sylvia keep coming to his head, when all of a sudden she appears at his doorstep. Her visit represents an invitation for him to take her as his woman, however, Aldrick nervously refuses to acknowledge her and instead continues working on his costume. The impasse is broken by Philo's arrival to the scene and his desire to touch Sylvia forces her to leave the scene. It is getting late and Aldrick forces Basil, a boy who always sits by him and helps him create his costume, to go home. When the boy refuses to leave, Aldrick learns that his stepfather, Fisheye, constantly abuses him at home. Aldrick's knowledge of Fisheye's violent reputation makes him hesitant to intervene, but the boy's refusal to leave forces him to walk him home and confront Fisheye.
4. The Bad John
The novel jumps back in time to reveal Fisheye's violent family history, describing them as "tall strong men who could handle their fists, and were good, each one of them, with a stick, since their father, before he became a preacher, was a champion stickfighter who had himself schooled each one of them in the art of stickfighting". Fisheye's family injected so much fear into society that no one dared to call them anything more derogatory than John. Through Fisheye's character, we see the introduction of musical bands, whose behavior emulates street gangs. Fisheye becomes the center of the Calvary Hill steelband, and as their leader, he attempts to unite several bands so that instead of fighting one another, they can unite and "fight the people who are keeping down black people...the government". While Fisheye is able to get the bands to sign peace, it never produces what he had envisioned, as this only ends the nature of violence between them without joining them in movement and opposition against the government. The spirit of peace is short-lived as Fisheye's warrior spirit emerges once the white bands come into the streets and Carnival begins to become commercialized. At the beginning, Fisheye does not mind that some of the "light-skinned" bands become sponsored, however, once the Desperadoes and Calvary Hill consider the option, he begins to fight again in an effort to drive away possible sponsors. Fisheye learns that senior members of the Calvary Hill band are considering his expulsion, and while he waits for them to approach him, the novel jumps back to the point when we see Aldrick coming to deliver Basil home. Aldrick knows that Fisheye is not in the mood for joking, but he addresses the issue with humor and avoids an altercation. On his way back home, Aldrick's mind is occupied with Silvia, when he is approached by Pariag, the Indian outcast living on the hill.
5. The Spectator
Even after two years living on the Hill, Pariag, is still seen as an outsider. Pariag migrates to the city with his wife Dolly from the New Lands in an effort to break away from the country lifestyle and become part of something bigger. The novel jumps back in time, this time to reveal the entrepreneurial spirit of the Indian outcast. Pariag's first job in the city involves buying empty bottles and re-selling them to Rum companies. Initially, he enjoys the task because he is able to talk to people and demonstrate that he is more than just a simple Indian boy. After realizing that this job brings him no meaningful social interactions, he ventures into selling roasted peanuts and boiled and fried chhena at the race track on Saturdays and at football games on Sundays. In an effort to become noticed by others on the Hill, Pariag buys a bicycle a week before Carnival, a very exciting time for people on the Hill. Pariag's new acquisition gets him the name "Crazy Indian" and makes people in the neighbourhood nervous about his ambitions and jealous of his newfound success.
6. A Call to the Dragon
The buzz of Carnival and Pariag's new acquisition have the people on the Hill gossiping. Miss Cleothilda approaches Aldrick and expresses her concerns regarding Pariag's bike, signaling that his ambitions would soon lead him into buying a parlor. Mr. Guy also approaches Aldrick with the excuse of Pariag's bike, but his real intentions are to collect the month's rent. By the time Philo approaches Aldrick, Aldrick is fed up with the gossip about the Indian and the bike, however, Philo simply invites Aldrick for a drink so that he can listen to the new calypso he will be singing that year, "The Axe Man". The following morning, hung-over from a night of drinking with Philo, Aldrick notices Pariag at his door asking him to paint a sign on a box for him: "Boya for Indian Delicacies, Barra, and Doubles!!!" Aware of the conflict that will soon arise on the Hill and wanting to remain neutral, Aldrick dismisses him with the excuse of being tired and asks him to come back later.
7. Norman "Tex" at the Carnival Fete
It is Saturday night of Carnival and the music is flowing in the air. Norman "Tex" has been playing the saxophone all night with great intensity, and Philo is enjoying a night of popularity thanks to "The Axe Man". Aldrick manages to temporarily forget about Sylvia amidst the smoke, rum, and ambience of the night. However, when morning hits and he finds himself out in the Yard with a girl named Inez, the thought of Sylvia's costume returns to haunt him. Nonetheless, he chooses to bring Inez home and make love to her until morning.
8. To Be Dragon and Man
It is Carnival on Monday morning and the Hill begins to ready itself for a big day. Aldrick follows a yearly ritual of putting on his costume and entering a new mental state with a dragon mask that gives him a mission of upholding an unending rebellion. However, this year he feels as if he is the last symbol of rebellion and threat in Port-of-Spain. Fisheye is under orders to not misbehave and Philo has stopped singing calypsos of rebellion, which forces Aldrick to question if he still believes in the dragon anymore. Yet, as soon as he steps outside, Carnival hits him and he suddenly feels tall and proud: "No, this ain't no joke. This is warriors going to battle. This is the guts of the people, their blood" (123). Aldrick becomes the dragon of Port of Spain for two full days. He feels joy when he sees terror in people's faces after gazing at him: "he liked it when they saw him coming and gathering up their children and ran". On his way home, Aldrick stumbles upon the Calvary Hill band that refuses to end Carnival and wants to continue dancing. Aldrick slowly works his way to the front of the band towards Sylvia, who has been dancing wildly to the rhythm of the steelband. After observing her for a while, he reaches out to touch her but she spins out reach and, facing him, delivers a vocal blow: "No mister! I have my man!" (128) Suddenly, Guy appears behind her and caresses her towards him, leaving Aldrick frozen in the moment, dwelling in pain as Sylvia dances away with another man.
9. Ash Wednesday
Aldrick awakes on Ash Wednesday and emerges from his room to look out at the yard with Carnival still swimming in his mind. He inhales deeply and the stench of poverty hits his nostrils for the first time in his life. He looks over all of the "pathetic and ridiculous looking shacks planted in this brown dirt and stone, this was his home". With Sylvia's rejection still fresh in his mind, he says, "I have to learn to feel." This marks his acceptance of Calvary Hill as his home, and his life. Meanwhile, Miss Cleothilda recognized, for the first time, a change in the yard that threatens her position of queen: a combination of Philo's newfound success, her inability to convince Aldrick to do something about Pariag's continued presence, and most of all, Sylvia's new man, Guy. Guy could "keep her in style",(135) and if she became ambitious, could become the new "queen". As a result of all this, Miss Cleothilda begins to use Miss Olive as a way to create a friendship with Sylvia so that she could mold her as she saw fit into the new "queen" of the yard. Her relationship with Philo causes a stir in the yard and people begin to question whether or not it is intimate. If so, it brings a more human side, a weakness, in Miss Cleothilda. A shyness comes over Aldrick and he begins to feel he is not the dragon he once was, and pines for Sylvia. One morning, the yard wakes to Pariag screaming over his mutilated bicycle.
10. Friends and Family
Pariag marches his bicycle down Alice street in a funeral procession-like manner, while Fisheye, Aldrick and some other youth from around Calvary Hill watch closely from the corner. The close attention he receives marks one of the first instances where he appears "alive" to others, connecting with them in a humane way. In the days after the bicycle accident, Pariag thinks deeply of his existence and purpose in his life, and because he steps back to view himself, it brings him closer to his wife, Dolly. They decide one night after seeing an Indian film in San Juan to visit their family up in the country on their day off. While there, the family's hospitality mimicked that of a host treating a guest, and they felt instantly like outsiders on the farm. But to his nieces and nephew's he represented a wider world, of something more than their village existence. His wealthy uncle calls for him and criticizes his decision to move to Port of Spain: "Is so you want to live, among Creole people, like cat and dog, and forget your family. You have family boy. Next thing you know, you leave your wife – who you didn't bring to see me." Pariag returns home that night to Calvary Hill feeling that his mind is made up on where he was going to be in life, and his finality makes him feel at peace.
11. The New Yard
By August, many things, such as relationships, have changed around the yard. Miss Cleothilda has decided she is to be "queen" once more, but with a more gentile superiority complex. Philo had made it inside her home weeks earlier and is now her man. Sylvia is her protégée. Miss Cleothilda becomes giving and inquisitive around the yard and shows off the belief that "all o' we is one" when Dolly becomes pregnant and she leads her baby shower. Miss Olive and Miss Caroline also accept her on a more human level because she is with a lower caste black man despite her mulattoness. For them, the relationship unites her more closely with the people of Calvary Hill. Meanwhile, Aldrick sits in his doorway, thoughtful. He has become a quiet man and has little interest in, yet again, being the dragon of carnival. He feels like he has outgrown this costume and role.
12. Outcasts
Aldrick, Fisheye and a few other young men have begun assembling at the corner more and more, not in the same company, but occupying the same space. They are men who no longer partake in carnival, especially since Johnson and Fullers began sponsoring their steelband. For them, the true renegade spirit of masking as timeless warriors of generations past has been overrun by modern forces such as business and tourism. One day, Aldrick calls out to a passing Sylvia telling her that it's her life and she doesn't have to spite him. He warns her of her choices early on and how they carry residual consequences for the outcome of her life. Of course, he is referencing her relationships with Miss Cleothilda and Guy. Philo comes by later and takes Aldrick out for a drink. Philo is hell-bent on proving that his recent success in calypso music hasn't changed him, that he is still an integral part of the hill. Fisheye does not like Philo hanging around and confronts Aldrick about their friendship. One day at the corner, Philo drops by with a bottle and two girls to say hello and have a couple drinks. Fisheye says to Philo: "Philo, you ain't have no friend here. You is a big shot." Philo looks at Aldrick, who tells him to go. When Philo offers the bottle, Fisheye throws it to the ground and hits one of his girls. "Is war, Philo." Philo, in retaliation, makes a hit calypso that is played all over the island about the hooligans in Port of Spain. Meanwhile, everyone is gearing up for carnival and Aldrick just looks on from his spot at the corner, feeling odd. He dreams of dragons every night but never starts working on his costume. While police begin to crack down on public loitering, Fisheye plots an attack against the police.
13. The Dragon Dance
Fisheye comes to the corner one day with a pistol and tells the eight of them there that they are not to part when the police come around to kick loiterers off the street. His plan is that two of them will begin fighting when the police come, and when they get out to break it up, "they will see". When the police come by and break up Crowley and Synco's brawl, they cuff the police at gun-point, put them in the back and speed off in the squad car. They go to Woodford Square, the political centre of Port of Spain, where speeches and rallies are always held. Over the megaphone they proclaim: "This is the People's Liberation Army." At one point Aldrick takes the microphone and says: "make no peace with slavery...make no peace with shanty towns, dog shit, piss. We have to rise up as people. People". Before this point, it had not been fully understood that Aldrick or any of these men, except for maybe Liberty Varlance, had any political motives behind their rebellious lifestyles. Crowds assemble to watch the chase, and it ensues for a couple of days, as the police figured they were not a threat to anyone's safety and they would eventually tire themselves out or run out of gas.
14. Prison Dance
Their defence attorney in court is a young man with passionate radical views and is very eloquent in his defence of the Calvary Hill nine (as papers had dubbed them). But in the end, it is not enough and they are all to serve sentences of a few years. Aldrick serves six years. While in prison they spend much of their time at the beginning sitting and discussing what they really expected from their stint in the police car, and in the end it seems it was all for show, a bluff, a dragon dance. After a while, during their prison sentence, they all drift apart and have no intention of continuing from where they left off once they get out of jail.
15. The Dragon Can't Dance
Aldrick returns to Calvary Hill after six years in prison and is greeted like a hero, yet he feels more like he is being received by a band of deserters that have long made peace with the enemy. He meets a new girl in a bar, named Molly, and she tells him of the two thousand people playing devil in the upcoming carnival. Aldrick gets temporarily excited that perhaps times haven't changed, until she says they are "Fancy devil, with silk and satin. Pretty Devil". He tells her of his time as dragon, a real dragon breathing fire and wearing long claws. The next day, he visits Sylvia for the first time in over six years and finds that she has matured. Sylvia recounts her confusion during the days he was in the police car, while Aldrick looks around her house and sees that Guy has provided her with many luxuries: a television, stereo, refrigerator, etc. Miss Cleothilda comes in and shakes his hand, she has aged considerably. She tells Aldrick about the degradation of the neighbourhood, namely crime by young men whom she thinks were inspired by Fisheye's police jeep hijacking. Guy has become a city councilor and because of this news, Miss Cleothilda challenges Aldrick: "What you could give her?" Shortly after, he realizes that Sylvia will soon be getting married. When Aldrick leaves her home, he realizes that maybe Sylvia had her life in control from the beginning, and that it is not so much that she chose Guy as she resisted the impotence of dragons. And with this, Aldrick feels at peace with the chapter of his life where Sylvia might have become a part. He walks by Pariag's new store and is tempted to go in a talk to Pariag, but instead he walks on, disillusioned by his past and what the future holds.
16. The Shopkeeper
Pariag had seen Aldrick stop outside of his shop, and it troubles him greatly that he (Aldrick) did not come in to speak with him. After all these years, Pariag still has not established any sense of belonging in Calvary Hill, and as a result of his ongoing isolation has more or less concluded that he is done with Creole people. Even with a shop, Pariag still did not acquire any degree of superiority in relation to others around the neighbourhood, saying "shop don't make a man". He wishes, for the sake of the hill, that life was better for everybody, and that there was more unity between peoples. He lies with Dolly and they discuss their life together, remembering their life back in the country and his first meeting with her when he said that she would have to accept living in Port of Spain.
17. The Calypsonian
Philo stands out on his veranda in Diego Martin, an affluent neighbourhood of Trinidad, and looks out at the homes of people he thinks he has just figured out as being uniformly successful but also unfulfilled as human beings. From this revelation comes a new tune and he goes in to write it down, and there on his desk he finds the wedding invitation for Sylvia and Guy. As he thinks about Sylvia's position in the yard as the symbol of youth and hope, he remembers Aldrick's love for her, but also Guy's taste for young women and his ability to get what he wanted. Philo thinks to himself: "Marriage to Guy was a horse of different colors." He remembers a discussion about Sylvia and Guy that he had some time ago with Miss Cleothilda, and her undying faith in their life together. Cleothilda explains some of Sylvia's side love interests, one man whom identified strongly with Africa, another that spoke passionately about Cuba, Vietnam, China and Trinidad's potential for revolution. The youthful exuberance of these boys always enticed Sylvia greatly. Remembering the yard troubles Philo while he waits for one of his young girls to come by. He looks back on his youth, his family. She arrives and Philo decides to be forward with her and asks to have sex. Afterwards, he feels guilty for being so straight with her. Later that night, he decides to drive to Calvary Hill to see everybody. He is greeted warmly at a bar near the yard, and later decides to go and see Miss Cleothilda. She meets him at the door and tells him to come inside, that he knows where the bedroom is, but, even him forgetting that wouldn't surprise her very much "with the way the world is going".
Themes
In the novel The Dragon Can't Dance, author Earl Lovelace expresses several reoccurring themes that illustrate fundamental psychological losses, which the characters are trying to rediscover and re-establish on a personal, and community level. Aldrick and his compadres are striving to find meaning and locate connectedness in something other than their involvement in the Carnival experience that occurs annually in their city of Port of Spain. In spite of their efforts, their multi-generational lack of roots and culture prevent them from developing productive attachments. This undermines their sense of identity on a personal and societal level.
The first theme that emerges is characters longing for acceptance. Pariag [the Indian] feels this way about moving to a new location to be part of a bigger group and community. This in turn makes him feel more worthwhile. Pariag says, "The main reason he [Pariag] had come to the city to live was so that he could join up with people, be part of something bigger..." Pariag wanted to experience a sense of belonging. He correctly understood that only through new relationships could his life feel more meaningful.
The second theme is the call for unity and power to the people. In a desperate attempt to ignite a sense of raison d'être within the people of his community, Aldrick, Fisheye and the other men highjack the police van and drive crazily though the town center and shout: "We are the People's Liberation Army. Today we are calling our people to come out, to rise up and take power! Rise and reclaim you manhood, people! Rise up!" These young men are trying to inspire unity and meaning within a community that had been disconnected from its cultural roots for hundreds of years.
Another theme is the search for self-identity. Near the end of the book, Aldrick questions his identity. He thinks to himself, "What was he [Aldrick] without the dragon? Who was he? What was there to define himself? What would he be able to point to and say: This is Aldrick?" Without a history or culture to relate to, Aldrick represents a vast number of people of Trinidad who are at a loss in terms of their identities. He is searching for his roots or some clue that will direct him homeward.
Lastly, the theme of power struggles for recognition plays a large part of this novel. For example, Miss Cleothilda feels threatened by the prospect that Sylvia might be taking over the "queen" or head woman position on the Hill. "It didn't take Miss Cleothilda long to discover that a new situation had begun to exist in the Yard, a situation that she felt threatened her position as 'queen'... it was Sylvia... if she [Sylvia] became ambitious, the Yard could have a new 'queen'. Miss Cleothilda began making readjustments." When Miss Cleothilda's core identity of what makes her human or the 'queen' is at risk, a struggle to survive sets in. Recognition is paramount. Since the opportunities for expressing self-worth and intrinsic value are so limited on Calvary Hill (and Trinidad overall), even minor roles within the community become critical to people, especially if they have been alienated and marginalized.
All of these themes are interwoven and indicative of a primary absence of fulfilling attachment, which serves as the lynchpin to identity. Attachment is developed through fertile relationships that act as conveyances of our history and culture. With the systematic, long-term destruction of the memory of Trinidad's past, the identity and self-worth of its people are set adrift.
Other interpretations of the deeper meanings
In The Dragon Can't Dance, the hope for personal and community transformation is at the heart of the novel. After researching numerous analyses of the novel, several significant and more profound meanings appear to rise to the surface. These deeper meanings consist of the importance of "performativity" as it relates to cultural resistance, the strategy of the performer (or the lack thereof), and the viability of transformation available to individual or group identities when no adjustment is made to fit in with current day norms or standards.
As with other post-colonial populations, Trinidad's society represents a culture of resistance in response to the tyranny of slavery and colonialism in general. Although this expression of resistance is prevalent and observable in daily life, it is especially evident during Carnival and its performances where large audiences are in attendance. According to Nadia Johnson, "the performativity of Trinidad's carnival becomes an outward expression of Calvary Hill's need to transform their social conditions. The characters respond to and resist their social conditions through their individual performances during the carnival season: Fisheye's steel band performance, Aldrick's dragon dance, and Philo's calypsos". If transformation of identity is the goal, then it is critical to assess which performances are effective in contributing to the transformation.
Mawuena Logan, in her article "Postcoloniality and Resistance in Earl Lovelace's The Wine of Astonishment and The Dragon Can't Dance" refers to Frantz Fanon, who describes "the postcolonial subject" as being in a "zone of nonbeing, an extraordinarily sterile and arid region, an utterly naked declivity, but – where an authentic upheaval can be born - a liminal space". Performing one's way out of this liminal space and transforming identity into an "aggregated or consummated" form is a complex process that requires time, but the reward is true freedom.
Our first performer, Fisheye, chooses to use his steelband music as his "agent of cultural resistance in Carnival". He regards this music and anyone involved with it as "sacred" and has no patience for those who he believes try to commercialize it. In fact, he withdraws from the steelband group in protest. This action causes him to deprive himself from future opportunities to perform his way toward a more transformed identity. Ultimately, he decides to go in a more violent direction with the Calvary Nine and ends up in jail.
Aldrick considers his dragon costume and his two-day performance in Carnival to be his magical route to helping himself and "the little fellars in the Yard". At first he believes whole-heartedly that his performance is capable of bringing about transformation, but gradually he becomes disenchanted and chooses to follow the Calvary Nine route to nowhere. Logan posits that Aldrick's "annual donning of the dragon costume in remembrance of the ancestors" and his next move of joining the Calvary Nine "which parallels the ritual of his dragon costume, is equally futile". Aldrick had no real strategy or plan to support his wish for transformation. "Both the ritual dragon dance/costume and the open rebellion without a plan or definite goal constitute that postcolonial moment that is devoid of any tangible and positive results because it is lacking in thoughtful action: the ritual subject is stuck between two realities, betwixt and between the past and the future."
Nadia Johnson on the other hand believed that Philo had developed a strategy vis-à-vis his calypso performances that yielded immense progress in terms of his personal transformation of identity and indirectly produced similar benefits to his community on Calvary Hill. Although previously described as a "Judas" because of his "betrayal" of the non-possession ideology of the hill, by the end of the novel, it is Philo who returns to his origins hoping to continue his life.
If the performer is effective, what is his strategy or "thoughtful action". What is highly significant in this process is which of these performances is effective and what makes certain performances more effective than others.
colonialism and poverty are other themes highlighted in a large proportion in the novel
Reviews
Describing the novel as "a landmark, not in the West Indian, but in the contemporary novel", C. L. R. James also said: "The Dragon Can't Dance is a remarkable canvas of shanty-town life in which Lovelace's intimate knowledge of rural Trinidad and the Carnival as a sustaining cultural tradition are brilliantly brought to life."
Most critiques and reviews of The Dragon Can't Dance have proven to be positive. "Aside from a few review notices of his first two novels, Earl Lovelace had received little critical treatment until the publication of The Dragon Can't Dance. Since the appearance of that work, it has become one of the most highly acclaimed contemporary Caribbean novels". Many critics comment on Lovelace's use of unconventional local Trinidadian style and dialogue, describing it as difficult at times to follow, but generally his style is said to be poetic, all-consuming, and informative.
One blogger, Hazel, who has a substantial following of her review blog, gave The Dragon Can't Dance a five-(out-of-five) star review and had to say about the book: "I had forgotten how stunning this book is. On this rereading, I found the prologue, on poverty and futility, so poignant and painful that I was minded to desist, and pick up something light and insubstantial instead. I persisted and am rewarded with an engaging narrative of the stories of individuals; the ripening girl destined for whoredom; the vigorous young man seeking to release his energy in warfare; the frustrated artist, with a single annual outlet for his creativity; the outsider, seeking to be seen, to be recognized."
"I am not doing Lovelace and his novel justice. But I recommend it highly, to mature readers who appreciate lyrical writing, and do not require a happy ending. It may take some time, as well to adjust to the dialogue which is in Trinidadian dialect."
Other reviews by various sources that support Hazel's review include:
"Essential reading, and deserving of warm welcome after such long delay" – Michael Upchurch
"A wonderful work, filled with insight, depth, and truth."
"Caribbean writer Lovelace, whose Salt won the 1997 Commonwealth Writers' Prize, returns with a story (first published in England in 1979) that offers a defining and luminously sensitive portrait of postcolonial island life."
"Kaleidoscopically colorful characters and a faithful ear help make this quest for personhood one of Lovelace's best works."
Life experiences reflected in literature
Lovelace's literary work emerges from his personal life experiences with diverse social groups in different areas of Trinidad and Tobago and reflects the difficulties of having to negotiate an independent present with a colonial past. While the author currently dedicates much of his time to advocating for reparations to be made to descendant slaves, the legacy of his writing continues to resonate within Trinidadian society in the efforts to rebuild a positive sense of identity in the Caribbean. Lovelace acknowledges this notion as a sense of "personhood", through which each individual whatever their social, cultural, or racial status can be an active participant in the creation of identities.
While most of the plot in The Dragon Can't Dance takes place in Port of Spain, many of its characters are migrants from rural areas that attempt to create individual lifestyles in the unsettling and dislocated slums of Calvary Hill. The migrant nature of these characters is a clear reflection of Lovelace's diverse experiences throughout his native country. After being fired from a job at the Guardian, one of Trinidad's local newspapers, Lovelace took a job as a forest ranger in Valencia. Here, he would accompany and supervise laborers who ventured into the forest, which helped him develop an appreciation for the locals: "the real advantage to staying was getting to know the place and the people intimately. And this helped me to develop a love and respect for ordinary people and to want, although I did not necessarily think so, to tell their stories, to establish their validity and their values". After Valencia, he accepted a post as an agricultural officer in the remote village of Rio Claro, where he noted that "the whole culture of Trinidad unfolded". Lovelace felt as if he was able to become deeply immersed in a culture where he would "see stick fighting and... go and sing with the drummers for the stick fights".
Out of these experiences, Lovelace adopted a view that there were two basic spaces in which people entered when they arrived in Trinidad and Tobago: the ethnic space, in which members of a group carried on the religion] and cultural practices they brought with them, and the creole space, encompassing the general meeting place of cultures. Lovelace notes that within the groups that came to occupy these spaces, Africans were the only ones not allowed an ethnic space in which they could maintain the religion and culture they had come with, since cultural and religious forms that were considered to be African, were banned at one point or another. Therefore, Africans had to find ways of bringing religion and culture into ways that were legitimate. Carnival would become one such space because it was a legal and legitimate festival and what now seem to be independent activities like calypso, stickfighting, or carnival characters, were actually linked to a deeper cultural and religious sentiment.
Lovelace also highlights the importance of calypso in his novel. He notes that even though calypso and drumming were previously banned, they were both powerful forces within society as they were linked to Carnival, which was also seen at the time as "a relic of barbarism and the annual abomination and so on". Having calypso identified with bacchanal meant that calypso was linked and limited to the bacchanal season of Carnival: "Once upon a time the entire Carnival was an expression of rebellion. Once there were stickfighters who assembled each year to keep alive in battles between themselves the practice of warriorhood born in them; and there were devils, black men who blackened themselves further with black grease to make of their very blackness a menace, a threat."
Lovelace hopes that his work will help create an environment that will break the residual impasse of the colonial hangover. Drawing back from his idea of "two spaces", the ethnic space and the creole space, he argues that Africans have poured a lot of themselves into that creole space because they were denied a legitimate ethnic space, which thus provides them with the opportunity and responsibility of seeing that this space is made into a real meeting place for all.
References
Lovelace, Earl: The Dragon Can't Dance (London: André Deutsch, 1979; Longmans, 1981, 1984, 1986; Faber & Faber, 1998; New York: Persea, 1998, 2003; translated into German, 1984; French, 1984; and Dutch, 1984.)
Further reading
Brereton, Bridget: A History of Modern Trinidad 1783–1962 (Heinemann, 1981).
Brereton, Bridget: Race Relations in Colonial Trinidad 1870–1900 (Cambridge University Press, 1979).
Anthony, Michael: Profile Trinidad: A Historical Survey from the Discovery to 1900 (Macmillan Caribbean, 1975).
Johnson, Nadia, I., "The Calypsonian Returns: Rethinking Social Transformation in Earl Lovelace's The Dragon Can't Dance". Anthurium, A Caribbean Studies Journal, Volume 5, Issue 1, Spring 2007.
Logan, Mawuena, "Postcoloniality and Resistance in Earl Lovelace's The Wine of Astonishment and The Dragon Can't Dance", Revista Brasileira do Caribe.
1979 novels
African diaspora literature
André Deutsch books
Novels by Earl Lovelace
Novels set in Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago novels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Ctani%20Yoshitsugu
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Ōtani Yoshitsugu
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was a Japanese samurai of the Sengoku period through the Azuchi-Momoyama Period. He was also known by his court title Junior Assistant Minister of Justice or . He was born in 1558 to a father who was said to be a retainer of either Ōtomo Sōrin or Rokkaku Yoshikata. He became one of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's followers. He participated in the Toyotomi's Odawara campaign and Korean campaign.
Biography
Ōtani Yoshitsugu is well known in Japan for two main aspects: his leprosy, and his friendship with Ishida Mitsunari. Supposedly he was one who put friendship before anything (although obviously such a subjective matter is hard to determine), and it may have been in Korea campaign that Ishida and Ōtani, working together, formed their legendary friendship. There is even an anecdote concerning this friendship: once in a secret tea party, and all those invited were passing around a cup of tea. As Ōtani Yoshitsugu took a sip, some pus from his face dropped into the cup. Yoshitsugu discovered this, but too late: the cup was already being passed around. The people who took sips after this all had horrified expressions on their faces, but when it came to Mitsunari's turn, he calmly drank all the remaining tea, pus and all.
In the event that Yoshitsugu was born under Yoshifusa, there is a popular story regarding the origin of his childhood name, Keimatsu (桂松 or 慶松). Before his son was born, Yoshifusa lamented his luck with children and wished for a male heir. One day, his wife decided to pray before a shrine dedicated to Hachiman Daibosetsu in their land. As she uttered her desires for a boy, a pine tree was cut before the shrine and fell before her. She plucked a portion of the fallen branches and ate it for good luck. When she gave birth, Yoshifusa was happy to see his first son. Grateful for the god's answer, he named his child after the plant.
His first legal alias was Heima (平馬), which was given to him during his early services with Hideyoshi. He was either given this name for his leadership of the cavalry at Harima or in recognition of his service at Siege of Miki. A few years later, temple printings associate him with having the alias Kinosuke or Norinosuke (紀之介). He has also been argued to have had his name changed to Ōtani Gyōbu (大谷刑部). Gyōbu reportedly was given as a respectful link to the Genji family or in honor of Yoshitsugu's higher rank at the time.
When Yoshitsugu fell ill with leprosy, he was popularly described to have looked dreadfully pale, which led to his nickname "White Face" (白頭). Legends state the name may have been also caused since he covered his face with a white mask, a typical attire when stricken with the disease.
Before the Battle of Sekigahara, Yoshitsugu was said to have repeatedly tried to persuade Mitsunari of the futility of his actions. However, at seeing the staunchness of his friend's convictions, Yoshitsugu joined his cause after mulling it over for several days. At the time, Yoshitsugu's health was deteriorating, making him nearly blind. He could not stand up, let alone fight. He was led to the battleground in a palanquin.
Yoshitsugu was at the head of about 600 men, with another 4000 or so under Toda Shigemasa, Hiratsuka Tamehiro, Ōtani Yoshikatsu (his son), and Kinoshita Yoritsugu. As the battle raged on, Kobayakawa Hideaki, who was situated above Yoshitsugu on Mount Matsuo, didn't move, despite repeated calls from Ishida Mitsunari. Yoshitsugu suspected something, and thus called for his troops to position themselves so as to prepare for a possible attack from their flanks. His hunch was right, as following a stimulatory gun volley from Ieyasu's position, Kobayakawa Hideaki and his troops rushed down the mountain towards Yoshitsugu's position. This movement was immediately followed by Akaza Naoyasu, Ogawa Suketada, Kutsuki Mototsuna, and Wakizaka Yasuharu, a total of over 20,000 troops.
Yoshitsugu's troops fought back, at one point even driving back Kobayakawa's troops partway up the mountain, but in the end, sheer numbers took their toll. While this was happening, Yoshitsugu, unable to see, repeatedly asked one of his retainers, Yuasa Gosuke, "Is it lost?" When the latter finally answered in the affirmative, Yoshitsugu asked him to cut his head off. He was then beheaded by his retainer, who also committed seppuku.
Yoshitsugu and Mitsunari
Ōtani Yoshitsugu has been romanticized in poetry and fiction as Ishida Mitsunari's heroic and talented friend since the Edo Period. It is said they have been good friends since their early days working with Toyotomi Hideyoshi, each respecting the others' judgment and character. A particularly famous episode between them occurred during a tea ceremony at Osaka Castle in 1587. An ill Yoshitsugu drank from the tea bowl traditionally passed among the attendees but left an embarrassing spot of pus after his mouthful. Keeping true to the ceremony, he was forced to pass it on to others. The attendees shied away from their traditional gulp and respectfully moved it along the line. When it came to Mitsunari, he drank the entire contents without faltering and commented that the tea was superbly delicious. Yoshitsugu was touched by his friend's gesture, commonly said to have led to his determination to fight for the Western army. There is also a legend of the two being romantically involved with one another due to their close ties, sometimes argued to have started due to this event.
While the tea ceremony incident was recorded by people actually alive during the time period (Kamiya Sōtan and Tsuda Sōgyū being among them), the subject of their actual friendship is under speculation. To be more precise, Yoshitsugu himself is put under eye of skepticism. Stories from the Edo Period will appraise Yoshitsugu as an honorable and talented retainer since his youth, but nothing in historical records offers details to support their claims. His father is said to either have been Ōtani Yoshifusa (retainer to Hideyoshi) or Ōtani Moriharu (a vassal of the Ōtomo family) since they both shared the same family name. Both men are of unknown origin and have little recorded for them beside a few notes and their names. It is often said that he was born in Ōmi Province; his mother was one of Kōdai-In's maids and was how Yoshitsugu became favored by Hideyoshi. However, if one is to believe his father was Moriharu, this defenestrates the story entirely since Yoshitsugu was also said to have only joined Hideyoshi after departing from the Ōtomo family in his late twenties. Since little is known about either Ōtani clans to completely verify the stories, Yoshitsugu's first meeting with the Taikō is a mystery.
The unknown sections of his life create a twenty- or thirty-year gap often filled with stories and rumors. Among those put into question is his bonds with Mitsunari, since legends will proclaim they knew each other since they were serving under Hideyoshi in their youth. His age is at odds with the tales created for their relationship—romanticized to have occurred due to their close ages—and adds more mystery to Yoshitsugu. The contradictions have been so confusing that a rather radical theory has been emerging with a small portion of believers for their friendship. This story argues Yoshitsugu had died of his illness within a year of contracting it and that the Yoshitsugu at Sekigahara was actually a heavily ailed Hideyoshi in disguise. While an interesting concept, it needs to prove Hideyoshi had somehow survived his historically accepted death date and adds more fuel to the debate. In any case, speculation over whether the two men truly considered one another friends continues to this day.
He is not known to have had an official wife, but he supposedly fathered three sons and one daughter. His second son died with him at Sekigahara while his other two argued male offspring either fell with the Toyotomi family at Osaka Castle or lived past the wars in seclusion. Yoshitsugu's daughter, Chikurin-in was a wife of Sanada Yukimura and mother of his two heirs: Sanada Daisuke (Yukimasa) and Sanada Daihachi (Morinobu). A purposed folktale states Yoshitsugu had one concubine prior to Sekigahara, who went insane with grief after his death.
Service under Hideyoshi
Coming from unknown beginnings. Under Hideyoshi, Yoshitsugu become kōshō, who took charge of secretarial affairs, in particular acting as a human shield to protect their lord at the risk of losing their own lives (for this reason, Kosho had to not only be knowledgeable and have impeccable manners, but also be skilled in the military arts).
Yoshitsugu could have entered Hideyoshi's services as a low rank kōshō or became Mitsunari's yoriki in the mid or late 1570s (either in his mid teens or mid-late twenties). Several stories will state that his intellect and charm had earned him many friends, but the legitimacy of the claims are still debated. His early achievements with the Hashiba family are not known, but most sources argue that he was among the 700 or so named individuals who sided with Hideyoshi after the Incident at Honnōji. He joined Katō Toranosuke, Fukushima Ichimatsu and other kōshō to take Nagahama Castle away from Shibata Katsutoyo, Shibata Katsuie's nephew. Hideyoshi has been romanticized to have said the following for Yoshitsugu at this time, "Give me a million troops and I would love to see him guide them."
Once the Battle of Shizugatake commenced, Yoshitsugu was said to have taken part within the Toyotomi ranks. What he did—if anything—is scattered among legends and folklore. One account states that he was the one who used his wits to convince Katsutoyo to surrender prior to the battle. Yet another tale depicts him as a brave warrior in the front lines, who performed many deeds with his magnificent spear. The Hitosuyanagi Kaki is famous for stating that Hideyoshi offered immense praise to both Yoshitsugu and Mitsunari for the battle, stating particularly for Yoshitsugu, "Ōtani Keimatsu was the participant who was excellent since the first move." However, this statement does not appear in other historical texts, so it is possible the quote is entirely fictional.
What is known for sure about Yoshitsugu's service was that he was named Gyōbu-shōyū (a minor Minister of Justice) in 1585. By then, Yoshitsugu was said to have been accepted as one of the elites within Hideyoshi's inner circle.
According to the Uno Mondo Nikki, a document written as secretary records for Kennyo, Yoshitsugu and Mitsunari were among the men who accompanied Hideyoshi to Arima Onsen in September 1585 and soaked in the same pool as him. During this time, Yoshitsugu has been said to have become ill with a serious disease. There is a particularly famous tale as to why he could have been afflicted with any ailment.
In 1586, as he stayed within Osaka, a riot ensued and Yoshitsugu went to quell it personally. He slew 1,000 men to Hideyoshi's pleasure, but the gore that splattered on him led to an infection. The Uno Mondo Nikki and Tamon-In Nikki, said to be the diary of the monk Eishūn, state a milder version of Yoshitsugu being ill. They report rumors of Yoshitsugu searching to receive blood from living beings within the city, a method that was believed to have cured diseases. It has also been said that he was actually sick since Shizugatake, but his symptoms did not become apparent until this time. His illness was not described in detail within historical records, yet people generally believe that he was afflicted with leprosy—due to tales from the Edo Period—or syphilis—alternate explanation due to the involvement of bodily fluids.
From there, Yoshitsugu's history is split into two major accounts. The Saifuku-ji Enkinsei, a supposed historical text currently being critically analyzed for its authenticity, claims Yoshitsugu went with Ishida Mitsunari to Kyūshū Campaign in 1587 and helped him lead 12,000 troops without any major difficulties. As a reward, Yoshitsugu was given 50,000 koku and became the lord of Tsuruga Castle. Becoming the local magistrate, he divided 10,000 koku among the territory of the Toyotomi vassals within his region.
In 1590, He went with Mitsunari to Odawara campaign and also been present at Oshi Castle, though details of his activities for both conflicts are not clearly listed. When Hideyoshi ordered another suppression of Kii Province, Yoshitsugu was one of the men who participated and caused Akita Sanesue's defeat. He has also been accredited to following Mitsunari through various riots, was a part of creating Fushimi Castle as a fort, and took part in the Korean Campaign (1592-1598).
Yoshitsugu returned as a celebrated hero from Korea and was welcomed by Hideyoshi within Osaka Castle. He was invited to share tea with Hideyoshi at a banquet. As the festivities between the two lengthen, Yoshitsugu's nasal mucus accidentally leaked into his tea bowl. Yoshitsugu was about to leave in embarrassment until Hideyoshi noticed him. Expressing that his throat was parched, he asked Yoshitsugu to hand him the same tea bowl with the snot. When it was given to him, Hideyoshi stated that the liquid would be exquisite from his vassal's capable hands and drank it as though nothing were wrong with it. Crying for the first time in his adult life, Yoshitsugu henceforth swore loyalty to the Toyotomi family in gratitude.
The not-as-popular yet reasonable secondary account depicts Yoshitsugu bedridden by his illness. The Rokuon-In Chiroku, said to be the diary of the head monk of Kinkaku-ji during this period, states his illness had advanced into its serious stages and Yoshitsugu had not left the immediate area of his residence in five or six years. His body was unable to endure hard travel, meaning that he couldn't sail overseas or take part in heavy campaigns. In spite of what the former account states, he did not attend in the post Korean Campaign festivities, such as the Daigo Flower Viewing, due to his weakened state. He has been reported to have left his home once in 1598 to celebrate Hideyori's introduction to the court and was given snacks for his illness by a frail Hideyoshi.
Battle of Sekigahara
Following Hideyoshi's death, Yoshitsugu planned to ally himself with Tokugawa Ieyasu in the Ietada Nikki. In 1599, Yoshitsugu gathered his men and moved with the Tokugawa troops as far as Tarui Castle. According to the Keicho Kenmonshu, Mitsunari was at Sawayama Castle and invited Yoshitsugu to his realm. Though blind due to his illness as he entered the gates, Yoshitsugu was appalled to find armed soldiers awaiting him and developed a silent grudge toward Mitsunari. Undeterred, Mitsunari introduced him to his vassal, Shima Kiyooki. Kiyooki flipped Yoshitsugu's perceptions of the Western army, but he wanted to remain within Ieyasu's ranks as he believed Mitsunari could not win. However, for one reason or another, Mitsunari was able to convince Yoshitsugu to defect and join the Western army. A legend states that Ieyasu was aware of Yoshitsugu's talents and was prepared to offer 12,000 koku to have his services. Hearing Yoshitsugu's sudden change of allegiance genuinely surprised him.
As for why Yoshitsugu changed his mind, the reasons remain an enigma to this day. No one really knows why Yoshitsugu did it since little is recorded for it. There are many tales made for why he could have, but they lack any real backing due to the absence of historical evidence. The popular scenario was developed during the Edo Period, stating he joined out of friendship. In this interpretation, Yoshitsugu was only thinking of joining Ieyasu and was asked three times by Mitsunari to join him. Although Yoshitsugu knew it was a failing cause, he couldn't abandon his ties for his friend and merged his forces into the Western army with his sons. Yet another story states Sanada Masayuki's wife was being held hostage by the Western army. Tied to the Sanada family due to his daughter's marriage, he was forced into the hands of the opposition for her safety. Another fable depicts that he conflicted with Ukita Hideie and was joining Ieyasu just to avoid him. Mitsunari heard of this and played mediator between the two parties, eventually convincing Yoshitsugu to stay.
Whatever the reason, Yoshitsugu fought for the Toyotomi family thenceforth. He was rumored to have misinformed Maeda Toshinaga of the dangers of Asainawate, leading to the battle with the defending Niwa Nagashige (this has been speculated to also be another falsehood tied with him however).
His other activities before the Battle of Sekigahara are not clearly known, but he was said to have suggested Mitsunari to relocate his main base the night before the conflict. Yoshitsugu led an army of 6,500 for the battle, he was command 600 troops and had three subordinates: Hitatsuka Tamehiro with 900 troops, his son, Ōtani Yoshikatsu, with approximately 2,500, and Kinoshita Yoritsugu with 1,000. Other daimyo under command of Yoshitsugu: Toda Katsushige with 1,500 troops.
According to the Sekigahara Gunki Taisei, Yoshitsugu was aware of Kobayakawa Hideaki's plans for treason yet was powerless to stop it from happening. Repositioning his army to keep an eye on Kobayakawa's movements, he allegedly did so as he did not want his allies to suffer too much from the predicted betrayal.
Once the Kobayakawa army of 15,000 charged down the mountain towards the West, Yoshitsugu's army stood as the shield to their advance. Armed with a capable army of elites, it would seem that Yoshitsugu had the upper hand for the first clash (the Kobayakawa army had 370 dead or wounded while the Ōtani suffered 180 or so losses), however he was already engaging with eastern forces under the command of Tōdō Takatora when Kobayakawa charged. Tōdō Takatora's army lashed at Yoshitsugu's flank.
The Ietada Nikki records Kiyooki's fourth son, Shima Kiyomasa, within Yoshitsugu's ranks and he tried to kill Takatora in one blow. However, Kiyomasa was struck down and killed by an Eastern general named Takagi Heizaburō. Kiyomasa's fate echoed the situation of the Ōtani flanks as their defenses crippled from all sides due to the overwhelming numbers. Utterly defeated, Yoshitsugu lost his ground and is said to have committed suicide. Assuming that he was known as Yoshitaka, a grave marker was placed for him at Sekigahara.
There are two famous accounts of his final moments, though they are both deemed questionable in their authenticity. In the Keicho Nenjuki, Yoshitsugu was not able to move of his own power and gave his orders to his subordinates through a palanquin. As the battle with Kobayakawa continued, he instructed his nearby retainer, Yuasa Gosuke, to inform him when the battle was lost. Many times did the cries for defeat echo throughout Yoshitsugu's camp, yet Gosuke continued to insist that the tides could still change. Once Gosuke admitted they were headed for defeat, Yoshitsugu popped his body half way out of his vehicle and sliced off his own head. Gosuke had promised his lord earlier that he would hide his lord's head so it would not be discovered by the enemy, yet he died in battle while attempting to flee from Takatora's army. The same book also reasons that Yoshitsugu had propped himself on horseback and ordered to be sliced at his torso once Gosuke gave the word.
The other story has its roots during the mountain of folklore developed in the Edo Period. Tamehiro was the one to report back with the ill news to Yoshitsugu and was sorely regretful for not being able to stop Kobayakawa. In his remorse, he sang a poem to encourage his lord to commit suicide, roughly translated as, "that I might abandon thy life for thy name, to meet thy sudden end of the world so ruefully". Yoshitsugu appreciated the loyalty behind Tamehiro's words and replied with his own poem, "May we pledge to the Six Paths, and wait for but awhile, to reunite once again on the life ahead." As his reply was sent, Tamehiro did not get to read it as he had already been killed by Kobayakawa soldiers. Turning to Gosuke when ready for his own death, Yoshitsugu asked his retainer to assist him and to hide his head from their enemy. While still in his palanquin, Yoshitsugu stabbed his stomach into a cross spear and his head was chopped off by Gosuke. Gosuke was said to have ordered for his lord's head to be buried in secret before rushing to his own death against the Eastern army.
Grave
The attached photo of his grave shows Gosuke's grave on the left and two steps back from Yoshitsugu's and guarding Yoshitsugu even in the after life. On the right of Yoshitsugu's grave is that of Otani Yoshitaka, possibly another name of his son Yoshikatsu who fought in the Battle of Sekigahara and also committed suicide because of losing to Ieyasu's forces. (The writing on the stone memorials in the photograph identifies the grave of Yuasa Gosuke and Otani Yoshitaka. Although no name can be detected on the central stone monument, it is assumed to be that of Yoshitsugu because it is front and center and reflective of the relationship between Yoshitsugu and two others).
A radical variation of Gosuke protecting Yoshitsugu's head from detection is also known; in this version, he decapitates himself to divert attention to his master's remains.
Regardless of whether he was a hero or not, Yoshitsugu continues to be celebrated for his samurai spirit and loyalty to his duties. His tragic end against monstrous odds is one of the many popular tales of Sekigahara.
In fiction
*Yoshitsugu is one of the Western army's units in the strategy video game Kessen.
Yoshitsugu is the inspiration for the fictional Lord Onoshi in James Clavell's novel Shōgun.
Yoshitsugu becomes playable character in Samurai Warriors 4, using saihai as weapon. This incarnation is portrayed as an Azai retainer as well as being a close friend of Todo Takatora before Sekigahara. Unlike most incarnations, Yoshitsugu is able to walk and run on his own though he hides his face and most of his body.
In Sengoku Collection, Yoshitsugu is a girl plagued with bad luck, often spending her evenings alone searching for four-leaved clovers.
Yoshitsugu also appears in Sengoku Basara 3 as a cryptic strategist of the Western Army. He is also Motonari's retainer as well as Mitsunari's voice of reason. His goal in the game is to cause all of the other warriors to suffer as much as he has.
Yoshitsugu also features in the fictional game Nioh, as a general commanding forces against Kobayakawa Hideaki. In the battle of Sekigahara, he is shown as a samurai hidden behind a white hood which covers his face, aside from his eyes. This version of Yoshitsugu is not blind and is armed with daishō (dual katanas). After Kobayakawa's betrayal, he uses the magic of antagonist Kelley to transform into a demon and fight on the front lines of the battle. He is later defeated in a one on one fight with main protagonist William, one of the factors leading in Ishida's defeat.
References
Attribution
Samurai
1558 births
1600 deaths
Japanese warriors killed in battle
Suicides by seppuku
Daimyo
Ōtani clan
Toyotomi retainers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim%20Wtewael
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Joachim Wtewael
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Joachim Anthoniszoon Wtewael (; also known as Uytewael ) (1566 – 1 August 1638) was a Dutch Mannerist painter and draughtsman, as well as a highly successful flax merchant, and town councillor of Utrecht. Wtewael was one of the leading Dutch exponents of Northern Mannerism, and his distinctive and attractive style remained largely untouched by the naturalistic developments happening around him, "characterized by masterfully drawn, highly polished figures often set in poses". Wtewael was trained in the style of late 16th-century Haarlem Mannerism and remained essentially faithful to it, despite painting well into the early period of Dutch Golden Age painting.
Altogether he has left about a hundred paintings, as well as drawings and some stained glass he designed. He painted a mixture of large paintings on canvas, and tiny cabinet paintings on copper plates, the latter the more numerous and typically the most distinctive. There is also a group of mid-sized paintings, often on panel. In all these sizes he painted a mixture of conventional religious subjects and mythological ones, the latter with a strong erotic element. Especially in his works on copper he returns to the same subjects in several works, but varying the compositions. The Adoration of the Shepherds, Venus and Mars Surprised by Vulcan, and the Feast of the Gods as the wedding feasts of Cupid and Psyche, Peleus and Thetis, the latter often combined with the Judgement of Paris, and Lot and His Daughters, are some examples of these favourite subjects. The first of these was painted in all sizes. Often the large paintings contain only a few figures, but the small and middle sized ones are extremely crowded compositions, the mythological ones typically including many nudes. In some works he also revived the kitchen scene subjects of Pieter Aertsen from a half century before. According to Seymour Slive, "When well preserved his little pictures glow like gems".
He was very prosperous as a merchant of flax (for the manufacture of linen and canvas), which no doubt occupied much of his time, but was also famous as a painter in his own day, with his reputation reaching as far as Prague, where Emperor Rudolf II obtained his The Golden Age (now Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York). His large house on one of the main canals of Utrecht remains, though remodelled, and as well as family portraits the Utrecht museum has two very fine pieces of his furniture. He had several children, and seems to have stopped painting for almost the last decade of his life, perhaps influenced by the illness and death of his wife. Like his brother he was a city councillor; as a member of the main Dutch Reformed Church he was involved in the struggles with the Remonstrants. His best known work, and almost his largest, is the near life-size Perseus and Andromeda in the Louvre. Producing his highly finished small paintings was probably not very economic, and he was not short of money; his own pleasure and fame were probably his main motivations. His granddaughter still owned 30 of his paintings in 1669.
Reflecting an increase of interest in Wtewael's art in recent decades, in 2015–16 Pleasure and Piety: The Art of Joachim Wtewael (1566–1638), the first major exhibition devoted solely to his work, showed in Utrecht, Washington DC and Houston, Texas.
Life
Wtewael was born and spent almost all of his life in Utrecht, where he died. He was the son of a glassmaker and glass painter who had settled in Utrecht in 1566. He began his career in Utrecht, according to Carel van Mander, as a glassmaker and glass engraver in his father's workshop. In 1586, he began four years of travelling and living in Italy and then France, the latter in the household of the bishop of St Malo, Charles de Bourgneuf de Cucé. His main Italian base was in Padua, close to Venice, and his earliest works show awareness of the Second School of Fontainebleau, which was probably the result of visiting there.
Returning to Utrecht in about 1590 (by 1592 at the latest), Wtewael established a workshop and joined the saddlemakers' guild (which in Utrecht then covered painters as well) as a painter and began producing paintings, drawings, engravings, and stained glass. Later he was a founder member of the new Utrecht Guild of Saint Luke for the painters of Utrecht. He never lived elsewhere, and seems never to have travelled outside the Netherlands again. A gentlemanly contemporary in Utrecht, who might be thought in a good position to know the artist and his work, also praised very highly Wtewael's skill in sculpture, but no clear examples of this are known.
He married Christina Wtewael van Halen (1568–1629), whose portrait of 1601 makes a pair with the self-portrait illustrated. In 1596 they had a son Peter Wtewael, who became a painter; their other son, Jan (1598–1652), may also have been a painter as, unlike Peter, he registered with the guild, in 1639 after his father's death. Joachim von Sandrart, visiting Utrecht in 1626, complained that Peter and his father neglected painting for the flax business. In the portraits by Joachim of his two sons, Peter is shown as a painter and Jan as a "humanist", carrying a book. Peter died a wealthy man in 1660, having remodelled the family house in 1639, the year after his father died.
In the late 1620s Joachim painted portraits of both his sons, dated 1628, his daughter Eva (1607–1635, see gallery) and a pair of his other daughter and her husband Johan Pater, dated 1626. All of these are in Utrecht. Burial records suggest several other children died young, but their birthdates are unknown. Wtewael's dated paintings stretch from 1592 to 1628, taking him from the age of 26 to 62.
He was on the town council in 1610 and was later awarded a seat for life by the Stadtholder Maurice, Prince of Orange for his loyalty against the Remonstrants. However his brother was also rewarded in this way and Utrecht had a rule against more than one brother being on the council at any time. So he did not take up his seat until 1632, after his brother had died. Despite a reasonable amount of documentary records, the leading scholar of his work has written that "Wtewael the man is essentially inscrutable".
Style and reception
Development
He trained with the Haarlem Mannerist Joos de Beer, who also trained Abraham Bloemaert, also from Utrecht and born the same year as Wtewael. Bloemaert's later career in Utrecht contrasted strongly with Wtewael's in that he was an important teacher, with whom most of the Utrecht Caravaggisti trained at least for a while. He also changed his style significantly, reflecting newer influences from Italy and the Netherlands itself. In contrast, apart from his son Peter, Wtewael had only three recorded painting apprentices, and was without any assistance for long intervals. They were probably little help in producing his small works on copper, and none of them became well-known. Wtewael was thus one of the founding generation of Utrecht painting; previously the city had been a centre for sculpture, as befitted a city governed by its bishop, but not known for painting. While Wtewael's reputation may have been beneficial to other Utrecht painters, his own style remained too retardataire for him to have much influence on them.
Wtewael's style remained largely unchanged, although his colours shifted from the acidic pastels of his earlier work to stronger shades after about 1615, and some influence from the style of Caravaggio can be detected in later works. The shift in his style can be seen in his largest painting, The Raising of Lazarus (158 x 208 cm) in Lille (illustrated in the gallery below), which though bought as a Spranger in 1900, shows a movement away from the more extreme poses and colours of the 1590s, and even from the drawing which may have been its modello. In the painting he have moved away from the small heads and over-long legs typical of Mannerism in both its Italian and Northern manifestations.
Portraits, religious subjects, and economics
In contrast, his few portraits are almost all of his family and are in a conventional and more realist style comparable to that of the leading Utrecht portraitist of his day, Paulus Moreelse (1571–1638), whose works must have been very familiar to Wtewael. The appearance of the whole family is only recorded in single formal portraits by Wtewael. He also painted a few half-length imaginary paintings of saints or gods, singly or in small groups, such as a set of the Four Evangelists that are now dispersed in various collections. The Bacchus in the gallery section was paired with a Ceres, and perhaps a now lost Venus; these may have been his last works, and show some influence from the Caravaggisti in the single large figures placed as though very close to the viewer.
His biography by Carel van Mander says regretfully that his flax business occupied much of his time, and records examples of his pictures in the collections of two wealthy Dutch collectors. Many of Bloemaert's religious paintings were produced for the Catholic semi-secret schuilkerk hidden churches of Utrecht, which had a large Catholic population who were not able to worship in public. There is no evidence, or suggestion by scholars, that Wtewael's religious paintings were produced for this market; instead they are assumed to have been for the houses of the wealthy, like his other works. Among his religious subjects, the Raising of Lazarus, which he painted at least twice, was given a specifically Protestant interpretation by contemporary Protestants, as demonstrating the efficacy of sola gratia, as well as sola fide or "justification by faith alone", since Jesus' action in restoring Lazarus to life is presented in the Gospels as unrelated to anything Lazarus has done to deserve this.
Mythological paintings
The eroticism of his mythological works was daring for the time, and some of the small paintings were probably not displayed publicly, by their original collectors as much as later by museums. Two of the preparatory drawings for different painted versions of Mars and Venus Surprised were mutilated by later owners to remove parts of the lovers' bodies, and the Mauritshuis version, part of the founding royal gift, was not displayed in the 1920s, the contemporary explanation being that this was "to protect an immature public from itself". It remained in storage, and rather dirty, until the 1980s, when, after the Getty Museum acquired their version of the subject, it was cleaned and placed on display, soon joining touring selections of "masterworks" from the museum.
The Getty version was itself kept in private collections in ways that meant it was not normally visible, which may partly explain its immaculate condition. Other works by Wtewael have also been changed by overpainting to hide erotic anatomical details. Wtewael had other means of creating a sensuous atmosphere, such as the suggestive pink mouths of large shells that often lie on the ground below nude females, as in the Louvre Andromeda or the National Gallery Judgement of Paris.
His depiction of erotic subjects are not simply titillating, but like many such Dutch paintings, depicted subjects that allowed for moralistic interpretations. Anne Lowenthal, the most dedicated scholar of Wtewael, has analysed his several depictions of Lot and his Daughters, dating from several periods of his career, and proposes that his treatments are designed to allude to various different possible interpretations of the biblical story, and to pose a "moral dilemma" for the viewer. His favourite subjects had all been used previously, especially in Mannerism, but his choices seem to show a deliberate avoidance of the most familiar, as in his preference for the Adoration of the Shepherds over the more common Adoration of the Magi.
About 30% of his paintings are of mythological subjects, historically an unusually large proportion even within Northern Mannerism, perhaps not exceeded before Nicolas Poussin. His treatments are not without realist elements; the furniture, metalware, and other props are often carefully depicted versions of the luxury products of his own day, and the faces of his Olympians often un-idealized and very Dutch-looking, so that the viewer "often has the sense of seeing flesh and blood figures in bizarre circumstances rather than fantasies tinged by observations from life". Dutch art theory of the day recognised two "pictorial modes": "'realist' depiction naer het leven (from the life) and 'ideal' imitation uyt den geest (from the spirit or intellect)." These were respectively associated with "low" subjects and history painting, but it was a characteristic feature of Wtewael's work to combine both in a single picture.
Among his favourite subjects, the Feast of the Gods, typically particularized as either the wedding of Cupid and Psyche or that of Peleus and Thetis, sometimes appeared in Italian Renaissance art, but became especially popular in Northern Mannerist painting. This seems to spring from a large engraving of 1587 by Hendrik Goltzius in Haarlem of a drawing by Bartholomeus Spranger (now Rijksmuseum) that Carel van Mander had brought back from Prague, where Spranger was court painter to Emperor Rudolf II. The Feast of the Gods at the Marriage of Cupid and Psyche was so large, at 16 7/8 x 33 5/8 in. (43 x 85.4 cm), that it was printed from three different plates. More than 80 figures are shown, placed up in the clouds over a world landscape that can be glimpsed below. The composition borrows from both Raphael and Giulio Romano's versions. Among several other compositions of Feasts, Wtewael produced a painted version of this, much smaller than the print or drawing, but still with dozens of figures (illustrated left).
Mars and Venus Surprised came from Ovid, and was usually one of the scenes shown in illustrated editions. Wtewael's approach to this subject too can be traced back to Spranger and Goltzius, and a drawing of 1585 by the latter (now in the Getty Museum) is close to Wtewael's several compositions, with a scrum of figures hovering over an elaborate bed. Drawings by Bloemaert may also have had an influence.
Collections
The largest collection of his work, which includes a self-portrait (1601), and several other family portraits, is in the Centraal Museum, Utrecht, who were given works that had remained in the family until recent decades. Several other Dutch, German, British and American museums have works, but many also remain in private collections.
Some large zoomable images:
Mars and Venus Surprised by Vulcan, about 1606 – 1610, 20.3 x 15.5 cm (8 × 6 1/8 in.). Getty Museum, Malibu
The Holy Family with Saints and Angels, c. 1606–1610, oil on copper, 19.8 x 15.5 cm, Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid
The Judgement of Paris, 1615, National Gallery, London
Gallery
Large paintings
Smaller paintings
See also
City of Gotha and Federal Republic of Germany v. Sotheby's and Cobert Finance S.A.
Notes
References
Bull, Malcolm, The Mirror of the Gods, How Renaissance Artists Rediscovered the Pagan Gods, Oxford UP, 2005,
Clifton, J.; Helmus, L. & Wheelock Jr. A. (2015) Pleasure and Piety: The Art of Joachim Wtewael, Princeton University Press
"Grove": Lowenthal, Anne W. (1988), "Wtewael, Joachim (1566-1638)" in The Oxford Dictionary of Art, Chilvers, Ian and Osborne, Harold (editors), online ed. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England. (), online edition. Retrieved 20 April 2015
Liedtke, Walter (1992), entry in "Masterworks from the Musée Des Beaux-arts, Lille", 1992, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, , 9780870996498, google books
Lowenthal, Anne W. (1988), "Lot and His daughters as Moral Dilemma", in The Age of Rembrandt: Studies in Seventeenth-century Dutch Painting, Volume 3 of Papers in Art History from the Pennsylvania State University, eds. Roland E. Fleischer, Susan Scott Munshower, 1988, Penn State Press, , 9780915773022, google books
Lowenthal, Anne W. (1995) Joachom Wtewal: Mars and Venus Surprised by Vulcan. J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California. , google books, full view
Neil MacLaren, The Dutch School, 1600–1800, Volume I, 1991, National Gallery Catalogues, National Gallery, London,
Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 1600–1800, Yale UP, 1995,
Woodall, Joanna, "Wtewael's Perseus and Andromeda: looking for love in early seventeenth-century Dutch painting", in Manifestations of Venus: Art and Sexuality, The Barber Institute's critical perspectives in art history series, 2000, Manchester University Press, eds. Katie Scott, Caroline Arscott, , 9780719055225, google books
Further reading
Lindeman, Catharinus Marius Anne Alettus (1929) Joachim Anthonisz Wtewael. Oosthoek, Utrecht.
Lowenthal, Anne W. (1986) Joachim Wtewael and Dutch Mannerism. Davaco, Doornspijk, The Netherlands.
McGrath, Elizabeth. "A Netherlandish History by Joachim Wtewael." Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes'', 38 (1975), 182–217
External links
RKD database, with most of Wtewael's paintings
Joachim Anthonisz Wtewael, "The Wedding of Peleus and Thetis," 1612 Video from the Clark Art Institute, 2.29 minutes
Video Liefde & Lust | De kunst van Joachim Wtewael (1566–1638) from the Centraal Museum Utrecht, on the exhibition, 3.38 minutes (in Dutch, but video useful)
10 paintings in the Uk from BBC's "Your Paintings" site
Joachim Wtewael on Artcyclopedia
Dutch and Flemish paintings from the Hermitage, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (PDF), with material on Wtewael (cat. no. 34)
Joachim Wtewael at The National Gallery
Joachim Wtewael at PubHist
1566 births
1638 deaths
Dutch draughtsmen
Dutch engravers
Dutch Mannerist painters
Artists from Utrecht
Dutch Golden Age painters
Dutch male painters
Glass engravers
Dutch stained glass artists and manufacturers
Painters from Utrecht
Dutch businesspeople
Municipal councillors of Utrecht (city)
Dutch glass artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Douillet
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David Douillet
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David Donald Hubert Roger Douillet (; born 17 February 1969) is a French politician and retired judoka.
Douillet was born in the city of Rouen. Standing at and weighing , he won the judo heavyweight gold medals in the 1996 and 2000 Summer Olympics in Atlanta and Sydney. He also gained four world titles and one European crown. These achievements make him one of the most decorated judoka in history. The size of Douillet classified him in the heavyweight division. After finishing his sporting career, he maintained his popularity by engaging with Bernadette Chirac in the charity Opération Pièces Jaunes. He also became a consulting sportsman for Canal+. He was elected deputy to the French National Assembly on 18 October 2009 and on 26 September 2011 became the new Sports Minister until May 2012.
Sporting career
Early career
David Douillet began judo at age 11, in the commune of Neufchâtel-en-Bray, near his birthplace of Rouen. Having exceptional physical size for someone his age (1,80 m and 80 kg), he was instructed by Jacques Lemaître who taught him the rudiments of the sport. Quickly becoming attracted to the Japanese martial art, he distinguished himself on the tatamis, and thanks to his school results, integrated the study of the sport at the school Victor et Hélène Basch, near the University of Rennes. In 1986, when Douillet was 17, he was noticed during a demonstration by Jean-Luc Rougé who brought him into INSEP (National institute of sport and physical education).
Consequently, the Norman youth could devote himself to his passion, while continuing his education in the Paris region, Maisons-Alfort, and involving himself at the INSEP facility of Bois de Vincennes, the côterie of the best French judokas. There, he met his idol Fabien Canu, double world champion in 1987 and 1989. With strength and drive, Douillet obtained his first awards in his age class. In 1988, he became French junior champion, then obtained fifth place at the European championships. Rising again to the top of the national standings in 1989, he captured the European bronze medal in Athens, again as a junior.
Among the world elite
After a period of adaptation, he won his first Senior French championship in 1991, imposing himself in the final against Georges Mathonnet, another hope for French judo, born two years before Douillet. Thanks to this first national title, David qualified for his first senior European championships in Prague, where he finished in third place, a real achievement for a 22-year-old at his first selection. A few weeks later, he disputed the military world championships, where he earned two medals. At the beginning of 1992, he successfully defended his national title in the heavyweight category. Selected for the European Championships, which were held in Paris, in May 1992, he shone in a decisive competition obtaining a qualification for the Barcelona 1992 Summer Olympics, which took place in July of the same year: during these European championships, he obtained the bronze medal, synonymous with an Olympic ticket for Spain.
He faced a hard bracket during the Olympic tournament with the German Henry Stöhr (Olympic vice-champion in 1988), and the Japanese Naoya Ogawa (quadruple world champion). Not succeeding in carrying a frank attack on the Frenchman, Stöhr, neutralized, was disqualified for uncombativeness. However, a movement of the legs by Ogawa, in the next fight, put Douillet ippon, and the French judoka out for the gold medal race. He could, however, still hope for bronze. Facing the Cuban Franck Moreno Garcia, in the bout for third place, the Frenchman imposed himself. The judoka won the bronze medal at 23 years old.
World and European achievements
First International Games
In search of confirmation after his Olympic bronze medal, David Douillet ambitiously approached his first participation in a world championship. It was in Hamilton, Ontario, that the French judoka hoped to carry out a winning performance. Having defeated several experienced judokas, like the Polish Rafał Kubacki, he finally beat the Olympic champion and champion of Europe David Khakhaleishvili, then ranked #1 in the world and logical favourite of the tournament. He then took his revenge on the Georgian who, a few months earlier, had beaten him at the European championships. Thanks to this title acquired at 24 years, he becomes the first French world champion in this weight class, regarded by some as the premier category of judo. It is in this same weight class that he gained his first European title the following year in the 1994 European Judo Championships at Gdańsk, Poland, by defeating Rafał Kubacki in the final bout.
Chiba 1995: for the double
In view of the Atlanta 1996 Summer Olympics, the 1995 World Judo Championships in Chiba, Japan constituted an obligatory preparatory stage to participate in the American Olympics. A good performance being a great step towards an Olympic medal, David Douillet was planning to defend his world title gained two years earlier in Canada. But this time, he competed at the same time in his weight class (heavyweight, in +95 kg) and in the open category (a category without weight limit). In the first, the Frenchman made a display of his class, by winning each of his fights by ippon. Having beaten the Japanese quadruple world champion Naoya Ogawa, then the Spaniard Ernesto Pérez in the semi-final, he finally triumphed over the German Frank Möller by ippon, after less than 2 minutes of fighting, and retained his title.
Three days later, Douillet repeated his performance in the open category, by beating in the final the Russian Sergei Kossorotov by an pin. Thanks to the heavyweight title, he became the second Frenchman to preserve his world title after Fabien Canu in 1980, and placed himself as the legitimate favourite for the Olympic Games. Furthermore, with his double win, David Douillet entered the history books of judo, becoming the third judoka to carry out this exploit after Yasuhiro Yamashita in 1981 and Naoya Ogawa in 1989. Carrying out this exploit in Japan, and equalling the performances of two native stars, made David Douillet an instant icon in Japan.
Dedication
Olympic title
Selected for Atlanta the 1996 Summer Olympics, he was the favourite due to the three world titles won since his inaugural Olympic participation in 1992. Douillet passed the first matches without difficulties by eliminating the Belgian Van Barneveld, the Luxembourger Müller, and the Austrian Krieger. The Frenchman then fought the semi-final against the Japanese Naoya Ogawa, who had beaten him at the same stage of the 1992 Olympic tournament. This tight fight, styled as the "final before the final" by the French, was won by Douillet, who punched his ticket for the Olympic final against the Spaniard Ernesto Pérez Lobo. Against a judoka that he had already overcome during the last world championships, the world champion took the contest in hand, and, thanks to an Uchi-mata (mowing by the interior of the thigh), obtained an irreversible advantage which enabled him to take the Olympic title. Thus, he became the first French judoka to win the gold medal in the reigning category of judo, and the fourth Olympic champion to do it within all categories. During the award ceremony it was the Dutch Anton Geesink, Olympic champion in 1964, who gave the medal to Douillet.
Between victories and injuries
On 30 September 1996, two months after the Olympic title captured in Atlanta, Douillet was seriously injured in the calf and the right shoulder in a motorbike accident. The long convalescence, and eight months of rehabilitation, actually reinvigorated the Frenchman and gave him new motivation after his gold medal:
This accident rekindled my desire. After Atlanta, I had the impression of having made it. I had gained a lot... Then, after the accident, I had a new challenge: to become again first an athlete, then a performing athlete.
Thus, he returned gradually to his ideal shape (approximately 125 kg) and joined again the competition, at the time of the Mediterranean Games, which took place in June 1997 in Bari, Italy. He made a good show and earned a medal by defeating the European champion, Selim Tataroğlu. More than this victory, it was the prospect of the world championships, organized in Paris, which intensified Douillet's return to the foreground. The judoka carried out serious preparations in hopes of obtaining a fourth world title. In the competition, Douillet qualified for the final by defeating once again the Turkish Selim Tataroğlu in the semi-finals. In the finals, he beat the Japanese Shinichi Shinohara by disqualification. This victory, giving him a third world crown (fourth with the Open title in 1995), tied Douillet with another Japanese athlete, Yasuhiro Yamashita, and closed a difficult post-Atlanta period marked not only by his motorbike accident, but also by financial problems related to bad investments. However, a pain in the shoulder forced him to withdraw once again from the tatamis after the world championship in Paris, and in August 1998, he was the victim of a distortion of the wrist, and withdrew from competition for several months.
Return of "Goliath"
Difficult return to competition
In spite of almost two years of inactivity in competition, he was selected for the 1999 European Judo Championships in Bratislava. He had a sub-par performance there, taking only seventh place, letting his main competitors gain the podium. Nevertheless, the Frenchman started his preparation for a historic second Olympic title at the Sydney 2000 Summer Olympics. The principal stage of this preparation was the participation in the 1999 World Judo Championships in Birmingham. However, David Douillet underwent a large disappointment, being forced to withdraw two days before the beginning of the competition because of a groin strain. The months that followed were troubled by new physical problems with his back. While this was not the ideal way to prepare for his return, one and half months before the Olympic event he participated in a competition in Bonn, where he was beaten in the semi-final by the German Frank Möller and took third place. This was a minor but essential competition in his road back to high-level, a comeback considered encouraging by his trainer Marc Alexandre, who did not entirely hide his concerns, however, due to the delay in his preparation caused by David's repetitive injuries.
Historic double
In spite of the doubts concerning his physical condition, David Douillet was present in Sydney, Australia, for the opening ceremonies of the 2000 Summer Olympics. Even more, the judoka was nominated to be the flag carrier of the French delegation by the CNOSF (Olympic and sporting National committee French), thus succeeding the athlete Marie-José Pérec.
On 22 September 2000, the judo tournament started, and David Douillet entered the heavyweight competition to try to become the most titled Judoka in history. After winning his first match on a no-show from the Venezuelan Douglas Cardozo (he was not present at the weighing before the competition), the Frenchman faced the Turk Selim Tataroğlu, recent vice-champion of Europe (Open), and multiple medal-holder in the World Judo Championships. The Frenchman, however, beat him by ippon thanks to an o-uchi-gari (great interior mowing), and qualified for the quarter-finals where he faced the Belgian Harry van Barneveld, bronze medal winner four years before in Atlanta. Again Douillet passed this round thanks to the disqualification of his adversary (hansoku-make). Next, he went to fight against the Estonian Indrek Pertelson with a shot at the final. Pertelson, the world vice-champion, was quickly dispatched by the Frenchman on an ippon in less one minute.
In the final, his adversary was the Japanese Shinichi Shinohara, double champion of the world in 1999. That game is seen as a revenge of the 1997 World Judo Championships finals, where Douillet had beaten the Japanese heavyweight. The confrontation between the two judokas was extremely tactical, and it was only after one and a half minutes that the Frenchman took the lead thanks to a mowing by the interior of the thigh (uchi-subdued). The referee decision allotted a yuko to Douillet, a decision disputed by Shinohara, who argued that he dodged and then countered the Frenchman. However, the head referee was not moved, and Shinohara did not manage to make up for this lost time. After five minutes of fight, David Douillet was finally able to win his second Olympic gold medal. This was also a victory for the Judo history books as he became the fighter with the most international titles. With six major international titles (2 Olympic titles, 4 world titles), he passed the Japanese Yasuhiro Yamashita (1 Olympic title, 4 world titles) who won his titles in the seventies. The Olympic tournament in Sydney, however, marked the end of the road for the French judoka, who immediately announced his retirement after the competition, he won 88 matches and lost 21.
Retirement
The legacy of David Douillet
On judo
The French judoka is no longer the record Olympic title-holder, since the Japanese Tadahiro Nomura won his third consecutive title in 2004 in Athens. However, he retains a dominating place at the top of the world's judo. He is one of the five male judokas (except Nomura) to have gained two Olympic titles, but thanks to his bronze medal obtained in 1992 in Barcelona, he is the only one besides Nomura and Angelo Parisi to have gained three Olympic medals. With regard to the World Judo Championships, David Douillet is now the 3rd most titled judoka along with three other Japanese athletes. He is also one of the only two judokas who own three world champion titles in the heavyweight class, the other being Yasuhiro Yamashita (both are far behind Teddy Riner's 7 titles). These achievements make the Frenchman one of the greatest judoka in history.
On French sport
Thanks to his second Olympic title acquired in Sydney, he was proclaimed for the second time in 2000 Champion of the champions français by the French sporting daily newspaper L'Équipe. This recognition is all the more remarkable because it came ahead of both Brahim Asloum, the first French Olympic champion of boxing since 1936, and the leader of the France national football team Zinedine Zidane, who just won the European championship.
In 2005, he was one of the flag carriers for the unsuccessful bid of Paris 2012 for the organization of the 2012 Summer Olympics. David Douillet also fought against doping and joined, in 1999, the council of martial arts and prevention against doping. Recognized on the international scene, he is one of the forty sporting personalities, members of the academy, of the Laureus World Awards' Sports since its founding in 1999.
A popular sportsman
Generous as a sportsman, David Douillet put his popularity at the service of charitable operations. Close to the Chirac couple, he became godfather of the charity operation "Operation Yellow Coins" with then First French lady Bernadette Chirac. Each year David "drives" an SNCF TGV La Poste to go and collect funds for his "operation pieces jaunes", and he is the main sponsor, via public appearances, for this operation. In 1996 he started the foundation of the hospitals of Paris to improve the daily life of hospitalized children and teenagers. In addition, after his second Olympic title, he was named a UNESCO ambassador for youth in 2001. His medals and his generosity are held in high regard amongst the French, who ranked him the second most popular personality in France. Sometimes invited onto television programs, the judoka has his puppet with the Les Guignols de l'info (News Puppets), a popular satirical broadcast on Canal+.
Retirement
Since the end of his sporting career, David Douillet has tried to manage his image as well as possible. This image was put to the test when the company Travelsport, a travel agency in which David Douillet was a shareholder, filed for bankruptcy in 1997. Victim of a swindle, David Douillet quickly put this embarrassing affair to rest by gaining his fourth world title a few weeks later. Thanks to his second Olympic title, the Frenchman was able to leverage his heightened popular image into lucrative business deals. After a short passage through the television production companies, David Douillet now lends his name to several brands (sporting material, working goods, camp-site or excursion equipment), as well as kimono under the signature DD (mark), and even recently to a judo simulation video game, David Douillet judo.
On television, after a short passage on French television, he joined Canal+ where he is regularly present as a sporting consultant when international Judo events are broadcast. He also participates in the preparation of rebroadcasts of events like the Olympic Games, or the 24 Hours of Le Mans, on premium cable television. Moreover, he appears occasionally in commercials. While he is currently focusing on the business side of his career, he has not entirely given up on judo: he was named to the management committee of the French federation of judo in 2005.
Politics
David Douillet was a candidate for the UMP center-right political party in the by-election of 11 and 18 October 2009 in the 12th constituency of the Yvelines department. He won 52,10% of the ballots cast and was elected member of the National Assembly. In the 2010 French regional elections, he was elected in the Council of Île-de-France.
On 29 June 2011, Douillet was appointed Secretary of State in charge of French nationals abroad in the François Fillon cabinet. On 26 September 2011, he was appointed Minister of Sports, a mandate that lasted until the next presidential elections that took place in May 2012.
Anecdotes
David Douillet had to wait until 1997 to claim his proper Olympic medal that he won the previous year. The American organizers of the Atlanta Games had reversed the ceremonies of handing-over of the medals for the male and female competitions. Thus Dutch Anton Geesink, Olympic champion of the Open category in 1964, gave to the French judoka the medal intended for the Chinese judokate Fuming Sun, Olympic champion of the women heavyweights. It was in Paris, at the time of the 1997 World Judo Championships, that the various actors were brought together once again to receive the right medals.
David Douillet has his entry in the dictionary Larousse since November 1997, a rare recognition for a sportsman. The same year, the Musée Grévin brought out a wax statue of Douillet, a first for a French judoka.
Medals
Olympic Games
Olympic Games of 1992 with Barcelona (Spain):
Bronze medal in the category of +95 kg (heavyweight).
Olympic Games of 1996 with Atlanta (the United States):
Gold Medal in the category of +95 kg (heavyweight).
Olympic Games of 2000 with Sydney (Australia):
Gold Medal in the category of +100 kg (heavyweight).
Various
By teams:
World cup by teams in 1994.
Champion of Europe by teams in 1993.
In club
Champion of Europe by team with PSG Judo in 1995.
International events:
Gold Medal with Mediterranean Plays 1997 organized with Bari (Italy).
Gold Medal with Plays of the Francophonie 1994 organized with Paris (France).
World cup:
2 podiums with Tournament of Paris (3rd in 1993, 2nd in 1995).
Championships of France:
2 championships of France seniors in 1991 and 1992.
Juniors:
Bronze medal in the heavyweight class (+95 kg) with l'Euro junior 198
Danse avec les stars
In 2022 he participated in season 12 of Danse avec les stars (the French version of Dancing with the Stars) with his partner Katrina Patchett but sadly got eliminated in the first week.
This table shows the route of David Douillet and Katrina Patchett in Danse Avec Les Stars.
Sadly, Chris Marques pushed the red buzzer and so, David & Katrina were directly sent in face to face without receiving a single note.
The face to face wasn't rated.
References
External links
Videos of David Douillet at Judovision.org
1969 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Rouen
French male judoka
Judoka at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Judoka at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Judoka at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Olympic judoka for France
Olympic gold medalists for France
Olympic bronze medalists for France
Olympic medalists in judo
Government ministers of France
Union for a Popular Movement politicians
French sportsperson-politicians
World judo champions
European champions for France
Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Deputies of the 14th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Mediterranean Games gold medalists for France
Mediterranean Games medalists in judo
Competitors at the 1997 Mediterranean Games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Wilson%20%28musician%29
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Alan Wilson (musician)
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Alan Christie Wilson (July 4, 1943 – September 3, 1970), nicknamed "Blind Owl", was an American musician, best known as the co-founder, leader, co-lead singer, and primary composer of the blues band Canned Heat. He sang and played harmonica and guitar with the group live and on recordings. Wilson was the lead singer for the group's two biggest U.S. hit singles: "On the Road Again" and "Going Up the Country".
Early years
Alan Christie Wilson was born to John (Jack) Wilson (1914–2000), a bricklayer, and Shirley Bingham (1922–2011), an artist on July 4, 1943, and grew up in the Boston suburb of Arlington, Massachusetts. He had an older sister Darrell and was of English, Scottish, and German descent. His parents divorced when he was 3 and both later remarried.
Wilson was highly intelligent, setting him apart from his peers. As a result, he was often bullied by his schoolmates. His father Jack enjoyed ham radio operation. Alan became involved as a child but soon turned his interest to music after his stepmother Barbara bought him a jazz record. Some of Wilson's first efforts at performing music publicly came during his teen years when he learned trombone, teaching himself the instrumental parts from the aforementioned jazz record. Later he formed a jazz ensemble with other musically oriented friends from school called Crescent City Hot Five.
Wilson was into traditional New Orleans music, and later, classical European and Indian music. He was also on the high school tennis team. Eventually, Wilson quit trombone. Around the same time Wilson developed a fascination with blues music after a friend played a Muddy Waters record for him, The Best of Muddy Waters. Inspired by Little Walter, he took up harmonica, and soon after the acoustic guitar after hearing a John Lee Hooker record. Some of Wilson's other major influences included Skip James, Robert Johnson, Son House, Charley Patton, Tommy Johnson, John Lee Hooker, Muddy Waters, and Bukka White.
After graduating from Arlington High School in 1961, he majored in music at Boston University. His academics earned him a National Merit Scholarship and the F.E. Thompson Scholarship Fund from the Town of Arlington. Wilson developed into a dedicated student of early blues, writing a number of articles for the Broadside of Boston newspaper and the folk-revival magazine Little Sandy Review, including a piece on bluesman Robert Pete Williams. Anxious to play music rather than study it, Wilson quit school after only a year and a half. To make ends meet, Wilson worked with his father as a bricklayer, and occasionally gave harmonica and guitar lessons.
Career
In 1962, Wilson met Harvard student and fellow blues enthusiast David Evans in a record store, and the two began playing as a team around the Cambridge coffeehouse folk-blues circuit, with Evans on vocals and guitar, Wilson on harmonica and occasionally second guitar. The two played a repertoire of mostly classic-era blues covers. Heavily influenced by Skip James, eventually Wilson began singing in a way similar way to James' high pitch. In high school, Wilson studied James' 1931 recordings with great ardor. Some of his first singing attempts took place behind a closed bedroom door; and when a family member overheard him, he was embarrassed. Wilson eventually perfected the high tenor for which he would become known.
The early 1960s saw a "rediscovery" of pre-war blues artists by young, white blues enthusiasts, including Mississippi John Hurt, Booker White, Skip James and Son House. In 1964, blues enthusiast Tom Hoskins located John Hurt, who at the time had been working on a local farm in his native Mississippi. Hoskins persuaded Hurt to come north to Cambridge for a gig. Wilson was invited to accompany Hurt on harmonica. Said Hoskins, "He was brilliant."
Son House, considered by Wilson to be one of the most impressive harmonica players in blues history, was located in Rochester, NY in 1964, but it was evident that House had forgotten his songs due to his long absence from music. Wilson played House's old recordings from 1930 and 1943 for him. and demonstrated them on guitar to revive House's memory. House recorded Father of Folk Blues for Columbia Records in 1965. Two of the selections on the set featured Wilson on harmonica and guitar. In a letter to Jazz Journal published in the September 1965 issue, Son House's manager Dick Waterman remarked the following about the project, and Wilson:
It is a solo album, except for backing on two cuts by a 21-year-old White boy from Cambridge by the name of Al Wilson. Al plays second guitar on "Empire State Express" and harp on "Levee Camp Moan." Al never recorded before, but he has backed John Hurt, Skip James, Sleepy John Estes, Bukka White and many others. He is good, and the record will prove it.<ref>Jazz Journal, published September, 1965{{cite web | url=http://weeniecampbell.com/yabbse/index.php?topic=2146.0| title = Jazz Journal ' | publisher = Jazz Journal Limited}}</ref>
Al Wilson taught Son House how to play Son House. I can tell you, flatly, that without Al invigorating and revitalizing Son, there would have been no Son House rediscovery. All of Son’s successful concert appearances, recordings and him being remembered as having a great second career—all that was because of Al rejuvenating his music.
Canned Heat
During his time performing in Cambridge, Wilson met American guitarist John Fahey, the "Father of American Primitive Guitar." With Fahey's encouragement, Wilson moved with Fahey to Los Angeles in 1965 with the aim of having Wilson assist with his UCLA master's thesis on Charley Patton. Because Wilson forgot his glasses during the trip, Fahey gave him the nickname "Blind Owl" owing to his extreme nearsightedness, roundish facial features and scholarly nature. In one instance when he was playing at a wedding, he laid his guitar on the wedding cake because he did not see it. As Canned Heat's drummer Fito de la Parra wrote in his book: "Without the glasses, Alan literally could not recognize the people he played with at two feet, that's how blind the 'Blind Owl' was."
Once in Los Angeles, Fahey released The Transfiguration of Blind Joe Death. Wilson provided the liner notes under the pseudonym Charles Holloway, Esq. In 1966, Wilson recorded a series of traditional Indian ragas on Fahey's Takoma label but was never issued. Four of Wilson's ragas later appeared as the nine-part soundscape "Pathenogenesis" on Canned Heat's third album, Living the Blues. A portion of "Raga Kafi" is performed on the chromatic harmonica. Fahey's 1992 album Old Girlfriends and Other Horrible Memories features more of "Raga Kafi" in "Fear & Loathing at 4th & Butternut," although Wilson was not credited.
In Los Angeles Wilson met fellow blues enthusiast and record collector, Bob "The Bear" Hite at a record store. Together they founded Canned Heat in 1965. The band's name was taken from Tommy Johnson's 1928 song "Canned Heat Blues," about an alcoholic who turned to drinking the cooking fuel Sterno. Originally beginning as a jug band, Canned Heat initially consisted of Hite on vocals, Wilson on bottleneck guitar, Mike Perlowin on lead guitar, Stu Brotman on bass and Keith Sawyer on drums. The group landed gigs at the Ash Grove in Hollywood, and after Perlowin dropped out, Hite invited his friend Henry "The Sunflower" Vestine, from Frank Zappa's Mothers of Invention to join on guitar.
Johnny Otis produced the group's first full-length album in 1966. It featured Hite, Wilson, Vestine, Brotman, and new drummer Frank Cook in his studio just off Vine Street in Los Angeles. The record was not released until 1970; and Vintage, as it was titled, has since become the most re-packaged and bootlegged record in Canned Heat's discography. Over a Summer hiatus, Brotman left Canned Heat and was replaced by Larry "The Mole" Taylor, an experienced session musician who played with Jerry Lee Lewis and The Monkees.
Canned Heat's first year was marked by infrequent gigs and public indifference. Wilson later told Melody Maker, “The first year we were together, we worked for three weeks. We’d get a gig, play three days and get fired … because we refused to be a human jukebox.” After a particularly disastrous engagement the group disbanded in August 1966. During this period, Wilson and Vestine moved on to join the Electric Beavers, an ensemble featuring a full horn section. The band lasted for a short time on a rehearsal basis only. Eventually, Canned Heat re-formed in November 1966. During a gig at the Ash Grove, Canned Heat earned the attention of singer/songwriter Jackie DeShannon, who was married to the head of A&R at Liberty Records, Bud Dain.
The band released their first album, Canned Heat, featuring reworkings of older blues songs for Liberty Records in July 1967. Their first big live performance was at the Monterey Pop Festival on June 17, 1967, where they performed renditions of "Rollin and Tumblin," "Bullfrog Blues," and "Dust My Broom." Downbeat Magazine praised the band's performance: “Technically, Vestine and Wilson are quite possibly the best two-guitar team in the world and Wilson has certainly become our finest white blues harmonica man."
Wilson wrote and sang the band's break out hit "On the Road Again," an updated version of a 1950s composition by Floyd Jones, on the band's second release, Boogie with Canned Heat. In an interview with Downbeat Magazine he remarked, "...on 'On the Road Again' I appear in six different capacities – three tamboura parts, harmonica, vocal, and guitar, all recorded at different times." "On the Road Again" peaked at number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100, and at number 8 on the Uk singles charts earning the band immense popularity in Europe. Drummer Frank Cook left the band in December 1967 and was replaced by Adolfo "Fito" de la Parra.
Canned Heat's third album included the band's best-known song, also sung by Wilson, "Going Up the Country." The song, an incarnation of Henry Thomas' "Bull-Doze Blues" was rewritten by Wilson and caught the "back to nature" attitude of the late 1960s. The tune was a hit in numerous countries around the world, peaking at number 11 in the US. The "rural hippie anthem" became the unofficial theme song for the Woodstock Festival where Canned Heat performed at sunset on August 16, 1969. Although Canned Heat's live performance was cut from the original theatrical release of the Woodstock film, they were featured in the 25th anniversary "Director's Cut." The studio version of "Going Up the Country" was featured in the Woodstock film; and in recent years has been heard in television commercials for Geico Insurance, Subaru, and Pepsi.
Around this time, Wilson became disillusioned with Canned Heat and considered quitting on several occasions. Upset over Vestine's departure and becoming more averse to touring, Wilson expressed the possibility of still recording but not touring with the band. Wilson arranged to join Vestine's new band Sunn, and Frank Cook's group Pacific Gas and Electric, however both options fell through. Eventually Wilson ended up quitting Canned Heat for about 2 weeks in late 1969, and again shortly before his death in 1970. But each time, he felt guilty and decided to go on tour again. His increasing isolation became obvious, as footage of the band at this time showed Wilson standing apart from his bandmates, and often hiding behind rows of amps.
Canned Heat's fifth album, Future Blues was released in August 1970 and featured the Wilbert Harrison cover of "Let's Work Together." It became their biggest hit in the UK, reaching number 2 on the Singles Chart for 15 weeks. The cover features the band dressed as astronauts on the Moon, mocking the flag raising at Iwo Jima. The upside-down American flag was Wilson's idea in response to the country's social distress at the time, and his concern over the Moon landing a year before. However, retailers like Sears and K-Mart found the cover offensive and refused to stock the album.
In May 1970, Canned Heat teamed up with John Lee Hooker, fulfilling a dream for Wilson of recording with one of his musical idols. It would be his last recording. The resulting double album Hooker 'N' Heat was the first in Hooker's career to make the charts. On the album, Hooker is heard wondering how Wilson was capable of following his guitar playing so well. Hooker was known to be a difficult performer to accompany, partly because of his disregard of song form, yet Wilson seemed to have no trouble at all following him on this album. Hooker states that "you [Wilson] musta been listenin' to my records all your life" and also stated that Wilson was the "greatest harmonica player ever." Released after Wilson's death, the album cover features a framed photo of Wilson on the wall behind the rest of Canned Heat.
On a night off in Britain on June 30, 1970, Wilson went to see his old friend Son House, who was performing at the 100 Club in London. He sat in for “Between Midnight and Day” and “I Want to Go Home on the Morning Train." The show was recorded and originally released as John The Revelator on Liberty in 1970. The session was a concept album with House narrating through his last European performance in a biblical format. It was reissued in 1995 with extensive liner notes by David Evans as Delta Blues and Spirituals on Capitol Records and was posthumously dedicated to Wilson.
The last live footage of Wilson was taken at Canned Heat's performance at the Kralingen Music Festival, Rotterdam, Netherlands on June 26, 1970.
Wilson appeared with Canned Heat performing "One Kind Favor" during a party scene in the drama The Naked Zoo released in 1971.
Personal life
Wilson suffered from anxiety and depression, rooted in his personal issues and in his despair over the environment. According to some, he had a couple of suicide attempts. Some sources say he never actually said he tried to commit suicide and these were simply assumptions some who knew him made after his death. As a child, Wilson experienced sleep paralysis, but later suffered from insomnia as an adult. To resolve his insomnia, Wilson started using the barbiturates Secobarbital, or "reds" as they were known on the street. He had a nervous habit of pulling and twisting his hair. In the summer of 1969, Wilson was hospitalized for depression. During this time, he wrote the song "Poor Moon," expressing his concern for pollution from the Moon landing that same year. In order to be released, however, Wilson was placed under Bob Hite's care in a legal custody agreement. Wilson was hospitalized again in the spring of 1970, as Canned Heat was scheduled to record an album with John Lee Hooker. Wilson reportedly attempted to drive his car off a freeway in Los Angeles, sustaining an injury to the top of his head. There are conflicting stories of this as some say it was an accident due to his poor eyesight and lack of driving experience. Wilson was permitted to attend recording sessions, but would return to the hospital at the conclusion of each session. His song "Human Condition," reflects an encounter with his psychiatrist at one of his hospital stays.
Because Wilson was highly sensitive, introverted and struggled with social situations, some believe he was on the autism spectrum. With his talent and intellect, most dismissed him as brilliant but a little odd, as autism was not well understood at the time. There are no actual diagnoses indicating he was autistic. Others who knew him disagree that he was autistic. Some who knew him also say that he was not introverted but introspective. Despite his success, he was not very successful with women, failing to relate to them or maintain long-term relationships. However, he did have some girlfriends over the years, though these relationships did not last long.
Due to his poor vision, Wilson did not learn how to drive until 1969, when Bob Hite gave him a camper van which doubled as a home. He had no interest in purchasing a home, and whenever Canned Heat was not on tour, Wilson would go camping to Yosemite or Sequoia National Park in his van at every opportunity.
Death
On September 2, 1970, Canned Heat was scheduled to leave for Germany to begin a European tour. Partly due to the inconveniences preventing him from spending time outdoors, Wilson despised touring and travelling by plane. He often missed flights and the band would fly without him while he caught a later flight. When he missed his September 2 flight, this did not raise any alarms, and Bob Hite assumed he was doing laundry to prepare for the tour. On September 3, 1970, Wilson was found dead in his sleeping bag on the hillside behind Hite's Topanga Canyon home where he often slept. He was 27 years old. An autopsy identified his manner and cause of death as accidental acute barbiturate intoxication. Although his death is sometimes reported as a suicide, this is not clearly established as he left no note, and there were four pills left in his pants found next to his body.
Wilson's death came fourteen months after the death of Brian Jones, just two weeks before the death of Jimi Hendrix, four weeks before the death of Janis Joplin, and ten months before the death of Jim Morrison, four artists who also died at the same age. Wilson was cremated, and on September 13, 1970, a memorial service was held at Menotomy Rocks Park in his hometown of Arlington. The service was led by Reverend Wilbur Canaday who said, "We are using the sky as a roof, and the ground as a floor, because he himself used nature's great wonders as his home." Wilson's ashes were later scattered in Sequoia National Park amongst the redwoods he deeply loved.
Conservationism
Wilson was a passionate conservationist who loved reading books on botany and ecology. He often slept outdoors to be closer to nature, and amassed a large collection of pinecones. Wilson communicated with trees and plants better than he did with people. He believed that trees were sentient beings that could experience pain. In 1969, he wrote and recorded a song, "Poor Moon", which expressed concern over potential pollution of the Moon. His clothes were often dirty and disheveled from collecting leaf and soil samples outdoors. For this reason, Wilson avoided arrest in a drug sting in 1967, when authorities raided Canned Heat's hotel room. In 1970 Wilson established a conservation fund called Music Mountain Foundation in the Skunk Cabbage Creek area of California to purchase a grove to be added to Redwood National Park. The purpose of this organization was to raise money for the preservation of the coastal redwood, which Wilson saw increasingly endangered by pollution, and urban sprawl. Canned Heat along with their manager agreed to donate proceeds from major concerts after Wilson's death, however the donations were later misappropriated. He wrote an essay called 'Grim Harvest', expressing his concern for the logging of redwoods, which was printed as the liner notes to Future Blues. It begins, "The redwoods of California are the tallest living things on Earth, nearly the oldest, and among the most beautiful to boot." It ends with a plea to "prevent Future Blues" by making a donation to his organization.
Wilson briefly worked as an ecological consultant for the United States Forest Service in 1969. He was appointed to perform a study on how rising levels of pollution would affect plant life on Earth, and then to determine which species could survive if pollution levels continued to rise at the rates at the time. During his studies, Wilson was even credited as discovering two new species of trees in the Pacific Northwest. When Wilson finished the study, he concluded that nothing could survive.
In order to support his dream, Wilson's family purchased a "grove naming" in his memory through the Save the Redwoods League of California. The money donated to create this memorial would be used by the League to support redwood reforestation, research, education, and land acquisition of both new and old growth redwoods.
Legacy
Wilson is widely remembered as a pioneer of blues-rock during its crucial development period of the 1960s who also promoted the revival of early Delta Blues. Wilson was considered by many of his musical peers to be an expert on the blues musicians who came before him; many considered him as possessing an exceptional ability for connecting musically with the elder bluesmen. He was a gifted slide guitarist, harmonica player, songwriter and vocalist. His recording career spanned only three years. Despite this, he left behind a rich legacy of inspiration to fellow artists, music scholars, and listeners alike. Mike Bloomfield of the Paul Butterfield Blues Band introduced him to Charlie Musselwhite as “the best goddamn harp player there is. He can do things that you’ve never heard before.” Wilson's friend John Fahey has said that he was "among the most significant influences on my musicianship," and that his work "must be appreciated for its immortal, spellbinding beauty." Wilson is also noteworthy for being one of the first environmentalists during the rise of the 1960s "New Environmentalism" Movement and was highly dedicated to protecting and preserving the California redwoods.
Stephen Stills' song "Blues Man" from the album Manassas is dedicated to Wilson, along with Jimi Hendrix and Duane Allman.
Equipment
Wilson played a variety of guitars, but his main choice was a 1954 Gibson Les Paul Goldtop. A 1960s white Fender Mustang was used during Canned Heat's performance at the 1967 Monterey Pop Festival. For promotional and mimed performances on various local and European television dance shows, Wilson often used a late-1960s blond Fender Telecaster. It is believed Wilson did not own this guitar, and it may only have been provided to him as a prop. During a live performance on Playboy After Dark, Wilson is seen playing a late-1960s cherry Gibson ES-335.
Wilson's mainstay Les Paul Goldtop was not a factory stock model. The stock tuners were replaced sometime prior to Woodstock with modern Grover tuners, as the stock tuning pegs at the time did not keep the instrument in tune as well as later models. In addition, the pick guard and bracket were also removed to provide room for his finger picking style. The model had a stoptail bridge (an adjustable fixed-bridge piece and a separate stopbar or tailpiece) that provided both string support and intonation in one unit. It also featured Gibson P-90 single coil pickups. Both of these latter features were keys to Wilson's tone.
Accolades
Blues Hall of Fame: Legendary Blues Artist Inductee, July 19, 2013
The Music Museum of New England Inductee
Discography
Father of the Delta Blues: The Complete 1965 Sessions, w/ Son House 1965
The Great San Bernardino Birthday Party & Other Excursions, w/ John Fahey 1966
Fred Neil w/ Fred Neil 1967, Capitol Records
Slim's Got His Thing Going On w/ Sunnyland Slim, 1969 World Pacific Records
John The Revelator: The 1970 London Sessions w/ Son House, 1970, Vequel Records (re-released in 1995 on Capitol Records as Delta Blues and Spirituals)
Alan Wilson: The Blind Owl, 2013 (2 CD Severn Records)
References
Further reading
Fito De La Parra, Living The Blues. Canned Heat's story of Music, Drugs, Death, Sex and Survival (2000)
Boogie with Canned Heat: The Canned Heat Story'', a documentary (on DVD, Eagle Ent., 2007)
External links
Alan Wilson authorized tribute website
Official Facebook
American blues harmonica players
American blues guitarists
American male guitarists
American blues singer-songwriters
Blues rock musicians
Canned Heat members
1943 births
1970 deaths
Musicians from Boston
Singer-songwriters from Massachusetts
Drug-related deaths in California
Barbiturates-related deaths
People from Arlington, Massachusetts
People from Topanga, California
20th-century American singer-songwriters
20th-century American guitarists
Guitarists from Massachusetts
20th-century American male singers
Arlington High School (Massachusetts) alumni
American male singer-songwriters
Slide guitarists
Liberty Records artists
American conservationists
Singer-songwriters from California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tethys%20Research%20Institute
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Tethys Research Institute
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The Tethys Research Institute (official name: Istituto Tethys ONLUS) is a non-profit research organisation founded in 1986 to support marine conservation through science and public awareness and by participating in the international conservation process. Tethys' activities are mainly carried out in the Mediterranean Sea, although research programmes have been conducted also in the Black Sea, the North Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean, the Red Sea and Antarctica. The results of these activities have been presented in scientific publications as well as in meetings, workshops and conferences.
Mission statement
Tethys’ mission is the conservation of the marine environment and its biodiversity, by supporting national and international marine conservation policies and processes with robust scientific knowledge, and by developing, promoting and implementing public awareness and education activities.
History
The Tethys Research Institute was founded in Milan, Italy, on 31 January 1986 by marine ecologist Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara and Egidio Gavazzi, at the time the publisher of the italian magazine AQVA. The organisation's name was inspired by a figure of Greek mythology, the sea goddess Tethys, daughter of Uranus and Gaia and wife of Oceanus. The Mediterranean Sea is the modern remnant of the prehistoric Tethys Ocean. Since 1995 the Institute's headquarters have been established in the premises of the Civic Aquarium of Milan, on the basis of an agreement with the City Council.
Since its foundation, Tethys has promoted research activities on marine mammals, such as cetaceans (whales and dolphins) and the endangered Mediterranean monk seal, although investigations have also extended to devil rays and sea turtles. Over more than three decades of work, Tethys has generated one of the largest datasets on Mediterranean cetaceans. Tethys shares its data with the scientific community and policy makers through several open access platforms such as OBIS, OBIS-SEAMAP, GBIF, EMODNET, and INTERCET.
Research programmes and techniques
Research methods include distance sampling surveys (both from aircraft, drones and vessels) capture-recapture techniques based on long-term photo-identification to estimate population abundance; habitat and distribution time-series studies inclusive of the collection of remotely sensed environmental covariates, bioacoustics, behavioural sampling, remote biopsy sampling for genetic and toxicological analyses, passive tracking techniques, as well as radio and satellite telemetry.
Since 1987 Tethys has been carrying out cetacean surveys in the waters surrounding Italy and adjacent countries. Early boat-based surveys generated the first estimate of relative abundance in the central Mediterranean Sea highlighting the great importance of the Ligurian Sea for whales and dolphins, in comparison to other sectors of the Mediterranean. This was the first indication of the need for the establishment of a cetacean protected area in the North -Western Mediterranean, leading to the proposition of an international sanctuary there, the Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals.
Since 2009, Tethys has carried out a series of seasonal aerial surveys funded by the Italian Ministry of the Environment and Protection of Land and Sea (MATTM), in cooperation with the International Whaling Commission (IWC) and the Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA), to estimate the density and abundance, and monitoring the distribution of cetaceans and other marine mega-vertebrates in the seas around Italy. The surveyed areas included the Ligurian Sea, the Central and Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, portions of the Seas of Corsica and Sardinia, as well as the Ionian Sea and the Gulf of Taranto.
Research is focussed also on collisions between whales and large ships in the Mediterranean and especially in the Pelagos Sanctuary. A study financed by the Permanent Secretariat of the Pelagos Agreement and published in September 2020 (Proposal to develop and evaluate mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of ship strikes to fin and sperm whales in the Pelagos Sanctuary) was carried out in collaboration with British Antarctic Survey, International Fund for Animal Welfare, QuietOceans, Souffleurs d'Ecume, WWF France. Tethys is also a partner in LIFE-SEADETECT, a European collaborative project aimed at reducing the issue of collisions with marine mammals (2022 – 2026).
Long-term research projects
Adriatic Dolphin Project
Tethys has implemented long-term research programmes on Mediterranean marine mammals. The oldest of these, the Adriatic Dolphin Project (ADP), based on the island of Lošinj (Croatia), was run by Tethys from 1987 to 1999, and produced a large body of substantive ecological knowledge on the local population of common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Concern for the survival of this dolphin population, threatened mainly by a very high level of small vessel traffic during summer, prompted the Institute to propose the establishment of a local dolphin protected area. Upon the decision by Tethys to terminate the ADP in 1999, the baton of the scientific and conservation work on the local dolphins was passed to former ADP researchers, founders and co-founders of the Blue World Institute, a Croatian NGO.
Cetacean Sanctuary Research
The Cetacean Sanctuary Research (CSR) project, established in 1990, is Tethys’ second long-term project. It is carried out within the waters of the Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals, mostly in the Ligurian Sea. The core study area extends over about 25,000 km2, encompassing coastal, slope and pelagic waters between continental Italy and France, and the Island of Corsica. The CSR target species are fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus), sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas), Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus), Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris), striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba), common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and short-beaked common dolphin (Delphinus delphis). The project focuses on population dynamics, spatial distribution, habitat preferences, behaviour, bioacoustics, photogrammetry, genetics, as well as on the evaluation of long-term environmental changes and monitoring of anthropogenic pressures. The main aim is to produce scientific knowledge to support the conservation of marine mammals.
Studies conducted within the CSR project generated one of the longest time series and one of the largest datasets on Mediterranean cetaceans, allowing to evaluate and detect changes in the species’ presence. The data series on Risso’s dolphins, among the longest and one of the most important of its kind, allowed to highlight a dramatic decline of this species in the study area. This result significantly contributed to having the Risso’s dolphins Mediterranean subpopulation listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened species.
Habitat preferences of cetaceans living in the Pelagos Sanctuary have been described, allowing also to make predictions of the presence probability of the different species.
This information is critical for the management of the Pelagos Sanctuary as it enables vulnerability assessments of marine areas with respect to the existing human pressures. Furthermore data on the variability of cetaceans’ habitat preferences can be used as a basis for the evaluation of the environmental quality of marine ecosystems, as required by the Marine Strategy Framework Directive.
The CSR project has many longstanding and profitable collaborations with national and international organisations and research institutes across the Mediterranean. The analyses and the large photographic catalogues shared among institutes allowed to study both short and long-term movements of cetaceans in the Western Mediterranean. It has been observed that Risso’s dolphins and common bottlenose dolphins can cover hundreds of km; sperm whales, over a thousand km, moving from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Ligurian Sea.
Cetaceans’ vocalisations are regularly recorded, generating a large acoustic dataset and allowing studies of the vocal repertoire of sperm whales and other species. Behaviour and overall body size could also be inferred from acoustic data in sperm whales.
Research on cetaceans in the Pelagos Sanctuary also revealed an unexpected genetic separation between fin whales occurring in the Ligurian Sea and their North Atlantic conspecifics. Studies based on mtDNA analysis show that the Mediterranean Risso’s Dolphin population has been found to be genetically differentiated from the one inhabiting the waters of Azores, United Kingdom and from other oceanic populations. There is also some evidence of a possible Mediterranean subpopulation.
Also surprising diving capabilities of fin whales and long-finned pilot whales have been highlighted; equipped with time-depth recorders, they showed to be able to dive, respectively, to depths >470m and >820m.
The long-term photo-identification study of fin whales in the Pelagos Sanctuary (1990–present) points to the existence of a persistent site fidelity and reaffirms the importance of this area as a major feeding ground and critical habitat for the Mediterranean subpopulation, providing baseline data for targeted conservation and mitigation measures.
A satellite telemetry research programme, funded by the Italian Ministry of the Environment and carried out in collaboration with the International Whaling Commission (IWC), the University of Siena, ISPRA, and the Alaska Fisheries Science Center in Seattle (USA), investigated fine-scale habitat use, movements and migration patterns of fin whales in the Pelagos Sanctuary in September 2012. Results indicate that tagged fin whales remained in the Pelagos Sanctuary summer feeding grounds until late autumn, much longer than expected, most likely due to the unusual climate conditions triggering prolonged productivity and whale feeding activity. Satellite tracking also revealed that the feeding habitat of fin whales extends substantially to the West of the Pelagos Sanctuary’s boundaries, well into the Gulf of Lion and into Spanish waters. Fine scale associations with oceanographic features and potential feeding habitats within the Sanctuary were also observed.
Short-term responses of fin whales in the Pelagos Sanctuary to approaching vessels have been described through passive plotting of the whales’ tracks with laser range-finder binoculars. Avoidance strategies were observed under disturbance: travel at increased speed, reduction of the time spent at the surface, and switching from supposed feeding behaviour to travelling.
A pilot project aimed at investigating the potential use of a medium fixed-wing aircraft system (RPAS) for monitoring cetaceans, as an alternative method to conventional aerial manned surveys, was launched in 2022. Thanks to a long-lasting collaboration with the Italian Coast Guard, the RPAS, provided by the REACT consortium on behalf of the European Maritime Safety Agency EMSA, was also tested during a preliminary survey in an area within the Pelagos Sanctuary.
Ionian Dolphin Project
Another long-term project is the Ionian Dolphin Project (IDP) that has been running since 1991 focusing on the conservation of marine mammals in Ionian Greece. The IDP was first conducted from a research vessel (1991-1994), then based on the island of Ithaca (1995), and subsequently transferred to the island of Kalamos (1996-2008). The project field base is currently located in Vonitsa (2006 – present), on the southern shore of the Ambracian Gulf.
The IDP is dedicated to the study and conservation of three target species, common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), common dolphins (Delphinus delphis), and Mediterranean monk seals (Monachus monachus). The aim of the project is to produce estimates of the populations’ abundance, to investigate species distribution and habitat preferences, and to study the species’ behavioural ecology and their interaction with fisheries. Since the early years, the project has also expanded its geographic coverage and nowadays the research is concentrated in three Natura 2000 study areas of Western Greece: the Gulf of Ambracia, the Inner Ionian Sea Archipelago and the Paxos and Antipaxos Islands and surrounding waters.
In the Inner Ionian Sea Archipelago site (Natura 2000 code GR2220003) common dolphins dramatically declined between 1995 and 2007, which has been convincingly linked to overfishing, although impact resulting from an ever-increasing nautical tourism should not be ruled out. In the same area, bottlenose dolphins are found in relatively small numbers, even if they seem to have stable trends. Of about 120 individuals photo-identified, approximately one quarter have shown high levels of site fidelity.
The Ionian Sea is one of the few areas of the Mediterranean Sea where the monk seal can still be predictably encountered, suggesting that the area is part of the species’ core habitat. The IDP has gathered strong evidence that some distinctive areas provide key monk seal breeding habitats that appear to be of great importance for the conservation of the species on a Mediterranean scale. The main threats faced by this endangered species in the Inner Ionian Sea Archipelago derive, to a large extent, from disturbance by boat-based tourism, and possibly also from negative interactions with fishing activities.
The IDP monk seal photo-identification catalogue is updated on a yearly basis and is available online. On-going monk seal research incorporates new technologies, namely UAVs (drones) and soundtraps (passive acoustic monitoring) in collaboration with the Marine Mammal Research Program of the University of Hawaii and with the Sea Mammal Research Unit of the University of St. Andrews, respectively.
In the semi-enclosed, highly degraded, Gulf of Ambracia (Natura 2000 code GR2110001) the IDP studies a resident population of 150 common bottlenose dolphins that display a unique behaviour and ecology. The research documents how the local dolphin community interacts with its environment and how human activities may influence its conservation status. This work led to the listing of the Bottlenose Dolphin Gulf of Ambracia subpopulation as Critically Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
In the waters surrounding the islands of Paxos and Antipaxos (Natura 2000 code GR2230004) a series of preliminary opportunistic surveys started in 2015. Since 2020, these waters became the third IDP’s study area. Data gathered in these years showed that bottlenose, common and striped dolphins are regularly present, and monk seals are occasionally sighted around the numerous caves in the western side of Paxos island. In the western limit of the Nat2000 site, where the slope is more pronounced and waters drop beyond 1,000 m depth, a few Cuvier’s beaked whales have also been spotted.
Conservation actions
In addition to making the results of its research projects available to marine conservation and management activities, Tethys’ members are actively participating in the international conservation process in collaboration with many intergovernmental organisations, including the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean, the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS), the International Whaling Commission (IWC), the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the Society for Marine Mammalogy, and the European Cetacean Society. As members of the IUCN Red List Authority for cetaceans, and in collaboration with the Red List Secretariat, Tethys' experts have contributed to the inclusion in the Red List of Threatened Species of a number of Mediterranean taxa, such as the regional sub-populations of fin whales, short-beaked common dolphins, sperm whales, Risso’s dolphins, common bottlenose dolphins, and the spinetail devil ray (Mobula mobular).
In terms of practical conservation on the ground, based on the results of its research cruises in 1987-89 Tethys first conceived and proposed the creation of an iconic protected area, the Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals, the world’s first marine protected area established beyond national jurisdiction. With the support of the European Association Rotary for the Environment, and in collaboration with the NGO Europe Conservation, on 2 March 1991 Tethys presented the "Pelagos Sanctuary" idea to H.S.H. the Prince Rainier III of Monaco. This event originated a long process whereby three nations (France, Italy and the Principality of Monaco), with the intervening support of several environmental NGOs in France and Italy, were able to finally agree on an international treaty signed in Rome on 25 November 1999.
Tethys was also the first proponent of a Dolphin Reserve off the island of Lošinj (Croatia), which however no longer exists. Having been established by Croatia in 2006, the reserve was met with such a strong opposition by local stakeholders that its confirmation was torpedoed in 2009.
Tethys is also contributing to the conservation of the Endangered Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus). Having catalysed the support to the plight of the Mediterranean pinniped by the Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation, Tethys joined efforts with WWF Greece in a long-term project, CYCLADES LIFE+, co-financed by the European Commission, the Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation, the BlueMarine Foundation, and the Ensemble Foundation. The project envisages the involvement of the local communities of the islands of Syros and Andros (Greece) in the co-management and participation in the protection of the local marine biodiversity, particularly on and around the uninhabited island of Gyaros. This island hosts the Mediterranean's largest surviving colony of monk seals, as well as important colonies of threatened marine birds. Tethys' expertise has also contributed to the formulation of a national strategy and action plan for the conservation of the Mediterranean monk seal in Greece, and to the Regional Strategy for the conservation of monk seals in the Mediterranean, adopted by the Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention during their 18th Ordinary Meeting in Istanbul in 2013.
Tethys is currently leading the development of the concept of Important Marine Mammal Areas (IMMAs), in cooperation with the IUCN Marine Mammals Protected Areas Task Force (MMPA TF) and Whale and Dolphin Conservation. Defined as discrete portions of habitat important to marine mammal species or populations, IMMAs have the potential to be delineated and managed for conservation. IMMAs consist of areas that may merit place-based protection and/or monitoring and are identified on a region-by-region basis. The First Mediterranean Region Important Marine Mammal Areas IMMA Workshop, held in Chania, Crete (Greece), 24–28 October 2016, was organised by Tethys in cooperation with ACCOBAMS. Eight more regions have been assessed for the presence of IMMAs since 2017, encompassing the Indian Ocean, the South Pacific Ocean, the Southern Ocean and the Southwestern Atlantic, in addition to the Black and Caspian Seas.
Public awareness and education actions
A fundamental aspect of Tethys’ contribution to marine conservation is public awareness, achieved through the institute’s presence on social media and public television, articles, lectures, conferences, shows, and museum installations. Tethys has been involving thousands of people from across the world in its citizen science programmes through its long-term projects. CSR and IDP are among the world’s longest standing programmes of citizen science.
Other communication initiatives were:
● “Digital Whales” (September 2019 - December 2020), an augmented-reality project at the Civic Aquarium of Milan, launched together with Verdeacqua, and funded by Fondazione Cariplo. During the Covid pandemic the exhibit was available online.
● “Cetacei Fai Attenzione” (“Be aware of cetaceans”, 2018 – 2020), a public awareness and citizen science project mainly sponsored by FAI Fondo Ambiente Italiano (Italian Fund for the Environment), with the collaboration of the Italian Coast Guard. Sightings of Mediterranean species were collected from owners of pleasure boats, whale watching platforms, and several organisations. Posters and leaflets presenting a code of conduct when approaching cetaceans were distributed.
● “Missione Pelagos”, an educational project centered around the Pelagos Sanctuary with a focus on its whales and dolphins, aimed at the dissemination of science and conservation among kids of elementary and middle schools. The use of the website is proposed to Italian municipalities that joined the Partnership Charter of the Pelagos Sanctuary. Missione Pelagos was supported by the Soroptimists Club of Italy.
● “Marine Ecomed” (MARINE Education and COmmunication network on the MEDiterranean (2018-2021), a project created through the support of the Erasmus+ EU Program, in collaboration with IUAV University of Venice, Aix Marseille University, University of Thessaloniki, Submon and iSea. The objective was to build an international strategic partnership to enhance research and education in the subject of sustainable marine management and communication strategies, within the Mediterranean unique natural and socio-economic context. The educational materials included a MOOC on Planning and management of marine and coastal areas and Ocean literacy, and a Handbook on Marine education and communication in the Mediterranean.
● Tethys was also involved as a participant in a project named "Thalassa Campaign: Learn, Act, Protect - Awareness, Educational and Participation Campaign for Marine Mammals in Greece", financed by the European Commission. The project (2010 - 2013) integrated public awareness, environmental education campaigns and numerous participatory actions in order to engage the Greek public in an effort to actively protect marine mammals and their natural environment in Greek waters.
Organisation structure
The formal structure of the Tethys Research Institute is that of an association incorporated within the Italian law. The main governing body is the Assembly of Members, which elects the board of directors and the President. The work of Tethys is based on the collaboration of approximately 30 members and tens of assistants. Tethys’ funding derives from government grants, private donors, national and European Commission programmes, and from citizen science programmes.
References
External links
Missione Pelagos
CetaceiFAIattenzione
Tethys Research Institute shipboard survey cetacean sightings 1986-2012
OBIS-SEAMAP
GBIF
EMODNET
INTERCET
Thalassa Campaign
Fin whale, Mediterranean subpopulation (Red List)
Short-beaked common dolphin, Mediterranean subpopulation (Red List)
Common bottlenose dolphin, Mediterranean subpopulation (Red List)
Sperm whale, Mediterranean subpopulation (Red List)
Spinetail devil ray (Red List)
Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA)
Associazione Europea Rotary per l'Ambiente
The Ensemble Foundation
Marine_Ecomed MOOC
Marine_Ecomed Handbook
Proposal to develop and evaluate mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of ship strikes to fin and sperm whales in the Pelagos Sanctuary
Mediterranean Monk seal Photoidentification catalogue
Civic Aquarium of Milan
Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara's personal website and blog
Maddalena Jahoda’s personal website
Sources
Tethys Research Institute's website
Tethys’ citizen science projects website
Tethys' blog
Tethys' FaceBook page
Tethys’ Instagram page
Ionian Dolphin Project website
Research institutes in Italy
Animal welfare organisations based in Italy
Nature conservation organisations based in Europe
Cetacean research and conservation
Buildings and structures in Milan
Research institutes established in 1986
Environmental organizations established in 1986
1986 establishments in Italy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvel%20Select
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Marvel Select
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Marvel Select is a line of action figures from the Marvel Universe and Marvel Cinematic Universe manufactured by Diamond Select Toys.
Diamond Select uses the "Select" label for other brands, including Universal Monsters, Star Trek and The Munsters, to indicate the 1:10 scale and comes in similar packaging.
Figures are sculpted in a strict 1:10 scale. Larger characters can stand as tall as 9-10 inches.
History
At its inception in 2002, the line was designed, sold, and marketed by Diamond Select Toys. Development and production was handled by Toy Biz until the company went defunct. Figures were originally limited to Ultimate Marvel and Marvel Knights. Focus was on sculpting over articulation and included large display bases and accessories, sometimes an additional figure, which necessitated large display packaging in the beginning. These pack-ins helped establish a collector-targeted line, although the dioramas were minimized or eliminated once the line began to tackle larger characters such as the Hulk. Packaging features distinctive decoration with comic artwork of each character.
Released
Ultimate Spider-Man with a burglar webbed to a wall base
Punisher with smashed pinball machine, arsenal of weapons and thug victim figure
Elektra with castle tower display base, ninja arsenal and additional hand and leg attachments
Ultimate Captain America with flag, shield and WWII battlefield base
Black Widow (Yelena Belova) with cave wall base, pistol, rifle, knife and storage drums
Origin Wolverine with forest display and wolves
Black Cat with apartment wall base, safe, jewels and unarticulated crawling Spider-Man
Ultimate Iron Man with removable forearm armor and recharging station
Ultimate Hulk with printed scenic city base (Black/Gray initial release/matte gray reissue)
Ultimate Venom (classic Venom variant) with an unmasked Spider-Man webbed to the wall base and symbiote jar
Ultimate Wolverine with injured Magneto
Classic Green Goblin with goblin glider, pumpkin bomb and tied-up unmasked unarticulated Spider-Man accessory
Ultimate Thor with Mjölnir and defeated Giant-Man base
Dr. Doom with goblet hand, pistol and detailed throne with banners
Dr. Octopus with removable flexible tentacles and articulated Spider-Man
Here Comes Tomorrow Phoenix (fiery transparent Phoenix variant) with flame baseEmma Frost (diamond transparent Emma variant) with detailed fireplace and mantle display baseBlack Costume Spider-Man with rooftop gargoyle ledgeShe-Hulk with crushed car (ToyFare poll winner/convention tour exclusive)Ultimate Carnage with Gwen Stacy corpseThanos with alternate Infinity Gauntlet hand and Death (with separate face-mask)Days of Future Past Wolverine with Kate Pryde and wanted poster ruins baseUatu the Watcher with moon standSpider-Woman (first appearance variant with full cowl) with detachable web shot, Hydra Agents and Hydra mansion baseSpider-Woman (Julia Carpenter) 2006 SDCC exclusive with Hydra Agents and Hydra mansion baseMoon Knight with crescent blades and Khonshu statueCloak & Dagger with light knivesIron Spider with rooftop gargoyle ledge (ToyFare exclusive repaint of the Black Costume Spider-Man)Mephisto with throneGhost Rider with fiery highway baseAlien Legends: Skrull and Brood 2-packZombie Spider-Man with detachable leg and Silver Surfer pieces baseZombie Colonel America with removable skull, shield and Silver Surfer pieces baseZombie Hulk with Silver Surfer pieces baseSkrull Elektra and Skrull repaints (2010 SDCC exclusive)Modern Costume Thor with Mjölnir and Asgard baseIncredible Hulk with rubble-strewn baseIron Man with blast-off baseStealth Iron Man (blue Iron Man repaint) with blast-off baseWhat If...?'' Captain America (red-white-and-blue Iron Man repaint) with blast-off base (Big Bad Toy Store exclusive)
Captain America (Bucky Barnes) (unmasked variant) with pistol, canteen, sheathed blade, and eagle ledge
Red Hulk with rubble-strewn base (Big Bad Toy Store exclusive)
Arachne from Best of Marvel Select Series 3, with Hydra Agents and Hydra mansion base
Skrull Three-Pack from Best of Marvel Select Series 3
Captain Marvel (Genis-Vell variant and Genis-Vell variant with Kree navy uniform with pistol) with crashed Skrull ship base
Anti-Venom with symbiote base
Wolverine (first appearance variant) with Weapon X base
Brown Costume Wolverine with samurai armor base (Big Bad Toy Store exclusive)
Unmasked Brown Costume Wolverine]] with samurai armor base (Phat Collectibles/Hastings Entertainment exclusive)
Marvel Girl (Rachel Summers variant) with half of the Xavier mansion gate
X-Men Origins: Wolverine: Wolverine with dumpster
Sabretooth (first appearance variant) with damaged Weapon X facility base
First Appearance Sabretooth with damaged Weapon X facility base (CMDStore.com exclusive)
Daredevil (unmasked variant) with cathedral roof top
Spider-Man with destroyed car base
Iron Man 2: Iron Man Mark VI with armory base
Iron Man 2: Iron Man Mark IV with armory base (Borders exclusive)
Iron Man 2: War Machine blue arc reactor, with Hammer armory base
Iron Man 2: War Machine red arc reactor, with Hammer armory base, (Borders exclusive)
The Thing with printed group scene Fantastic Four base
Abomination with destroyed ground base
Cyclops (X-Factor variant) with interchangeable mask-less head and danger room base
Deadpool (unmasked variant) with rifle, pistol, two swords and two sais with shot-up back alley base
Magneto (no helmet variant) with destroyed Xavier mansion base
Juggernaut (no helmet variant) with printed rubble base
Thor: Loki with Heimdall's sword and half of Bifröst gate base
Thor: Thor with Mjölnir and half of Bifröst gate base
Gambit (long-haired variant) with interchangeable hands, charged-cards, staff and danger room base
Captain America: The First Avenger: Captain America with shield, pistol and half of a Cosmic Cube base
Captain America: The First Avenger: Red Skull with pistol and half of a Cosmic Cube base
Hawkeye with perched Wasp arrow and slain Ultron base (Disney Store exclusive)
Classic Thor with rock base (Disney Store exclusive)
Captain America with platform base (Disney Store exclusive)
Black Widow with Ant-Man and slain Ultron base (Disney Store exclusive)
Colossus with danger room base
Modern Green Goblin with glider base
The Avengers: Hulk
The Avengers: Hawkeye with Pershing Square railing base
The Avengers: Chitauri Footsoldier with Pershing Square railing base
The Avengers: Iron Man Mark VI with interchangeable hands, removable mask and armory base - re-issue of Iron Man 2: Iron Man Mark VI
The Amazing Spider-Man: Lizard
The Amazing Spider-Man: Spider-Man with interchangeable hands and awning base
The Amazing Spider-Man: Unmasked Spider-Man with interchangeable head, hands and awning base (Disney Store exclusive)
The Amazing Spider-Man: Metallic Spider-Man with interchangeable hands and awning base (Disney Store exclusive)
Ultron with Ant-Man and Wasp (fallen heroes) base
Storm (short hair variant) with torch attachment Danger Room base
Unleashed Hulk (Disney Store exclusive)
Flash Thompson as (Agent) Venom with revolver pistol, modern pistol and wreckage base (Disney Store exclusive)
Lizard with brick wall base (Disney Store exclusive)
Barbarian Hulk
Rhino
Venom (Eddie Brock) with interchangeable heads/hands and multiple headed attachment
Nightcrawler with teleportation base
Iron Man 3: Iron Man Mark 42 with interchangeable unmasked head, alternate hands and armory base
Iron Man 3: War Machine with interchangeable unmasked head, shoulder cannon and armory base
Iron Man 3: Iron Patriot with interchangeable unmasked head, shoulder cannon and armory base (Disney Store exclusive)
Iron Man 3: Iron Man Battle damaged Mark 42 with interchangeable unmasked head, alternate hands and armory base (Disney Store exclusive)
The Wolverine: Wolverine with two interchangeable heads, bone claw hands, adamantium claw hands and plain hands and a sword
Thor: The Dark World: Thor with Mjolnir and half of a rocky display base
Silver Surfer with surfboard, energy blasts, infinity gauntlet and energy trail base
Winter Soldier with pistol, machine gun, sniper rifle, crate and shattered window display base (Disney Store exclusive)
Thor: The Dark World: Jane Foster with interchangeable aether possessed head, dark elf sword and half of a rocky display base
The Superior Spider-Man with display base depicting the aftermath of a battle with the Sinister Six (Disney Store exclusive)
Captain America: The Winter Soldier: Captain America in stealth suit with helicarrier-inspired display base
Captain America: The Winter Soldier: Unmasked Battle Damaged Captain America in stealth suit with interchangeable full cowl head and helicarrier-inspired display base (Disney Store exclusive)
The Amazing Spider-Man 2: Unmasked Spider-Man with interchangeable head and hands with web swings (Disney Store exclusive)
The Amazing Spider-Man 2: Spider-Man with interchangeable hands, web swings, fire helmet and fire hose nozzle
Savage Hulk with rubble-strewn base (Disney Store exclusive)
Black Widow with Ant-Man and slain Ultron base (Black repaint of Disney Store exclusive)
Captain America: The Winter Soldier: Falcon with battle damaged helicarrier-inspired display base
The Amazing Spider-Man 2: Spider-Man with interchangeable right hand, web swings and awning base
Electro with transformer tower display base (Disney Store exclusive), also available in two-pack with Spider-Man re-issue and two transformer towers
Zombie Magneto with rubble base and severed green goblin limb
Bleeding Edge Iron Man with a demolished plane wing display base (Disney Store exclusive)
Captain America with unmasked interchangeable head and platform base (Disney Store exclusive)
The Mighty Thor with an alternate head and fist, Mjölnir, spinning Mjölnir accessory and peg stand (Disney Store exclusive)
Cable with a defeated Stryfe base, pistol, shoulder mounted gun, oversized gun, two large guns and a knife.
Carnage (Cletus Kasady) with interchangeable heads and tendrils
Avengers: Age of Ultron: Hulk
Hulkbuster Iron Man (Disney Store exclusive)
Ant-Man: Unmasked Ant-Man (Scott Lang) with interchangeable helmet, hands and unarticulated Ant-Man figurine (Disney Store exclusive)
Ant-Man: Ant-Man (Scott Lang) with interchangeable hands and unarticulated Ant-Man figurine
Avengers: Age of Ultron: Thor repaint from Thor: The Dark World with half of rubble base
Avengers: Age of Ultron: Black Widow with two escrima sticks, pistol and half of rubble base
Zombie Sabretooth with rubble base featuring a damaged chunk of Green Goblin’s Goblin Glider
Doctor Strange with Eye of Agamotto amulet, energy blast and Sanctum Sanctorum window base
The Spectacular Spider-Man with unmasked head, loose mask, interchangeable hands and camera (Disney Store exclusive)
Black Panther with tree base (Disney Store exclusive)
Avenging Captain America with Hydra base (Disney Store exclusive)
Captain America: Civil War: Iron Man with interchangeable hands and part of Avengers Facility base
Captain America: Civil War: Captain America with interchangeable hands and part of Avengers Facility base
Captain America: Civil War: Winter Soldier with rifle, interchangeable hands and part of Avengers Facility base
Captain America: Civil War: Unmasked Captain America with interchangeable hands and part of Avengers Facility base (Disney Store exclusive)
Doctor Strange Dr. Charles Benton/Asmodeus Masked variant with Eye of Agamotto amulet, energy blast and Sanctum Sanctorum window base. (Disney Store exclusive)
Destroyer with interchangeable Odin head and sword
Doctor Strange: Doctor Strange with interchangeable hands, magic sphere and Sanctum Sanctorum window base
Star-Lord with interchangeable unmasked head and hand, two blasters, rock fragment, jet-flame boots, flight stand and interlocking environment base (Disney Store exclusive)
Groot with interlocking environment base (Disney Store exclusive)
Drax with battle axe, sword, interchangeable hands and interlocking environment base (Disney Store exclusive)
Gamora & Rocket Raccoon with three sets of interchangeable hands, sword, knife, laser rifle, two laser pistols; Rocket includes two blasters with the interlocking environment base (Disney Store exclusive)
Lady Deadpool with two katanas, shotgun, waist knife, bazooka, interchangeable hands and base with Headpool.
Planet Hulk with axe and shield (Disney Store exclusive)
Spider-Man: Homecoming: Spider-Man with interchangeable hands and rooftop base.
Spider-Man: Homecoming: Unmasked Spider-Man with interchangeable hands and rooftop base. (Disney Store exclusive)
Daredevil: Daredevil with interchangeable hands, detachable baton, elevator base and flight stand
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2: Star-Lord & Rocket Raccoon with blaster
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2: Drax the Destroyer & Groot with knives
Spider-Gwen with interchangeable hands, defeated robot base and unmasked head
Thor Ragnarok: Gladiator Hulk with interchangeable head and hands with axe and hammer
Thor Ragnarok: Thor with interchangeable hands, swords and lightning effect piece
Thanos with interchangeable head (Disney Store exclusive)
Black Panther: Black Panther with vibranium rock display base and interchangeable hands
Beast with hanging bar attachment danger room base
Avengers: Infinity War: Iron Man Mk50 with interchangeable hands, two sets of nanotech handblades and nano repulsor cannon (Disney Store exclusive)
Venom (Eddie Brock) with interchangeable heads, hands and backpiece tendril attachment (Disney Store exclusive)
Avengers: Infinity War: Spider-Man Iron Spider costume with interchangeable hands
Avengers: Infinity War: Thor & Groot with interchangeable hands, stormbreaker and Groot's handheld videogame
Avengers: Infinity War: Captain America with grass display base, interchangeable hands and shields
Ant-Man and the Wasp: Wasp (Hope van Dyne) with interchangeable hands and miniature Scott Lang Ant-Man & The Wasp figures (Disney Store exclusive)
Ant-Man and the Wasp: Ant-Man (Scott Lang) with interchangeable hands and miniature Hope van Dyne Wasp and Hank Pym as Ant-Man and Sub-Atomic Ant-Man figures (Disney Store exclusive)
Rogue with interchangeable hands, mounted gun attachment danger room base
Psylocke with psy-blade, psy-energy mask effect, interchangeable head and hands and wing chun dummy attachment danger room base
Sandman with interchangeable hands, sand spiked hammer, sand spiked flail with sandstorm base
Captain Marvel: Captain Marvel (Carol Danvers) in Starforce uniform with interchangeable cowl head, hands, blast-off base and Goose
Spider-Man: Far From Home: Spider-Man with Union Jack flag pole and interchangeable hands (Disney Store exclusive)
Avengers: Endgame: Hulk with interchangeable hands (Disney Store exclusive)
Captain Marvel: Captain Marvel (Carol Danvers) with interchangeable cowl head, hands, energy blasts, two flight stands and Goose (Disney Store exclusive)
Avengers: Endgame: Thanos with interchangeable Infinity Gauntlet and blade (Disney Store exclusive)
Avengers: Endgame: Nano-Gauntlet Hulk with interchangeable nano-gauntlet and hands
Avengers: Endgame: Iron Man Mk85 with interchangeable hands, nano-gauntlet and snapping fingers hand
Spider-Man with spider-drone and web shield
Taskmaster with sword, shield, pistol, bow and arrows, interchangeable head and hand (Disney Store exclusive)
Black Widow: Taskmaster with sword, shield, bow and arrows and interchangeable hands.
Carnage (Cletus Kasady) with interchangeable heads and tendrils (Disney Store exclusive)
Immortal Hulk with interchangeable head and hands
The Falcon and the Winter Soldier: Captain America (Sam Wilson) with wing pack, shield and alternate hands
Winter Soldier: (repaint inspired by The Falcon and the Winter Soldier) with pistol, machine gun, sniper rifle, crate and window diorama (Disney Store exclusive)
Agent of Asgard Loki and Kid Loki with staff, sword, dagger, staff and interchangeable arms (Disney Store exclusive)
Iron Man MKVII Silver Centurion armor with interchangeable unmasked heads, hands and blast effects
Human Torch with alternate Toro head, fire effects and flame base
Titanium Man with interchangeable head and hands
WandaVision: Scarlet Witch with interchangeable head, hands and hex effects
Hawkeye (repaint of Avenging Hawkeye with a new color scheme inspired by the Hawkeye Disney+ series) with alternate bandaged head, interchangeable pistol grip hand, crossbow pistol, compound bow and Lucky the Pizza Dog (Disney Store exclusive)
Spider-Man: No Way Home: Black and Gold Spider-Man with alternate hands and 2 web lines (Disney Store exclusive)
Moon Knight (repaint of the previous Moon Knight with a new color scheme inspired by the Moon Knight Disney+ series) with 2 crescent darts and Egyptian temple base (Disney Store exclusive)
Miles Morales: with alternate head, alternate hands, spider-sense attachment, 2 web lines and Spider-Ham figurine (Disney Store exclusive)
Black Panther (repaint of Black Panther with a new color scheme inspired by the comics) with re-used wall base from Black Widow (Disney Store exclusive'')
Beta Ray Bill with Stormbreaker and swinging Stormbreaker accessory
Vision with interchangeable hands and blast accessories
Red Hulk with interchangeable hands
Illuminati Super Skrull with interchangeable hands, head and voice blast effect
Apocalypse with interchangeable weapon attachments
Blade with interchangeable head and hands, knife, sword, club, guns, UV and foldable blade.
Iceman with interchangeable head, hands and belt, ice blast effects and ice base
Mister Fantastic with interchangeable hands, stretched hands, torso extensions, stretched neck, wrap-around base and Ultimate Nullifier
Announced
Invisible Woman
Disney Store Gift sets
All figures were also released individually.
Best of Marvel Select
"Best Of Marvel Select" allowed retailers to re-order popular, sold-out figures, sometimes repainted or repackaged. Arachne and the Skrull 3-Pack were originally offered in this configuration.
External links
Marvelous News Database - Marvel Select Checklist
DiamondSelectToys.com - official DST site
ArtAsylum.com - official DST blog
Facebook - Diamond Select's official Facebook page
@CollectDST - Diamond Select's official Twitter account
References
Marvel Comics action figure lines
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5313207
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Dragonriders%20of%20Pern%20characters
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List of Dragonriders of Pern characters
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Characters in the Dragonriders of Pern series of science fiction novels by Anne McCaffrey.
8th Interval, 9th Pass
Major characters
AIVAS
AIVAS is an advanced computer (Artificial Intelligence Voice Address System). AIVAS was found by Jaxom, Jancis, and Piemur while they were excavating the city called Landing, the original settlement of the ancestors (the original colonists from Dragonsdawn), that had been buried in ash during a volcanic eruption. AIVAS has remained undisturbed since the events of Dragonsdawn some 2,500 years earlier and, in addition to holding a huge volume of stored information long since lost to the Pernese society, claims to be able to eliminate the threat of Thread forever. AIVAS reintroduced many technological advancements to the society. Some people, feeling AIVAS was a threat to their way of life, called it an "abomination" and tried to destroy it, but they were unsuccessful.
F'lar
F'lar is the weyrleader of Benden Weyr and the rider of bronze Mnementh.
F'lar was born Fallarnon, 32 turns before the beginning of the Ninth Pass of the Red Star. His father, F'lon, and his grandfather, S'loner, were both Weyrleaders in their own time. His mother was Larna, who died just after giving birth to him, and he was raised by Manora, the Headwoman at Benden Weyr and mother of his half-brother F'nor.
At the time of his ascension to Weyrleader, Benden Weyr was the only populated weyr on Pern. Like F'lon, F'lar believed that Thread would return to devastate the land. He took responsibility for ensuring that Pern was protected from Thread, and he even promised the Lord Holders that he would destroy Thread completely at its source, the Red Star.
F'lar is a champion of justice, and was involved in a number of knife fights that were fought to protect both his beliefs and those less able to defend themselves. He fought and killed Fax, the self-styled "Lord of Seven Holds", when the visit of dragonriders to his holdings precipitated a challenge to Fax's authority. This victory resulted in the discovery of Lessa of Ruatha Hold as a candidate for the last remaining queen egg, and ultimately the successful Impression of Ramoth. Later, he also fought the oldtimer T'ron (who challenged him when he offered to help another Weyr) and T'kul (whose dragon, Salth, had just died trying to fly the queen Caylith, in contravention of an agreement that only younger Bronzes would have the opportunity).
Mnementh flew Ramoth to establish F'lar's leadership in the weyr, and F'lar and Lessa became lifemates. Together they had a son, F'lessan, whose childhood name was Felessan.
After the discovery of AIVAS, F'lar was one of the champions of the scheme that rid Pern of thread forever.
F'lar has dark hair (later described as greying), and amber eyes that he inherited from his sire, Falloner (F'lon).
F'nor
Famanoran or F'nor is the rider of the brown dragon Canth and was the son of Benden Weyr's former Weyrleader, F'lon, and its current Headwoman, Manora. He was also the half-brother of the current weyrleader, F'lar. He is a wingsecond at Benden.
F'nor is a major character in the books; his most notable deed was his flight to the Red Star in an attempt to destroy Thread at its source. This attempt was unsuccessful, as the Red Star could not support human or dragon life, and almost cost both him and his dragon their lives.
F'nor and Brekke formed a long-term relationship.
F'lessan
F'lessan is the rider of bronze Golanth.
A Benden Weyr native, F'lessan was born as "Felessan", and is the son of the Benden Weyrleaders, F'lar and Lessa. Since Lessa nearly died giving birth to him, he has no full siblings (nor any known half-siblings). Through Lessa, F'lessan is related to Lord Kale of Ruatha Hold, Lessa's late father, who was killed, as well as almost all of Ruathan blood, by Fax.
When he was young, F'lessan befriended young Lord Jaxom, prior to Jaxom's taking on his full duties at the Ruathan Holdship. In his early teens, F'lessan Impressed a bronze, young Golanth, from a clutch of Ramoth and Mnementh, his parents' dragons. Over the Turns, F'lessan and Golanth (called "Golly") became one of the key young dragonpairs that helped to stop Thread from returning. F'lessan also fell in love with Tai, a young Monaco Bay rider of green Zaranth, in The Skies of Pern. He has three sons, including S'lan, a brown rider.
F'lessan later discovered and restored the abandoned Honshu Hold which he claimed and called "Honshu Weyrhold".
F'lessan and his dragon were injured in a skirmish involving felines in The Skies of Pern, but recovered, though his dragon was permanently handicapped.
Jaxom
Jaxom is both a dragonrider and a Lord Holder. He was declared the Lord of Ruatha Hold after his mother's death, and was raised by the ex-dragonrider Lytol. Jaxom caused controversy among the leaders of Pern by Impressing the white dragon, Ruth, when he was eleven years old. Later, he became a hero—although he did not tell anyone at the time—by rescuing a queen egg of Ramoth's (the Benden queen dragon) from the rebellious Oldtimers, who had stolen it in an attempt to repopulate their Weyr. He was also one of the central forces of the movement to banish Thread from Pern forever.
Jaxom is born approximately three Turns (years) before the start of the Ninth Pass of the Red Star, whilst F'lar and F'nor were leading a search for candidates for the last Queen egg of dragon queen Nemorth's final clutch. His mother, Lady Gemma, wife of Fax, dies giving birth to him.
Fax initially agrees to acknowledge Jaxom as the new Lord of Ruatha Hold on the basis on the Hold being unable to adequately provide for its Lord, but threatens to renege on that promise and attacks F'lar. F'lar kills Fax in the duel, leaving Jaxom an orphan.
Deelan, the mother of Dorse, is his wet nurse and foster mother. Until Jaxom is old enough to take his position as Lord Holder, Ruatha is left in the hands of Lytol, a former dragonrider and Craftmaster weaver, who acts as mentor and guardian to Jaxom throughout his younger years.
On a visit to Benden Weyr, Jaxom and his friend Felessan (later, F'lessan, and also the son of F'lar and Lessa) take the chance to spy upon a clutch of Ramoth's eggs, and Jaxom expresses concern about the smallest egg and touches it. On their way back, exploring the back tunnels of the Weyr, the two boys discover a previously unknown room, with diagrams from ancient times and a microscope.
When Jaxom returns to the Weyr for the Hatching, the white egg fails to hatch, and Jaxom impresses Ruth when he breaks the egg's unusually tough shell and inner membrane (it is later thought that touching the egg is what caused Jaxom to be able to sense the unhatched Ruth and Lessa later includes allowing the new candidates to touch the eggs before hatching, which reduces the amount of confusion and injury of candidates during the hatching process). The Impression is considered a nuisance by many, as Jaxom has responsibilities as Lord Holder to uphold, and some feel it might create a conflict of interests. Also, a dragon and its rider must live in a Weyr, but Jaxom as a future Lord Holder must live in his hold, and clearly he can not live in two places at the same time. This problem is sorted by the pragmatic Lytol who points out that any place a dragon lives is by definition a weyr, so if Ruth were to live in Ruatha's stables, the stables become a weyr. Ruth is not expected to mature to a size which would allow him to join a Thread-fighting wing of a weyr, which would take Jaxom away from his responsibilities in Ruatha, so the two are allowed to return to Ruatha.
Growing up, Ruth becomes his main friend, but once allowed to fly, and then to go between, he finds friends among other students at the Harper Hall, Smithcraft and in the Weyr. He also learns how to go between time as well as place, and, despite thinking that it would bring down recriminations upon him, to flame Thread. Because Ruth is especially adept at 'Timing it', he and Jaxom play a major part in the end of Threadfall forever.
Jaxom falls in love with Sharra, the sister of Southern Holder Toric and expert Healer, who nurses him back to health when Jaxom succumbs to a potentially fatal illness known as "Firehead". His feelings for her are reciprocated, and Sharra, through their relationship, becomes the only other person who can hear Ruth's thoughts. Even though Toric has plans for his sister that do not include "a table-sized Hold in the North", Jaxom and Ruth fly into the Southern area and rescue Sharra; their relationship is then grudgingly accepted by Toric, and they are later married at Ruatha Hold. Together they had two boys whose names were Jarrol and Shawan.
Lessa
Lessa: a small dark powerful woman.
Lessa is Benden Weyrwoman during the Ninth Pass, and rider of the gold queen dragon Ramoth. Lessa's psychic ability to influence the thoughts and actions of others plays a role in various parts of the series.
Lessa is the daughter of Kale and Adessa, Lord and Lady of Ruatha Hold. Kale was an amiable man and in ordinary times was considered the ideal Lord Holder. However, Kale underestimated the greed of his neighbor, Fax, Lord Holder of High Reaches, who had conquered five other holds since claiming his own. Kale's over-optimism and trusting nature resulted in his death and almost all of the Ruathan bloodline. Lessa escaped her family's massacre because she hid in the watch-wher's den. According to the books, Lessa was 11 turns (years) old at the time of the attack, although in DragonFlight, F’lar guesses she could not have been over 10 years old at the time.
Lessa was already headstrong and independent. Her father mentions her as "stubborn at only four [years old]", and the Harper Robinton is amused, years later, when she falls asleep during a marching song.
Lessa spends a decade as a drudge in Ruatha's kitchens, where she survives abuse and subtly undermines a hold which should otherwise thrive, to gain revenge against Fax. She bides her time, hoping Fax will renounce the hold or be killed so that she can step forward and claim the Hold as the only survivor of Ruathan Blood. When Benden dragonriders arrive in Search for a woman with the telepathic talents to Impress the new queen dragonet, the dragons feel her aura. She uses her psychic abilities to force the dragonrider F'lar to a duel with Fax, which F'lar wins.
Lessa reluctantly gives up her right to inherit Ruatha Hold to the newborn Jaxom. Jaxom is the son of her distant cousin Gemma, whom Fax married to give his claim to Ruatha legitimacy. She travels to Benden Weyr and becomes Pern's only Weyrwoman, and joins forces with Weyrleader F'lar to fight the resurgence of the voracious alien life-form called "Thread".
Lessa's most notable achievement is her rediscovery that dragons can travel between times as well as places. She makes daring use of this skill to make a single jump back 400 Turns into the past in a search for help to fight Thread in her time. F'lar believes she has jumped to her death and is left in despair in the present, but Lessa succeeds in persuading the dragonriders at the end of the Eighth Pass to travel with her to the future. These "Oldtimers" and the riders of Lessa's time resume the battle against Thread's menace to life on Pern. Several of these Oldtimers later become an additional threat to Lessa's and F'lar's quest to help Pern survive the present Pass.
Lessa is at first a seemingly unsociable and cynical personality because of the abuse she endured after Fax's conquest of Ruatha. She grows and matures during the course of the books into one of Pern's greatest leaders and a loving mate to F'lar. Her short temper does become famous on Pern and she continues to use her strong psychic ability to influence other people's moods and perceptions. Lessa is one of the few on Pern who can speak to all of the dragons.
Lessa is described as petite, almost childlike, in figure with long, thick black hair. Her queen Ramoth is the largest dragon on the planet.
F'lessan is her only child. Lessa almost dies in childbirth and additional pregnancies are assessed as too risky. This leaves Lessa somewhat bitter and she regrets in one book that she was not like Kylara, another Weyrwoman known for promiscuity, who bore several children but wanted none of them.
The Skies of Pern states that Lessa left F'lessan's care to his fostermother and never paid much attention to him. Manora replies this was expected, since she was Weyrwoman and had other duties.
Menolly
Menolly is a tall, thin, dark-haired girl.
The youngest child of Yanus, Holder of Half-Circle Sea Hold, she assisted Hold Harper Petiron (Master Robinton's father) in teaching the Hold children their learning songs, wrote her own songs and secretly dreamed of becoming a Harper, though her isolated, conservative Hold thought that was improper for girls. Her parents grudgingly allowed her to continue teaching music to the Hold children after Petiron's death because their community had no other Harper; however, they forbade her to write any music or sing or play any she had written, again because in their view Harpering was not for girls. She was forbidden to make music at all once replacement Harper Elgion arrived; in fact, her father severely beat her when she was caught "tuning" - playing her own compositions, but only a few bars - in front of the Hold children before Elgion's arrival. When Menolly seriously slashed her left hand while gutting fish, her mother deliberately allowed the wound to heal incorrectly to prevent her from playing again, and Yanus told Elgion that the one who had taken over the Teachings after Petiron died had been a boy fosterling who had returned to his own Hold. Menolly ran away from the Hold and took refuge in a cliff-side cave where, during a Threadfall, she unintentionally Impressed nine fire-lizards: gold Beauty, bronzes Rocky and Diver, browns Mimic, Lazybones and Brownie, blue Uncle and greens Auntie One and Auntie Two (later in the series it is also revealed that she again unintentionally Impressed another bronze fire-lizard, Poll). Menolly lived Holdless in the cave with her fire lizards, teaching her friends to enjoy music and to sing, until one day she was caught outside far from her cave during Threadfall, and while trying to outrun the falling Thread she was rescued by a brown dragon rider, who brought her to Benden Weyr, where she was befriended by Benden Headwoman Manora and fellow fire lizard owner Mirrim and came to the attention of Lessa herself when it was discovered that Menolly had Impressed nine fire lizards. Menolly was also responsible for finding and providing a clutch of fire lizard eggs for Benden to distribute to certain individuals. Masterharper Robinton, who had been searching for the very talented apprentice that Petiron had mentioned in messages to the Harper Hall and who had been promised two fire lizard eggs by Benden Weyr, accidentally stumbled across her there after a Hatching, was alerted as to her identity by Harper Elgion (who had discovered the truth about Menolly and was also present at the Benden Hatching) and immediately brought her to the Harper Hall.
There, she befriended the mentally-challenged drudge Camo and was befriended by precocious apprentice Piemur, female student Audiva, Harper Hall Headwoman Silvina and Journeyman Harper Sebell. Not everyone approved of a girl becoming a Harper, and her talent and her fire-lizards brought the envy of the female students down on her head. Her talent and skills caused her to rise from apprentice to journeyman just a week after her arrival at the Harper Hall. Songs helped and were used to transmit news and current events throughout Pern, and Menolly could compose a song out of nearly anything. She wrote many popular songs, including "The Fire Lizard/Queen's Song" and "Brekke's Song". Her knowledge of and expertise with fire lizards also brought her to the attention of Lord Groghe of Fort Weyr, himself the companion of queen fire lizard Merga.
Later, Sebell came to fall in love with Menolly (a feeling which was intensified when his queen fire lizard Kimi and her bronze fire lizard Diver mated), but she deeply loved and revered Master Robinton. Sebell was able to accept that "Menolly's heart will never be his alone, he will always have to share a place with her love of music and the Masterharper". Menolly married Sebell some time after he became Masterharper following Masterharper Robinton nearly fatal heart attack and retirement. They had three children—Robse, Olos and Lemisa. Menolly went on to become a Master Harper and helped with the movement to banish Thread from Pern forever. Her songs were very important to Pern's evolving society.
Piemur
Piemur, originally the son of a herdsman in Crom, is taken to the Harper Hall as an apprentice due to the excellent voice he possesses, though he has little aptitude in other Harper skills such as instrument-making and transcription. Piemur is chosen as the special apprentice of Master Shonagar, the Master of Voice at that time. Due to his small stature, he is forced to develop other talents in order to be able to enjoy his residence at the Harper Hall, and becomes known as a person of constant mischief and disregard for Hall regulations.
When during Dragonsinger Menolly arrives at the Harper Hall (though both this and Dragonsong are viewed primarily through the eyes of Menolly), Piemur is one of the first to get to know her. At first this interest is merely curiosity regarding Menolly's possession of nine fire lizards, though it grows to a close mutual friendship throughout Dragonsinger, the second book in the Harper Hall trilogy. Piemur has doubts about his future in the Harper Hall, unsure what will become of him when his voice breaks. He shares these doubts with Menolly, who convinces him to concentrate more on the present.
At the start of Dragondrums, Piemur's voice begins to break. While his voice is in transition he is unable to sing. He becomes the special apprentice of Masterharper Robinton himself, but this is kept secret. Piemur is publicly assigned to the Drum Tower (a communications system using tympani-style drums and complicated drum measures to communicate over long distances) as a drum apprentice under Drum-Master Olodkey. Robinton's plan for Piemur is to use his natural talents to gather information that could be useful for the planning the future of Pern. These missions include a visit to a nearby sapphire mine, where Piemur discovers that the exiled Oldtimers are taking gemstones without payment.
The other apprentice and journeyman harpers in the Drumheights know Piemur's reputation, so they harass him according to the mischief they expect in return. Piemur believes that this is a test, in which he is supposed to remain silent about the bullying in order to prove his discretion. He further antagonizes his fellow drum-apprentices by rapidly surpassing them in knowledge of the drum code, demonstrating a real aptitude for communication-drumming. The combination of these two factors leads to the other apprentices greasing the steps leading to the Drumheights: Piemur slips on the steps while carrying a message. Taking a dangerous fall, he is lucky to escape with nothing worse than a severe concussion. Following this incident, he is removed from the Drum Tower.
When Piemur recovers from his fall, Master Robinton assigns him a mission with Journeyman Sebell. They are to join the Gather at Lord Meron's Hold (disguised as cattle traders, ironically enough), to report the commoners' mood concerning Lord Meron's association with the banned Oldtimers as well as the Lord Holder himself, who is slowly dying of a wasting disease. One of the first things they notice is the extreme number of fire lizards in the Hold, mostly greens. They deduce that the fire lizards are the payment Lord Meron has been receiving from the Oldtimers for the goods he trades them. After a series of events, Piemur finds himself being chased around Nabol Hold, unable to escape, with a fire lizard egg stolen from Lord Meron's hearth that he believes is a queen egg. He hides in a sack in a small storage room and promptly falls fast asleep, presumably due to his recent head injury.
While Piemur sleeps with the egg tucked warmly in his shirt, the sacks are transported between to Southern Weyr, where the Oldtimers reside, and Piemur escapes without being discovered. He flees the area until the fire lizard, which he was correct to assume was a queen, has hatched. He names the fire lizard Farli (possibly as a coincidence, this has the same pronunciation as the Scandinavian "danger" – "farlig", "farleg", etc.).
On his way to Southern Hold (inhabited by pioneers from the Northern Continent, not the Oldtimers of the Southern Weyr), Piemur meets Sharra, a Healer from Southern, and helps her gather plants and herbs used by the Healers, and with the research she is conducting on the native plants of the Southern Continent. They return to the Hold on the same day that Menolly and Sebell, who until now have been searching the Northern Continent for him, arrive at Southern Hold. As there is no reason for Piemur to immediately return to the Northern Continent – his voice has not yet settled into an adult placement and Masterharper Robinton was interested in exploring the Southern Continent regardless of where Piemur was – he is promoted by Robinton to the rank of drum-journeyman and instructed to stay and map the coast of the Southern Continent. Holder Toric accepts him into the Southern Hold.
Along with Jaxom, Lord of Ruatha Hold and rider of the White Dragon Ruth and Sharra, Piemur takes part in the construction of Cove Hold and later in the rediscovery of Landing, the first human settlement on Pern, and thus the uncovering of the AIVAS and all subsequent events.
Piemur is involved in a large amount of the controversial "progress" that occurs after the awakening of the AIVAS, and together with Jancis, granddaughter of Mastersmith Farandel and a Smithcraft Master in her own right, rebuilds one of the first computers. Piemur later marries Jancis, and has a son with her, Pierjan.
Robinton
Robinton is a central character in many different Dragonriders of Pern books set in the Ninth Pass. When Anne McCaffrey first wrote about him in Dragonflight, his character was a sketchy representation of the Harper Craft Hall. In Dragonquest his personality became more fully developed and this process was continued throughout Dragonsong, Dragonsinger and Dragondrums. In The Masterharper of Pern, the story of young Robinton is the canvas for developing the backstory alluded to throughout the original Pern Chronicles.
The early stories of Robinton's life allowed McCaffrey to develop characters such as F'lon, father of F'lar and F'nor, and Silvina, Camo and Shonagar of the Harper Hall. McCaffrey also used him to expand the story of Fax, allowing Robinton to provide an extra perspective on scenes that were some of her earliest writings.
Robinton, as the Masterharper, embodies McCaffrey's ideals for the Harper Hall. A musical prodigy, he surpassed both his parents by composing popular songs throughout his childhood, and becoming a Journeyman harper at fifteen. He was faced with professional jealousy (which caused estrangement from his father when young), similar to that which challenged Harpers Menolly and Piemur in Dragonsinger and Dragondrums.
A wise diplomat, teacher and leader, he helped the Benden Weyrleaders, Lessa and F'lar, deal with the return of Thread and the Oldtimers, gaining the love and respect of everyone on Pern. Of course, McCaffrey ensured that he had redeemable character flaws, such as his great fondness for wine (particularly Benden wine), which could be said to have saved his life in one point in The White Dragon, when he suffered a heart attack.
When Robinton eventually stepped down as Masterharper and retired to Cove Hold on the Southern Continent, he became close friends with Lytol, former Lord Warder of Ruatha Hold and a former Benden brown rider (mentioned as a green rider in Dragonflight), as well as D'ram, rider of bronze Tiroth and a former Oldtimer Weyrleader of Ista. This friendship reflects the lessening of the isolation and rigidly controlled autonomy of Weyr, Hold and Hall, which was a constant theme of the original Pern Chronicles.
Upon the discovery of Landing and the Artificial Intelligence Voice-Address System (AIVAS/Aivas) at the end of The Renegades of Pern, Robinton, D'ram and Lytol took over joint administration of the Landing facility, leading the efforts to both end the onslaught of Thread and to modernize Pernese society. In All the Weyrs of Pern, "traditionalist" Pernese attempted to end what they perceived as AIVAS' "destructive" influence on their society by drugging Robinton's food and drink, kidnapping him and holding him for ransom in exchange for AIVAS' destruction. Robinton was quickly found and rescued, but the effects of the overdose took its toll on Robinton's health. After the Red Star's orbit was altered and ensuring that the current Pass would be the last, he died peacefully in the AIVAS chamber, shortly after AIVAS shut itself down. His fire-lizard Zair, like a dragon following his rider, died with him.
Robinton was laid to rest in the waters of his beloved Cove Hold, and every dragonrider, Lord Holder and Craftmaster on the planet turned out for the service. His death was a metaphor for the end of the great struggle with Thread, which had consumed the lives of all Pernese since shortly after Landing on Pern.
Mnementh
Mnementh (pronounced "nementh") is the bronze dragon of F'lar, the Weyrleader of Benden Weyr during the Ninth Pass. Mnementh is the sole mate of gold dragon Ramoth and thus the sire or ancestor of many dragons born during the Ninth Pass. He is also the second-largest dragon on Pern, after Ramoth (though Ramoth is not much larger), although first Menolly's fire-lizards, then Robinton's fire-lizard Zair, and then later still Jaxom's Ruth mistakenly describes him as "the biggest one," and "the biggest dragon on all Pern".
Ramoth
Ramoth is the gold queen dragon of Lessa, the Weyrwoman of Benden Weyr during the Ninth Pass. She is the mate of Mnementh, and is the largest dragon on Pern. For a period of time at the beginning of the Ninth Pass, Ramoth was the only remaining queen dragon on all of Pern, until the queen Prideth was hatched from her first clutch. Because the two queens would not be able to repopulate the empty remaining Weyrs in time for the approaching Pass, Lessa and Ramoth jumped back in time 400 Turns to bring forward the members of the empty Weyrs.
Ruth
Ruth is the only white dragon described in the series, and is much smaller than the other dragons in the series' Ninth Pass timeline. In Dragonquest, Ruth hatches near the end of the novel. The dragon's story is expanded upon in the novel The White Dragon.
In Dragonquest, the gold dragon Ramoth lays a clutch of eggs, one of which McCaffrey describes as small with an unusually tough shell. The weyrfolk of Benden Weyr assume that the egg will not hatch, and begin to depart from the Hatching Ground when all the other hatchling dragonets have impressed with human dragonriders. Lord Jaxom jumps from the bleachers to the Hatching Ground to assist the unborn dragonet by breaking open the shell and inadvertently Impresses the dragon, immediately causing a major uproar among the Lord Holders and the dragonriders.
After Impression, the Council decides that it has no problem with the young Lord's bond with Ruth, as it is believed that Ruth will not live long. He does survive to maturity, although he is much smaller than the other dragons. In order to avoid the animosity of the Lord Holders, Lessa, F'lar and N'ton of Fort Weyr carefully guide the Lord and dragon. Jaxom is able to fly on Ruth and is trained to go between.
Jaxom becomes frustrated with various restrictions, such as the inability to take Hold of Ruatha and the refusal of Dragonrider status. He rebels, and attempts to teach Ruth to chew firestone. He discovers Ruth's innate ability to orient himself in time while practicing going between. After Jaxom and Ruth are scored by Thread in the course of their recovery of the queen egg stolen from Benden Weyr by the Oldtimers (though they manage to keep what they were really doing when they were scored a secret for a long time), the Weyrfolk consent to give him firestone training and the pair are trained to fight Thread by the riders at Fort Weyr.
In addition to his small size, Ruth is notable for his hide, which though commonly regarded as white, appears to be composed of pale hues from all dragons. It is possible that Ruth is a neuter, and indeed "he" never shows an interest in mating. In addition to his physical attributes, Ruth is unusually willing to speak with humans besides his own rider, and has close and friendly relationships with fire lizards, as well as a long memory and heightened intelligence. He also has a heightened ability to travel between to different times with the knowledge of exactly when and where he is in time and space.
Readis
Readis is the founder of the Dolphineer Hall and the son of Aramina and Jayge.
Sebell
Sebell is Robinton's successor as MasterHarper of Pern, companion of fire-lizard Kimi and husband of Menolly.
Sharra
Grew up in Southern Hold in the Southern Continent, she is a Journeywoman Healer, sister of Holder Toric (later Lord Holder Toric), and spouse to Jaxom, Lord Holder of Ruatha. Together they have two children. She was essential to the annihilation of thread. When Jaxom was very ill with fire-head, an illness about which little is known save that the causal agent (whatever it is) is present on Southern beaches in the early spring, Ruth felt that it was necessary for her to be able to hear him. He links with Sharra and can hear her as well as Jaxom, Brekke, or Lessa. Before her marriage to Jaxom and moving to Ruatha Hold, she regularly supplied Master Oldive, Masterhealer of Pern, with exotic plants and extracts he uses in drug preparations.
Dragonriders and Weyrfolk
Brekke and gold Wirenth (deceased) – junior weyrwoman at Southern Weyr, weyrmate of F'nor. Like Lessa, possesses the rare ability to hear all dragons. After the death of her queen dragon, Brekke became emotionally withdrawn; at Lessa's insistence, she took part in a Hatching at Benden in the hope that she would re-Impress the Hatching queen, but her fire lizard Berd refused to allow her to Impress, which caused her to emerge from her depression. She assisted Sharra in nursing Jaxom when he contracted Fire-head, and when Robinton had his first heart-attack after the duel between F'lar and T'kul she flew to Ista on Ruth to help.
Carola and gold Feyrith – weyrwoman at Benden, once-weyrmate of C'rob, weyrmate of S'loner, mother of Larna.
Cosira and gold Caylith - weyrwoman of Ista.
C'rob and bronze Spakinth – wingleader at Benden; Spakinth flew Feyrith before Chendith.
D'ram and bronze Tiroth – Oldtimer Weyrleader at Ista, then Southern. Early supporter of F'lar, lives at Cove Hold with Robinton and Lytol following retirement. Co-administrator of Landing with Robinton and Lytol, he is respected widely as a fair man.
F'lon (Falloner) and bronze Simanith – the weyrleader of Benden Weyr and the rider of bronze Simanith. F'lon is mentioned in Dragonflight, the first book published in the series, as the father of two of its main characters, F'lar and F'nor. Not much was known about him until Anne McCaffrey wrote a prequel, The Masterharper of Pern. In this book, which is set in the Eighth Interval, he is called as Falloner, as he was known as a child, through the eyes of his best friend Robinton. Like his father S'loner, F'lon believed that deadly Thread would return to devastate Pern, although it had not fallen for hundreds of years, and endeavored to prepare Pern for its menace. F'lon's first love was Larna, a girl who he grew up with in Benden Weyr. After she died giving birth to F'lar, he became the partner of Manora, the weyr's Headwoman, and later (to his disgust) the weyrwoman Jora. F'lon is similar to his son F'lar in several ways, including his curly dark hair and unusual amber eyes. F'lon doesn't have his "head screwed on" as well as F'lar, and often does foolish things out of emotion. This led to his murder by Gifflen, an assassin hired by Fax, the greedy "Lord of Seven Holds".
G'bear and Winlath, Weyrleader at High Reaches Weyr after M'rand retires.
G'dened and Barnath, Weyrleader at Ista, son of D'ram.
G'narish and bronze Gyarmath – Igen Weyrleader.
J'fery and Willerth, Weyrleader of Telgar after R'mart retires.
K'van and bronze Heth – Weyrleader at Southern after D'ram.
Kylara (insane after her dragon's death) and gold Prideth (deceased) – the headstrong Weyrwoman of the Southern Weyr, later moving to High Reaches Weyr when the Southern Continent is given to the rebellious Oldtimers who refuse to acknowledge Benden as their sovereign. Kylara is known for flouting sexual and political customs, such as openly taking a lover from among the Lord Holders (Lord Meron of Nabol) rather than maintaining the polite fiction that her Weyrleader, T'bor, is her lover. She also finds much of the domestic work of the Weyrwoman's office distasteful, preferring to leave day-to-day management of the Weyr to the junior gold riders, including Brekke and Vanira (also called Varena). When Brekke's gold Wirenth rises to mate, Kylara is engaged in an intimate liaison with Meron at Nabol (which triggers her own dragon's mating frenzy). Prideth overflies Wirenth and the two dragons battle to the death. Both women survive, but Kylara is left in a childlike state and Brekke suffers deep depression. Kylara is the full-blood sister of Lord Larad of Telgar Hold, the daughter of Lord Tarathel, and the half-sister of Lady (later "Lady Holdless") Thella and Lady Famira of Lemos Hold.
Larna – mother of Fallaron (F'lar) dies two days after Fallaron is born.
Manora – headwoman of Benden Weyr and the mother of Famanoran (F'nor).
Mirrim and green Path – Benden Weyr, weyrmate of T'gellan and Monarth and Brekke's fosterling. Mirrim Impressed three firelizards and is notorious for speaking first and thinking later.
N'ton (Naton) and bronze Lioth – Fort Weyrleader, weyrmate of Margatta and Ludeth.
R'mart and bronze Branth – Telgar Weyrleader.
R'gul (Rangul) and Hath, Weyrleader at Benden before F'lar.
S'loner and Chendith – Weyrleader at Benden before F'lon, weyrmate of Carola and Jora, father of F'lon and Bravonner.
Tai and green Zaranth – rider at Monaco Bay Weyr and weyrmate of F'lessan.
T'bor and bronze Orth – Southern, then High Reaches, Weyrleader.
T'gellan and bronze Monarth – originally Wing Leader at Benden, later Weyrleader of Monaco Bay Weyr; weyrmate of Mirrim and Talina.
T'lion and bronze Gadareth – Monaco Bay Weyr. T'lion helped to re-establish contact with the Monaco Bay dolphins.
Oldtimers
This is the derogatory term used for those from 400 Turns past called by Lessa and Ramoth into the present Turn. Some of them were exiled to the Southern Continent because they were unable to accept the leadership of the current-day dragonriders. The term is only usually used in reference to the older Oldtimers that were exiled south:
Bedella – Weyrwoman of Telgar and rider of gold Solth. She's known to be very unintelligent. The woman likes music, and is R'mart's Weyrmate.
B'zon – bronzerider who let his dragon, Ranilth, chase gold Caylith at Ista.
D'ram – rider of bronze Tiroth; Weyrleader at Ista Weyr; an ally of F'lar, later, along with Robinton and Lytol, became an administrator of Landing, the original settlement of the original colonists before they were forced out by a volcanic eruption. He was not one of those exiled south. He takes command of Southern Weyr after the death of T'Kul and Salth.
Fanna – Weyrwoman of Ista Weyr, she rode gold Mirath; after her death, D'ram retires as Istan Weyrleader.
G'narish – Igen Oldtime Weyrleader, he is younger than many other Oldtimers and the rider of bronze Gyarmath.
Mardra and gold Loranth – former Weyrwoman of Fort Weyr and weyrmate of T'ron and Fidranth; exiled to Southern because she would not accept the primacy of Benden Weyr.
Merika and an unknown queen – Merika is a former Weyrwoman of High Reaches, who is hated by all. She's supposed to have a bad temper. Kylara mentioned that when she helped out during Threadfall, the woman treated her with contempt.
Nadira – Igen Weyrwoman, rider of gold Baylith.
R'mart, Weyrleader of Telgar and rider of bronze Branth; he stepped down in the 9th Pass.
T'kul and bronze Salth – former Weyrleader of High Reaches and later Southern Weyrleader. One of those exiled to Southern because he would not accept the primacy of Benden Weyr. A conservative who kills his bronze Salth when he sends him to attempt to fly the young Istan queen Caylith in a mating flight, he was killed shortly after by F'lar, whom he had attacked.
T'ron and bronze Fidranth – former Weyrleader of Fort Weyr, also called T'ton and weyrmate of Mardra and Loranth. T'ron was exiled to Southern because he would not accept the primacy of Benden Weyr.
Other Craftspeople
Andemon – MasterFarmer
Betrice – Journeyman Healer, wife of Gennell.
Curran – MasterFisher
Domick – Masterharper and Craftmaster of Song Composition.
Erragon – Master Astronomer
Fandarel – MasterSmith; grandfather of Jancis.
Gennell – MasterHarper before Robinton, husband of Betrice.
Idarolan – MasterFisher (retires)
Jerint – Masterharper and Craftmaster of Instrument Making.
Kinsale (Nip) – Journeyman Harper/Spy
Mekelroy (Pinch) – Masterharper/Spy
Merelan – Masterharper/MasterSinger; wife of Petiron and mother of Robinton.
Morilton – Norist's successor as MasterGlass-smith.
Morshall – Harper Craftmaster of Theory
Nicat – MasterMiner
Norist – MasterGlass-smith, exiled for involvement in Robinton's kidnapping.
Oldive – MasterHealer
Petiron – Masterharper/MasterComposer; teacher of Menolly; husband of Merelan; father of Robinton; composer of technical and complex music. After Robinton is chosen as the Masterharper, takes a position as Harper of Half Circle Seahold.
Shonagar – Masterharper and Craftmaster of Voice.
Sograny – MasterHerder
Tagetarl – Journeyman Harper/MasterPrinter
Terry – MasterSmith
Traller (Tuck) – Apprentice Harper/Spy
Wansor – Master Starsmith
Zurg – MasterWeaver
Holders
Pern is divided into many Holds. The politics between the lords of these holds provides the backdrop to many of the books.
Fax
Lord Fax – the greedy, violent self-styled "Lord of Seven Holds" in Anne McCaffrey's Dragonriders of Pern series. Originally a nephew of Lord Faroguy of High Reaches, Fax was known as being greedy and ruthless even in his youth. He carefully conquered Hold after Hold by means of trickery, marriage, murder and force. He repressed his Holders, denied them education and encouraged them to mistrust harpers and dragonriders. At the height of his power, he controlled High Reaches, Crom, Nabol, and Ruatha, as well as three minor holds. Fax married many women, including Lady Gemma of Crom. Fax's downfall was engineered by Lessa, the orphaned daughter of the Lord Holder of Ruatha, who hid for ten years as a kitchen drudge and mentally repressed Ruatha's natural productivity. On a visit to Ruatha Hold, Fax died in a brutal fight with Bronze dragonrider F'lar, who had come to Search Ruatha Hold for potential dragonriders, but not before he had named his infant son Jaxom (son of Gemma, who was distantly related to the Ruathan bloodline) as his successor. In The White Dragon, Jaxom notices that people are willing to talk to him about his mother Gemma but never about his father Fax (perhaps fearing that he might take after Fax), and later at the uncovering of Landing Lessa compares Southern Holder Toric to Fax, remarking that they were both ambitious.
Major Holds
Benden: Lord Maidir (husband of Hayara, father of Raid, Maizella, and Hayon); Lord Raid (supports Benden, but very stubborn); Lord Toronas
Bitra: Lord Sifer; Lord Sigomal (opposed to AIVAS; deposed and exiled for aiding the plot to kidnap Master Robinton)
Crom: Lord Lesselden (husband of Relna, killed by Fax); Lord Fax; Lord Nessel (following Fax's death)
Fort: Lord Grogellan (husband to Winalla, died because he refused to have his appendix surgically removed); Lord Groghe (son of Lord Grogellan, husband of Benoria and friend of Robinton; he is advocate for AIVAS and Benden. Groghe has old fire-lizard Merga and seventeen sons)
High Reaches: Lord Faroguy (husband of Evelene, believed to have been killed by Fax); Lord Fax (Faroguy's nephew); Lord Bargen (Faroguy's son, succeeds after Fax's death)
Igen: Lord Laudey; Lord Langree (son and heir of Laudey)
Ista: Lord Halibran (father of Halanna); Lord Warbret; Lord Fortine
Keroon: Lord Corman; Lord Kashman (son and heir of Corman)
Lemos: Lord Asgenar (pro-Benden, husband of Famira)
Nabol: Lord Fax; Lord Meron (Anti-Benden, his death formed a subplot in Dragondrums); Lord Deckter
Nerat: Lord Vincet; Lord Begamon (opposed to AIVAS, deposed and exiled for aiding the plot to kidnap Master Robinton); Lord Ciparis (previously Begamon's Steward)
Ruatha: Lord Ashmichel; Lord Kale (son of Ashmichel, husband of Adessa, father of Lessa, killed by Fax); Lord Fax; Lord Jaxom (succeeded as a baby, husband of Sharra). During Jaxom's minority Ruatha was administered by Lytol (formerly Lytonal, then L'tol, rider of brown Larth)
Southern Boll: Lord Sangel; Lady Janissian (elected Lady Holder of Southern Boll at Sangel's death)
Southern Hold: Lord Toric
Telgar: Lord Tarathel (father of Larad, Thella, and Kylara, related to Petiron); Lord Larad (Pro-Benden, half-brother of Thella, brother of Kylara, became Lord Holder at age 15; he is a father of A'ton, a dragonrider, and Laradian)
Tillek: Lord Melongel (husband to Juvana, whose sister Kasia married Robinton, but died of a fever after their honeymoon); Lord Oterel (son of Melongel and Juvana, nephew by marriage to Robinton; father of Ranrel, Terentel, and Blesserel); Lord Ranrel (son of Oterel, member of the Fishcrafthall)
Minor Holds
Yanus – Holder of Half-Circle Sea Hold; father of Menolly, Alemi, Sella (Menolly's older sister) and five other sons; Yanus thought it was disgraceful for a girl to be a harper and considered Menolly a disgrace to the Sea Hold, refusing to even search for her after she disappeared from the Sea Hold.
Mavi – Yanus' wife and Sea Lady who discouraged Menolly's musical talents.
Alemi - third son of Yanus and older brother of Menolly, he is more understanding of and sympathetic towards his talented sister than their parents.
Jayge – trader, later Holder of Paradise River in the Southern Continent.
Aramina – Jayge's wife, Aramina can hear the mental speech of any dragon. She is a cousin of Lessa and the mother of Readis.
Readis – two people were named Readis: an uncle of Jayge, who joined Thella's band then later helped Jayge to free Aramina, getting killed in the process; and the son of Jayge and Aramina, who founded both Kahrain Hold and a Dolphin Hall there.
Renegades
Thella – renegade half-sister of Larad, called "Lady Holdless", she led a band of robbers and tried to capture Aramina.
Earlier periods
Colonization and First Pass
Red Hanrahan
Peter "Red" Hanrahan – a vet who arrives on Pern as one of the original colonists from Earth. From their home in Clonmel in Ireland, he, his wife Mairi, and their two children, Sorka and Brian, travel to Pern in deep sleep on the colony ship Yokohama. Red is one of the founding fathers of Pern society and, along with his extended family, reflects much of McCaffrey's own Irish origins in the multicultural mix of early Pern. As one of the senior vets, Red is a vital staff member in Kitti Ping's dragon engineering project and a source of guidance to the dragonriders of the First Hatching. His own daughter Sorka Hanrahan, along with fellow Irish colonist, Sean Connell, makes first Impression of the native firelizards who provide the genetic material for the dragons. Sorka and Sean later become riders of the First Dragons and founders of Fort Weyr. Throughout this phase, Red provides guidance and support. It is to Red and Mairi that Sean turns in times of stress such as at the death of queen rider Alianne, whose dragon, Chereth, was the first to go between on the death of her rider. Red and Mairi help to raise Sorka and Sean's five children along with their own seven younger children born after their arrival on Pern. When the original northern hemisphere settlement at Fort became over-crowded during the First Pass, Red and Mairi apply to Paul Benden to begin a third settlement in a cave system to the north. They take a hundred and forty-one people representing a range of families, ages and skills, along with the horses and other livestock Red has been carefully breeding to begin the new Hold. On the journey from Fort to the new place, Red's paternal care of his people and his skill with horse-flesh is clearly demonstrated. The key point to the journey is the crossing of a swollen river which marks the boundary of their lands. Red works tirelessly to bring his caravan across the ford. While crossing the ford, Sean arrives to check on their progress and to seek their comfort after the death of Alianne. Eventually, Red's caravan arrives safely and they begin to make their cave system into a new home. Red scrounged from Joel Lillienkamp, the store-keeper of the colony, a set of air-lock doors taken from one of the shuttles which transported the colonists to the surface from the great colony ships still in orbit around the planet. The climax of Red's story is the Dooring of his new hold, before the colony leaders, community and dragonriders. At this point, Red announces the new settlement's name: the Hold of Red's Ford. In the Irish, Rua Atha, or Ruatha, though in correct Irish, the name should be Atha Ruadh (adjectives follow nouns), anglicized as Atharoe.
Early dragonriders
and gold Faranth – leader of the original queenriders and eventual Weyrwoman of Fort Weyr; Faranth may or may not have been the first fertile queen on Pern, but clutched the first second-generation gold, ensuring the continuation of the species.
and bronze Carenath leader of the original dragonriders and eventual Weyrleader at Fort Weyr. His dragon flew Faranth.
M'hall (Michael/Mihall) and bronze Brianth Torene's weyrmate, first Benden Weyrleader and son of Sean and Sorka.
Torene and gold Alaranth first Weyrwoman at Benden Weyr, she could hear all dragons and was the first to officially put forth the idea of shortening the names of dragonriders.
First Interval / Second Pass
Lord Chalkin – Lord of Bitra in the First Interval, shortly before the Second Pass. He was impeached and exiled due to his blatant disregard of the imminent return of Thread, and the brutal treatment of his people who tried to leave Bitra.
Lord Jamson – High Reaches Lord Holder in the First Interval, shortly before the Second Pass. He was the only Lord Holder who was opposed to the impeachment of Lord Chalkin of Bitra.
B'nurrin – Ianath, Igen Weyrleader.
D'miel – Ronelth, Istan Weyrleader.
G'don – Chakath, High Reaches Weyrleader.
K'vin – Charanth, Weyrleader of Telgar.
M'shall – Craigath, Benden Weyrleader.
S'nan – Magrith, Fort Weyrleader.
Second Interval / Third Pass
and gold Talenth – she recently impressed Queen rider at Fort Weyr and is eventual Weyrwoman at Telgar Weyr.
and gold Arith (deceased) – Queenrider at Benden Weyr. She was cured the illness decimating the dragons of her time, but lost Arith in the process.
B'nik and bronze Caranth – Weyrleader at Benden Weyr.
D'gan and bronze Kaloth – arrogant Telgar Weyrleader.
D'vin and Bronze Hurth – Weyrleader at High Reaches Weyr.
K'lior and bronze Rineth – amateur Weyrleader at Fort Weyr.
M'tal and bronze Gaminth – Benden Weyrleader.
Salina and gold Breth (deceased) – Benden Weyr Weyrwoman and rider of Arith's mother.
T'mar and bronze Zirenth – bronze rider that went back in time to Igen Weyr with Fiona to help heal the injured riders.
Tullea and gold Minith – nasty Weyrwoman of Benden after Breth's passing.
Sixth Pass
Lord Alessan – Lord of Ruatha in the sixth Pass. Brother of Oklina and lover of Moreta.
Lady Nerilka – daughter of Lord Tolocamp and Lady Pendra; nicknamed "Rill" and originally from Fort, she marries Alessan after Moreta's death.
Bestrum – minor holder on Fort/Ruathan border.
Gana – Bestrum's lady.
Lord Ratoshigan – Lord Holder of Southern Boll.
Lord Tolocamp – Lord of Fort Hold during Moreta's time; Tolocamp violated Capiam's quarantine by leaving Ruatha for Fort, where shortly after he locked himself in his apartments and refused entry to anyone. He wouldn't share his abundant supplies with the other holds during The Plague, so Masterhealer Capiam and Masterharper Tirone withdrew their men from his hold. His first wife is Lady Pendra, second is Lady Anella. Sire of (by order of birth): Campen, Pendora, Mostar, Doral, Theskin, Silma, Nerilka, Gallen, Jess, Peth, Amilla, Mercia & Merin (twins), Kista, Gabin, Mara, Nia, and Lilla.
Dragonriders and dragons
Moreta and gold Orlith – Fort Weyr; famous Weyrwoman of history, and lead character in the book Moreta: Dragonlady of Pern (1983).
B'lerion and Nabeth – Weyrleader of High Reaches when he mates with Oklina and Hannath.
C'ver – arrogant Watchrider that keeps Moreta from enlisting Telgar Weyr in the plan to disperse the vaccine causing other riders to cover that area.
D'say – father of M'ray with Moreta and Wingleader at Ista Weyr.
K'dren and Kuzuth – Weyrleader at Benden Weyr during Moreta's time.
Leri and gold Holth – former Weyrwoman at Fort Weyr before Moreta.
M'barak and blue Arith – Fort weyrling who helps Moreta transport serum.
M'gent and Ith – Wingleader at Benden Weyr.
M'tani and Hogarth – nasty Weyrleader of Telgar Weyr.
Oklina and gold Hannath; sister of Alessan at Ruatha Hold, she Impressed the queen Hannath at Orlith's last hatching; weyrmate of B'lerion and bronze Nabeth of High Reaches.
S'peren and bronze Clioth, wingleader at fort, preferred second in charge by Moreta.
Sh'gall and Kadith, the Fort Weyrleader, and Moreta's weyrmate.
K'lon and blue Rogeth – rider at Fort Weyr (caught timing it by Leri and Holth; leads to the idea of riders timing it to ensure the vaccine is delivered quickly).
Craftmasters/Journeymen
Master Capiam – MasterHealer during the time of Moreta.
Master Belesdan – MasterTanner; located at Ista Weyr.
Master Tirone – MasterHarper during Moreta's time.
Desdra – Journeywoman healer studying for her mastery during Moreta's time and lover of Capiam.
Master Fortine – Capiam's second in command.
Master Brace – Tirone's second in command.
Macabir – Healer in Fort Hold's internment camp during The Plague (Moreta's time).
Tuero – Journeyman harper stranded at Ruatha during The Plague he becomes Ruatha's permanent harper.
Balfor – Beastmaster elect, Keroon Hold (offered Beastmaster position, but refuses it; believed to turn down the offer because he thinks he caused Moreta's tragic death).
At the time of Impression, male dragonriders' names are shortened with an apostrophe. This follows a tradition carried from the First Pass, as the dragons slurred the riders' names during Threadfall. For example, Famanoran became F'nor at his Impression.
Most women will only Impress gold queens, with the exception of a few female green riders, such as Mirrim, (and one blue rider, Xhinna) and queens fly in a wing of their own, with agenothree tanks to sear Thread from the skies. The first instance of 'agenothree' comes from Dragonsdawn, as Drake Bonneau slurred the name of the chemical compound HNO3.
When asked why all dragons' names end in th, Anne McCaffrey facetiously replied: "Dragons have forked tongues. They lisp"; Pernese dragons have no vocal cords, and speak only telepathically.
References
Dragonriders of Pern
Dragonriders of Pern
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruthanayagam%20Pillai
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Maruthanayagam Pillai
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Muhammad Yusuf Khan (born Maruthanayagam Pillai) was a commandant of the British East India Company's Madras Army. He was born in a Tamil Vellalar caste family in a village called Panaiyur in British India, what is now in Nainarkoil Taluk, Ramanathapuram District of Tamil Nadu, India. He converted to Islam and was named Muhammad Yusuf Khan. He was popularly known as Khan Sahib when he became a ruler of Madurai. He became a warrior in the Arcot troops, and later a commandant for the British East India Company troops. The British and the Arcot Nawab employed him to suppress the Polygar (a.k.a. Palayakkarar) uprising in South India. Later he was entrusted to administer the Madurai country when the Madurai Nayak rule ended.
A dispute arose with the British and Arcot Nawab, and three of Khan's associates were bribed to capture him. He was captured during his morning prayer (Thozhugai) and hanged on 15 October 1764 at Sammatipuram near Madurai. Local legends state that he survived two earlier attempts at hanging, and that the Nawab feared Yusuf Khan would come back to life and so had his body dismembered and buried in different locations around Tamil Nadu.
Early years
Maruthanayagam Pillai was born in 1725 in the village of A. Panaiyoor in a Hindu family of Vellala caste, in what is now Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu, India.
Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield – who was in the service of Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah, the Nawab of Arcot, for three years – mentions in his Genuine Memoirs of Asiaticus that Yusuf Khan was of royal extraction and high descent. 2nd ed, 1785, page 160 The Scots Magazine (1765, page 264) tells of a letter written by a gentleman in the East Indies to a friend in Scotland, from the military camp before Palamcottah, dated 22 October 1764 (a week after his hanging), where in Yusuf Khan is said to be 'descended from the ancient seed of that nation'. According to an ancient Tamil manuscript Pandiyamandalam, Cholamandalam Poorvika Raja Charithira Olungu, the Pandiyan dynasty in Madurai was founded by one Mathuranayaga Pandiyan (Mathuranayagam). Yusuf Khan was believed to be his descendant.
Being too restless in his youth, Yusuf Khan left his native village, and later lived with the company of his martial arts master and converted to Islam. He served the French Governor Jacques Law in Pondicherry. It was here he befriended another Frenchman, Marchand (a subordinate of Jacques Law), who later became captain of the French force under Yusuf Khan in Madurai. Whether Yusuf Khan was dismissed from this job or left on his own is unclear. He left Pondicherry, for Tanjore and joined the Tanjorean army as a sepoy (foot soldier).
Education and early career
Around this time, an English captain named Brunton educated Yusuf Khan, making him proficient in English. From Tanjore he moved to Nellore (in present-day Andhra Pradesh), to try his hand as a native physician under Mohammed Kamal, in addition to his career in the army. He moved up the ranks as Thandalgar (tax collector), Havildar and finally as a Subedar and that is how he is referred to in the English records ('Nellore Subedar' or 'Nellore'). He later enlisted under Chanda Sahib who was then the Nawab of Arcot. While staying in Arcot he fell in love with a 'Portuguese' Christian (a loose term for a person of mixed Indo-European descent or Luso-Indian) girl named Marcia or Marsha, and married her.
Carnatic wars
In 1751, there was an ongoing struggle for the throne of Arcot, between Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah, who was the son of the previous Nawab of Arcot Anwaruddin Muhammed Khan, and his relative Chanda Sahib. The former sought the help of British and the latter the French. Chanda Sahib initially succeeded, forcing Muhammad Ali to escape to the rock-fort in Tiruchirapalli which was put under siege. Ensign Robert Clive led a small English force of 300 soldiers on a diversionary attack on Arcot, and Chanda Sahib dispatched a 10,000-strong force under his son Raza Sahib, aided by the Nellore Army of which Yusuf Khan was a Subedar. At Arcot, and later at Kaveripakkam, Chanda Sahib's son was badly defeated by Clive, and Chanda Sahib withdrew and was killed. The East India Company quickly installed Muhammad Ali as the Nawab of Arcot and most of Chanda Sahib's native forces defected to the British.
Under Major Stringer Lawrence, Yusuf Khan was trained in the European method of warfare and displayed a talent for military tactics and strategy. Over the next decade, as the British East India Company continued to fight the French East India Company in the Carnatic Wars, Yusuf Khan's guerrilla tactics, repeatedly cutting the French lines of supply, greatly hampered the French efforts.
By 1760, Yusuf Khan had reached the zenith of his career as the 'all-conquering' military commandant. (A few years earlier he had been given the rank of 'Commandant of Company's sepoys'). His greatest supporter during this period was George Pigot, the English governor in Madras. Yusuf Khan was held in very high esteem even after his death in battle and in the opinion of the British he was one of the two great military geniuses India had ever produced (the other being Hyder Ali of Mysore). Yusuf Khan was regarded for his strategy and Hyder Ali for his speed. Major General Sir. John Malcolm said of him almost fifty years later, "Yusuf Khan was by far the bravest and ablest of all the native soldiers that ever served the English in India".
Control of Madurai
When Muhammad Ali was installed as the Nawab of Arcot, he owed huge debts to the British East India Company, to whom he gave the tax collection rights of the Madurai kingdom. This brought the British into conflict with the Polygars, influential feudal administrators who were unwilling to pay taxes to the weak Nawab and refused to recognize British tax collectors. In 1755, to quell the rebellious Polygars, the Nawab and British dispatched an army to the south under Col. Heron and the Nawab's brother Mahfuz Khan, accompanied by Yusuf Khan as bodyguard. Mahfuz Khan and Heron raided the countryside. This infuriated Yusuf Khan, who lodged a complaint with the British. Heron was later court-marshalled.
There were several instances of rebellion to pay taxes to the Muslim and British invaders by the Kallars. In 1755. Colonel. Heron, led an expedition, against the Poligar of Kumaravadi, Lackenaig (Lakshmi Naik?), whose Governor Mayana had taken refugee at the temple of Kovilkudi, at Tirumbur Village. Colonel. Heron and Yusuf Khan led the soldiers in burning down the temple. In this incident, an idol revered by the Kallans were removed and held for a ransom of Five Thousand Rupees. The Kallans being unable to pay, the idol was melted down. This act of Colonel. Heron was condemned even by the Madras Council of the East India Company, as an action becoming unworthy of an English officer, and the prejudice that this act will cause among the natives about England. These events were followed by the Vellaloor Massacre, 1767 in which some 5000 kallans were massacred.
In March 1756, Yusuf Khan was sent to Madurai to collect taxes and restore order. Madurai was then under control of Barkadthullah (with the support of Hyder Ali of Mysore), who had angered the locals by allowing an old fakir to prepare to build a dargah (Islamic tomb) for himself atop the Madurai Meenakshi Temple. Yusuf Khan arrived with as little as 400 troops, defeating Barkadthullah's large army, forcing him to flee to Sivaganga Zamin with the fakir likewise expelled.
Disturbances continued to prevail in Madurai. The Kallars ravaged the country; Hyder Ali was with difficulty beaten off, and little revenue could be collected. The British failed to convince the Nawab to recall his brother, Mahfuz Khan, who may have been the cause of the trouble. Soon after, to meet their needs elsewhere, they compelled the withdrawal of Yusuf Khan. His departure was the signal for wilder anarchy, and company's garrison in Madurai could only collect taxes from the country directly under its walls in order to support themselves.
The Company later sent Yusuf Khan back, renting both Madurai and Tinnevelly to him for five lakh (500,000 rupees) per annum. Yusuf Khan restored lands to the plundered Meenakshi temple and by the spring of 1759 began cutting roads through the woods to pursue bands of armed robbers plaguing the countryside. Through the relentless pursuit and execution of criminals, he brought the country to order and the Polygars into submission. He also renovated the temple tanks, lakes and forts damaged by Hyder Ali. All of these actions increased revenue to the Nawab and British, and made himself extremely powerful.
Controversial wars with Palayakkars
During this time Yusuf Khan battled with Puli Thevar, a Polygar of Nerkattumseval (a.k.a. Nelkettaanseval, a small town to the south-west of Madurai), who was rebelling against the Nawab and the British. Yusuf Khan first convinced the Raja of Travancore to make an alliance with the Nawab, breaking his alliance with Puli Thevar. Yusuf Khan then captured some of Puli Thevar's forts where Mohammed Ali had failed. However, in 1760, Yusuf Khan suffered a minor setback in his attempt to capture Vasudevanallur, which was one of Puli Thevar's principal forts.He succeeded in his second attempt. Puli Thevar later escaped from Sankarankovil and disappeared from the pages of history for a couple of years.Puli Thevar is today recognized by the Government of Tamil Nadu as a freedom fighter.
Also during this time, Yusuf Khan successfully repulsed an attempt by the Dutch to capture of the town of Alwartirunagari and chased them back to their ships anchored at Tuticorin.
Dispute with Arcot Nawab
As Yusuf Khan's victories accumulated and his reputation grew, the Arcot Nawab became jealous and feared that he might be deposed. To reduce his power, the Nawab ordered that taxes for the region be paid directly to his administration instead of that of Yusuf Khan. British Governor Lord Pigot advised Yusuf Khan to heed the Nawab's wishes, and British traders supported this as they viewed Yusuf Khan as the Nawab's employee. Meanwhile, a scheme was planned by the Nawab and his brother Mahfuz Khan to poison Yusuf Khan.
In 1761, and again in 1762, Yusuf Khan asked to continue leasing Madura and Tinnevelly for an additional four years at seven lakhs (700,000 rupees) per annum. His offer was refused, and shortly afterwards he began to collect troops in an ambition to become lord of Madurai. Some British traders reported to the Nawab and the company, on Yusuf Khan as spending vast sums on his troops. In response, the Nawab and British sent Capt. Manson to arrest Yusuf Khan.
Meanwhile, Yusuf Khan wrote to Sivaganga Zamindari reminding them of their owed taxes. Sivaganga's Minister and General came to Madurai to meet Yusuf Khan, and was rudely warned that certain territories would be annexed for failure of payment. Zamindar immediately ordered Yusuf Khan to be "captured and hanged like a dog". Meanwhile, Ramnad Zamin's general Damodar Pillai and Thandavarayan Pillai complained to the Nawab that Yusuf Khan had plundered Sivaganga villages and begun a cannon manufacturing plant in association with a French Marchaud.
The Nawab and British quickly amassed an army. They brought the Travancore Raja to their cause, and in an ensuing battle, the Travancore Raja was defeated and the British flags in his domains were chopped and burnt, with the French flag hoisted on the Madura Fort.
When Governor Saunders in Madras (now Chennai) called Khan Sahib for a meeting, he refused evoking the wrath of the East India Company. By now, Delhi's shah and Nizam Ali of Hyderabad – the Arcot Nawab's overlords – proclaimed Yusuf Khan as the rightful legal governor of Madurai and Tirunelveli. This left the Nawab and British seeking some legitimacy to capture and kill Yusuf Khan.
Defensive actions and downfall
Yusuf Khan proclaimed himself the independent ruler of Madurai and Tirunelveli, but had enemies lurking around him. His previous allegiance to the Nawab and British had earned the wrath of Mysore, and the remaining Polygars sought a return to prominence. The Tanjore, Travancore, Pudukkotai, Ramnad, and Sivaganga kingdoms joined with the British and the Arcot Nawab to attack Yusuf Khan. In the first siege of Madurai in 1763, the English could not make any headway because of inadequate forces and the army retreated to Tiruchi due to monsoons. The Nizam Ali of Hyderabad reaffirmed Yusuf Khan as the rightful governor, while the Arcot Nawab and the British issued a warrant for Yusuf Khan "to be captured alive and hanged before the first known tree".
In 1764, British troops again besieged the Madurai Fort, this time cutting supplies. Yusuf Khan and his troops went without food and water for several days (according to European sources, surviving on horse and monkey meat) but held on while strengthening the defences, and repelled the chief assault with a loss of 120 Europeans (including 9 officers) killed and wounded. Little progress against him had been made, except that the place was now rigorously blockaded.
The Arcot Nawab consulted Sivaganga General Thaandavaraaya Pillai, along with Maj. Charles Campbell, hatching a plot to bribe three of Yusuf Khan's close associates: Dewan Srinivasa Rao, French mercenary captain Marchand, and Khan's doctor Baba Sahib. While Yusuf Khan was offering his morning prayers in his house, they quietly captured him, binding him with his own turban. Yusuf Khan's wife rushed to the scene with the house guards but they were overwhelmed by the well-armed mercenaries. Under cover of darkness, Marchand brought Yusuf Khan to Campbell, with most of Yusuf Khan's native forces unaware of what had happened.
The next day, on the evening of 15 October 1764, near the army camp at Sammattipuram on the Madurai–Dindigul road, Yusuf Khan was hanged as a rebel by Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah, the Nawab of Arcot. This place is about to the west of Madura, known as Dabedar Chandai (Shandy), and his body was buried at the spot.
Legends of his death
One legend is that he was hanged three times before he finally died. The brief story is that the first two attempts at hanging failed as the rope snapped and only the third attempt was successful.
The superstitious Nawab of Arcot Muhammad Ali ordered the body of Yusuf Khan to be dismembered into many parts and buried in different parts of his domain. As the story goes, his head was sent to Trichy, arms to Palayamkottai, and legs to Periyakulam and Tanjore. The headless and limbless torso was buried at Sammattipuram Madurai. In 1808, a small square mosque was erected over the tomb in Samattipuram, on the left of the road to Theni, at Kaalavaasal, a little beyond the toll-gate, and is known as Khan Sahib's pallivasal.
There are no accounts of Yusuf Khan's wife Maasa and his son of 2 or 3 years following the hanging. According to local tradition, Maasa died soon after her husband's demise and the little boy was brought up in strict secrecy by Srinivasa Rao (Yusuf Khan's Dewan) at Alwarthirunagari. Srinivasa Rao might have felt that the little boy had better chances of surviving where the people were kindly disposed towards Yusuf Khan for repelling a Dutch invasion. As per Maasa's last wish, and to maintain secrecy, Srinivasa Rao named the boy Mathuranayagam (the original Hindu name of Yusuf Khan) and brought him up in the Christian faith. Yusuf Khan's descendants later moved to Palayamkottai.
The descendants of Baba Sahib, Yusuf Khan's physician, live around Krishnan Koil in Virudhunagar District. They still practise native medicine and bone-setting.
The Madurai fort, which Yusuf Khan had defended from sieges in 1763 and 1764 was demolished at the end of the nineteenth century. His lodgement, according to the French map, was inside the Main Guard Square (Menkattu Pottal in Tamil; Menkattu is a corruption of main guard), a quadrangle bounded by West Avani Moola Street, Netaji Road and West Pandian Agil (Agali) Street. Yusuf Khan lived in the main bastion of the ancient Pandian fortress, also known in Tamil as the Moolai Kothalam (main corner tower; moolai in Tamil means corner) at the angle formed by the West Avani Moola Street and the South Avani Moola Street. The four Avani Moola Streets, the North, the West, the South and the East were situated just inside the ancient Pandian fortress, which was almost a square. Just outside the fortress walls was the ancient moat, which had been filled by the Nayak rulers and the site of the moat can only be guessed by the names of the streets running near or perhaps on the moat itself, like the West Pandian Agil Street (agil is a corruption of agazhi). King Viswanatha Nayak extended the city limits further and the new fortress walls were built outside the Masi Streets. The ancient Pandian city of Madurai had the early Meenakshi Amman Temple at its centre; surrounding it were twelve concentric ring roads, each named after a Tamil month. The innermost ring road was Chithrai and the outermost Panguni. As the temple underwent periodic expansions over the centuries, the street adjacent to the temple premises retained the name Chithrai Street. Now, only three of the ancient twelve streets can be identified; Chithrai, Avani and Masi.
The fort in Palayamkottai, which he used during his wars with the Polygars, was dismantled in the mid-nineteenth century. Only parts of the western bastion, (now housing Medai Police Station), the eastern bastion (now housing the Tirunelveli Museum) and a few short segments of the eastern wall remain.
Character
Tradition has many stories to tell of Yusuf Khan, said to be a scion of the ancient Pandiyan dynasty, who started his life as an ordinary peasant and by his military genius rose to the pinnacle of royal power when he became the ruler of the land, only to fall by the treachery of his comrades.
In Tirunelveli and Madurai his whole administration denoted vigour and effect. His justice was unquestioned, his word unalterable, his measures were happily combined and firmly executed, the guilty had no refuge from punishment. Wisdom, vigour and integrity were never more conspicuous in any person of whatever climate or complexion.author, Col. Fullertonsource, A view of the English interests in India (1785).
In popular culture
Indian actor Kamal Haasan in 1997 started shooting the movie Marudhanayagam portraying Maruthanayagam Pillai in English, French, and Tamil languages. Its filming was stopped soon after, due to financial constraints and political problems.
References
External links
Movie Controversy
The Hindu: The ballad of the Khan Sahib
The Palayamkottai Mystery
Vikatan Reference
1725 births
1764 deaths
Converts to Islam
Indian military leaders
Indian Muslims
Islam in Tamil Nadu
People from Ramanathapuram district
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace%20Attorney
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Ace Attorney
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Ace Attorney is a visual novel adventure video games franchise developed by Capcom. With storytelling fashioned after legal dramas, the first entry in the series, Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney, was released in 2001; since then, five further main series games, as well as various spin-offs, prequels and high-definition remasters for newer game consoles, have been released. Additionally, the series has seen adaptations in the form of a live-action film and an anime, and has been the base for manga series, drama CDs, musicals and stage plays.
The player takes the roles of various defense attorneys, including Phoenix Wright, his mentor Mia Fey, and his understudies Apollo Justice and Athena Cykes, who investigate cases and defend their clients in court; they find the truth by cross-examining witnesses and finding inconsistencies between the testimonies and the evidence they have collected. The cases all last a maximum of three days, with the judge determining the outcome based on evidence presented by the defense attorney and the prosecutor.
While the original Japanese versions of the games are set in Japan, the series' localizations are set in the United States (primarily Los Angeles), though retaining Japanese cultural elements. In the spin-off series Ace Attorney Investigations, the player takes the role of prosecutor Miles Edgeworth and in the prequel series The Great Ace Attorney Chronicles, of Phoenix's ancestor Ryunosuke Naruhodo.
The series was created by the writer and director Shu Takumi. He wanted the series to end after the third game, but it continued, with Takeshi Yamazaki taking over as writer and director starting with Ace Attorney Investigations: Miles Edgeworth (2009); Takumi has since returned to write and direct some spin-off titles. The series has been well received, with reviewers liking the characters and story, and the finding of contradictions; it has also performed well commercially, with Capcom regarding it as one of their strongest intellectual properties. The series has been credited with helping to popularize visual novels in the Western world. As of June 30, 2023, the game series has sold 10 million copies worldwide.
Games
The Ace Attorney series launched in Japan with the Game Boy Advance game Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney in 2001, and has been published in the West since the release of a Nintendo DS port in 2005. The series currently consists of six main series games and five spin-offs.
Main series
Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney is the first entry in the series. It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2001 in Japan; it has also been released for the Nintendo DS in 2005, Microsoft Windows in 2008, and the Wii and iOS in 2009.
Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Justice for All was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2002 in Japan; it has also been released for the Nintendo DS in 2006, Microsoft Windows in 2008, and the Wii in 2010.
Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Trials and Tribulations was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2004 in Japan; it has also been released for Microsoft Windows in 2006, the Nintendo DS in 2007, and the Wii in 2010.
Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney was released for the Nintendo DS in 2007 in Japan and in 2008 in the West, for iOS and Android in 2016, and for Nintendo 3DS in 2017.
Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Dual Destinies was originally released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2013 in Japan, North America and Europe; outside of Japan, it was given a digital-only release. It was also released for iOS in 2014, and Android in 2017.
Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Spirit of Justice was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2016 in Japan, North America and Europe. Like Dual Destinies, it was given a digital-only release outside Japan. It was released for iOS and Android in 2017.
Spin-offs
Ace Attorney Investigations series
Ace Attorney Investigations: Miles Edgeworth is the first entry in the Investigations spin-off series. It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2009 in Japan and in 2010 in the West; it has also been released for Android and iOS in 2017.
Ace Attorney Investigations 2 is the second entry in the Investigations series. It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2011 in Japan; it has also been released for Android and iOS in 2017. It has not been released in the West and, as of 2023, is the only game in the series that has not had an official English language translation.
The Great Ace Attorney series
The Great Ace Attorney: Adventures was released in Japan for the Nintendo 3DS in 2015, and for Android and iOS in 2017.
The Great Ace Attorney 2: Resolve was released in Japan for the Nintendo 3DS in 2017, and for Android and iOS in 2018.
Professor Layton crossover
Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney is a crossover between Ace Attorney and the Professor Layton series. It was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2012 in Japan and in 2014 in the West.
Compilations
Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney Trilogy contains the first three games in the series: Phoenix Wright, Justice for All, and Trials and Tribulations. It was released for iOS and Android in 2012 in Japan and for iOS in 2013 in the West, It was later released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2014, and Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One, in 2019. Capcom removed the mobile-only version of the game from stores, and replaced it with the console version on iOS and Android as of June 10, 2022.
The Great Ace Attorney Chronicles contains both games in The Great Ace Attorney series: Adventures and 2: Resolve. It was released in July 2021 for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Windows. This was the first time both games were made officially available outside of Japan.
Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney Trilogy contains the fourth through sixth mainline games: Apollo Justice, Dual Destinies, and Spirit of Justice. It is set for release on January 25, 2024 for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One.
Common elements
Gameplay
The Ace Attorney games are visual novel adventure games in which the player controls defense attorneys and defends their clients in several different episodes. The gameplay is split into two types of sections: investigations and courtroom trials. During the investigations, the player searches the environments, gathering information and evidence, and talks to characters such as their client, witnesses, and the police. Once enough evidence has been collected, the game moves on to a courtroom trial section.
In the courtroom trials, the player aims to get their client declared "not guilty". To do so, they cross-examine witnesses, and aim to find lies and inconsistencies in the testimonies. They are able to go back and forth between the different statements in the testimony, and can press the witness for more details on a statement. When the player finds an inconsistency, they can present a piece of evidence that contradicts the statement. If the player is correct, the game presents a sequence that often starts with the protagonist shouting "Objection!" and pointing at the witness along with a shift in music before they begin to grill the witness with the inconsistency, which has become an iconic aspect of the series. The player is penalized if they present incorrect evidence: in the first game, a number of exclamation marks are shown, with one disappearing after each mistake the player makes; in later games, a health bar that represents the judge's patience is used instead; and in 3DS games, the character's lawyer badge is used. If all exclamation marks or lawyer badges are lost, or the health bar reaches zero, the player loses the game and their client is declared guilty.
Several Ace Attorney games introduce new gameplay mechanics to the series. Justice for All introduces "psyche-locks", which are shown over a witness when the player asks them about a topic they do not want to discuss; using a magatama, the player can start breaking the psyche-locks by showing the witness evidence or character profiles that proves they are hiding something. The number of psyche-locks depends on how deep the secret is; when all locks are broken, the topic becomes available, giving the player access to new information. Apollo Justice introduces the "perceive" system, where the player looks for motions or actions made by witnesses that show nervousness, similar to a tell in poker.
Dual Destinies introduces the "mood matrix", through which the player can gauge the emotions of a witness, such as tones of anger when mentioning certain topics; if the player notices a contradictory emotional response during testimony, they can point out the discrepancy and press the witness for more information. Dual Destinies also introduces "revisualization", where the player reviews vital facts and forms links between evidence to reach new conclusions. Spirit of Justice introduces "divination séances", in which the player is shown the memories of victims moments before their deaths, and must find contradictions in the victim's five senses to determine what has happened. Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney introduces simultaneous cross-examinations of multiple witnesses, with the player being able to see and hear reactions from the different witnesses to the testimony and using this to find contradictions. The Great Ace Attorney introduces "joint reasoning", where the player finds out the truth by pointing out when their investigative partner Herlock Sholmes takes his reasoning "further than the truth".
The Ace Attorney Investigations spin-off series splits the gameplay into investigation phases and rebuttal phases, the latter of which is similar to the courtroom trials of the main series. During the investigation phases, the player searches for evidence and talks to witnesses and suspects. Things the player character notices in the environment are saved as thoughts; the player can use the "logic" system to connect two such thoughts to gain access to new information. At some points, the player can create hologram reproductions of the crime scene, through which they can discover new information that would otherwise be hidden. Ace Attorney Investigations 2 introduces "logic chess", where the player interrogates witnesses in a timed sequence that is visualized as a game of chess, with the player aiming to destroy the other character's chess pieces. To do this, they need to build up their advantage in the discussion by alternating between speaking and listening, and then choose to go on the offensive.
Characters and setting
The protagonist of the first three games is the defense attorney Phoenix Wright (Ryūichi Naruhodō in the Japanese version), who is assisted by the spirit medium Maya Fey; in the third game, Phoenix's mentor Mia Fey is also a playable character. In the fourth game, the protagonist is the defense attorney Apollo Justice; in the fifth, Phoenix, Apollo and the new defense attorney Athena Cykes are all protagonists; and in the sixth, Phoenix and Apollo are the main protagonists, while Athena is playable in one case. The spin-off The Great Ace Attorney is set in England near the end of the 19th century, and follows Phoenix's ancestor Ryunosuke Naruhodo.
Phoenix's childhood friend Miles Edgeworth, who is the protagonist of the Ace Attorney Investigations games, is a recurring rival prosecutor character; in addition to him, each new game in the series introduces a new rival: Franziska von Karma is introduced in the second game, Godot in the third, Klavier Gavin in the fourth, Simon Blackquill in the fifth, Nahyuta Sahdmadhi in the sixth, Barok van Zieks in Adventures, and Kazuma Asogi in Resolve. Most of the prosecutor characters are portrayed as powerful and arrogant characters of high social status and who care about keeping perfect-win records in court, and even may favor convictions over finding the truth, although most have secret motivations and sympathetic backstories and typically help the protagonist at the game's climax. Similarly to real Japanese prosecutors, the prosecutors in the series often directly oversee investigations, issuing orders to the police. Japanese attitudes towards the police force are reflected in the series, with the police being represented by incompetent characters such as Dick Gumshoe, Maggey Byrde and Mike Meekins. In the world of Ace Attorney, trials only last three days, and usually end with a "guilty" verdict, with trials taken up by the protagonists of the games being rare exceptions. The outcomes of cases are decided by a judge, based on evidence provided by the defense attorney and the prosecutor.
Development
The series was created by Shu Takumi, who wrote and directed the first three games. The first game was conceived in 2000 when Takumi's boss at the time, Shinji Mikami, gave him six months to create any type of game he wanted to; Takumi had originally joined Capcom wanting to make mystery and adventure games, and felt that this was a big chance for him to make a mark as a creator. The game was designed to be simple, as Takumi wanted it to be easy enough for even his mother to play. It was originally going to be a detective game, with Phoenix being a private investigator, but at one point Takumi realized that finding and taking apart contradictions was not related to detective work, and felt that the main setting of the game should be courtrooms.
Takumi cited Japanese mystery author Edogawa Ranpo as an inspiration, particularly The Psychological Test, a short story which involves a crime that "unravels due to the criminal's contradictory testimony." It had a big impact on him, and was a major influence on the game. He was also inspired by stories from another Japanese author, Shinichi Hoshi, stating that he was pursuing his "element of surprise and unexpectedness."
Takumi felt that the best way to write a mystery with a good climax is to reveal various clues, and then pull them together into one conclusion, and not have multiple possible endings. He said that the biggest challenge with that was to make the gameplay and story work together; the goal was to make the player feel like they have driven the story forward themselves, with their own choices, even though the game is linear. He only spent little time on writing a backstory for Phoenix before writing the first game's story, and instead made up dialogue and developed Phoenix's personality as he went along. He came up with the partner character Maya because he thought it would be more fun for players to have another character with them, giving them advice, than investigating on their own.
After the first game's development was finished, Mikami told Takumi that they should make an Ace Attorney trilogy, with a grand finale in the third game's last case. Takumi had originally planned to let Edgeworth be the prosecutor in all episodes in the second game, but during the production the development team learned that the character had become popular. This led to Takumi feeling that he had to use the character more carefully and sparingly; he created the new prosecutor character Franziska von Karma, to save Edgeworth for the game's last case, and avoid a situation where he—a supposed prodigy—loses every case. As Takumi wanted the three first Ace Attorney games to be parts of a larger work, he avoided making a lot of changes between games: art from the first game for main characters such as Phoenix, Maya and Edgeworth was reused, to avoid having the previous games look outdated in comparison to newer games in the series; and no new gameplay mechanics were added for Trials and Tribulations, as Takumi was happy with the gameplay after having added the psyche-lock mechanic for Justice for All.
For the fourth game, Takumi wrote the scenario and took on a supervisory role. He had wanted the series to end with the third game, as he felt Phoenix had been fully explored and that his story had been told; he said that it is important to know when to end a story, that he did not want the series to become a shadow of its former self, and that he did not see any reason to continue it. Despite this, the spin-off series Ace Attorney Investigations was created, being directed by Takeshi Yamazaki and produced by Motohide Eshiro; Takumi returned to the series to write the crossover Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney. He also directed and wrote The Great Ace Attorney, which was described as being the first entry in a new Ace Attorney series. He said that he has mixed feelings about the series being developed by other Capcom staff, comparing it to a parent sending their child to their first day in school. Yamazaki and Eshiro went on to direct and produce the main series entries Dual Destinies and Spirit of Justice. Due to exhaustion after working on Dual Destinies, Yamazaki split direction responsibilities with Takuro Fuse for Spirit of Justice, with Yamazaki working on the scenario, and Fuse on the art and gameplay. In 2020, Yamazaki left Capcom.
Localization
The localization of the first game was outsourced to Bowne Global, and was handled by the writer Alexander O. Smith and the editor Steve Anderson. While the Japanese version takes place in Japan, the localized version is set in the United States: because one of the episodes involves time zones, they had to specify where the game takes place, and chose the United States without thinking a lot about it. The Japanese justice system of the original still remained intact in the localization, as changing it would have altered the entire game structure.
The change in the series' setting became an issue in later games, where the Japanese setting was more obvious. Starting with the second game, the series localization direction has been handled by Janet Hsu; One of the first decisions she had to make was how to localize Maya's hometown and the mysticism of the Fey clan. She came up with the idea that the localized versions of the Ace Attorney games take place in Los Angeles in an alternative universe where anti-Japanese laws like the California Alien Land Law of 1913 were not passed, anti-Japanese sentiments were not powerful, and where Japanese culture flourished. This dictated what should be localized and what should be kept Japanese; things relating to the Fey clan and the Kurain channeling technique were kept Japanese, as that was Maya's heritage, while Japanese foods that were not widely known in the West were changed, such as changing Maya's favorite food from ramen to burgers. That particular change was mocked by players as the dish later became more well known in the West, and was lampshaded in the English release of Spirit of Justice, where Maya is described as liking both ramen and burgers.
Character names were also localized to use double meanings similarly to the Japanese names; the name puns were based on the characters' personalities or backgrounds, or were visual gags. Several English names were based on their Japanese counterparts, but for some characters the names had to be altered heavily compared to the Japanese versions. Smith and Anderson had a lot of freedom when localizing the names of minor characters in the first game, but discussed the names of the main cast with Capcom. Phoenix's English surname, "Wright", was chosen as his Japanese name, "Naruhodō"—meaning "I see" or "I understand"—was frequently used as a joke in the script.
Dual Destinies was given a digital-only release in the West as to release the English version as close to the Japanese release date as possible while maintaining a tight development schedule. Its follow-up, Spirit of Justice, was released in the same manner. Although Ace Attorney Investigations 2 has not been officially localized, an English fan translation has been made. Both The Great Ace Attorney games were released in the West with English localization in July 2021 as part of The Great Ace Attorney Chronicles, making Ace Attorney Investigations 2 the only game in the series to remain a Japan-only release.
Reception
The Ace Attorney series has been well received by critics, and has performed well commercially: in December 2009, it was Capcom's 9th-best-selling series of all time, and in October 2010, they called it one of their "strongest intellectual properties", with more than 3.9 million units sold worldwide. By December 2013, the series had sold over 5 million units. In the United States, the first game became surprisingly successful, forcing Capcom to prepare at least three additional runs to meet the demand. By June 2018, the series had sold over 6.7 million units. As of June 30, 2023, the game series has sold 10 million copies worldwide.
Geoff Thew at Hardcore Gamer said that the "craziness" of the game world makes the cases entertaining, but also that it "resonates on a deeper level" due to its connection to the real Japanese legal system, making the setting still feel relevant in 2014. Bob Mackey at USgamer said that the Ace Attorney games were among the best written games of all time, and that the series' strength is how each game builds up to a "stunning and satisfying finale". Thomas Whitehead at Nintendo Life also liked the writing, praising its balance between "light-hearted nonsense" and darker, more serious scenarios. Several reviewers have appreciated the series' characters; Thew said that Phoenix and Maya's banter is among the best in video games, and that Edgeworth's character arc is one of the most compelling parts of the stories.
Reviewers have liked finding contradictions; a common complaint, however, is the games' linearity, as well as how the player sometimes has to resort to a trial-and-error method due to the games only accepting specific pieces of evidence, and how testimony statements sometimes need to be pressed in a specific order. Some reviewers have criticized the lack of changes to the gameplay and presentation throughout the series, while some have said that fans of the series would not have a problem with this.
Several reviewers have praised the series' music. They said that the greatest aspect of the series is its audio design, with the first three games using the Game Boy Advance sound chip better than any other game for that platform; he called the music phenomenal, with the exception of that in Justice for All, but said the sound effects are what "steals the show". Mackey commented that the games' small amounts of animations for each character are used well for their characterization.
Related media and other appearances
The Takarazuka Revue, an all-female theater troupe, has adapted the series into stage musicals: 2009's Ace Attorney: Truth Resurrected, which is based on the last episode of the first game; 2010's Ace Attorney 2: Truth Resurrected Again, whose first act is an original story, and whose second is based on the final episode of the second game; and 2013's Ace Attorney 3: Prosecutor Miles Edgeworth, which is set before the events of Truth Resurrected Again. A stage play based on the series, titled Gyakuten no Spotlight, ran in 2013, and was written by Eisaku Saito. A 2012 live-action film adaptation of the first game, titled Ace Attorney, was produced at the film studio Toei and directed by Takashi Miike. A 2016 TV anime adaptation of the series, Ace Attorney, was produced at A-1 Pictures and directed by Ayumu Watanabe.
Kodansha has published several manga based on the series: a short story anthology was published in Bessatsu Young Magazine in 2006; Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney and Ace Attorney Investigations: Miles Edgeworth were serialized in Weekly Young Magazine in 2007 and 2009, respectively; and another manga, which is based on the anime, was published in V Jump in 2016. A novel based on the series, Gyakuten Saiban: Turnabout Idol, was released in June 2016. Ace Attorney drama CDs, soundtrack albums, and figurines have also been released.
Ace Attorney characters have made crossover appearances in other video games. Some Ace Attorney characters appear in SNK vs. Capcom: Card Fighters DS. Phoenix and Edgeworth make a cameo appearance in She-Hulk's ending in the fighting game Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds; in the game's update, Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, Phoenix appears as a playable character. Phoenix and Maya are playable characters in Project X Zone 2, while Edgeworth makes a non-player appearance. Phoenix, Maya, Edgeworth and Franziska were all playable in the mobile game Monster Hunter Explore in 2017, as part of one of its temporary crossover events, and a Phoenix transformation is available for a companion character in Monster Hunter XX. Music from the Ace Attorney series is featured in Taiko Drum Master: Doko Don! Mystery Adventure, with Phoenix making an appearance in the game's story. In April 2021, Ace Attorney was introduced to Teppen alongside the Dead Rising franchise with the "Ace vs. The People" expansion.
Legacy
In 2015, GamesRadar+ named Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney as the 55th-best video game of all time. In 2016, Famitsu readers voted Gyakuten Saiban as the second-most memorable Game Boy Advance title (behind only Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire) and Gyakuten Saiban 123 as the tenth-best Nintendo 3DS game. In 2017, Famitsu readers voted Gyakuten Saiban the third-best adventure game of all time, behind only Steins;Gate and 428: Shibuya Scramble.
The Ace Attorney series has been credited with helping to popularise visual novels in the Western world. Vice magazine credits the Ace Attorney series with popularising the visual novel mystery format, and notes that its success anticipated the resurgence of point-and-click adventure games as well as the international success of Japanese visual novels. According to Danganronpa director Kazutaka Kodaka, Ace Attorneys success in North America was due to how it distinguished itself from most visual novels with its gameplay mechanics, which Danganronpa later built upon and helped it also find success in North America.
The Ace Attorney series has also inspired many video games. The 2008 Capcom title Harvey Birdman: Attorney at Law, based on the animated series, shares many elements with the Ace Attorney series. The 2013 title Socrates Jones: Pro Philosopher keeps the Ace Attorney format but swaps law for philosophical argument, and the 2015 adventure game Aviary Attorney features similar gameplay but with an all-bird cast of characters. The 2016 video game Detective Pikachu, which received a 2019 film adaptation, has also drawn comparisons to the Ace Attorney series.
Ace Attorney is referenced in several anime shows. In a murder mystery arc of the 2006 anime series Haruhi Suzumiya, the show's titular character mimics Phoenix Wright during an episode. The 2014 anime series No Game No Life also pays homage to the game during an episode.
In early 2021, a user on Reddit created a bot that took selected Reddit forum arguments into short movies fashioned after Ace Attorney courtroom battles between the games' various characters.
Later that year, the San Francisco Chronicle took note of its queer inspiration and influence: the first game inspired a great deal of fanwork featuring same-sex pairings and developers in turn took inspiration from boys' love in writing the sequels' characters.
Notes
References
External links
Capcom franchises
Kodansha manga
Shueisha manga
Video game franchises
Video game franchises introduced in 2001
Video games set in Los Angeles
Video games set in Japan
Visual novels
Video games adapted into films
Video games adapted into television shows
Video games about wrongful convictions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20miniature%20wargames
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List of miniature wargames
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Miniature wargames are a form of wargaming designed to incorporate miniatures or figurines into play, which was invented at the beginning of the 19th century in Prussia. The miniatures used represent troops or vehicles (such as tanks, chariots, aircraft, ships, etc.). The games may reflect historical situations and armies, or may be futuristic or fantasy-based.
This list compiles published miniature wargames categorized by their subject matter, genre, or time period covered in their rules.
Where known, the publisher is given (or, in a few cases, the designer(s) in the case of self-published or freely distributed games), as well as the date of first publication (many games have been published in several updated editions).
Ancients
A Fistfull of Miniatures (North Shore Press, 1986; Precis Intermedia Gaming, 2009)
Age of Battles (Zvezda, 2007)
Age of Hannibal (Little Wars TV, 2018)
Age of Heroes - Biblical Era V 6 (Computer Moderated Miniature Wargame Rules) (Computer Strategies, 2007)
Ancient & Medieval Wargaming (Sutton Publishing, 2007)
Ancient Empires (The Emperor's Press, 1991)
Ancient Warfare (Milgamex, 1975)
Ancient Warfare (A to Z Rules, 1997)
Ancient Warfare (Saga Publishing, 1998)
Arcane Warfare (Jerboa Development Team, 2002)
Armati (Quantum Printing, 1994)
Basic Impetus (Dadi & Piombo, 2006)
Battlestandard Ancient Rules (Battlestandard Miniatures and Games, 2004)
Clash of Empires (Great Escape Games, 2011)
Classical Hack (LMW Works Publications, 2002)
Classic Warfare (Tactical Studies Rules, 1975)
Conquerors and Kings (Peter Pig, 1999)
Crusader (Crusader Miniatures, 2007)
De Bellis Antiquitatis (Wargames Research Group, 1990)
De Bellis Magistrorum Militum (Caliver Books, 2007)
De Bellis Multitudinis (Wargames Research Group, 1993)
Fast Play Rules for Ancient Warfare (Newbury Rules, 1985)
Field of Glory (Osprey Publishing, 2008)
Gordian Knot (Agema Publications, 2007)
Greek Naval Warfare (London Wargames Section, 1972)
Hail Caesar (Warlord Games, 2011)
Hex Command Ancients (Imagine Image Multimedia, 2000)
Holy Hack First Edition (LMW Works, 1996)
Holy Hack Second Edition (LMW Works, 2007)
Homeric Hack (LMW Works, 2004)
Hoplon (Nicolas A. Protonotarios, 2003)
Impetus (Dadi & Piombo, 2008)
In Death Ground (Ruga-Ruga Publications, 2010)
Infamy, Infamy! (Too Fat Lardies, 2020)
Justified Ancients (Amazon Miniatures, 2005)
King David (Signifer Club Vicenza, 2004)
L'Art de la Guerre (Onyx éditions, 2008)
Legion (Fantasy Games Unlimited, 1976)
Lost Battles (Philip Sabin, 2008)
Macedon and Rome V 6 (Computer Moderated Miniature Wargame Rules) (Computer Strategies, 2007)
Melees Gloriosus (David P. Gundt, 1999)
Might of Arms (Colonnade Publishing, 1996)
Mortem et Gloriam (SHALL Enterprises Ltd, 2016)
Peltast and Pila (Tony Bath, Tabletop Warfare Limited, 1976)
PMG Ancients (Jeff Hunt, Portsmouth Miniatures and Games, 1997)
Salamis Ad Actium (David Manley, 2005)
Shieldbearer (Michel J Young)
Swordpoint (Gripping Beast, 2016)
Tactica (Quantum Printing, 1989)
The Art of War (Doug Larsen & Rocky Russo, 2005)
The Shock of Impact (Tabletop Games, 1981)
To the Strongest! (BigRedBat Ventures, 2014)
Vis Bellica (Ordered Flexibility, 2002)
War & Conquest (Scarab Miniatures, 2011)
Warfare in the Ancient World (Newbury Rules, 1980)
War Games Rules 1000 B.C to 500 A.D (Ancient War Games Research Group, 1969)
War Games Rules 1000 B.C. to 1000 A.D. (War Games Research Group, 1971)
War Games Rules 3000 B.C - 1250 A.D (Wargames Research Group, 1976)
War Games Rules 3000 BC to 1485 AD (Wargames Research Group, 1980)
Wargames Rules - Ancient Period (480 B.C. - A.D. 61) (Athena, 1986)
Warhammer Ancient Battles (Warhammer Historical Wargames, 1998)
Warlord (Partizan Press, 2007)
Warmaster Ancients (Warhammer Historical Wargames, 2005)
Warrior (Four Horsemen Enterprises, 2002)
Warrior Kings (Two Hour Wargames, 1998)
Wars Ancient (Magni Games, 2010)
Early Middle Ages
A Fistfull of Miniatures (North Shore Press, 1986; Precis Intermedia Gaming, 2009)
Ancient & Medieval Wargaming (Sutton Publishing, 2007)
Ancient Warfare (A to Z Rules, 1997)
Arcane Warfare (Jerboa Development Team, 2002)
Armati (Quantum Printing, 1994)
L'Art de la Guerre (Onyx éditions, 2008)
The Art of War (Doug Larsen & Rocky Russo, 2005)
Basic Impetus (Dadi & Piombo, 2006)
Battlelust (Columbia Games, 1992)
Battlestandard Ancient Rules (Battlestandard Miniatures and Games, 2004)
Clash of Empires (Great Escape Games, 2011)
Comitatus (Simon MacDowall, 2011)
Conquerors and Kings (Peter Pig, 1999)
De Bellis Antiquitatis (Wargames Research Group, 1990)
De Bellis Magistrorum Militum (Caliver Books, 2007)
De Bellis Multitudinis (Wargames Research Group, 1993)
Dux Brittaniarum (Too Fat Lardies, 2012)
Field of Glory (Osprey Publishing, 2008)
Hack In the Dark (Philip Viverito/LMW Works LLC 2008)
Hail Caesar (Warlord Games, 2011)
Hoplon (Nicolas A. Protonotarios, 2003)
Impetus (Dadi & Piombo, 2008)
Might of Arms (Colonnade Publishing, 1996)
Mortem et Gloriam (SHALL Enterprises Ltd, 2016)
Saga Dark Ages (Studio Tomahawk, published through Gripping Beast)
The Shock of Impact (Tabletop Games, 1981)
Swordpoint (Gripping Beast, 2016)
To Me! V 6:Computer Moderated Miniature Wargames Rules (Computer Strategies, 2007)
To the Strongest! (Simon Miller)
War & Conquest (Scarab Miniatures, 2011)
War Games Rules 1000 B.C. to 1000 A.D. (War Games Research Group, 1971)
War Games Rules 3000 B.C - 1250 A.D (Wargames Research Group, 1976)
War Games Rules 3000 BC to 1485 AD (Wargames Research Group, 1980)
Warhammer Ancient Battles (Warhammer Historical Wargames, 1998)
Warlord (Partizan Press, 2007)
Warmaster Ancients (Warhammer Historical Wargames, 2005)
Warrior (Four Horsemen Enterprises, 2002)
Warrior Kings (Two Hour Wargames, 1998)
Middle Ages
A Fistfull of Miniatures (North Shore Press, 1986; Precis Intermedia Gaming, 2009)
Ancient & Medieval Wargaming (Sutton Publishing, 2007)
Arcane Warfare (Jerboa Development Team, 2002)
Armati (Arty Conliffe, 1994) followed by Armati II (Arty Conliffe, 2004)
L'Art de la Guerre (Onyx éditions, 2008)
The Art of War (Doug Larsen & Rocky Russo, 2005)
Basic Impetus (Dadi & Piombo, 2006)
Battlestandard Ancient Rules (Battlestandard Miniatures and Games, 2004)
Chainmail (Guidon Games, 1971)
Clash of Empires (Great Escape Games, 2011)
Crusader (Crusader Miniatures, 2007)
De Bellis Antiquitatis (Wargames Research Group, 1990)
De Bellis Magistrorum Militum (Caliver Books, 2007)
De Bellis Multitudinis (Wargames Research Group, 1993)
Ex illis (Chinchilla Games, 2013)
Field of Glory (Osprey Publishing, 2008)
HAVOC: Tactical Miniature Warfare (Brent Spivey, Voodoo Ink Publishing, 2009)
Impetus (Dadi & Piombo, 2008)
Knight Hack (LMW Works, 2007)
Might of Arms (Colonnade Publishing, 1996)
Mortem et Gloriam (SHALL Enterprises Ltd, 2016)
Retinue Medieval Skirmish Rules (David Cliff, Tabletop Games, 1978)
Shattered Lances (Outpost Wargame Services, 2005)
Swordpoint (Gripping Beast, 2016)
Tactica Medieval (Quantum Printing, 1992)
To Me! V 6:Computer Moderated Miniature Wargames Rules (Computer Strategies, 2007)
To the Strongest! (Simon Miller)
WarChu (www.warchu.com, 2011)
War Games Rules 3000 B.C - 1250 A.D (Wargames Research Group, 1976)
War Games Rules 3000 BC to 1485 AD (Wargames Research Group, 1980)
Warhammer Ancient Battles (Warhammer Historical Wargames, 1998)
Warheads: Medieval Tales (Urban Mammoth, 2010)
Warlord II (Partizan Press, 2008)
Warmaster Ancients (Warhammer Historical Wargames, 2005)
Warrior (Four Horsemen Enterprises, 2002)
Warrior Kings (Two Hour Wargames, 1998)
Renaissance
Basic Impetus (Dadi & Piombo, 2006)
De Bellis Renationis (Wargames Research Group, 1997)
Field of Glory: Renaissance (Osprey Publishing, 2010)
Flashing Steel (Ganesha Games, 2010)
Forged in Blood (Ganesha Games, 2018)
Impetus (Dadi & Piombo, 2008)
Pike & Shotte (Steve Morgan, Warlord Games, 2012)
Rulettes for 16th Century Naval Warfare (Wargames Research Group, 1978)
Samurai Warfare (Adams & Clarke, ~1979)
Sword And Pistol (Tabletop Games, 1985)
The Road To Osaka (Daisho Publications, 1995)
The Universal Soldier (RAFM Company, 1977)
Wargames Rules - Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Century (1490–1660) (George Gush, Wargames Research Group, 1976)
Wargames Rules For Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries (1420–1700) (George Gush, Wargames Research Group, 1979)
Warlord II (Partizan Press, 2008)
Early Modern
1644 (Rick Priestley, Wargames Foundry, 1990)
Age of Musket (Peter Morffew, 2003)
Bayonet and Ideology (Peter Pig, 1994)
Before I was a Marshal, I was a Grenadier (Sergeants 3, 1967/2001)
Black Powder (Rick Priestley, Warlord Games, 2009)
Black Powder Battles (Two Hour Wargames, 2004)
Blenheim To Balaclava (Brian Gregory, Brigade Games, 1988)
Blood, Bilge, and Iron Balls (Age of Sail, Alan Abbey, Pen & Sword, 2011)
Carnage & Glory (Nigel P. Marsh, 1991)
Carnage & Glory II (Nigel P. Marsh, 2001)
Cavaliers and Roundheads (TSR, Inc., 1973)
Classic Napoleonics (Raymond [Ray] James Jackson, 1971)
Close Action (Clash of Arms Games, 1998)
Column, Line, & Square (Fred Vietmeyer, 1966)
Corps d'Armee: Napoleonic Rules for Large Scale Wargames (Geoffrey Wootten, Wargames Research Group, 1989)
De Bellis Renationis (Wargames Research Group, 1997)
Divisional Commander (Studio Capitan)
Don't Give Up The Ship! (Tactical Studies Rules, 1972)'t Give Up The Ship!Tactical Studies Rules
Dutchman Spaniard Switzer Swede (Douglas Hubbard, Tactical Realities Inc., 1993
Eagles, Swords & Bayonets(Richard Kohlbacker/LMW Works 2014 ))
Empire (Napoleonic) (Scotty Bowden, 197 no5)
Empires, Eagles, and Lions (Napoleonic Era) (New Jersey Association of Wargamers, 1980)
Ever Victorious Armies (Honourable Lead Boiler Suit Company, 2000)
Field of Glory: Napoleonic (Osprey Publishing, 2012)
Final Argument of Kings (Seven Years' War) (Dean West, 1996)
File Leader! (English Civil War) (Peter Berry, Partizan Press, 1987)
Forlorn Hope (English Civil War) (Peter Berry & Ben Wilkins, Partizan Press, 1987)
Form Line of Battle (David Manley, 2000)
Frappé (Napoleonic) (Ray Johnson and Duke Seifried, The Wargamers' Library, Volume 1, c1970)
From Valmy to Waterloo (Tactical to Grand Tactical, 1792-1815) (William Keyser, Clash of Arms Games, 1995)
Game of War Napoleonic and 18th century (Agema.org.uk, 2007)
Grand Battles Napoleon (Napoleonic) (Siege Works Studios, 2014)
Grande Armée (Napoleonic) (Sam A. Mustafa, 2002)
Grand Manoeuvre (Napoleonic) (Michael Collins, 2011)
Great Captains - Linear Warfare V 6 (Computer Moderated Miniature Wargame Rules) (Computer Strategies, 2007)
Gunpowder Revolution - Renaissance Warfare V 6 (Computer Moderated Miniature Wargame Rules) (Computer Strategies, 2007)
Guns of Liberty (American War of Independence) (Eric Burgess, 1998)
Gå På (Great Northern War, War of the Spanish Succession) (Thomas Årnfelt)
Habitants and Highlanders (French and Indian War) (Canadian Wargamers Group, 1992)
Honours of War (Seven Years' War) (Osprey Publishing, 2015)
Imperial Lances (Napoleonic Wars) (The Tin Dictator | Bob Rodgers, 2009)
In the Heart of Africa (Colonial Africa 1860–1899) (Honourable Lead Boiler Suit Co., unknown)
In the Name of Glory (David Marks, 2005)
Iron Duke - Napoleonics V 6 (Computer Moderated Miniature Wargame Rules) (Computer Strategies, 2007)
It is Warm Work- Age of Sail Naval (Frank Capotorto, 2011)
John Company (Colonial India) (n/a, unknown)
King of the Battlefield (18th-century European) (Ian Godwin, unknown)
Kiss Me Hardy (Napoleonic Naval) (Too Fat Lardies, 2003)
Koenig Krieg (1740-1786), War of Austrian Succession, Seven Years' War, American War of Independence) (Siege Works Studios, 2009)
La Grande Armée (Napoleonic) (Simulations Publications Inc, 1972)
La Grande Armée (Napoleonic) (TSR, Inc., 1987)
Lasalle (Napoleonic) (Honour - Sam Mustafa, 2009)
Le Feu Sacré (Napoleonic) (Too Fat Lardies, 2004)
Le Petite Armee v4.1 (Napoleonic) (Signifer/LPA Games, 2001)
Marlburian Commander (Studio Capitan)
Matchlock; ECW Rules for 1/300th scale (Mike Smith, Partizan Press, 1988)
Might & Reason (18th-century European)
Napoleonic Wargaming, Airfix Magazine Guide 4 (Patrick Stephens Ltd and Airfix Products, Ltd, 1974) (Bruce Quarrie)
Napoleonic Wargaming (Model and Allied Publications, Argus Books, Ltd, 1974) (Charles Grant)
Napoleonique (Napoleonic Era) (Jim Getz, Duke Seifried, The Wargamers' Library Vol IV, 1971)
Napoleonique Encore (Napoleonic Era) (Glenn Davis, Jim Getz, Duke Seifried, 1992)
Napoleon's Battles (1989 Avalon Hill; Lost Battalion Games 2009)(Robert Coggins and Craig Taylor)
Pas de Charge! (Napoleonic Era) (George Nafziger, Z & M Enterprises, 1977)
Patrols in the Sudan (19th century colonial) (Peter Pig, 2004)
Pike Hack Road to Dunbar (Philip Viverito/LMW Works LLC 2013 )
Piquet (Multiple periods)
Pirates & Buccaneers (16th-18th century skirmish) (Tactical Command Games, 1988)
Pirates of the Spanish Main (WizKids, 2004)
Principles of War (16th century to WWI)
Rank and File (Horse and Musket 1740-1900) (Crusader Publishing)
Regiment of Foote (English Civil War) (Peter Pig, 2004)
Republique (Napoleonic)
Rocket's Red Glare (War of 1812) (Canadian Wargamers Group, 1994)
Rough Riders (SCW)
Rebels and Patriots
Senso (Samurai)
Shako I & II (Napoleonics) (Arty Conliffe)
Spanish Fury (Renaissance)
The British are Coming (American War of Independence)
The Last Days of the Grande Armée (Napoleonic) (Operational Studies Group, 1998)
The Sword and The Flame (Colonial) (Yaquinto, And That's the Way It Was..., 1979)
The Thin Red Line (Crimean War) (Rank and File Figures, 1994)
To Glory We Steer (Age of Sail) (Atkins wargames) Free Rules
To the Banners (Renaissance)
To the Sound of the Guns (Napoleonic) (Tabletop Games, 1983)
Tricolor (Napoleonic) (TSR, Inc., 1975)
Tricorne (Seven Years War) {Ken Bunger, Z & M Enterprises, 1977)
Tricorne (18th century) (M.O.D. Games, 1985)
Two Hundred Years (5mm for 1700–1900) (Tabletop Games, 1988)
Vive L′Empereur (Napoleonic) (Chaosium Rulesbook, 1981)
Volley & Bayonet (GDW Games, 1994), followed by Volley & Bayonet: Road to Glory (Test of Battle Games, 2008)
War by Sail (Ostfront Publishing, 2019)
Warfare in the Age of Discovery
Warfare in the Age of Reason
Wargamer's Guide to the English Civil War (William B. Protz jr., 1977)
Wargames Rules 1750-1850 (Wargames Research Group, 1971)
Wargames Rules 1685-1845 (Wargames Research Group, 1979)
Wargaming the Age of Marlborough (Editions Brokaw, 1985)
Warhammer English Civil War (Warhammer Historical Wargames Ltd, 2002)
The Whites of Their Eyes (American War of Independence) (Canadian Wargamers Group, 1997)
American Civil War
A Glint of Bayonets (Sergeants 3, 2005)
Altar of Freedom (Greg Wagman, 2013)
American Civil War (Cliff Knight & Peter Dennis, 1986)
American Battlelines (ODGW LLC, 1999)
“Blood in the Valley” (Tony Lenna, 2021)
Blue-Light Manual (Fantasy Games Unlimited, 1976)
Brother Against Brother (Stratagem Publications Ltd, 1997)
Call to the Colors free rules for ACW 15mm miniatures. (Fred Ehlers, 2010)
Circa 1863 (Bob Cooper, Tabletop Games, 1978)
Enduring Valor: Gettysburg in Miniature (Marek/Janci Designs, Vol.1 2002, Vol. 2 2004)
Fire and Fury (Quantum Publishing, 1990)
Hardtack (Guidon Games, 1971)
Iron and Fire (David Manley, 2005)
Ironclad (Guidon Games, 1973)
Gettysburg Soldiers (Larry Reber and Justin Reber, 2010)
Honor & Glory (David Marks, unknown)
Johnny Reb (John Hill, Game Designers' Workshop, 1988), Johnny Reb III (The Johnny Reb Gaming Company, 1996)
Kepi and Musket (Peter Morffew, 2006)
Mr. Lincoln's War ([Stephen Phenow, Terry Gore (game designers)], [Quantum Printing], 2000)
Mr. Lincoln's War: Army of the Potomac and Mr. Lincoln's War: Army of the Tennessee (3W (World Wide Wargames), 1983)
On To Richmond (The Courier Publishing Co. Inc., 1983)
Rally Round the Flag (Battleline, 1975)
Rally Once More! V 6 (Computer Moderated Miniature Wargame Rules) (Computer Strategies, 2007)
Some Wore Blue and Some Wore Gray (Raymond (Ray) James Jackson, 2012)
The American Civil War, 2nd Edition (T.J. Halsall, Newbury Rules, 1977)
The American Civil War (A to Z Rules, 1994)
Whipping Bobby Lee (Ragnar Brothers, 1990)
Hex Command Gunpowder (Terry Cabak, 2000)
Colonial
A Good Dusting
Age of Empires
Blood and Sand
Colonial Adventures by Two Hour Wargames
Imperial Wars, Colonial Warfare Rules 1860-1900 (M.O.D. Games, 1985)
Little Wars By H. G. Wells (Victorian Colonial Wars) (H. G. Wells, 1913; DBA Skirmisher Publishing, 2004)
Rules for Wargames in the 1880 Period Including Colonial Wars (Typescript, Donald F. Featherstone)
Savage Wars of Peace (Victorian Colonial) (Mark Hayes, Tim Goodlett, Poor Beggars in Red Games, 1989)
Science versus Pluck, or "Too Much for the Mahdi"
Soldiers of the Queen (Tabletop Games)
Sons of the Desert (French Foreign Legion in North Africa) (Old Glory, unknown)
The Colonial Skirmish Wargame Rules, C. 1850-1900 (Michael R. Blake, Ian M Colwill, Stephen Curtis, Edwin J. Herbert, 1972)
The Sword and the Flame
The New Zealand Wars (Ostfront Publishing, 2016)
Muskets & Tomahawks (Skirmishes in North America during the 18th century) (Alexandre Buchel, Studio Tomahawk, 2012)
The Men Who Would be Kings (Osprey Publishing)
Industrial
Bugles, Boots and Saddles (Sergeants 3, 2010)
Chassepot & Needlegun (Franco-Prussian War) (Frontier Miniatures, 1985)
Grande Bataille, Grande Victoire (European Land Warfare from 1853-1871 by JW Brown) (Absinthe Press, 1991)
Gutshot (American Old West) (Mike Mitchell, Mike Murphy & Paul Mauer, Hawgleg Publishing, 2005)
Hey You in the Jail! (American Old West) (Peter Pig, unknown)
Ikonki - Russo-Japanese Land Wars (Ostfront Publishing, 2016)
Imperial Splendour V 6 (Computer Moderated Wargame Rules) (Computer Strategies, 2007)
In Her Majesty's Name (Osprey Publishing, 2013)
Legends of the Old West (Warhammer Historical Games Ltd, 2004)
Once Upon a Time in the West: Rules for Gunfight Wargames (Ian S. Beck and John D. Spencer, 1978)
Pony Wars, or 'B' Troop Ain't Coming Back (Indian Wars) (Ian S. Beck, Tabletop Games, 1980)
Red Actions (Russian Civil War) (The Perfect Captain, unknown)
Santa Anna Rules! (Mexican and Texas Wars of Independence, Mexican–American War) (Buck Surdu and Pete Panzeri, 1998)
Sebastopol, Sadowa, and Sedan (19th Century Warfare) (T.J. Halsall, J.G. Kew, and A.M. Roth, Newbury Rules, 1981)
Six-Gun Sound: Blaze of Glory (American Old West) (Two-Hour Wargames, 2007)
The Genuine and Original Old West Skirmish Rules, 1816-1900, 3rd Edition (Steve Curtis, Mike Blake, and Ian Colwill, Lou Zocchi, 1975)
Tombstones n' Tumbleweeds (American Old West) (Game Werks, 2004)
Warpaint (Indian Wars) (Emperor's Press/Old Glory Miniatures, 1996)
Western Gunfight Wargame Rules (American Old West) (Curtis Brothers, 1971)
Yellow Ribbon (Indian Wars, 1850-1890) (Greg Novak, Mike Gilbert illustrations) (Ulster Imports, 1988)
The Great Powers - Post-Napoleonic Warfare V 6 (Computer Moderated Miniature Wargame Rules) (Computer Strategies, 2007)
They Died For Glory (Franco-Prussian War) (Quantum Printing Company, 1992)
World War I
Age of Dreadnoughts (Mongoose Publishing, 2009)
Air War 1918 (David Manley, 2007)
Aces at Dawn (Majestic Twelve Games, 2005)
Algernon Pulls it Off (Too Fat Lardies, 2006)
Blue Max (board game) Phil Hall
Canvas Eagles (Eric Hotz, unknown)
Challenge & Reply! WW1 Naval (Agema.org.uk, 2000)
Contemptible Little Armies (HLBS Publishing, 2002)
Cordite and Steel (TSR, Inc., 1977)
Desert Column V 6 (Computer Moderated Miniature Wargame Rules) (Computer Strategies, 2007)
Dogfight Over Flanders, WWI Aerial Combat Rules (Mike Thomas and Kev Smith, Tabletop Games, 1992)
Dogfight! (Ostfront Publishing, 2016)
Fear God & Dread Naught (Clash of Arms Games, 2000)
Fleet Action Imminent (Old Dominion GamesWorks, 2008)
Grand Fleets (Majestic Twelve Games, 2004)
Great War (Terry Sirk and Fred Haub, 1985)
If the Lord Spares Us (Too Fat Lardies, 2005)
Mein Panzer WW1 Data Book (ODGW LLC, unknown)
October Revolt (Russian Civil War) (B & B Miniatures, 1994)
Over the Top (Greg Novak) (Command Decision series) (Game Designers' Workshop, 1990)
Price of Glory (Iron Ivan Games, 2006)
Square Bashing 1914–1918 (Peter Pig, 1997)
Tanks & Yanks WWI Late War 1917 to 1918 (Philip Viverito/LMW Works LLC 2017 )
The Last Crusade (Great War in Palestine, Mesopotamia, Africa) (Tim Goodlett, Mark Hayes, Poor Beggars in Red Games, 1991)
Trench (Tabletop Games, 1975)
Trench Storm (The Tin Dictator/Ivan Sorensen, 2003)
Trench Wars (Old Glory, 2004)
Triumph and Tragedy (Tischrabauken Productions - Björn Reichel / 2007 )
Triumph of the Will (Russian Civil War, Spanish Civil War) (Too Fat Lardies, 2001)
World War 1 Wargames Rules (Skytrex, unknown)(Roger Edward Bigg, The Mailed Fist Wargames Group)
Westfront (Ostfront Publishing, 2016)
World War II
1-48COMBAT (Baueda Wargames, 2009)
1944, 3rd Edition (Arnold Hendrick, Dick Bryant, Peter Lowry) (New England Wargamers Association, 1974)
Action Stations (David Manley, 2000)
Air Combat (T.H. Halsall, Leicester Micromodels Ltd, and Heritage Models, Inc., 1977)
Air War 1940 (David Manley, 2011)
Ambush Blitz! (2007)
Angriff! (Z&M Publishing Enterprises, 1968)
Arc of Fire (TAC Publications, 2002)
Art of Tactic (Zvezda LLC, 2012)
Armour & Infantry 1925 - 1950 (War Games Research Group, 1973)
Assault Gun (David Kershaw, 2006)
Axis & Allies Miniatures (Wizards of the Coast, 2004)
Axis & Allies Naval Miniatures: War at Sea (Wizards of the Coast, 2007)
ADMIRAL (LuxLu, 2010)
Bag the Hun (Too Fat Lardies, 2005)
Battlefield Evolution: World At War (Mongoose Publishing, 2008)
Battlefront WWII (Fire and Fury Games, 2000)
Battlegroup (Kursk, Overlord, Fall of the Reich, Blitzkrieg and Barbarossa) (Iron Fist Publishing, 2011, Written by Warwick Kinrade)
Blitzkrieg (Onyx Editions, 2006)
BlitzkriegCommander (Specialist Military Publishing, 2009)
"Bullet" (Richard Bailey, Tiny Wargames 2015)
Bolt Action (Rick Priestley & Alessio Cavatore, Warlord Games, 2012)
Chain of Command (Richard Clarke, TooFatLardies, 2013)
Combined Arms (Ian Shaw, Tabletop Games, 1983)
Command Decision (Game Designers' Workshop, 1986) followed by version 2 and 3 (Emperor's Press 1996) and Command Decision: Test of Battle (Test of Battle Games 2006)
Command at Sea Vols I-VII (Clash of Arms Games, 1994)
Crossfire (Quantum Printing, 1996)
Disposable Heroes & Coffin for Seven Brothers (Iron Ivan Games, 2004)
Easy Eight's Battleground WWII (Easy Eight Enterprises)
eRules World War II (WargameSystems, 2001)
The Face of Battle (Meramic Enterprises, 2001)
Fast Micro-Armour Rules for World War II (Reginald D. Steiner, 1981)
Fast Rules (Armored Operations Society, 1970)
Final Combat (Britton Publishers, 2004)
Final Round (n/a, 2006)
Firefly (Table Top Games, 1987)
Flames of War (Battlefront Ltd, 2002)
The Fletcher Pratt Naval Wargame (Fletcher Pratt, 1943)
G.I. Commander (Enola Games/Navwar, 1984)
General Quarters (World War Two Naval Warfare, 1/2400 scale) (L.L. Gill, CinC Soft Metal Castings, 1975)
General Quarters 2 (20th Century Naval Warfare, 1/2400) (L.L. Gill, CinC Soft Metal Castings, 1977)
General Quarters (Old Dominion GameWorks, unknown)
Great Battles of World War II (Bruce McFarlane, The Canadian Wargames Group, 1995)
Grey Storm, Red Steel (Firebase Games, 1995)
Guts 'N Glory (GTB, 2006)
Hour of Glory (Warm Acre, 2004)
I Ain't Been Shot Mum! (Too Fat Lardies, 2002)
Iron Tigers V 6 (Computer Moderated Miniature Wargame Rules) (Computer Strategies, 2007)
Jagdpanzer (World War Two armor combat) (Kevin Cabai, 1975)
Jagdpanzer, 2nd Edition (World War Two armor combat) (Kevin Cabai, 2012)
Kampfgruppe (Historical Alternatives, 1979)
Lacquered Coffins (WWII Air Combat) (Ostfront Publishing, 2017)
Korps Commander - The Road to Berlin (TableTop Games, 1988)
Lightning War - Red Storm v3 (Andrew Stevenson, 2013)
Look Sarge No Charts (LMW Works, 2007)
Mein Panzer (Old Dominion GameWorks, 1998)
Mein Panzer Core Rules (Old Dominion GameWorks, 2002)
Micro Armour: The Game - WWII (GHQ, 2001)
Micro Tactics: Brightly Illustrated, Simplified rules for 1:144 Scale Armor (Seth Koukol, 2012)
Naval Action: A Simple Combat Resolution System for Model Fleets of the 1898-1945 Era (Louis R. Coatney, 1997)
Naval Warfare '39--'45 (Keith Robinson, Leicester Micromodels and Heritage Models, Inc., 1976)
Nuts! (Two Hour Wargames, 2005)
Operation Warboard (World War II, 20-25mm) (Gavin Lyall, Adam and Charles Black, London, 1976)
Ostfront (Ostfront Publishing, 2016)
Panzer Marsch! (North Hull Wargames Club, 1999)
Panzer Miniatures (StrikeNet Games, 2004)
PanzerTruppe (LMW Works, 2004)
Panzer Warfare (TSR Games, Inc., 1975)(Brian Blume)
Patrol: WWII (Skirmish, WWII) (Damond Crump, 2006)
Poor Bloody Infantry (PBI) and Poor Bloody Infantry 2 (Peter Pig, 2000, 2006)
Rapid Fire! (Stratagem Publications Ltd, 1994)
Rules of Engagement (Great Escape Games, 2007)
Salvo! WW2 Naval (Agema.org.uk, 2007)
Schwere Kompanie (RitterKrieg, 2001)
Spearhead (Quantum Printing, 1995)
Spitting Fire (Majestic Twelve Games, 2006)
Sturmovik Commander (Marcin Gerkowicz, 2008)
Tactical Commander; Rules for World War II Skirmish Wargames (Andrew Rathmell, Tabletop Games, 1982)
The Wargame Battletracker (Hobby Pursuit LLC, 2009)
Tide of Iron (Fantasy Flight Games, 2007; Re-print 1A Games, 2014)
Tigers and Stalins—Micro Armor Tank Rules (Mind Games, unknown)
Tractics (Guidon Games, 1971)
Troops, Weapons & Tactics (Too Fat Lardies, 2007)
T-34 (Strategy & Tactics Magazine, 1970)
Victory at Sea (Nassau Naval & Military Historical Society, 1971)
Victory at Sea (Mongoose Publishing, 2006)
War Games Rules Armour & Infantry 1925-1950, (Wargames Research Group, June 1973)
World War II Infantry Action (Mid-20th Century Section/Platoon combat) (Mike Klaka, Trevor Halsall, Newbury Rules, 1986)
Hex Command Mechanized (Terry Cabak, 2000)
Modern
Armis Armis Board Game
Force on Force (Ambush Alley Games, 2011)
A Fistful of TOWs (A Fistful of Games, 1998)
AK47 Republic (Peter Pig, 1997)
Ambush Alley! (Ambush Alley Games, 2007)
Armour & Infantry 1950 - 1975 (War Games Research Group, 1975)
Boocoo Fire Mission (Vietnam War) (Ostfront Publishing, 2022)
Battlegroup (Ian Clarke, 2009)
Bulldogs Away (David Manley, 2006)
Charlie Company (Ulster Imports, 1986)
Combined Arms (Command Decision series) (Game Designers' Workshop, 1988)
Command Decision (2nd edition, Game Designers' Workshop, 1992)
Conflict 2000 (Tactical Command Games, 1996)
Cold War Commander (Specialist Military Publishing, 2006)
Cornered Wolf (Chechen Wars) (Ostfront Publishing, 2018)
Corps Commander - Operational Manoeuvre Group (Bruce Rea Taylor, 1986)
Desert Whirlwind V 6 (Computer Moderated Miniature Wargame Rules) (Computer Strategies, 2007)
Dogs of War (modern skirmish) (JC McDaniel, Devil Dog Design, 2002)
Flashpoint Vietnam (Flashpoint Miniatures, 2006)
Fox Two (David Manley, 1995)
Harpoon (Clash of Arms Games)
Hind & Seek (Soviet-Afghan War) (Ostfront Publishing, 2017)
Land and Airborne Assault (Peter Morffew, updated May 2009 )
Lethal Skies (Talion Games 2018)
Megablitz (Multi-period 20th century) (Tim Gow, unknown)
Mekong...Vietnam (Vietnam War) (Martin Fenelon) (GHQ, 1987)
The Men of Company B (Vietnam) (Peter Pig, unknown)
Micro Armour: The Game - Modern (1946–present days) (GHQ, 2004)
Missile Threat (Air Combat 1960 - 2000) (Ostfront Publishing, 2018)
Modern Ops (Great White Games, 2005)
Modern Spearhead (Quantum Printing, 2000)
Operation Nam (A Squad to Platoon Level Wargame for Miniatures by JW Brown) (Absinthe Press, 1992)
Phoenix Command (Leading Edge Games, 1986)
Sand, Oil, and Blood, Armored Combat in the 1990s (Martin Fenelon, Kevin Cabai) (Sutton Hoo Games 1991)
SeaTac (Modern naval surface/air/submarine rules) (William Likens, Q-Games, 1980)
Shipwreck (Vandering Publications, 1999)
Special Forces (M.O.D. Games, 1982)
(Spectre Miniatures, 2017)
TacForce (Game Designers' Workshop)
Team Yankee (Cold War 1983) (Battlefront Miniatures Ltd, 2015)
Tractics (WW2 and Modern) (Mike Reese, Leon Tucker, Gary Gygax, Guidon Games, 1971)
Wargames Research Group Armour and Infantry 1950-1975
Other Historical/Alternate History
.45 Adventures (Pulp Era) (Rattrap Productions, 2005)
All Things Zombie (Zombies) (Two Hour Wargames, 2006)
Ambush Z! (Zombies) (Ambush Alley Games, 2008)
Apocalypse: Earth Open source rules under development by JM Games
Battlelust (Columbia Games, 1992)
Chinese Takeout (Atkins Wargames) Kung Fu and Magic
Crimson Skies (1930s Pulp Aerial Combat) (FASA, 1998)
Carnevale - The Miniatures Game (Venetian alternate horror) (TTCombat, 2017)
Cthulhu: Xothic Wars (Cthulhu Mythos Monster Combat) (Gobbotown Games, 2018)
Down Styphon! (Pike and Shot) (Fantasy Games Unlimited, 1977)
Dystopian Legions (Victorian steampunk) Spertan games, 2012
Dystopian Wars (Victorian steampunk) Spartan games, 2010
Dust Warfare (WW2, alternate timeline, mecha, pulp) Fantasy Flight Games, 2012
G.A.S.L.I.G.H.T. (Victorian Science Fiction) (Surdu, Palmer and Beattie, 2003)
Gear Krieg (WW2 mecha combat) (Dream Pod 9, 2000)
Hard Vacuum (WW2 spaceship combat) (Fat Messiah Games, 2000)
Iron Stars (Edwardian spaceship combat) (Majestic Twelve Games, 2004)
Ironclads & Ether Flyers (Victorian Science Fiction Naval combat) (Game Designers' Workshop 1990, Heliograph, Inc. 2000)
Konflikt 47 (WW2 alternate timeline, mech, pulp, base on Bolt Action)
Occult Wars
Pulp City (1980s superheroes and action adventure) (Pulp Monsters, 2004)
Secrets of the Third Reich (Alternative WW2) (West Wind Miniatures/Grindhouse Games, 2008)
Soldier's Companion (Victorian Science Fiction) (Game Designers' Workshop 1989, Heliograph, Inc. 2001)
Zombie-A-Go-Go (Zombies co-operative players) (Monomer Games, 2010)
Abstract/generic/multiple time periods
Brikwars (N/A, 1995)
Digital Empires (Ancients, Medieval, World War I, World War II, Science Fiction, Fantasy) (Crunchy Frog Enterprises, 1996)
Fistful of Lead (Wiley Games, 2019)
Full Command (Setting agnostic) (Serious Lemon, 2015)
Gear Krieg (Mecha WW2) (Dream Pod 9, 2001)
PUMMEL! ("Pick-Up, Multigenre Miniatures, Easy to Learn") (Polymancer Studios, Inc.)
Sharp Practice! (Multi-Period Black Powder) (TooFatLardies, 2008)
Skirmish Wargaming (Donald Featherstone, 1975)
ShockForce (Universal rules for miniatures) (Demonblade Games, unknown)
Tempus Mortis (Blight Games 2022)
The Portable Wargame generic/multiple time periods (Bob Cordery 2016) Uses hex and square grid system.
"Table Top Battles" generic/multiple time periods (Mike and Joyce Smith 2007) Uses a 2" (50mm) and 4" (100mm) grid system. 2nd Edition generic/multiple time periods (Mike and Joyce Smith 2018)
"Wings at War" (Aerial, WWI-Falklands War) (Chris Sulley)
Science fiction
2184 Generation War (avril 2016)
5150 (Two Hour Wargames, 2006)
Aeronautica Imperialis (Forge World, 2007)
Aeronef (Wessex Games, unknown)
Ætherverse (Triskele Game Design Studios, 2004)
Alien Squad Leader (15mm.co.uk, 2005)
A Call to Arms: Babylon 5 Space Combat (Mongoose Publishing, 2004)
A Fistful of Sardaukar (A Fistful of Games, unknown)
AT-43 (Rackham, 2006)
Attack Vector: Tactical (Ad Astra Games, 2004)
Atomic Super Humans (Radioactive Press, 2010)
Babylon 5 Wars (Agents of Gaming, 1998)
Batman Miniature Game (Knight Models, 2012)
Battlefield Evolution (Mongoose Publishing, 2007)
Battlefleet Gothic (Games Workshop, 1999)
BEAMSTRIKE (Open source, Unknown)
CAV: Combat Assault Vehicle (Reaper Miniatures, 2006)
Chain Reaction (Two Hour Wargames, 2000)
Battletech (FASA, 1984)
Combat Zone (EM4 Miniatures, 2011)
Critter Commandos (Crunchy Frog Enterprises, 1989)
CyborGladiators (Firefly Games, 2004)
Dark Age (Cool Mini Or Not, 2002)
Dark Potential (MiniWarGaming, 2011)
DC Universe Miniature Game (Knight Models, 2017)
Defiance (Majestic Twelve Games, 2001)
Dirtside (Ground Zero Games, 1989)
Dirtside II (Ground Zero Games, 1993)
Dropfleet Commander (Hawk Wargames, 2016, TT Combat as of 2017)
Dropzone Commander (Hawk Wargames, 2012, TT Combat as of 2017)
Epic, various editions known as Adeptus Titanicus/Space Marine (1988/89), Warhammer Epic 40,000 (1997) and Epic Armageddon, (Games Workshop, 1988 onwards)
Fast And Dirty (Ivan Sorensen, 2004)
Firestorm: Armada (Spartan Games, 2009)
Flashpoint! (Virtual Fusion Press, unknown)
Full Thrust (Ground Zero Games, 1992)
Future War Commander (Specialist Military Publishing, 2008)
Galactic Control (Armchair Assassin, 2011)
Galactic-Conflict in the Stars (Arbron Imagineering / Iron Wind Metals, 2011)
Galactic Warfare (Skytrex, 1973)
Gangs of Mega-City One (Mongoose Publishing, 2005)
Gaslands (Osprey Publishing, 2017)
Giant Monster Rampage (Radioactive Press, 2002)
Giants: The Action Figure Game of Colossal Combat (Ken Lewis, 2019)
Gorkamorka (Games Workshop, 1997)
Gruntz 15mm SCI-FI (Rottenlead, 2010)
Halo: Fleet Battles (Spartan Games, 2015)
Halo OTT (The OTTgameteam, 2007)
Heavy Gear (Dream Pod 9, 1989)
Holes (Tri Tac Systems, 1995)
Hostile Stars (Dark Realm Miniatures, 2010)
Infinity (Corvus Belli, 2005)
Iron Cow 2103ad (Wessex Games, 1995, reprinted 2002)
Jovian Chronicles (Dream Pod 9, 1992)
Jump Trooper (A Fistful of Games, unknown)
Kryomek (Fantasy Forge Ltd, 1991)
Laserburn (Bryan Ansell, Tabletop Games, 1980)
LaserGrenadiers (Godfox Enterprises, unknown)
Legions of Steel (Global Games Company, 1992)
Mars Ascendant - Sci-Fi V 6 (Computer Moderated Miniature Wargame Rules) (Computer Strategies, 2007)
MechWarrior: Dark Age, MechWarrior: Age of Destruction (WizKids, 2002, 2006)
Mega Bots (Radioactive Press, 2010)
MERCS (Mercs Minis, 2010)
Mighty Monsters (Ganesha Games, 2011, also published in Italian language as Megamostri )
Mindstalkers (ManorHouse Miniatures, 2004)
Mobius (Ioan Davies-John, 2020)
Monster Island: The Game of Giant Monster Combat (Firefly Games, 2002)
Monster Mash (Radioactive Press, 2011)
Mutants and Death Ray Guns (Ganesha Games, 2008)
Necromunda (Games Workshop, 1998)
Necromunda (Games Workshop, 1995)
New World Disorder (Precis Intermedia Gaming, 2008)
Nuclear Renaissance (Ramshackle Studios, 2007)
OGRE Miniatures (Steve Jackson Games, 1992)
Omega Warrior (Flagship Games, 1998)
Planet 28 (Mammoth miniatures, 2020)
Power Warriors (Radioactive Press, 2009)
Princess Ryan's Space Marines (Simulations Tacticals (SIMTACS), 1991)
Railgun 2100 (A Fistful of Games, unknown)
Renegade Legion (FASA, 1987)
Rezolution (Aberrant Games, 2004)
"Ronin - Duels" (Cell Entertainment AB)
"Ronin: Wars" (Cell Entertainment AB)
"Robotech: RPG Tactics" (Palladium Books/Ninja Division/Soda Pop Miniatures/Cipher Studios, June 2014 – present)
Saganami Island Tactical Simulator (Ad Astra Games, 2005)
Samurai Robots Battle Royale (Ganesha Games, 2013)
Seeds of War (Dark Realm Miniatures, 2008)
Sentai Heroes (Radioactive Press, 2011)
Shockforce (Demonblade, 1998)
Slammer (Chris and Alex Nicole, unknown)
Skirmish Tactics Apocalypse (2013)
Space Marines (Fantasy Games Unlimited, 1980)
Space Fleet (Games Workshop, 1991)
Spacerfarers(Games Workshop Ltd., 1981)
Spinespur(Comfy Chair Games., 2007)
Squadron Commander 3600 (Mariner Games, 1997)
Squadron Strike (Ad Astra Games, 1st Ed. 2008, 2nd Ed. 2016)
$tar Corp$: Call to Battle! (Lance and Laser Models Inc., Crunchy Frog Enterprises, 1992)
Star Fleet Battles (Task Force Games, 1979)
Star Wars Legion (Fantasy Flight Games, 2017)
Star Wars Miniatures (Wizards of the Coast, 2004)
Star Wars Miniatures Battles (West End Games, 1991)
Star Trek: Starship Tactical Combat Simulator (Fasa Corporation, 1986)
Stargrunt II (Ground Zero Games, 1996)
Starguard! (McEwan Miniatures, 1974)
Starmada (Majestic Twelve Games, 2000)
Starship Marine (Jim Wallman, 1974)
Starship Troopers: The Miniatures Game (Mongoose Publishing, 2005)
StarSoldier (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1977)
Strike Team Alpha (Gamescience, 1978)
Striker (Game Designers' Workshop, 1981)
Striker II (Game Designers' Workshop, 1996)
Stellar Fire (Tactical Command Games 1996, 2000)
Stellar Conflicts & Uprisings (Tactical Command Games 1996, 2000)
Strikeforce (Agema.org.uk, 2007)
Survive: Mob Rool (The OTTgameteam, 2009)
Swatters: Large Scale Bug Hunting Rules (Ganesha Games, 2013)
Tactical Strike (Atlantis Games, 1999)
Total Extinction (Sentinel Games, 2013)
Universal War (Black Skull Games 2007)
Urban War (Urban Mammoth, 2005)
Vehicular Homicide (Radioactive Press, 2010)
Verge of War (IFG Gaming, 2018)
VOID (i-Kore Miniatures, 2000)
VOR: The Maelstrom (FASA, 1999)
Warcosm (Precis Intermedia Gaming, 2008)
WarEngine (Universal Rules for Sci-Fi miniatures and more.)
Warhammer 40,000 (Games Workshop, 1987)
Warlands (Aberrant Games, 2009)
Warzone (Target Games, 1995)
Warpath (Mantic Games, 2011)
Wrath of Kings (Cool Mini Or Not, 2013)
Fantasy
A Fistfull of Miniatures (North Shore Press, 1986; Precis Intermedia Gaming, 2009)
A Song of Ice and Fire: Tabletop Miniatures Game (CMON Limited, Dark Swords Miniatures, Inc., 2018)
Alkemy (Kraken Editions, 2008; Alchemist Miniatures, 2013)
Aminouch! (Camberley Area Wargames Society (CAWS), 1995)
Anima: Tactics (Cipher Studios/Fantasy Flight Games, 2006)
Archworld (Fantasy Games Unlimited, 1977)
ArcWorlde ( Warp Miniatures, 2020)
Armies of Arcana (Thanes Games, 1997)
Battle of Five Armies (Games Workshop, 2001)
Battlelust (Columbia Games, 1992)
Battlestorm (Ral Partha Publishing, 1997)
Bladestorm (Iron Crown Enterprises, 1990)
Bellicose Fantasy Battles (Sanity Studios, 2009)
Blood Bowl (Games Workshop, 1987)
Bushido (GCT Studios, 2011)
Burrows and Badgers( Osprey games, 2018)
Brushfire (On The Lamb Games, 2010)
Brutal quest (Mammoth miniatures, 2021)
Celtos (Brigade Models, 2002)
Citadel (Fantasy Games Unlimited, unknown)
Confrontation (Rackham, 2000)
Dungeons & Dragons Miniatures (Wizards of the Coast, 2003)
Dwarf Wars (West Wind Productions, unknown)
Ex illis (Chinchilla Games, 2009)
Fairy Meat (Kenzer & Company, 2000)
Fantasy Warlord (Gary Chalk & Ian Bailey, Folio Works, 1990)
Fantasy Rules! 2nd Ed (Chipco)
Fantasy Warriors (Grenadier Miniatures UK, 1990)
Fear and Faith Horror Miniatures Rules (Ganesha Games, 2009)
For the Masses (Majestic Twelve Games, 2004)
Freebooter's Fate (Freebooter Miniatures, 2010)
Frostgrave (Osprey Games, 2015)
Godslayer (Megalith Games, 2008)
Golem Arcana (Harebrained Schemes, 2014)
HAVOC: Tactical Miniature Warfare (Brent Spivey, Voodoo Ink Publishing, 2009)
Hell Dorado (Asmodée Editions, 2007. Re-release by Cipher Studios, 2011)
HeroClix (Superhero) (WizKids, 2002)
Heroscape (Hasbro/Wizards of the Coast, 2004)
HORDES (Privateer Press, 2006)
Kings of War (Mantic Games)
Knights and Magick (Heritage, 1980)
Hordes of the Things (Wargames Research Group, 1991)
Legions of the Petal Throne (TSR 1977)
Legions Unleashed (Tactical Command Games, 1983, 1996)
Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game (Games Workshop, 2005)
War of the Ring (Games Workshop, 2009)
Mage Knight (WizKids, 2001)
Malifaux (Wyrd Miniatures, LLC, 2005 )
Man O' War (Games Workshop, 1993)
Mazes & Miniatures (Daring Dwarf Games, 2013)
Middle Earth Wargame Rules (Decalset, 1976)
Mighty Armies (Mongoose Publishing, 2004)
Mordheim (Games Workshop, 1999)
Occult Wars (Stealthy Spider Publishing, 2006)
Realm - Fantasy Warfare (Serious Lemon, 2012)
Ring of Rule (Zvezda, 2003)
Rippers: The Horror Wars (Pinnacle, 2004)
Royal Armies of the Hyborian Age (Fantasy Games Unlimited, 1975)
RUMBLESLAM - A game of Fantasy Wrestling (Fantasy Wrestling) (TTCombat, 2017)
Runewars Miniatures Game (Fantasy Flight Games, 2017)
Shieldbreaker (HoDstuff/Carnalithic Press, 2011)
Skull Cleaver - Fantasy V 6 (Computer Moderated Miniature Wargame Rules) (Computer Strategies, 2007)
Song of Blades and Heroes (Ganesha Games, 2007)
Supersystem (West Wind Productions, 2000)
The Age of Might and Steel (Alternative Armies, 2009)
The Ninth Age: Fantasy Battles (The Ninth Age, 2015)
Third Kingdom Skirmish Game (Wargame involving animals) (Whimsical Entertainment, unknown)
Vis Magica (Ordered Flexibility, 2002)
Waken The Storm (The (Virtual) Armchair General, 2006)
Warband (Steve Hardy/Pendraken Miniatures, 2015)
Wargods of Ægyptus (Crocodile Games, 2002)
Wargods of Olympus (Crocodile Games, 2008)
Warhammer Fantasy Battle (Games Workshop, 1983)
Warhammer Age of Sigmar (Games Workshop, 2015)
Warheads: Medieval Tales (Urban Mammoth, 2010)
Warlord (Gamer's Guild, 1983)
Warlord (Reaper Miniatures, 2004)
WARMACHINE (Privateer Press, 2003)
Warmaster (Rick Priestley, Games Workshop, 2000)
Whack & Slaughter (CatZeyeS Entertainment, 2010)
References
External links
The Miniatures Page: Contains links and a directory
Mini
Wargame rule sets
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly%20Wearstler
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Kelly Wearstler
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Kelly Wearstler (; born November 21, 1967) is an American designer. She founded her own design firm Kelly Wearstler Interior Design (or KWID) in the mid-1990s, serving mainly the hotel industry, and now designs across high-end residential, commercial, retail and hospitality spaces. Her designs for the Viceroy hotel chain in the early 2000s have been noted for their influence on the design industry. She has designed properties for clients such as Gwen Stefani, Cameron Diaz and Stacey Snider, and served as a judge on all episodes of Bravo's Top Design reality contest in 2007 and 2008.
Wearstler has released five books. Her first, Modern Glamour: The Art of Unexpected Style, was named a best seller by the Los Angeles Times in 2006. Other publications include Domicilium Decoratus and her most recent, Evocative Style in 2019. Her eponymous luxury lifestyle brand incorporates her own designs as well as pieces she finds at auction houses, and she sells her own furniture, lighting, home accessories, and objets d'art collections. Wearstler is the design partner for the Proper Hotel Group.
Wearstler is the first interior designer to be part of the MasterClass Series and the first outside designer to partner with Farrow & Ball.
She has won numerous awards including AD 100 Hall of Fame, Time Magazine the Design 100, Elle Decor A-List Designers and Vogue Best Dressed.
Early life and education
Kelly Wearstler was born in 1967 in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina and raised in Myrtle Beach. Her father was an engineer and her mother an antique dealer. Her mother's interest in design had a major influence on Wearstler from a young age. She would come home from school to find rooms often painted new colors. When they were young, Wearstler and her older sister would accompany their mother to thrift shops, auctions, and flea markets, which helped develop Wearstler's early interest in fashion and design. She started collecting vintage clothing at age 15 and later attended the Massachusetts College of Art in Boston, where she took architecture classes, and obtained her bachelor's degree in interior and graphic design. While paying her way through college by waitressing, she held internships at the design firms Cambridge Seven Associates in Boston and Milton Glaser in New York.
Wearstler moved to Los Angeles in her mid-twenties, hoping to work in the film industry as a set decorator. In 1992 she was a production assistant on HouseSitter, and the following year she served as an uncredited assistant art director on So I Married an Axe Murderer. After working small roles on several sets she decided not to pursue a film career, though the experience did lead to an interior design commission from a film producer. While working as a hostess at a Beverly Hills restaurant in 1994, she was scouted by a Playboy photographer and was featured as September Playmate of the Month under the name Kelly Gallagher. She used the money from the photoshoot to pay off student loans and help start her interior design business.
Design career
Early projects and hotel design (1990s-2000s)
In 1995 Wearstler opened Kelly Wearstler Interior Design, her own design firm. The following year she was introduced to her future husband real estate developer Brad Korzen, who hired her to design his house in the Hollywood Hills and several residential properties owned by Korzen's company Kor Realty Group. The first of the residences was the Avalon hotel in Beverly Hills, which re-opened in 1999 with a style described in the press as "a playful take on mid-century modernism." With apartments filled with pieces from modernist artists such as Arne Jacobsen, Eero Saarinen and George Nelson, The New York Times would write a decade later that "her playful, elegantly over-the-top designs for the Avalon Beverly Hills changed the look of boutique hotels around the world." In 2000, she designed the small Maison 140 hotel in Beverly Hills.
Her work on the Avalon and the Maison 140 led to a commission designing Viceroy Hotels and Resorts, a new chain of boutique hotels, which she gave an "almost theatrical" Hollywood aesthetic. The Viceroy in Palm Springs became "her most accomplished work" in 2001, and the design of the Viceroy that opened a year later in Santa Monica also earning praise in the press. By that time she was also working on the Viceroy Miami, and other notable designs include Viceroy Anguilla on the island of Anguilla and The Tides Hotel South Beach in Miami. Elle Decor would later write that "her luxury hotel interiors" featured "elegant bergère chairs, unexpected lacquer finishes (glistening lemon yellows, Amazon parrot greens) and old-style stately wallpapers." As of 2002 she had also completed design projects for clients such as Mercury Records, Ben Stiller, and Jeanne Tripplehorn. In 2006 Wearstler designed the restaurant and lounge, BG Restaurant, at the Manhattan Bergdorf Goodman department store.
First books and Top Design (2004-2008)
Wearstler published her first book of design in March 2004. Titled Modern Glamour: The Art of Unexpected Style, it was co-written with Jane Bogart and released through Regan Books. Publishers Weekly wrote that the book's "large, full-bleed color photographs do justice to the variety of [Wearstler's] creations." HarperCollins published Wearstler's Domicilium Decoratus in 2006, a style book featuring photographs of her Beverly Hills mansion and herself dressed in evening gowns. David Colman of the New York Times described it as "a kind of lavish brochure for Ms. Wearstler’s vision (she has a fabric line and has carpet, furniture and china lines in the works), which involves a decadent Hollywood riposte to Martha Stewart’s stolidly tasteful East Coast domesticity."
With filming starting in 2006, she served as one of three primary judges on Top Design, a reality show contest that premiered on Bravo in January 2007. Wearstler appeared in all twenty episodes before the show's end in 2008, and attracted a fair degree of attention in the press with the outfits she wore while judging. The New Yorker wrote in 2009 that "most people, say they watched just for Wearstler’s getups," with The New York Times writing that "Wearstler’s fondness for pastiche in fashion garnered a lot of attention... but those hats aren’t calculated." The latter article quoted Wearstler stating that "sometimes I might look a little crazy, but sometimes beautiful things happen. I don’t take it too seriously.’’ In 2007, she was named to Vogue’s Top Ten Best Dressed list, and also that year TIME named her to its Style & Design 100 list of international creative professionals.
Retail stores and home and fashion lines (2008-2012)
In July 2007 Wearstler opened her first brick and mortar retail space in the form of a boutique in Bergdorf Goodman's home-furnishings department, and the following year her office was based in West Hollywood on La Cienega Boulevard. Also in 2008 she introduced a line of decorative home goods for Bergdorf Goodman, which was sold out of her own retail shop in the store. In late 2008 she started working on a line of jewelry, scarves, bags, and belts, with plans to expand into women's apparel at a later time. By 2009 she had designed the top suite of the Las Vegas Hard Rock Hotel and a home for Stacey Snider of DreamWorks, and was in the process of decorating a large contemporary house for Gwen Stefani and Gavin Rossdale. She released her book Hue in early 2010, which features photography in chapters organized by color. Wrote the Los Angeles Times about the book, "Hollywood glamour, neoclassical ornamentation, pattern and texture prove to be Wearstler signatures, but color, she writes, 'is everything.'" In 2011 she was named to Architectural Digest's AD100 list, which is also dubbed the Top 100 Architecture & Interior Design list. The French version of the publication would also name her to its World's Top Interior Designers list.
By early 2011 KWID had designed rugs for the Rug Company and fine china for Pickard China, and KWID would also for a time continue designing a line of wall treatments for F. Schumacher & Co. and exclusive bed sheets for Sferra. Wearstler announced her own eponymously named fashion line, Kelly Wearstler, in spring 2011. Her first fashion collection was four years in the making, incorporating patterns and design aesthetics seen within Wearstler's interior design work. Booth Moore of the Los Angeles Times said the collection had the "appearance of being handmade or one-of-a-kind, even if not." The Wall Street Journal called her ready-to-wear clothing and jewelry "reflections of her modern, but also classic and opulent, aesthetic," while magazine W described that season's fashion collection as "a bold mix-and-match collection of hand-painted blouses, cropped jackets, full-legged pants, and pouf skirts," as well as "stone-laden metal clutches and sculptural jewels" for accessorizing.
As of July 2011 her home furnishing, clothing and accessories continued to be sold at Bergdorf Goodman, as well as through Neiman Marcus, Holt Renfrew, Net-a-Porter, and her website. Her new fashion collection debuted at those same stores in August 2011, and was shortly afterwards sold through a new flagship boutique she opened on Melrose Avenue on September 1, 2011. David A. Keeps of the Los Angeles Times dubbed the store "a sleek atelier where Art Deco meets 1970s Minimalism and the 1980s Italian style known as Memphis." Her winter 2011 fashion line was sold exclusively by Bergdorf Goodman, and featured ready-to-wear, clutches and jewelry. This debut season was described as having a"feminine sensibility" by Nicole Phelps of Style.com, with Phelps describing Wearstler's spring 2012 line as featuring clashing patterns and a mod-glam look. As of late 2012, Wearstler's home furnishing continued to be available in the Kelly Wearstler Boutique at Bergdorf Goodman.
Rhapsody and recent buildings (2012-2015)
Her fourth book, Rhapsody, came out on October 12, 2012. Wearstler explained that the book is about combining varied textures, scales, and time periods, opining that mixing "antiques, vintage and contemporary design pieces and art" leads to a more "soulful" interior. According to the Los Angeles Times, the book's photography demonstrates how some of her interiors are "kaleidoscopic confections while others have a classical elegance." The review further opined that the book is "Art Deco meets 1980s Italian design," and that it "explores how the worlds of fashion and décor merge." By that time Wearstler had also written monthly advice columns for publications such as Domaine, The Coveteur, InStyle, and The Huffington Post. In May 2014 her work studio in Los Angeles was featured in The New York Times, and in 2015 her Malibu beachfront home was featured in a photoshoot by Elle Decor, with Vogue and In Style following suit. Wallpaper* named her one of its Top 20 Interior Designers in October 2015.
In 2014, Wearstler collaborated with Los Angeles-based confectioner Compartés on a line of chocolates. According to Architectural Digest, both the flavors and Wearstler's "whimsical" packaging are inspired by features and locales of Los Angeles. A second line of flavors debuted in May 2015.
In early 2015 Brad Korzen officially launched Proper Hotels, a hotel chain focused on "creating an environment that is both culturally sound and keeps some elements of the classic grand hotels intact." Wearstler was announced as interior designer for a number of upcoming Proper Hotel properties, including locations in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Santa Monica, Brooklyn, Miami, Napa Valley, and Austin, Texas. Wearstler was also commissioned to design the $800 million renovation for Westfield Century City, a shopping center in Los Angeles. According to the developers, construction will be complete by 2017.
Lifestyle brand (2015-present)
Her clothing is no longer sold at Bergdorf Goodman or related retailers, as Wearstler no longer has a fashion collection, instead focusing on furniture, lighting, textiles and accessories sold at her flagship store and website. She continued to operate her Los Angeles boutique as of July 2015, with Architectural Digest writing at the time that the store "showcases the breadth and daring of her creative output." The store contains antique and modern pieces, as well as home furnishings and jewelry designed by Wearstler.
As of 2015 she was involved in a number of collaborations and designing lamps with the Italian furniture company Kartell. KWID also has ongoing partnerships with The Rug Company, E.J. Victor, and Pickard China, and as of 2015 she designed collections of fabrics, wall coverings, and trims for Lee Jofa, before also being sold at her boutique, website, and other stores. Kelly Wearstler Furniture Collection, described by Elle Decor as her "first comprehensive portfolio of furniture" was released in October 2015.
In March 2016 an "exclusive 'London edit'" of her designs debuted in Harrods, with Wearstler calling the arrangement a "dream come true." Her collection was the first Californian homeware brand to be stocked at the store. Opined Wallpaper*, "all the pieces are imbued with personality. From the brushed copper through to the walnut that coats the inside of the furniture pieces, a particular ardour resides in the wares." In June 2016 Wearstler launched a new bridal registry featuring designer products for the home. Also in June 2016, Elle Decor named her to its A-List of the world's best designers for the second year in a row. In 2016, Wearstler was also the interior designer in charge of remodeling the restaurant Viviane, located in the Avalon Hotel in Beverly Hills. In the same year, she designed a New York home for former Bare Escentuals CEO Leslie Blodgett.
In 2017, Wearstler's Malibu home was photographed for Melanie Acevedo's photobook The Authentics. In September 2017, Wearstler completed the interior design of the first Proper hotel in San Francisco.
In 2018, Wearstler also debuted her first retail project design, a chocolate shop in Los Angeles called Compartés Chocolatier, created in partnership with Jonathan Graham.
In 2019, Wearstler was the first American designer to collaborate with Georg Jensen on a six-piece home accessories collection called "Frequency." In May 2019, Wearstler announced she had designed a new collection of carpets as part of her continuing collaboration with The Rug Company. In June 2019, Wearstler launched a new line of wallpaper designs. The Santa Monica Proper Hotel with an interior designed by Wearstler also opened in July 2019. In December 2019, Wearstler debuted her new furniture collection for 2020.
In 2020, Wearstler's Beverly Hills home was featured in The New York Times and In Residence.
The Austin Proper Hotel designed by Wearstler opened in February 2020. The Downtown L.A. Proper hotel also designed by Wearstler is now slated to open in June 2021.
In 2020, Wearstler overhauled a house on Malibu's Broad Beach that was believed to have been built by Frank A. Garbutt, co-founder of Famous Players–Lasky, which later became Paramount Pictures. At one point, the house was also owned by Carroll O’Connor.
In March 2020, Wearstler became the first instructor to teach the interior design course on the MasterClass platform. In 2021, Wearstler collaborated with Farrow & Ball to create her own collection of signature paint hues inspired by the state of California, called the California Collection.
In March 2021, Wearstler also designed a virtual garage to commemorate the launch of GMC's Hummer EV, which she said was imagined for LeBron James.
In 2021, Wearstler invested in the company Block Renovation, which provides a technology based platform that helps homeowners and contractors to digitize and simplify the home renovation process. In early 2022, she became an investor and partner of the female-founded tequila brand Casa Del Sol, which was co-founded by actor Eva Longoria. In June 2022, Wearstler also became an angel investor in the startup Vergo, a Fintech company that caters to the architecture, design and building industry.
In 2022, Wearstler took over Wallpaper magazine as a guest editor for their October 2022 issue. The magazine also did a special 20 page feature on her studio’s design work and evolution. In the same year, she partnered with Amazon on their Amazon Influencer Program where her products will be available on her Amazon Storefront.
Inspired by the strides in LED technology, Wearstler in 2022 designed a new line of designer lighting for Visual Comfort called Tech Lighting.
Style and impact
Wearstler has described her own design work, particularly her interior design for hotels, as "romantic" in style. Elle Decor wrote around 2015 that "Wearstler encapsulates contemporary sophistication and wit, with a nod to the past and a wink at the future. The mix is altogether her own and is tailored to every job."
In 2019, the Financial Times described her as "the woman who brought West Coast style to the world." In 2020, Domino Mag said her toolbox of trademarks included "peacock green and brass, painterly geometric prints, warm marble, slick lacquer, standout vintage from Ettore Sottsass to Tobia Scarpa, and—always—the earthy naturalism of her West Coast home."
With a style periodically described as maximalism, she has been one of several designers credited with bringing "the decorative back to interior design" and mixing modern and historical designs. The New Yorker opined that since the late 1990s, "her style has evolved from mid-century modern to glammed-up Hollywood Regency to an ornate, layered look inspired in part by the late Hollywood set decorator and interior designer Tony Duquette. She uses intense colors, David Hicks-like graphic patterning, and contrasting textures (lacquer, parchment, shagreen)."
In 2009 Dana Goodyear of The New Yorker dubbed Wearstler "the presiding grande dame of West Coast interior design," explaining that "Wearstler represents the uninhibited side of Los Angeles, the part that celebrates how far the city is from strict East Coast notions of good taste." Mayer Rus, the design and culture editor for Los Angeles Times Magazine, stated that "I think for many people around the world Kelly's work exemplifies this fantasy of beautiful sun-baked life, glamour in California. Kelly's genius is her ability to mix elements from all different eras, styles and periods. There's a certain bravery in what she does that flirts with going over-the-top, but always stands just back from the edge."
In 2022, Wearstler partnered with UT School of Architecture’s Interior Design program, to establish the Kelly Wearstler Endowed Fund for Design Students to provide undergraduate scholarships and graduate fellowships to design students who require financial aid.
Influences and methods
Kelly draws inspiration from many different areas of design, including fashion, architecture, graphic design, landscape design, art, and jewelry.
Wearstler credits Peggy Guggenheim and Doris Duke as being her style icons. As an interior designer, Wearstler finds influence in Modernism and old Hollywood glamour as created by Dorothy Draper and William Haines. Jacque Grange is cited as her favorite designer, in part for "the way he puts things from different periods together so beautifully," and she also names David Hicks, Mark Rothko, Ettore Sottsass, Misha Kahn, and Piero Fornasetti as among her aesthetic influences. She has furthermore cited the work of architect Aldo Rossi as an influence, as well as artists Victor Vasarely, Sheila Hicks and Yaacov Agam. Wearstler visits auction houses to collect furniture and decor for projects, as well as designing her own. She believes clutter to be a big faux pas in home decor, as well as "somebody buying all their furniture from one place. The result just looks flat; it has no depth or dimensions, like a showroom." She has also criticized the trend of "too much oversized furniture," explaining that "to create a successful design you need to play with different scales."
Wearstler has collaborated with several emerging designers to bring more eclecticism to her projects.
In 2021, Wearstler launched The Gallery, a curated eCommerce page on her website that promotes the products from emerging and established artists that she admires. As of October 2022, she has partnered with Hagit Pincovici, Dirk van der Kooij, Morgan Peck, Rotganzen, and Felix Muhrhofer.
Personal life
Wearstler and her husband, Brad Korzen, married in 2002 and have three sons. The family has remodeled and sold a number of houses in Southern California, including the former Beverly Hills estate of film producer Albert Broccoli, which they moved into and renovated in 2007. Continuing to work primarily out of Los Angeles, as of 2015, Wearstler and Korzen maintained homes in both Malibu and Beverly Hills. Wearstler is active on social media, and in early 2014, Architectural Digest included her on a list of 15 Must-Follow Designers and Architects on Instagram. The Telegraph also noted her Instagram account as "must follow."
Recognition
Bibliography
Filmography
Further reading
July 30, 2006.
References
External links
KellyWearstler.com
1967 births
American interior designers
Living people
1990s Playboy Playmates
People from Myrtle Beach, South Carolina
Participants in American reality television series
American women interior designers
21st-century American women
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20Moon
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Imperial Moon
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Imperial Moon is a BBC Books original novel written by Christopher Bulis and based on the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who. It features the Fifth Doctor, Turlough, and Kamelion.
Synopsis
While returning to 20th-century Earth, the TARDIS passes through its own temporal wake from a journey it will make in the future, and materialises in the Tsiolkovskii crater on the dark side of Earth's Moon. A time safe in the console room then opens, revealing an object which the Doctor will place inside it at some point in the future, a diary purporting to describe Captain Richard Haliwell's expedition to the Moon in the year 1878. Turlough is skeptical, but the Doctor knows that the risk of a time paradox proves this diary to be important; it could be that the Doctor's actions will determine whether a new timeline comes into existence, displacing all of history as they know it. It is possible for the Victorians to have built airtight hulls and air recycling systems, and according to Haliwell's diary, the last obstacle was overcome by Professor Bryce-Dennison's invention of the impeller drive, a propulsion system so advanced that even the Professor has trouble explaining how it works.
Three young, unmarried captains are chosen to lead the expedition to the Moon; Haliwell is in command of the Cygnus, while Sinclair commands the Lynx and Green the Draco. Bryce-Dennison and his 21-year-old daughter and assistant Emily will accompany Haliwell, despite his reservations at having a woman aboard his ship and their disagreement on the matter of female equality. The three ships launch from a secret base on Glen Marg and reach the Moon within a day, but to their surprise, on the dark side of the Moon they find a bubble of atmosphere containing vegetation and an artificial construction. The ships land in the bubble, where Haliwell leads an exploratory expedition into the jungle. However, the perils are like nothing on Earth, and soon after Davis is nearly eaten by a carnivorous plant, Sub-Lieutenant Granby is snatched away from the others by something moving too quickly to be seen. As the sailors search for Granby, they instead meet two human strangers who introduce themselves as the Doctor and Turlough...
The Doctor immediately stops reading, warning Turlough that advance knowledge of their own future will rob them of free will and set up the risk of a paradox if they fail to act as, in the future, they already have. Turlough is skeptical until he finds a note in the diary, confirming the Doctor's warning, and written in his own handwriting. The Doctor concedes that they should take Kamelion along, but Kamelion finds that the energy fields which keep the atmosphere bubble intact interfere with his functioning, and is therefore forced to remain behind. The Doctor and Turlough set off alone and soon meet the expedition, and despite the sailors’ suspicions, the Doctor assure them that he will not dispute their prior claim to the Moon; he is simply here to help. Unfortunately, Granby is beyond help; his body is found in a nearby clearing, his brains removed through a hole punched in his head. A pack of animals like a cross between giant spiders and jellyfish then descends upon the expedition, pursuing them back through the jungle. The sound of gunfire attracts reinforcements who help the sailors dispose of the animals, but the Doctor is puzzled by the predators’ unnatural behaviour; they kept pursuing the expedition long after the benefit of consuming them was outweighed by the energy expended to catch them.
On their way back to the landing site, the expedition stumbles across what appears to be a long-abandoned vacuum gun, made of low-tech materials and intended to fire projectiles out of the crater. Setting aside the mystery for another time, they return to the ships, just as a miniature flying saucer arrives from the alien citadel to investigate the new arrivals. The saucer scans the ships and landing party, and then plucks up Emily and Captain Haliwell and carries them back to the saucer before the sailors can stop it. The shock of his daughter's kidnapping combined with his recent exertions kills Bryce-Dennison with a massive heart attack. Sinclair orders the Draco to pursue the saucer, but a plasma cannon mounted on the citadel opens fire and shoots the Draco down in the jungle. The Doctor offers to use his own ship to rescue Emily and Haliwell, but when he and Turlough return to the TARDIS they find that the inhabitants of the citadel have increased power to the atmospheric shield to prevent the British from escaping and that a side-effect of the shield's power is preventing the TARDIS from dematerialising. They must return to the British, and prepare to make their way through thirty miles of hostile lunar forest on foot. Without telling the Doctor, Turlough takes Haliwell's diary with him, to ensure that he has advance warning of any dangers to come.
Despite the damage to its impeller coils, the Draco lands safely, thanks largely to the skillful piloting of helmsman Henry Stanton. However, Captain Green doesn’t seem to understand just how valuable Stanton is to the expedition, and soon demonstrates his incompetence by ordering both helmsmen to accompany a rescue expedition to the citadel while a skeleton crew remains behind to repair the Draco. The journey is just as dangerous as Stanton had feared, and when his fellow helmsman is killed by a swarm of venomous insects, Stanton insists that he be allowed to return. Green is about to place him under arrest for cowardice and mutiny, when the party is attacked by a behemoth larger than anything they have yet encountered. While fleeing from the behemoth, Green falls badly and breaks his leg, and as the behemoth approaches, Stanton inadvertently smothers Green while desperately trying to silence his cries for help. He is then forced to make his way back to the Draco alone, a dangerous journey which pushes him completely over the edge. Predators have attacked the Draco as well, and some even managed to get aboard before they were killed; nevertheless, Stanton shoots the commanding officer and orders the engineers to repair the damaged coils—or he will take off with the functioning ones, after throwing out their bodies to lighten the load.
As Sinclair's party makes their way towards the citadel, they encounter a beautiful alien female trapped on a cliff. Turlough rescues her, but is unable to communicate until she touches his temples for a moment, after which she speaks perfect English. Realising that they will need help in the dangerous forest, Sinclair allows Lytalia to lead his men to her settlement, where the Phiadoran Princess Nareena and her ladies-in-waiting have been exiled following a coup on their homeworld. This is a dangerous and illegal safari park, placed on the dead satellite of a primitive world to avoid detection; when Nareena and her retinue were exiled here it was assumed that they wouldn’t last long, but they have survived for three decades even though visitors stopped coming to the park some time ago. The warden's citadel is protected by energy shields attuned to the Phiadorans’ body cells, but humans may be able to penetrate these barriers and shut down the warden's mechanical servants. The Phiadorans offer to guide the British through the forest in exchange for sanctuary on Earth, and Simmons is only too happy to agree. As they plan their assault, Turlough heads off, claiming he needs to rest—but in fact he intends to read more of the diary, to prepare for the coming assault.
In the citadel, mechanical servants escort Haliwell and Emily to an audience with the alien warden. Despite Emily's best efforts she is unable to communicate with the alien creature, which places them in a shared cell—much to Haliwell's discomfort. Nevertheless, he and Emily agree that they must not let their personal differences exacerbate an already dangerous situation, and also agree to call each other by their first names. Over the next two days they are put through a series of tests to gauge their strength, stamina, endurance and speed, as if they were simple laboratory animals. As the ordeal progresses, Richard comes to appreciate Emily's intelligence and strength of character, just as she comes to understand that his compliments are not meant to be patronising. When they are placed in an arena with a choice of weapons and forced to defend themselves against a variety of monstrous alien animals, they work together, using skill and intelligence to defeat their attackers. However, despite their best efforts, Emily is badly injured by their final opponent. She and Richard are allowed to return to their cell to rest, and a healing ointment is provided for Emily's wounds; but she remains stiff and sore, and does not believe she will survive a second bout in the arena...
Sinclair's sailors and even Turlough find it easy to relax around the friendly and cheerful Phiadorans, all of whom appear much younger than their actual calendar age. The Phiadorans point out many dangers which would otherwise have caused the British a great deal of trouble, and the only death occurs when a British sailor stumbles into a pod of mushrooms which sweat natural nitroglycerin. However, the Doctor turns the tragedy to their advantage by coming up with a plan to break into the citadel using the deadly fungus. After two days’ march, the party reaches the citadel, where Turlough reads more of the diary to prepare himself—and accidentally finds mention of his own name. Now he will be forced to act just as the diary has said he will, or else people will die.
Richard and Emily are forced back into the arena, where they are pitted against an intelligent hunter. Emily provides a distraction while Richard tracks and kills their opponent—which turns out to be mechanical as well. As another, larger killer enters the arena, Richard finally deduces the purpose of the tests; they are being assessed as suitable targets for the hunters in the safari park. Meanwhile, the sailors catapult their explosive fungus at the citadel until two saucer probes arrive to investigate, and the Phiadorans capture them, enabling the Doctor to deactivate the remote controls and rewire them so the British can fly them manually. Turlough leads the flight to what appears to be a greenhouse dome, where, just as he has read in the diary, he crashes through the glass dome and crushes the robot hunter, saving Richard and Emily's lives. The sailors then fight their way to the warden, and the TARDIS’ influence enables the Doctor to speak with it. The warden is as much a prisoner as the others, having been genetically and mentally conditioned to keep the park running properly. It is unable to disobey orders directly, but it is weary of its long servitude, and therefore shows the Doctor which computer banks control the robots. The British sailors destroy them, and as the robots shut down, the warden allows itself to die as well, its task finally complete.
The Doctor releases the energy fields, enabling the British to depart, but notices that the warden's death has triggered an automatic shut-down procedure. The park has been programmed to self-destruct, leaving no trace of its existence, and the atmospheric shields are already decaying. The sailors retreat on the saucers, taking the Phiadorans with them—but the citadel's plasma cannon begins firing on an automatic setting, and the Doctor, Turlough and Lytalia are shot down near the Draco. The presence of bodies with bullet wounds indicate what has happened here, but as the crater's atmosphere is already beginning to dissipate into space, they have no choice but to contact the mutineers and board the ship. Stanton orders the Doctor and Turlough to help repair the damaged impeller coils, and they have no choice but to obey, although they are under no illusion that they will be allowed to live should they succeed. In fact, Stanton intends to pilot the ship to another country where his skill will be appreciated. Once his work is complete, the Doctor shuts off the ship's lights, hoping to use the element of surprise to retake the bridge—but some of the alien blood splattered about the ship during the earlier battles turns out to be bioluminescent, and the mutineers recover from the shock more quickly than the Doctor had hoped. Only Turlough manages to escape, and remains helpless to intervene as the mutineers throw the Doctor and the engineers out of the airlock.
Before the mutineers can dispose of Turlough, the ship unexpectedly takes off, and they reach the bridge to find that the navigator's brains have been sucked out through a hole in his skull. Lytalia, cowering in the corner, tells them that there is a Vrall hidden aboard the ship; a ruthless and cunning killer which must have slipped aboard during the earlier battles. Turlough and the mutineers make an uneasy truce and set off after the Vrall, while Lytalia, exhausted by her recent exertions, remains on the bridge. The Vrall, however, is more dangerous than they had anticipated, and another mutineer is killed before the others can barricade themselves in the engine room. Turlough suggests hunting the Vrall with the acid jars from the impeller drive's batteries, but when he and Stanton emerge from the engine room, the Vrall overpowers them and kills the others—and then squeezes back into the hollow husk of Lytalia's body, where it had been hiding all along. Having disposed of its enemies, it orders Stanton to pilot it back to the Moon, where Turlough will use the TARDIS he described to pilot it anywhere it wishes to go in time and space. Stanton, however, escapes and flees to the cargo hold—and when the Vrall pursues him, he deliberately opens the hatch. He and the Vrall are expelled into space, along with all of the air in the ship...
The Doctor's Gallifreyan metabolism enables him to survive the cold and airlessness of the lunar crater long enough for him to find a spacesuit which the mutineers had abandoned to lighten their ship's load. Even so, he nearly dies before reaching the TARDIS, but fortunately the shutdown of the force fields has put an end to the interference which kept Kamelion from emerging. Kamelion carries the delirious Doctor back to the TARDIS, where the Doctor's wandering mind puts together the clues he has witnessed and he realises the truth. He and Kamelion rescue Turlough from the airless Draco just in time, but when Turlough tells the Doctor his story, the Doctor is forced to inform him that the so-called Phiadorans were Vrall all along. The TARDIS should have translated Lytalia's language for them when they first met, just as it did for the warden—and if the Phiadorans really acquired their knowledge of English from Turlough then they should have spoken in a 20th-century vernacular, instead of referring to the warden's robots as “mechanical servants”. Lytalia in fact acquired her knowledge of the English language by eating Granby's brains, and passed it on to the rest of her people via encoded neurochemical packets. The Vrall must have used the vacuum gun the expedition found earlier to fire RNA spores encoded with the instructions for the impeller drive into space, hoping that they would reach a receptive mind on Earth and inspire an expedition to the Moon. The British were lured to the Moon deliberately, and are now taking the Vrall to a new feeding ground...
Richard has been forced to take off without the Doctor once he is certain that nothing can survive in the airless crater. On his way back to Earth he sends word of their guests via heliograph, and before landing he proposes to Emily, who promises to consider his proposal if he honestly accepts her and her gender as true equals. The two surviving ships land back at Glen Marg, where Queen Victoria herself is waiting to greet her distinguished visitors... but upon emerging from the ships, the Vrall shed their outer skins and fall upon the horrified officers. The queen is saved by the quick reactions of her attendant John Brown, and she and the surviving officers barricade themselves in the mess hall as the Vrall feast outside. By the time the TARDIS arrives, the Vrall have begun to reproduce by cellular division, and it is clear that there is no hope of containing them. The Doctor therefore returns to the citadel on the Moon to collect the weapons which the hunters would have used against the Vrall, and he finds what he needs and escapes moments before the citadel finally self-destructs, leaving only an unusually deep crater. The Doctor, Turlough and Kamelion then return to Earth, and use their weapons to kill the Vrall before they can break into the mess hall.
In the aftermath of the Vrall attack, the Doctor decides that the Victorians are not yet ready for space travel. He therefore has Kamelion impersonate the Queen's dead husband Albert, and appear to her as a vision just long enough to tell her that humanity is not ready for space travel. The Queen therefore orders the ships to be destroyed, and all record of this horror erased from history. As the Doctor and Turlough depart, Richard gives the Doctor his diary so that some record of the adventure will survive, and Turlough learns that Emily has accepted Richard's proposal. Back in the TARDIS, the Doctor checks the data banks and learns that the Phiadorans were in fact rulers of a ruthless matriarchal dictatorship, and maintained control of their subjects through genetically modified pheromonal glands which subverted the will of humanoid males. Their empire collapsed soon after their overthrow, which explains the lack of visitors to the safari park. Turlough, having learned his lesson, puts “his” copy of Haliwell's diary in the TARDIS library, and writes a note to himself which the Doctor places in the “younger” version. The Doctor then puts the “younger” version of the diary in the time safe, tying up the last temporal loose end.
External links
The Cloister Library - Imperial Moon
2000 British novels
2000 science fiction novels
Past Doctor Adventures
Fifth Doctor novels
Novels by Christopher Bulis
Steampunk novels
Secret histories
Novels set on the Moon
Space exploration novels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean%20Windass
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Dean Windass
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Dean Windass (born 1 April 1969) is an English former professional footballer who played as a striker. He played spells at Bradford City and contributed to his hometown team Hull City's promotion to the Premier League in 2008.
Windass started his footballing career as a trainee at his hometown club, Hull City, and signed his first professional contract there. He scored 64 goals in 205 games for Hull, and, when he left, he brought the club a record transfer fee at the time, going on to play in the top divisions in both English and Scottish football. Later in his career, he returned to Hull City, and scored the only goal of the 2008 Football League Championship play-off final to take them to the top flight for the first time in their history.
Windass also had two spells at Bradford City, where he became the club's third-highest scorer of all time. He has also played for Aberdeen, Oxford United, Middlesbrough, Sheffield Wednesday, Sheffield United, and Oldham Athletic. He is seen as a controversial player, once being sent off three times in a game for Aberdeen, as well as grabbing another opponent's testicles in a match at Bradford City.
Windass scored his last Premier League goal at the age of 39, becoming Hull City's oldest-ever scorer. He officially announced his retirement from the game on 19 October 2009, but hoped to carry on with a career in coaching. He briefly worked as player-coach, under former manager Colin Todd at Darlington, but the pair only lasted nine games in charge.
He came out of retirement and played for Barton Town Old Boys before joining Scarborough Athletic on a game-by-game deal. In 2012 he began playing for AFC. Walkington in the Premier Division of the East Riding League, where his ex-teammate Leigh Palin is the manager.
Personal life
Windass was born in Hull, East Riding of Yorkshire, and grew up in the Gipsyville area of the city. His parents, John and Doreen, divorced when he was thirteen years old. He regularly attended Hull City matches at Boothferry Park, and played football, cricket and hockey for his school. Windass credits his wife, Helen, a police officer, also from Hull, with devising his fitness and diet regimes. They met in 1992, married on 31 July 1993, and had two sons, Josh, who also became a professional footballer, and Jordan. After 18 years his marriage to Helen ended. Windass revealed he attempted suicide twice during January 2012, having battled with alcohol and depression following his retirement from playing.
Windass completed his UEFA A and B football coaching licences.
Playing career
Hull City
Windass started his footballing career as a YTS trainee at Hull City before being released by manager Brian Horton. He had unsuccessful trials at professional clubs Sunderland, Cambridge United, and York City and instead started playing for non-league North Ferriby United while also having to work on building sites and packing frozen peas. He was brought back to Hull City by manager Terry Dolan in October 1991, entering professional league football at the relatively late age of 22. He initially played in midfield for the Tigers and later as a forward, playing 205 games and scoring 64 goals, becoming a firm fans' favourite – in a 2005 poll to name the top 100 Tigers, Windass was named the fourth best player in the club's 100-year history. In December 1995, with the club in financial difficulty, he was sold to Aberdeen for £700,000.
Aberdeen
During his time at Aberdeen, Windass was a popular player, though he gained a reputation as a player who often got into trouble with the authorities. On 9 November 1997, during a league game with Dundee United, Windass was shown three red cards – once for foul play (having previously been booked); another for verbally abusing the referee; and a third for taking out his frustration on a corner flag as he left the field – for which he received a six-match ban. This game was the club's last match under the management of Roy Aitken, and Windass himself was to move on at the end of the season. In the three years he spent at Aberdeen he scored 21 goals in 72 League appearances, and a total of 31 goals in 92 appearances in all competitions.
Oxford United
In July 1998, he moved to Oxford United for a club record £475,000. He won a Division One Player of the Month award, and scored 15 goals in 33 league games in his nine months with the club, but was unable to prevent them from relegation to Division Two at the end of the 1998–99 season.
Bradford City
He transferred to Bradford City in March 1999 for an initial fee of £950,000 as manager Paul Jewell looked to build his squad for a promotion push to reach the Premiership. He helped Bradford City to runners-up position in Division One in 1998–99 and thus gain promotion to the top division for the first time in 77 years. Promotion meant his transfer fee rose to £1 million, and he became the club's third seven-figure signing of the season. During the summer, Windass opted not to go on holiday and instead continued to train in preparation for his own first season in the top flight. His dedication was rewarded as he was the club's top scorer in their first season in the Premiership with ten goals, including a hat-trick in a 4–4 draw with Derby County. City avoided relegation on the final day of the 1999–2000 season, when they defeated Liverpool 1–0 thanks to a header from David Wetherall.
Paul Jewell left City in the days following City's successful battle against relegation and his assistant manager Chris Hutchings was appointed new manager. Hutchings was given money by chairman Geoffrey Richmond to spend on new players, which included new strikers Benito Carbone and Ashley Ward. Windass' appearances flipped between midfield and forward but with the club facing relegation he was sold to Middlesbrough in March 2001 for £600,000. He still finished the season as the club's top scorer—his eight goals included three in the UEFA Intertoto Cup and one in a 2–0 victory over Chelsea, which proved to be Hutchings' only league victory before he was sacked in November.
Middlesbrough and Sheffield United
Windass said the move to Middlesbrough was the highlight of his career, but his debut was delayed due to a back injury he picked up lifting a bag out of the car, and his league appearances were restricted to just 38 as he failed to become a first-team regular at the Riverside, and instead spent periods on loan at Sheffield Wednesday and rivals Sheffield United, before a permanent move to Sheffield United in January 2003 after an approach from his former teammate Stuart McCall who was assistant at United. Windass helped the Blades to the play-offs but he was dropped by manager Neil Warnock for the final, opting instead to watch his side's 3–0 defeat by Wolves in a pub. He decided not to stay at United and instead returned to Bradford City, now under the management of Nicky Law, in July 2003.
Return to Bradford City
Windass' second spell at Bradford City was equally as successful on a personal scale and he climbed to the club's third highest scorer in its history. City's fortunes on and off the pitch were poor, and with the club unable to pay money for players, relegation to Division Two followed. In 2004–05 Windass scored 28 goals to be the top scorer in the Football League although the club could only finish in mid-table. The following season Windass added another 20 goals as Bradford City matched the previous season's 13th place finish.
Windass remained a controversial character and in September 2006, on FIFA Fair Play Day, he was accused of grabbing fellow professional John Finnigan by the testicles during Bradford City's 2–1 win over Cheltenham Town. Finnigan was then sent off for violent conduct after hitting Windass. Earlier that year he had received a five game ban for abusing referee Darren Drysdale in the Valley Parade car park after a drawn game against Brentford.
Despite persistent speculation about a return to Hull City, and repeated bids of up to £500,000 from Premiership Wigan Athletic by former manager Paul Jewell, on 19 October 2006 he signed an extension to his Bradford City contract until 2009, stating an ambition to score the 40 goals he needs to become the club's all-time top scorer by the time his new contract ends.
However, on 17 January 2007, it was confirmed that Windass would return to Hull City on loan until the end of the season. The money Hull paid for the loan deal and the savings Bradford made on Windass' wages ensured Bradford City chairman Julian Rhodes could pay urgent bills. He was not to return to Bradford City and he finished with 76 league goals and 87 goals in total. The tally puts him behind just Bobby Campbell and Frank O'Rourke in the club's goal scoring charts.
Return to Hull City
On returning to Hull City, he regained the cult status he previously earned at the club, as his eight goals helped to keep the Tigers in the Championship. His most vital strike of this loan spell was on 28 April 2007, the penultimate Saturday of the season, the only goal in the away win over Cardiff City. This left Hull City three points ahead of Leeds United with a vastly superior goal difference, meaning virtually certain Championship survival. However, in his absence Bradford City were relegated from League One to League Two. Windass finished the season as both clubs' top scorer, with 12 goals for Bradford City and eight for Hull City.
At the end of the season, the two clubs entered protracted negotiations over the size of the transfer fee required to make the loan move a permanent one. On 19 June 2007, the transfer was completed, and Windass signed for Hull City on a two-year deal for an initial fee of £150,000, plus further add-ons based on appearances.
In October 2007, Windass' autobiography was published by Great Northern Books, entitled Deano – From Gipsyville to the Premiership, with a foreword from Bryan Robson.
On 22 March 2008, in a match against Leicester City, Windass made his 700th career appearance. On 11 May, he scored his 200th goal in English football, in the Championship play-off semi-final first leg against Watford. His 201st was a volley from the edge of the area in the play-off final at Wembley Stadium on 24 May 2008, giving Hull City a 1–0 win against Bristol City, which meant that Hull City were promoted to the Premier League for the first time in their 104-year history. His goal was estimated to be worth £60 million to the club because of Premier League television rights gained. He had predicted scoring the goal several weeks earlier: "When Phil Brown left me out against Sheffield United this year, I weren't [sic] happy about it. He said to me, 'You will play a major part.' And I said, 'I will score the winning goal to get you in the Premier League.'"
After the game, Windass offered his man-of-the-match award to Hull assistant manager Brian Horton, the manager who had released him from Hull City as a trainee, but Horton declined to take it. "Brian said he'd told me to prove him wrong, and he said, 'That goal's enough for me.'"
Hull City Council are considering creating a permanent tribute to Windass, who responded modestly when described as a legend: "Nah, I'm not a legend. I don't like that word. People fight for their country, there are soldiers in Iraq. I'm just a footballer who gets paid a lot of money to do what I enjoy."
Windass was not selected for Hull's first two games in the Premier League, but after he started and scored in Hull's 2–1 League Cup defeat to Swansea City, he was a second-half substitute in Hull's next league game, as they lost 5–0 to Wigan, for Windass' first Premier League game since leaving Middlesbrough. It was his only action during Hull's start to the season, which saw them take 14 points from their first seven games, leading to Windass being frustrated at his lack of first-team action. After he was left out of the squad to face Everton on 21 September 2008, he held talks with manager Phil Brown, following which he vowed to stay and fight for his place. Because he was out of the side, his former club Bradford City, now in League Two, and League One club Leeds United both made bids to sign Windass.
In the early hours of 12 November, Windass and teammate Marlon King fought in a casino in Scarborough, with King reported to have headbutted Windass. In the following days, the club said the argument had been settled internally and both players allowed to stay with Hull. Windass had to wait till 22 November 2008 to make another Premier League appearance for City, coming on as a substitute against Portsmouth with Hull trailing 2–1. Windass claimed the goal that earned Hull City a draw, with a header from a corner that deflected off defender Noé Pamarot and into the net. This was officially recorded as an own goal at the time, but was later awarded to Windass after a review by the Dubious Goals Committee. In a radio interview after the game, Windass described the casino incident as a "storm in a teacup".
In the following game, Windass was booked for unsportsmanlike conduct without even playing, after he warmed-up too near opposition player Rory Delap while Delap was taking a throw-in. He made his first Premier League start for Hull on 26 December 2008 against Manchester City at the City of Manchester Stadium. Hull lost 5–1, in a game in which they received their half-time team talk from manager Phil Brown on the pitch.
Disappointed by his lack of first team opportunities, Windass was allowed to leave Hull, and, on 9 January, he joined Oldham Athletic on loan for the rest of the season. He was expected to make his debut the following day, but had to wait after Oldham's game with Hartlepool United was postponed and re-arranged for two days later. Windass hit the crossbar before he was substituted in the final minute of the game as his new team won 2–1. Following the sending off of regular goalkeeper Greg Fleming in Oldham's game at Leicester City on 7 February, and with no substitute keeper, Windass went in goal and kept a clean sheet for 40 minutes, with the game ending in a 0–0 draw. His performance in goal led him to being named as Football League One's goalkeeper of the week. On 14 February, Windass scored his first goal for Oldham in a 2–1 victory over Northampton Town—his 200th career league goal, which he celebrated by revealing a T-shirt printed with "200", earning him a yellow card.
After playing just ten times for Oldham, Windass declared on his online blog that he wanted to leave, after a disagreement with manager John Sheridan about his lack of involvement in two consecutive games. However, he later denied that he was going to walk out on Oldham and was a second-half substitute in their 1–0 defeat to Colchester United the following weekend. He eventually returned to Hull on 16 March but was not entitled to play in the Premier League for the rest of the season because of loan rules.
On 26 May 2009, it was revealed in the Daily Record that Windass was interested in the vacant manager's position at Aberdeen.
Darlington
Windass was reported to be close to being named as player–assistant manager at Darlington to recently-appointed Colin Todd, whom he had previously played under during his second spell at Bradford City. He later declared his interest in signing for Port Vale. He completed his move to Darlington as a player–assistant manager on 17 June. He made his Darlington debut in a 3–1 defeat to Aldershot Town, and a day later he played his Hull City testimonial match against Aberdeen at the KC Stadium. Windass and Todd only lasted nine league games in charge at Darlington, before they left the club by mutual consent on 26 September 2009, having failed to win a single league game. He announced his retirement on 19 October 2009.
Barton Town Old Boys
In August 2010, Windass came out of his retirement to sign for the North Lincolnshire semi-professional side Barton Town, managed by his former teammate Dave Anderson, on a game-by-game deal. He scored a hat-trick on his debut against Yorkshire Amateur in a 3–1 win for Barton.
Scarborough Athletic
After leaving Barton Town, Windass signed for Scarborough Athletic, a side where his brother-in-law Darren France is assistant manager, Initially Sky Sports commitments prevented him from playing for the "Seadogs" and he left, re-signing for the club in October 2011 and making his debut (as a substitute) on 15 October 2011.
Management career
On 21 October 2009, the Grimsby Telegraph reported that Windass had gone on record to state his interest in the vacant manager's post at Grimsby Town, following the dismissal of Mike Newell. He is understood to have applied for the post, stating that his recent retirement as a player was purely coincidental. The local press reported that approximately 25 other applications have been received for the post, including from the club's all-time longest serving player, John McDermott.
In May 2010, he declared his interest in the vacant manager's job at Shrewsbury Town. He was unsuccessful and followed this up by applying for the vacant position at Hartlepool United in August. In May 2012 he applied for the vacant position at hometown club Hull City, stating he would be open to consider also a job as a coaching staff member. In September 2019 he was appointed manager of East Hull.
Subsequent career
On 30 January 2015, it was announced by Hull City that Windass would become the Club Ambassador on 2 February, the club's first official appointment to this role. On 31 December 2020, Windass was inducted into the Hull City Hall of Fame.
Career statistics
Honours
North Ferriby United
Northern Counties East League Presidents Cup: 1990–91
East Riding Senior Cup: 1990–91
Bradford City
First Division runner-up: 1998–99
Hull City
Championship play-offs: 2007–08
Individual
PFA Team of the Year: 1993–94 Second Division
Football League One Player of the Month: August 2005
References
External links
1969 births
Living people
Footballers from Kingston upon Hull
English men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Men's association football forwards
Hull City A.F.C. players
North Ferriby United A.F.C. players
Aberdeen F.C. players
Oxford United F.C. players
Bradford City A.F.C. players
Middlesbrough F.C. players
Sheffield Wednesday F.C. players
Sheffield United F.C. players
Oldham Athletic A.F.C. players
Darlington F.C. players
Barton Town F.C. players
Scarborough Athletic F.C. players
Premier League players
English Football League players
Scottish Football League players
English football managers
Bradford City A.F.C. managers
English association football commentators
East Hull F.C. managers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mayors%20of%20Florence
|
List of mayors of Florence
|
The Mayor of Florence is an elected politician who, along with Florence's City Council of 36 members, is accountable for the strategic government of Florence. The title is the equivalent of Lord Mayor in the meaning of an actual executive leader.
The office of Gonfaloniere was created in 1781 by Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany. It was replaced by the office of Mayor in 1865, during the early Kingdom of Italy.
The current mayor of Florence is Dario Nardella, a left-wing musician member of the Democratic Party.
Overview
According to the Italian Constitution, the Mayor of Florence is member of the Florence's City Council. Although the title Mayor is not held by the heads of the five boroughs of Florence, because they do not actually preside over self-governmental municipalities.
The Mayor is elected by the population of Florence. Citizens elect also the members of the City Council, which also controls Mayor's policy guidelines and is able to enforce his resignation by a motion of no confidence. The Mayor is entitled to appoint and release the members of his government.
Since 1995 the Mayor is elected directly by Florence's electorate: in all mayoral elections in Italy in cities with a population higher than 15,000 the voters express a direct choice for the mayor or an indirect choice voting for the party of the candidate's coalition. If no candidate receives at least 50% of votes, the top two candidates go to a second round after two weeks. The election of the City Council is based on a direct choice for the candidate with a preference vote: the candidate with the majority of the preferences is elected. The number of the seats for each party is determined proportionally.
The seat of the City Council is the city hall Palazzo Vecchio in Piazza della Signoria.
List of Mayor of Florence (1781–present)
Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1781–1859)
In 1781 was created the office of Annual Gonfaloniere of Florence who was appointed by the Grand Duke of Tuscany every year.
1781–1783 – Giuseppe Maria Panzanini
1783–1784 – Francesco Catellini da Castiglione
1784–1785 – Giovan Giorgio Ugolini
1785–1786 – Maldonato Amadio d'Alma
1786–1787 – Alberto Rimbotti
1787–1788 – Giuseppe Baldovinetti di Poggio
1788–1789 – Giuseppe Arnaldi
1789–1790 – Alberto Rimbotti
1790–1791 – Miniato Miniati
1791–1792 – Pietro Baldigiani
1792–1793 – Ferdinando de' Bardi
1793–1794 – Pietro Soderini
1794–1795 – Antonio da Castiglione
1795–1796 – Francesco Passerini
1796–1797 – Vieri De' Cerchi
1797–1798 – Ottavio Pitti
1798–1799 – Leonardo Buonarroti
1799–1800 – Orazio Smeraldo Morelli
1800–1801 – Francesco Catellini da Castiglione
1801–1802 – Niccolò Arrighi
1802–1803 – Michele Roti
1803–1804 – Pietro Mancini
1804–1805 – Giovanni Carlo Mori Ubaldini
1805–1806 – Giulio Orlandini
1806–1807 – Vespasiano Marzichi
1807–1808 – Tommaso Guadagni
1808–1809 – Filippo Guadagni
In 1809, during the period of the newborn Kingdom of Etruria, it was temporarily created the office of Maire of Florence.
1809–1813 – Emilio Pucci
1813–1815 – Girolamo Bartolommei
In 1815 the office of Gonfaloniere of Florence was restored.
1815–1816 – Giovanni Battista Gondi
1816–1817 – Giovanni Rosselli de Turco
1817–1821 – Tommaso Corsi
1821–1825 – Jacopo Guidi
1826–1828 – Giovanni Battista Covoni
1829–1831 – Giovanni Battista Andrea Boubon del Monte
1832–1834 – Cosimo Antinori
1835–1840 – Gaetano de' Pazzi
1841–1842 – Luigi de Cambray Digny
1843–1846 – Pier Francesco Rinuccini
1847 – Vincenzo Peruzzi
1847–1848 — Bettino Ricasoli
1848–1850 — Ubaldino Peruzzi
1850 – Carlo Torrigiani
1850–1853 – Vincenzo Capponi
1854–1859 – Eduardo Dufour Berté
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
In 1865, the Kingdom of Italy created the office of the Mayor of Florence (Sindaco di Firenze), chosen by the City council.
In 1926, the Fascist dictatorship abolished mayors and City councils, replacing them with an authoritarian Podestà chosen by the National Fascist Party.
Timeline
Republic of Italy (1946–present)
City Council election (1946–1995)
From 1946 to 1995, the Mayor of Florence was chosen by the City Council.
Notes
Direct election (since 1995)
Since 1995, enacting a new law on local administrations (1993), the Mayor of Florence is chosen by direct election, originally every four, and since 1999 every five years.
Notes
Timeline
By time in office
Elections
City Council elections, 1946–1990
Number of votes for each party:
Notes
Number of seats in the City Council for each party:
Mayoral and City Council election, 1995
The election took place on 23 April 1995.
|-
| colspan="7"|
|-
|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;"
! colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;" | Parties and coalitions
! colspan="1" | Votes
! colspan="1" | %
! colspan="1" | Seats
|-
| style="background-color:pink" rowspan="7" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Democratic Party of the Left (Partito Democratico della Sinistra)
| PDS
| 88,105 || 36.05% || 19
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Communist Refoundation Party (Rifondazione Comunista)
| PRC
| 25,347 || 10.37% || 5
|-
| style="background-color:orange" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Democratic Pact (Patto Democratico)
| PD
| 9,090 || 3.72% || 2
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Federation of the Greens (Federazione dei Verdi)
| FdV
| 7,168 || 2.93% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Labour Federation (Federazione Laburista)
| FL
| 5,117 || 2.09% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Italian Republican Party (Partito Repubblicano Italiano)
| PRI
| 2,115 || 0.87% || 0
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Others
|
| 8,786 || 3.60% || 1
|- style="background-color:pink"
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Primicerio coalition (Centre-left)
| 145,728 || 59.63% || 29
|-
| style="background-color:lightblue" rowspan="3" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Forza Italia-Christian Democratic Centre
| FI-CCD
| 41,173 || 16.85% || 8
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Italian People's Party (Partito Popolare Italiano)
| PPI
| 10,389 || 4.25% || 2
|-
| style="background-color:gold" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Pannella List (Lista Pannela)
| LP
| 2,914 || 1.19% || 0
|- style="background-color:lightblue"
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left;" | Morales coalition (Centre-right)
| 54,476 || 22.29% || 10
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | National Alliance (Alleanza Nazionale)
| AN
| 39,298 || 16.08% || 7
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Others
|
| 4,875 || 2.00% || 0
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Total
| 244,377 || 100% || 46
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Votes cast / turnout
| 277,612 || 82.57% || style="background-color:#E9E9E9;" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Registered voters
| 336,230 || || style="background-color:#E9E9E9;" |
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="7" | Source: Ministry of the Interior
|}
Mayoral and City Council election, 1999
The election took place on 13 June 1999.
|-
| colspan="7"|
|-
|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;"
! colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;" | Parties and coalitions
! colspan="1" | Votes
! colspan="1" | %
! colspan="1" | Seats
|-
| style="background-color:pink" rowspan="7" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Democrats of the Left (Democratici di Sinistra)
| DS
| 61,274 || 31.48% || 18
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Party of Italian Communists (Comunisti Italiani)
| PdCI
| 11,166 || 5.74% || 3
|-
| style="background-color:orange" |
| style="text-align:left;" | The Democrats (I Democratici)
| Dem
| 8,819 || 4.53% || 2
|-
| style="background-color:pink" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Italian People's Party (Partito Popolare Italiano)
| PPI
| 7,133 || 3.66% || 2
|-
| style="background-color:purple" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Italian Democratic Socialists (Socialisti Democratici Italiani)
| SDI
| 4,743 || 2.44% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Federation of the Greens (Federazione dei Verdi)
| FdV
| 4,364 || 2.24% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Others
|
| 3,386 || 1.74% || 1
|- style="background-color:pink"
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Domenici coalition (Centre-left)
| 100,885 || 51.83% || 28
|-
| style="background-color:lightblue" rowspan="6" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Forza Italia
| FI
| 29,954 || 15.39% || 8
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | National Alliance (Alleanza Nazionale)
| AN
| 25,320 || 13.01% || 6
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Christian Democratic Centre (Centro Cristiano Democratico)
| CCD
| 5,323 || 2.73% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:#3B3B6D" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Sgarbi List (Lista Sgarbi)
| LS
| 2,438 || 1.25% || 0
|-
| style="background-color:blue" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Pensioners' Party (Partito Pensionati)
| PP
| 995 || 0.51% || 0
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Others
|
| 4,276 || 2.20% || 1
|- style="background-color:lightblue"
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left;" | Scaramuzzi coalition (Centre-right)
| 68,306 || 35.10% || 16
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Communist Refoundation Party (Rifondazione Comunista)
| PRC
| 10,945 || 5.62% || 2
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Others
|
| 14,492 || 7.47% || 0
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Total
| 194,628 || 100% || 46
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Votes cast / turnout
| 223,494 || 69.04% || style="background-color:#E9E9E9;" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Registered voters
| 323,704 || || style="background-color:#E9E9E9;" |
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="7" | Source: Ministry of the Interior
|}
Mayoral and City Council election, 2004
The election took place in two rounds: the first on 12–13 June and the second on 26–27 June 2004.
|-
| colspan="7"|
|-
|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;"
! colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;" | Parties and coalitions
! colspan="1" | Votes
! colspan="1" | %
! colspan="1" | Seats
|-
| style="background-color:pink" rowspan="6" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Democrats of the Left (Democratici di Sinistra)
| DS
| 62,572 || 30.55% || 18
|-
| style="background-color:pink" |
| style="text-align:left;" | The Daisy (La Margherita)
| DL
| 16,756 || 8.18% || 5
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Party of Italian Communists (Comunisti Italiani)
| PdCI
| 11,065 || 5.40% || 3
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Federation of the Greens (Federazione dei Verdi)
| FdV
| 5,024 || 2.45% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:purple" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Italian Democratic Socialists (Socialisti Democratici Italiani)
| SDI
| 4,786 || 2.34% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Others
|
| 5,614 || 2.73% || 0
|- style="background-color:pink"
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Domenici coalition (Centre-left)
| 105,817 || 51.67% || 28
|-
| style="background-color:lightblue" rowspan="4" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Forza Italia
| FI
| 33,349 || 16.28% || 8
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | National Alliance (Alleanza Nazionale)
| AN
| 21,256 || 10.38% || 5
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Union of the Centre (Unione di Centro)
| UDC
| 7,913 || 3.86% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Lega Nord
| LN
| 888 || 0.43% || 0
|- style="background-color:lightblue"
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left;" | Valentino coalition (Centre-right)
| 63,406 || 30.96% || 14
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Communist Refoundation Party (Rifondazione Comunista)
| PRC
| 21,409 || 10.45% || 4
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Others
|
| 14,165 || 6.91% || 0
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Total
| 204,797 || 100% || 46
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Votes cast / turnout
| 233,200 || 75.95% || style="background-color:#E9E9E9;" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Registered voters
| 307,035 || || style="background-color:#E9E9E9;" |
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="7" | Source: Ministry of the Interior
|}
Mayoral and City Council election, 2009
The election took place in two rounds: the first on 6–7 June and the second on 21–22 June 2009.
|-
| colspan="7"|
|-
|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;"
! colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;" | Parties and coalitions
! colspan="1" | Votes
! colspan="1" | %
! colspan="1" | Seats
|-
| style="background-color:pink" rowspan="5" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Democratic Party (Partito Democratico)
| PD
| 68,245 || 35.29% || 22
|-
| style="background-color:#7C0A02" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Renzi List (Lista Renzi)
| LR
| 10,526 || 5.44% || 3
|-
| style="background-color:orange" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Italy of Values (Italia dei Valori)
| IdV
| 5,540 || 2.86% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Left Ecology Freedom (Sinistra Ecologia Libertà)
| SEL
| 4,478 || 2.32% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Others
|
| 5,732 || 2.96% || 1
|- style="background-color:pink"
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Renzi coalition (Centre-left)
| 94,521 || 48.88% || 28
|-
| style="background-color:lightblue" rowspan="4" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | The People of Freedom (Il Popolo della Libertà)
| PdL
| 39,361 || 20.36% || 10
|-
| style="background-color:purple" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Galli List (Lista Galli)
| LG
| 17,563 || 9.08% || 4
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Lega Nord
| LN
| 2,660 || 1.38% || 0
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Others
|
| 2,022 || 1.04% || 0
|- style="background-color:lightblue"
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left;" | Galli coalition (Centre-right)
| 61,606 || 31.86% || 14
|-
| style="background-color:#FA6E79" rowspan="3" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Greens-European Republicans Movement (Verdi-Repubblicani Europei)
| FdV-MRE
| 7,692 || 3.98% || 2
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Federation of the Left (Federazione della Sinistra)
| FdS
| 4,954 || 2.56% || 0
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Others
|
| 833 || 0.43% || 0
|- style="background-color:#FA6E79"
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left;" | Spini coalition (Left-wing)
| 13,479 || 6.97% || 2
|-
| style="background-color:orange" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2"| De Zordo List (Lista De Zordo)
| LDZ
| 7,336 || 3.79% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:blue" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2"| Citizens' Committees (Comitati Cittadini)
| CC
| 6,325 || 3.27% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Others
|
| 10,104 || 5.23% || 0
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Total
| 193,371 || 100% || 46
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Votes cast / turnout
| 216,541 || 73.86% || style="background-color:#E9E9E9;" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Registered voters
| 293,173 || || style="background-color:#E9E9E9;" |
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="7" | Source: Ministry of the Interior
|}
Mayoral and City Council election, 2014
The election took place on 25 May 2014.
|-
| colspan="7"|
|-
|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;"
! colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;" | Parties and coalitions
! colspan="1" | Votes
! colspan="1" | %
! colspan="1" | Seats
|-
| style="background-color:pink" rowspan="3" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Democratic Party (Partito Democratico)
| PD
| 86,906 || 47.23% || 21
|-
| style="background-color:#FF3988" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Nardella List (Lista Nardella)
| LN
| 16,114 || 8.76% || 3
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Others
|
| 6,898 || 3.75% || 0
|- style="background-color:pink"
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Nardella coalition (Centre-left)
| 109,918 || 59.74% || 24
|-
| style="background-color:lightblue" rowspan="3" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Forza Italia
| FI
| 17,988 || 9.78% || 4
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Lega Nord
| LN
| 1,598 || 0.87% || 0
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Others
|
| 2,654 || 1.44% || 0
|- style="background-color:lightblue"
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left;" | Stella coalition (Centre-right)
| 22,240 || 12.09% || 4
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Five Star Movement (Movimento Cinque Stelle)
| M5S
| 17,486 || 9.50% || 3
|-
| style="background-color:#FA6E79" rowspan="3" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Left Ecology Freedom (Sinistra Ecologia Libertà)
| SEL
| 7,677 || 4.17% || 2
|-
| style="background-color:#EB4C42" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Florence to Left (Firenze a Sinistra)
| FaS
| 4,376 || 2.38% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Communist Refoundation Party (Rifondazione Comunista)
| PRC
| 2,554 || 1.39% || 0
|- style="background-color:#FA6E79"
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left;" | Grassi coalition (Left-wing)
| 14,607 || 7.94% || 3
|-
| style="background-color:#D3419D" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Scaletti List (Lista Scaletti)
| LS
| 7,507 || 4.08% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Brothers of Italy (Fratelli d'Italia)
| FdI
| 6,176 || 3.36% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Others
|
| 6,075 || 3.30% || 0
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Total
| 184,009 || 100% || 36
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Votes cast / turnout
| 194,245 || 67.22% || style="background-color:#E9E9E9;" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Registered voters
| 288,971 || || style="background-color:#E9E9E9;" |
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="7" | Source: Ministry of the Interior
|}
Mayoral and City Council election, 2019
The election took place on 26 May 2019.
|-
| colspan="7"|
|-
|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;"
! colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;" | Parties and coalitions
! colspan="1" | Votes
! colspan="1" | %
! colspan="1" | Seats
|-
| style="background-color:pink" rowspan="4" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Democratic Party (Partito Democratico)
| PD
| 74,020 || 41.23% || 19
|-
| style="background-color:#FF3988" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Nardella List (Lista Nardella)
| LN
| 14,914 || 8.31% || 3
|-
| style="background-color:gold" |
| style="text-align:left;" | More Europe (Più Europa)
| +Eu
| 3,257 || 1.81% || 0
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Others
|
| 8,154|| 4.54% || 0
|- style="background-color:pink"
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Nardella coalition (Centre-left)
| 100,345 || 55.90% || 22
|-
| style="background-color:lightblue" rowspan="4" |
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Lega Nord
| LN
| 25,922 || 14.44% || 6
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Forza Italia
| FI
| 7,629 || 4.25% || 3
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Brothers of Italy (Fratelli d'Italia)
| FdI
| 7,617 || 4.24% || 1
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Others
|
| 4,448 || 2.48% || 0
|- style="background-color:lightblue"
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left;" | Bocci coalition (Centre-right)
| 45,616 || 25.45% || 10
|-
| style="background-color:#FA6E79" rowspan="3" |
| style="background-color:#EB4C42" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Florence Open City (Firenze Città Aperta)
|
| 5,596 || 3.12% || 2
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Italian Left (Sinistra Italiana)
| SI
| 4,056 || 2.26% || 0
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Power to the People! (Potere al Popolo!)
| PaP
| 3,384 || 1.88% || 0
|- style="background-color:#FA6E79"
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left;" | Moro Bundu coalition (Left-wing)
| 13,036 || 7.26% || 2
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Five Star Movement (Movimento Cinque Stelle)
| M5S
| 12,574 || 7.00% || 2
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Others
|
| 7,952 || 4.43% || 0
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Total
| 179,523 || 100% || 36
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Votes cast / turnout
| 196,601 || 68.06% || style="background-color:#E9E9E9;" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" | Registered voters
| 288,866 || || style="background-color:#E9E9E9;" |
|-
| colspan="7" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="7" | Source: Ministry of the Interior
|}
Deputy Mayor
The office of the Deputy Mayor of Florence was officially created in 1995 with the adoption of the new local administration law. The Deputy Mayor is nominated and eventually dismissed by the Mayor.
Notes
See also
Timeline of Florence
References
Florence
Mayors
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5315193
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne%20wind%20energy
|
Airborne wind energy
|
Airborne wind energy (AWE) is the direct use or generation of wind energy by the use of aerodynamic or aerostatic lift devices. AWE technology is able to harvest high altitude winds, in contrast to wind turbines, which use a rotor mounted on a tower.
The term high-altitude wind power (HAWP) has been used to refer to AWE systems. However, semantically HAWP might also include wind energy conversion systems that are somehow positioned at a large height from the ground or sea surface.
Various mechanisms are proposed for capturing the kinetic energy of winds such as kites, kytoons, aerostats, gliders, gliders with turbines for regenerative soaring, sailplanes with turbines, or other airfoils, including multiple-point building- or terrain-enabled holdings. Once the mechanical energy is derived from the wind's kinetic energy, then many options are available for using that mechanical energy: direct traction, conversion to electricity aloft or at ground station, conversion to laser or microwave for power beaming to other aircraft or ground receivers. Energy generated by a high-altitude system may be used aloft or sent to the ground surface by conducting cables, mechanical force through a tether, rotation of endless line loop, movement of changed chemicals, flow of high-pressure gases, flow of low-pressure gases, or laser or microwave power beams.
High-altitude wind for power purposes
Winds at higher altitudes become steadier, more persistent, and of higher velocity. Because power available in wind increases as the cube of velocity (the velocity-cubed law), assuming other parameters remaining the same, doubling a wind's velocity gives 23=8 times the power; tripling the velocity gives 33=27 times the available power. With steadier and more predictable winds, high-altitude wind has an advantage over wind near the ground. Being able to locate HAWP to effective altitudes and using the vertical dimension of airspace for wind farming brings further advantage using high-altitude winds for generating energy.
High-altitude wind generators can be adjusted in height and position to maximize energy return, which is impractical with fixed tower-mounted wind generators.
In each range of altitudes there are altitude-specific concerns being addressed by researchers and developers. As altitude increases, tethers increase in length, the temperature of the air changes, and vulnerability to atmospheric lightning changes. With increasing altitude, exposure to liabilities increase, costs increase, turbulence exposure changes, likelihood of having the system fly in more than one directional strata of winds increases, and the costs of operation changes. HAWP systems that are flown must climb through all intermediate altitudes up to final working altitudes—being at first a low- and then a high- altitude device.
An atlas of the high-altitude wind power resource has been prepared for all points on Earth. A similar atlas of global assessment was developed at Joby Energy.
Methods of capturing kinetic energy of high-altitude winds
Energy can be captured from the wind by kites, kytoons, tethered gliders, tethered sailplanes, aerostats (spherical as well as shaped kytoons), bladed turbines, airfoils, airfoil matrices, drogues, variable drogues, spiral airfoils, Darrieus turbines, Magnus-effect VAWT blimps, multiple-rotor complexes, fabric Jalbert-parafoil kites, uni-blade turbines, flipwings, tethers, bridles, string loops, wafting blades, undulating forms, and piezoelectric materials, and more.
When a scheme's purpose is to propel ships and boats, the objects tether-placed in the wind will tend to have most of the captured energy be in useful tension in the main tether. The aloft working bodies will be operated to maintain useful tension even while the ship is moving. This is the method for powerkiting sports. This sector of HAWP is the most installed method. Folklore suggests that Benjamin Franklin used the traction method of HAWP. George Pocock was a leader in tugging vehicles by traction.
Controls
HAWP aircraft need to be controlled. Solutions in built systems have control mechanisms variously situated. Some systems are passive, or active, or a mix. When a kite steering unit (KSU) is lofted, the KSU may be robotic and self-contained; a KSU may be operated from the ground via radio-control by a live human operator or by smart computer programs. Some systems have built sensors in the aircraft body that report parameters like position, relative position to other parts. Kite control units (KCU) have involved more than steering; tether reeling speeds and directions can be adjusted in response to tether tensions and needs of the system during a power-generating phase or return-non-power-generating phase. Kite control parts vary widely.
Methods of converting the energy
The mechanical energy of the device may be converted to heat, sound, electricity, light, tension, pushes, pulls, laser, microwave, chemical changes, or compression of gases. Traction is a big direct use of the mechanical energy as in tugging cargo ships and kiteboarders. There are several methods of getting the mechanical energy from the wind's kinetic energy. Lighter-than-air (LTA) moored aerostats are employed as lifters of turbines. Heavier-than-air (HTA) tethered airfoils are being used as lifters or turbines themselves. Combinations of LTA and HTA devices in one system are being built and flown to capture HAWP. Even a family of free-flight airborne devices are represented in the literature that capture the kinetic energy of high-altitude winds (beginning with a description in 1967 by Richard Miller in his book Without Visible Means of Support) and a contemporary patent application by Dale C. Kramer, soaring sailplane competitor, inventor.
A research on airborne wind turbine technology innovations reveals that the “Kite type AWTs” technique, the most common type, has high scope of growth in the future; it has contributed for about 44% of the total airborne wind energy during 2008–2012. The kite type AWTs extract energy through wind turbines suspended at high altitudes using kites such as multi-tethered kite, kite and dual purpose circular fan, rotary wing kites etc.
Electric generator position in a HAWP system
Electricity generation is just one of the options for capturing mechanical energy; however, this option dominates the focus of professionals aiming to supply large amounts of energy to commerce and utilities. A long array of secondary options include tugging water turbines, pumping of water, or compressing air or hydrogen. The position of the electric generator is a distinguishing feature among systems. Flying the generator aloft is done in a variety of ways. Keeping the generator at the mooring region is another large design option. The option in one system of a generator aloft and at the ground station has been used where a small generator operates electronic devices aloft while the ground generator is the big worker to make electricity for significant loads.
Carousel generator
The “Carousel” configuration several kites fly at a constant height and higher altitudes, pulling in rotation a generator that moves on a wide circular rail. For a large Carousel system, the power obtained can be calculated as of the order of GW, exposing a law that see the power attainable as a function of the diameter raised to the fifth power, while the increment of cost of the generator is linear.
Aerostat-based HAWP
One method of keeping working HAWP systems aloft is to use buoyant aerostats whether or not the electric generator is lifted or left on the ground. The aerostats are usually, but not always, shaped to achieve a kiting lifting effect. Recharging leaked lifting gas receives various solutions.
In case of productive winds the aerostats are typically blown down by the aerodynamic drag applied on the wide and unavoidable Reynolds surface excluding them de facto from the HAWP category.
W. R. Benoit US Patent 4350897 Lighter than air wind energy conversion system by William R. Benoit, filed Oct 24,1980, and issued: Sep 21, 1982.
The TWIND system ( International patent application PCT/W02010/015720) is based on the use of a sail surface elevated by the climbing force of an aerostatic balloon connected to the ground by a cable used also for energy transmission. The wind present at high altitudes creates a horizontal push on the sail which in its movement transmits this energy to the ground via the connecting cable. At the end of its movement forward, the sail surface is reduced allowing it to move upwind with reduced energy waste.
The Magenn aerostat is a vertical-axis wind turbine held with its axis horizontal by bridling the axis traverse to the wind so that Magnus-effect lift obtains during autorotation; the electricity is generated with end-hub generators.
The LTA Windpower PowerShip uses lift from both an aerostat and wings. It operates close to neutral buoyancy and doesn't require a winch. Power is generated by turbines with the propellers on the trailing edge of the wings. The system is designed to be able to take off and land unattended.
Airbine proposes to lift wind turbines into the air by use of aerostats; the electricity would return to ground loads by way of conductive tether.
Airship power turbine by William J. Mouton, Jr., and David F. Thompson: Their system integrated the turbine within the central portion of a near-toroidal aerostat, like putting a turbine in the hole of an aerostat donut.
The HAWE system is developed from Tiago Pardal's idea. This system consists of a pumping cycle similar to that of kite systems. In the generation phase, the pulling force increases 5–10 times due to the Magnus effect of a spinning cylinder (aerial platform). Like a kite, the pulling force produced by the aerial platform will unwind the cable and generate electricity on the ground. In the recovery phase it rewinds the cable with no Magnus effect in the aerial platform.
Wind Fisher is developing cross-wind capable Magnus effect balloons which generate electricity with ground based generators operating a pumping cycle with a pair of helium inflated, lighter-than-air cylindrical wings. The company, based near Grenoble, is currently testing a 1.7m span heavier-than-air prototype.
An open source concept, released in 2023, proposed a helium-filled balloon with attached sails, which create pressure and drive the rotation of the system around its horizontal axis. The kinetic energy is transferred to a generator on the ground through ropes in circular motion.
Non-airborne systems
Conceptually, two adjacent mountains (natural or terrain-enabled) or artificial buildings or towers (urban or artificial) could have a wind turbine suspended between them by use of cables. When HAWP is cabled between two mountain tops across a valley, the HAWP device is not airborne, but borne up by the cable system. No such systems are known to be in use, though patents teach these methods. When non-cabled bridges are the foundation for holding wind turbines high above the ground, then these are grouped with conventional towered turbines and are outside the intent of HAWP where the tethering an airborne system is foundational.
Safety
Lightning, aircraft traffic, emergency procedures, system inspections, visibility marking of system parts and its tethers, electrical safety, runaway-wing procedures, over-powering controls, appropriate mooring, and more form the safety environment for HAWP systems.
Challenges as an emerging industry
There have been several periods of high interest in HAWP before the contemporary activity. The first period had a high focus on pulling carriages over the lands and capturing atmospheric electricity and lightning for human use. The second period was in the 1970s and 1980s when research and investment flourished; a drop in oil price resulted in no significant installations of HAWP. Return on investment (ROI) has been the key parameter; that ROI remains in focus in the current development activity while in the background is the renewable and sustainable energy movement supporting wind power of any kind; but HAWP must compete on ROI with conventional towered solutions. A test center at Lista, Norway provides independent verification of research.
Early references to HAWP
Early centuries of kiting demonstrated that the kite is a rotary engine that rotates its tether part about its mooring point and causes hands and arms to move because of the energy captured from higher winds into the mechanical device. The tension in the lofted devices performs the work of lifting and pulling body parts and things. Airborne wind energy (AWE) for HAWP was birthed thousands of years ago; naming what happened and developing the implied potentials of tethered aircraft for doing special works is what is occurring in AWE HAWP. What is "low" for some workers is "high" for others.
1796 George Pocock used traction mode to travel in vehicles over land roads.
1827 George Pocock's book ‘The Aeropleustic Art’ or 'Navigation in the Air by the Use of Kites or Buoyant Sails' was published. Pocock described use of kites for land and sea travel. The book was republished several times.
1833 John Adolphus Etzler saw HAWP blossoming at least for traction.
1864? Book's chapter Kite-Ship well describes key dynamics of HAWP used for tugging ships by kites. John Gay's: or Work for Boys. Chapter XVIII in the Summer volume.
1935 Aloys van Gries stands as a strong early patentee of high-altitude wind power; he taught various kite systems for use in generating electricity in his DE 656194 C patent: Durch Drachen getragene Windkraftmaschine zur Nutzbarmachung von Hoehenwinden
1943 Stanley Biszak instructed using potential energy in free-flight for converting ambient winds impacting turbine to drive electric generator to charge batteries.
1967 Richard Miller, former editor of Soaring magazine, published book Without Visible Means of Support that describes the feasibility of free-flight coupled non-ground-moored kites to capture differences in wind strata to travel across continents; such HAWP is the subject of Dale C. Kramer's contemporary patent application.
1973? Hermann Oberth In the appendix of his book Primer for Those Who Would Govern there are sketches and a photograph of a model of the Kite Power Station from the Oberth Museum.
1977 April 3, 1977, invention declared. On September 21, 1979, Douglas Selsam notarized his kite-lifted endless chain of airfoils HAWP system, generic type that would later show in Dutch astronaut Wubbo Ockels' device called LadderMill described in a patent of 1997. Douglas Selsam conceived his Auto-oriented Wind Harnessing Buoyant Aerial Tramway on April 3, 1977. On the Selsam notarized disclosure of invention was placed a date of Sept. 20, while the notary placed the final signing on Sept. 21, 1979. notes and drawings.
1979 Professor Bryan Roberts begins giromill gyrocopter-type HAWP wind generator development.
1980 Miles Loyd publishes an article on the crosswind kite power.
1986 Bryan Roberts' AWE HAWP rotor generates electricity and lifts itself in tethered flight.
1992 Free Rotor WO/1992020917 Free Rotor by JACK, Colin, Humphry, Bruce (one man). Colin Jack. Colin Bruce. Multi-rotors are treated. Faired tethers are recognized. 1992.
Autorotation
Autorotation is the basis of a large sector of AWE technology. High altitude wind power research and development centers frequently are dependent on blade autorotation: SkyMill Energy, Joby Energy, Sky Windpower, BaseLoad Energy, Magenn Power, and Makani Power are making and testing airborne wind energy conversion systems (AWECS) that employ autorotation of blades to drive the shafts of generators to make electricity at altitude and send the electricity to earth via conductive tethers.
See also
Airborne Wind Energy Industry Association
Airborne wind turbine
Altitude
Betz' law
Crosswind kite power
Kite applications
KiteGen
Kitemill
Kite types
Laddermill
Linear Generation system
List of airborne wind energy organizations
Tether
Turbine
Wind
Wind farm
Wind power
Wind profile power law
Wind resource assessment
Wind turbine
References
Bibliography
Vance, E. Wind power: High hopes. Nature 460, 564–566 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1038/460564a
External links
Airborne Wind Energy Participants List
TU Delft kite power research group
Energy Kite Systems a glossary of terms and links to HAWP systems
AWESystems.info list of organizations
Assessing the Viability of High Altitude Wind Resources in Ireland, Colm O’Gairbhith for Carbon Tracking
Airborne wind power
Kites
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5315263
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatial%20Cathedral%20of%20Bogot%C3%A1
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Primatial Cathedral of Bogotá
|
The Metropolitan and Primate Cathedral Basilica of the Immaculate Conception and Saint Peter of Bogotá or better known as the Metropolitan Cathedral Basilica of Bogotá and Primate of Colombia, officially Sacred Holy Temple Metropolitan Cathedral Basilica and Primate of the Immaculate Conception of Mary and Saint Peter, is a cathedral church of Catholic worship consecrated to the Immaculate Conception and under the patronage of Saint Peter; it is a Neoclassical style building located in the Plaza de Bolívar in Bogotá, the country's capital.
The cathedral is the seat of the Metropolitan Archbishop of Bogotá and Primate of Colombia, recognized with the honorary title of Primate of Colombia by Pope Leo XIII, through the Decree of the Consistorial Congregation of November 7, 1902. It is also the seat of the Cabildo metropolitano and of the "Parish of the Cathedral Basilica Metropolitana de Bogotá Saint Peter".
The cathedral was designed by Domingo de Petrés and was built between 1807 and 1823 in the same place where three other churches were previously erected, which successively served as cathedrals for the city. Due to its historical significance, architectural and cultural value, it was declared a Monumento Nacional by decree 1,584 of August 11, 1975.
History
The Spanish conquistadors to the Bogotá savanna, the missionary Friar Domingo de las Casas celebrated the first Holy Mass on August 6, 1538, in a modest chapel of mud and straw roofs, and before a banner that rests on the cathedral, in the place where the first stones were laid for the construction of a church. The place was named by the Spanish as Nuestra Señora de la Esperanza.
In 1553, at the initiative of Friar Juan de los Barrios, the decision was made to build a cathedral with mud and brick walls in the same place as the current cathedral, according to the provisions of the Cabildo, for which a public tender was called that assigned the works to Baltasar Díaz and Pedro Vásquez, associated with the bricklayer Juan Rey, with a budget of 1,000 pesos. In 1560, after spending more than 6,000 pesos and on the eve of its inauguration collapsed the roof of the construction. Despite this, on September 11, 1562, Pope Pius IV granted it the title of Cathedral.
Twelve years later, Friar Juan de los Barrios, the first archbishop of the city, brought on his shoulders the first stone for a new cathedral, thus setting an example to all his companions and faithful, who, following him, managed to store a considerable quantity of stones for its construction. The work began on March 12, 1572, in the same place, with the same conditions as the previous one, that is, with three naves, but with an additional detail in which four chapels were added forming a cross.
The work culminated in 1590, with the main chapel covered as well as the arches, but the four side chapels and the three naves were pending in its construction. By 1678 the tower was completed. This new church, the third construction of the cathedral, was notable for the richness of its worship and for its musical chapel. On July 12, 1785, a strong earthquake occurred in the city that seriously affected the construction, for which the decision was made to partially demolish it in 1805.
Some years after the expulsion of the Jesuits from Colombia, it was decided to put the Church of San Ignacio into service as a vice-cathedral, which was called "Vice-cathedral of San Carlos" (in honor of King Charles III) and is located just half a block away from the plaza.
At the beginning of the 19th century by appointment made by Canon Fernando Caycedo y Flórez, Metropolitan Archbishop of Bogotá, the Capuchin friar Friar Domingo de Petrés was appointed as architect for the reconstruction of the cathedral, who was widely influenced by the Neoclassical trend prevailing in that time of history and that determined the style of the reconstruction of the church, Fray Domingo, of Spanish origin, son of a mason, who arrived in Santafé de Bogotá in 1792 to exercise his profession as an architect, beginning the work of the new cathedral on February 11, 1807. He has been considered one of the most representative architects of the new kingdom of Granada, among other works the Astronomical Observatory of Bogotá, the Basilica of Nuestra Señora del Rosario of Chiquinquirá, the Cathedral of Zipaquirá, the Cathedral Basilica of Santa Fe de Antioquia, the Facatativá Cathedral and the Co-Cathedral of Guaduas.
When Friar Domingo died in 1811, the construction of the interior of the cathedral was completed. The remaining works were directed by Nicolás León, who managed to complete them on April 19, 1823. In that same year, the consecration of the cathedral was officiated. The Metropolitan Cathedral Basilica of Bogotá was recognized with the honorary title of Primate of Colombia by Pope Leo XIII, through the Decree of the Consistorial Congregation of November 7, 1902.
Urban context
The Metropolitan and Primate Basilica Cathedral occupies the northern part of the eastern block of the Plaza de Bolívar, in the historic center of the city of Bogotá, corresponding to the locality of La Candelaria, whose minor mayor's office was created by the Bogotá City Council through the agreement 7 of December 4, 1974. Its exact location is between Carrera Séptima and Carrera Sexta with Calles 10ª and 11ª, in which the portal is oriented towards the west (on Carrera Séptima, looking towards Plaza de Bolívar) and the side door or false door faces north (on Calle 11th, looking towards the Casa del Florero or Museum of the 20 de julio, place where the Cry of Independence occurred, and surrounding buildings). Its location corresponds to the Episcopal Pastoral Zone of the Immaculate Conception, forming the parish of the Cathedral in the neighborhood of La Candelaria. In the same neighborhood there are four other Catholic churches.
On the south side of the cathedral is the Chapel del Sagrario, a church built between 1660 and 1689. Between the Cathedral and the Chapel del Sagrario is the Casa del Cabildo Eclesiástico (also known as the City Hall), which is a three-story building built in 1689 by order of Archbishop Julián Cortázar. Completing the block on the Plaza de Bolívar is the Archbishop's Palace, a building built between 1952 and 1959 to replace the colonial palace, destroyed in April 1948 during the Bogotazo, which was it was located on Calle 11 with Carrera Sexta, next to the Mint House. In the current place of the Archbishop's Palace, the Customs building had been located since 1793, which served as a prison for Viceroy Amar y Borbón after July 20, 1810, and as an office for Viceroy Sámano and Pablo Morillo during the Spanish reconquest.
In the back of the cathedral is the parish house, whose lot was initially destined for the Hospital de San Pedro by order of Archbishop Friar Juan de los Barrios on October 21, 1564. Due to limited space, in 1723 the hospital was moved to the west of the city, on the site currently occupied by the Hospital San Juan de Dios. The current building of the parish house on the corner of calle 11 with carrera 6 dates from 1759 and was declared a national monument through the resolution 191 of March 1, 2005.
The Plaza de Bolívar, as Plaza Mayor of the city, has been the scene of some of the main political and social demonstrations throughout the country's history. Its framework is complemented by the Palace of Justice on the north side, the Palacio Liévano (headquarters of the Mayor's Office of Bogotá) to the west and the Capitolio Nacional to the south. In this way, some of the main institutions that represent the three branches of public power in the country appear in the Square. Since July 20, 1847, in the center of it there is a statue of Simón Bolívar, from whom it officially receives its name, work of the Italian sculptor Pietro Tenerani.
Description
The cathedral is made up of a Classical basilica plan in the form of a Latin cross that occupies an area of 5,300 square meters, has five naves: the central nave and two side naves of the same height and the other two for the chapels. It also has a main altar and 16 chapels: 8 in the south nave, 8 in the north nave and a frontal one in the central nave, which are complemented by the choir and two sacristies. The lantern and dome are located at the intersection of the transept with the crossing, supported by four pendentives and decorated in the shape of a semicircular dome, with indigo blue and thirteen tongues of fire. The interior paint of the naves and chapels is white, and their vaults have rosettes in the center.
The portal is divided into two bodies. The first is made up of eight Corinthian pilasters that go up to the architrave, frieze and cornice, also of the Doric order; the second body is of the Ionic order and is adorned with eight pilasters. Three sculptures made by Juan de Cabrera adorn the upper part of each door: the north door Saint Peter, the south door Saint Paul and the frontis the Immaculate Conception with two angels on both sides in an attitude of crowning her; Above the latter, the façade is finished off with an isosceles triangle adorned with indentation, Ionic order moldings and above it a pontifical cross with double arms, and below the statue, on the lintel of the main door, a marble slab reads white the inscription: "Under the title and patronage of the Immaculate Conception of Our Lady, religious Santafé will prosper. Year of MDCCCXIV. Architect Friar Domingo de Petrés, Capuchin.". The towers, rebuilt after the earthquake of 1827, measure 52 meters high and start from the main cornice as a bell tower, each one is made up of three bodies with openings on all four sides in the upper body for the bells and in the middle body ; the south tower is consecrated to Saint Barbara, while the north tower, consecrated to Saint Emygdius, has a clock. The main door, made in the 16th century, is 7.20 meters high by 3.60 wide, is adorned by two independent pilasters in the form of fluted columns of the Ionic order, whose capitals end in the front cornice, and It features knockers, bolts, studs and fittings in Spanish cast bronze and five salamanders in solvier. The side doors measure 5.60 meters high by 2.80 wide. The atrium is 110 meters long and was built between 1631 and 1664, in 1815 it was extended to the Chapel del Sagrario, in 1842 it was paved and extended to the southern end of the square and in 1913 the corner angle was rounded to facilitate the turn of the tram by the Carrera Séptima.
Chapels
Chapel I: Chapel del Baptisterio
Upon entering the cathedral and to the right is the south nave, where from west to east, the first thing you see is the Chapel of the Baptistery with the baptismal font, a carved stone font from the 18th century, and behind it, the painting "Baptism of Christ", oil on canvas painted by the artist Ricardo Acevedo Bernal in 1898. On the western side of the chapel is the painting "Jesus Child and the Eternal Father", oil on canvas by the artist Pedro Figueroa.
Chapel II: Chapel of San Pedro
Continuing east along the south nave, we find the Chapel de San José, which contains a masonry altar of composite order, designed by Petrés. In this altar we find a carved wooden image, from the Sevillian School of the 17th century. On the eastern side of the chapel is the oil on canvas "Jesus with the Cross on His Back". To the west of the chapel is the painting "Our Lady of Sorrows", oil on canvas from the 17th century and by an anonymous author, Saint Peter bears the second title of the Metropolitan Basilica Cathedral.
Chapel del Sagrario
From the Metropolitan and Primate Basilica Cathedral we can access the Chapel del Sagrario.
Chapel III: Chapel of Nuestra Señora del Carmen
Carved and polychrome wooden sculpture from the 20th century. On the eastern side of the chapel we find the painting "Saint Teresa of Jesus", oil on canvas from the 17th century and by an anonymous author. On the western side we find the painting "Appearance of Our Lady to San Simón Stock", oil on canvas from the 17th century and by an anonymous author.
Chapel IV: Chapel of Santa Isabel de Hungría
Saint Elizabeth of Hungary is the patron saint of the Archdiocese of Bogotá. Previously known as the chapel of Saint Ursula and later as Saint Catherine of Siena. At the bottom of the chapel is the painting "Saint Elizabeth of Hungary", oil on canvas by the Spaniard Domínguez (copy of a painting by the Spaniard Esteban Murillo).
In this chapel stands out the tomb of the Spanish conquistador and founder of the city Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, sculpted by the artist Luis Alberto Acuña on a white marble altar by Cassioli; On the eastern wall, the bust of General Antonio Nariño stands out in the place where his remains lie. Three apses in front of the chapel's colonnade contain the monuments of the city's archbishops, in order that of Vicente Arbeláez in Renaissance style, that of Manuel José Mosquera in wood and Gothic style, and that of José Telésforo Paul in Florentine Gothic style. On the western wall, a marble monument contains the ashes of the Venezuelan Pedro Gual and a plaque commemorates Archbishop Fernando Caicedo y Flores, complemented by a picture of the Creed of Santiago and the statue of Mary Immaculate, which was on the main altar for three centuries. Four columns rest on the step, which contain the remains of Archbishops Aquinao Camacho, del Pórtico and Torres and a few steps to the south is Monsignor Juan Bautista Agnozzi, delegate of the Holy See who visited the city in 1882.
Chapel V: Chapel of Santiago Apóstol
It is made up of an Ionic altar with the colonial painting "Saint James Apostle in the Battle of Clavijo", oil on canvas by Gregorio Vásquez de Arce y Ceballos.
The painter Gregorio Vásquez de Arce y Ceballos (1638–1711), author of all the paintings in this chapel, is buried in this place.
Chapel VI: Chapel of Nuestra Señora del Topo
Behind the main altar is the Chapel of Our Lady of El Topo, a historical and religious relic where the choir stalls of the canons are located. It measures 29 meters long by 14 wide, it has a semicircular arch entrance supported by two pilasters and closed by an iron gate. The central altar is from the 18th century, of the Doric order embossed in silver and also has two altars on the side walls. The main altarpiece is dated 1610 by an unknown author, represents the invocation of Our Lady of Sorrows of El Topo, patron saint of the canons of Bogotá, in which the virgin appears leaning over the head of the dead Jesus. On her sides are an image of Saint Joseph and an image of Saint Francis. In this chapel are the remains of Aurelio París Sanz de Santamaría.
Chapel VII: Chapel of Nuestra Señora de los Dolores
Made in 1906 and contains an Ionic altar and three niches: the left one with the Magdalena, the central one with Our Lady and the right one with Saint John the Evangelist, where the tomb of Juan Martín de Sarratea, superintendent of the Mint House, is located. , and finally there is a door that communicates with the Sacristy of the Chaplains of the Choir and above it there is a painting of the Sepulcher of the Lord.
Chapel VIII: Chapel of San Juan Nepomuceno
Formerly called the Chapel of the Virgin of Perpetual Help (also called the Holy Trinity), today it is known as the Chapel of John of Nepomuk, and was built in 1630.
It has a Doric altar surrounded by a grille, a statue of Our Lady in a niche and four lateral paintings. It has a painting of Saint Francis Borgia, the work of Gregorio Vásquez de Arce y Ceballos.
Chapel IX: Chapel of la Inmaculada Concepción
This chapel is adorned with a half-round arch and a masonry altar. It contains a statue of the Immaculate Conception, patron saint of the city of Bogotá, bearing the first title of the Bogotá Metropolitan Cathedral Basilica, installed in the central niche in 1904, and a statue over the tomb of Archbishop Bernardo Herrera Restrepo on the western wall, a work by the artist Gustavo Arcila Uribe.
Chapel X: Chapel of San José
This chapel, before being dedicated to Saint Joseph, was called the Chapel of Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes, and it is the oldest chapel (built in 1590). It was originally the chapel of Saint Anne because of the painting by Gaspar Figueroa and it contains an Ionic altar, a Quitoan statue of Virgin of Mercy in the central niche and the tomb of Eulogio Tamayo (treasurer and dean of the cathedral in 1887, who during the Concordat, requested the legal status of the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts).
"False" door
After the Chapel of San José is the side entrance of the church or "false door", which has on its outside a coat of arms of Spain carved in stone and on the inside two ancient Italian style paintings.
Chapel XI: Chapel of las Ánimas
The second chapel of this nave is dedicated to the Holy Christ (also known as the souls in purgatory), it contains an altar of order composed of a small grille, a picture of the Crucified Christ, two small pictures on the right side and a painting of the Salvador de Vásquez.
Chapel XII: Chapel of the Sagrado Corazón de Jesús
The north aisle has on the western side the Chapel of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, which has a golden Doric altar and a marble statue of Christ, the work of the Pussilque Russaud House in Paris and marble inscriptions on the laws of 1913 as a tribute to Jesus Christ and from 1919 as a tribute to Our Lady.
Pipe organ
The pipe organ of the cathedral was originally an instrument by Aquilino Amezua, a prominent Spanish organ builder, his system consists of 58 games or organ stops, a console with four manual keyboards and a keyboard that is played with the feet (pedalboard), it also has around 4,500 pipes, all of which makes it the largest organ in Colombia. In itself, the organ is an orchestra with instruments such as trumpets, bombards, oboes, clarinets, flutes and human voices. It is not only played in religious services, but also in concerts.
The instrument underwent a restoration, which had a value of 2,515 million pesos, which was financed by the Colombian Ministry of Culture, the National Tourism Fund (Fontur) and the Archdiocese of Bogotá. The process was carried out between 2013 and 2016 and was in charge of the Spanish organ company Gerhard Grenzing S.A., which has intervened the organs of the cathedrals of Seville, Brussels and Mexico, among others. Finally, the inauguration of the organ took place on July 2, 2016, with the Blessing of the instrument by Cardinal Rubén Salazar Gómez and an inaugural concert presided over by the Spanish maestro Juan de la Rubia, titular organist of the Sagrada Família in Barcelona (Spain).
Other burials
Aníbal Muñoz Duque
Aurelio París Sanz de Santamaría
Julián de Cortázar
Policarpa Salavarrieta (cenotaph)
Geography and Parish boundaries
North: Church of La Veracruz and Church of Nuestra Señora de Las Aguas
South: Nuestra Señora de Belén and Santa Bárbara Parishes (Center)
East: Church of Nuestra Señora de Egipto
West: Church of La Capuchina.
See also
List of buildings in Bogotá
List of tallest structures built before the 20th century
References
External links
Arquedíosis de Bogotá Catedral Primada de Colombia
Buildings and structures in Bogotá
Roman Catholic cathedrals in Colombia
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1823
19th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Colombia
Basilica churches in Colombia
Landmarks in Colombia
National Monuments of Colombia
Tourist attractions in Bogotá
Baroque architecture in the Spanish Empire
Spanish Colonial architecture in Colombia
Roman Catholic churches in Bogotá
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck%20Herzog
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Buck Herzog
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Charles Lincoln "Buck" Herzog (July 9, 1885 – September 4, 1953) was an American infielder and manager in Major League Baseball who played for four National League clubs between 1908 and 1920: the New York Giants, the Boston Braves, the Cincinnati Reds, and the Chicago Cubs. His flexibility sets him apart from other major leaguers, as he demonstrated great skill as a second baseman, shortstop, and third baseman.
Born in Baltimore, Maryland, Herzog grew up on a farm in nearby Ridgely. After attending the Maryland Agricultural College, he played one season in the minor leagues before the Giants selected him in the Rule 5 Draft. Herzog batted .300 as a rookie but struggled in 1909 and was traded to Boston before 1910. He cemented himself as an everyday player over the next two years, then was reacquired by the Giants in 1911, with whom he would reach three straight World Series. He struggled to hit in the 1911 World Series but set a record that would stand for over 50 years with 12 hits in the 1912 World Series, though the Giants lost all three of the series. Traded to the Reds before the 1914 season, he served as a player-manager for the Reds through the first half of the 1916 season, though the team had a losing record in each of those years. The Giants reacquired him halfway through 1916, naming him the team captain. After a famous fight with Ty Cobb during 1917 spring training, he played in his fourth and final World Series, though he made a key error in Game 5 as the Giants were defeated in six games. Herzog spent 1918 with Boston, was traded to Chicago in the middle of 1919, and played one last year with the Cubs in 1920, a season that saw his reputation tarnished by unsubstantiated accusations of gambling on baseball games.
Following his playing career, Herzog managed the minor league Easton Farmers and coached the United States Naval Academy baseball team. Then, he worked for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and later at a race track. Penniless by the early 1950s, he died of tuberculosis in 1953.
Early life
Charles Lincoln "Buck" Herzog was born on July 9, 1885, in Baltimore, Maryland. He was the descendant of German Presbyterians, though his facial features and last name would later cause people to think he was Jewish. During his childhood, his family moved to a farm in Ridgely, Maryland, where Herzog would spend much of his formative years. He attended the Maryland Agricultural College, where he played shortstop on the school's baseball team. He was a teammate of third baseman Home Run Baker, who would later be elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame.
Professional career
Minor leagues (1907)
Herzog began his professional career in 1907 when he joined the York White Roses of the Class B Tri-State League. Popular with their local fans, they nonetheless wound up moving to Reading, Pennsylvania, during the year. Herzog spent the whole season with the club, his strong play at shortstop and third base starting to build his reputation for versatility. In 120 games (431 at bats), he batted a mere .204, with 88 hits, 20 doubles, eight triples, and six home runs.
New York Giants (first stint) (1908–1909)
On September 1, 1907, the New York Giants selected Herzog in the Rule 5 Draft. He got along well with manager John McGraw the next March and made the team out of spring training. Making his major league debut on April 17, 1908, against the Philadelphia Phillies, Herzog played shortstop for part of the game, recording a hit in his only at bat and scoring a run in the team's 14–2 victory. During the year, Herzog displayed "good form" according to McGraw, though there was still a "lot to learn" for the player. In 64 games, he batted .300 with 38 runs scored, 48 hits, six doubles, two triples, no home runs, 11 runs batted in (RBI), and 16 stolen bases. He played 42 games as a second baseman, 12 as a shortstop, four as a third baseman, and one as an outfielder.
Herzog took what baseball historian Frank Russo called "a gigantic step back" in 1909, as he struggled to hit all season. Not used much, he constantly pestered McGraw for more playing time, which irritated his manager. In 42 games (130 at bats), he batted .185 with 16 runs scored and 24 hits, only two of which, both doubles, went for extra bases. He also had eight RBI, and despite the limited playing time, he stole 10 bases.
Boston Doves/Rustlers (first stint) (1910–1911)
Although Herzog spent spring training with the Giants in 1910, McGraw was tired of listening to him begging for playing time. On April 4, the Giants traded him and Bill Collins to the Boston Doves in exchange for Beals Becker. Now in his third season, he finally hit his first major league home run on May 9 against Vic Willis, the only run of the game for Boston as the St. Louis Cardinals defeated them 2–1. With the Doves, Herzog received regular playing time. He was the starting third baseman until July 6, after which he was suspended for insubordination. Seeking to replace Fred Lake as the team's manager, Herzog phoned McGraw and asked whether he should accept an offer for a two-year, $5,000 contract to manage Boston. McGraw felt this was underhanded and tipped Lake off as to what was going on. Braves vice president John Harris told Lake to handle the situation how he thought best, and Lake suspended Herzog.
Returning to action August 2, Herzog resumed the everyday third base job. In 106 games (380 at bats), he batted .250 with 51 runs scored, 95 hits, 20 doubles, three triples, three home runs, 32 RBI, and 13 stolen bases.
Herzog returned to the Boston club, now known as the Rustlers, for the 1911 season. This time the primary shortstop, Herzog got off to a strong start to the season, leading the team in hitting with a .310 average through July 15. Nevertheless, he got in trouble with manager Fred Tenney, who fined both Herzog and teammate Doc Miller for "laying down" during games. This led Herzog to go on strike for three games from July 16 through 18, and though he returned to the lineup on July 19, he was traded to the Giants on July 22 for Al Bridwell and Hank Gowdy. In 79 games (356 at bats) for the Rustlers, he had recorded 53 runs scored, 91 hits, 19 doubles, five triples, five home runs, 41 RBI, and 26 stolen bases.
New York Giants (second stint) (1911–1913)
Though Herzog and McGraw had parted ways uncomfortably last time, the Giants' manager made it clear upon Herzog's return that all he cared about was winning the pennant, and he was willing to overlook any dislike he might have for the infielder. Herzog assumed the third base job, bringing a great deal of energy to the position as the Giants won the NL pennant by five games. In 69 games (247 at bats) for New York, Herzog batted .267 with 37 runs scored, 66 hits, 14 doubles, four triples, one home run, 26 RBI, and 22 stolen bases. His combined totals between Boston and New York were a .290 average, 90 runs scored, 157 hits, nine triples, six home runs, and 67 RBI. Herzog's 33 doubles tied with Bill Sweeney for fourth in the NL, and his 48 stolen bases tied with Red Murray for fifth. Facing the Philadelphia Athletics in the World Series, the Giants struggled to hit, and Herzog was no exception. He batted only .190 as the Giants were defeated in six games.
In 1912, Herzog remained New York's primary third baseman, used exclusively at the position. Contemporary sportswriter Ring Lardner said he "was more peppery than Captain [Larry] Doyle himself and looked like an electric battery compared with [Art] Fletcher and [Fred] Merkle. He played rings around any other man on the rival infields. He is a human illustration of the value of energy and application." In 140 games (482 at bats), he batted .263 with 72 runs scored, 127 hits, 20 doubles, nine triples, two home runs, and 51 RBI. He stole 37 bases, tied with Merkle for fifth in the NL. In fact, five of the top 10 base stealers in the league were Giants.
The Giants won the pennant again, facing the Boston Red Sox in the World Series. In Game 2, Herzog had three hits and three RBI in a game that ended in a 6–6 tie when it became too dark to play. He just missed a home run in the second inning when a hit to deep right field bounced and hit a railing on the top of the fence. Under the rules of the time, the hit would have been a home run had the ball bounced into the stands. At the beginning of the 11th inning, Tris Speaker accused Herzog of blocking his progress on the base paths in the previous inning. The two argued and had to be dragged apart by teammates. Herzog's leadoff double in the fifth inning of Game 3 led to him scoring the Giants' second run in an eventual 2–1 victory. Herzog batted .400 and set a record with 12 hits in the series, though the Giants were defeated in eight games. His record would last until 1964, when Bobby Richardson had 13 hits against the Pittsburgh Pirates.
Injured early in the 1913 season, Herzog played sparingly in June and platooned at third base with Tillie Shafer for the rest of the season. His batting average was as high as .300 on July 4, and he batted .286 for the season. In 96 games (290 at bats), he recorded 46 runs scored, 83 hits, 15 doubles, three triples, three home runs, 31 RBI, and 23 stolen bases. For the second time in three years, the Giants faced Philadelphia in the World Series. Again, the team struggled offensively; Herzog had only one hit in 19 at bats as the Giants were defeated in five games. He insisted that, come 1914, he would play better than ever.
On December 12, 1913, the Giants traded Herzog and Grover Hartley to the Cincinnati Reds for Bob Bescher. Giants owner Harry Hempstead supervised the deal, thinking that McGraw, who was on an international vacation, would be thrilled to get the speedy Bescher. Instead, McGraw rebuked Hempstead upon learning of the deal, informing the owner, "I'll do the thinking around here. The next time a deal is made on this ball club, I'll make it."
Cincinnati Reds (1914–1916)
Around the same time as they acquired Herzog, the Reds traded Joe Tinker, who had managed them the previous season. Herzog was delighted to be named the replacement, assuming player-manager duties. Jimmy Sheckard, who retired after the 1913 season, warned that the ballclub would be difficult to manage. "The new manager will have to get rid of the 'knockers' on that club before he can hope to succeed. There is no chance to win with players who think more of their own records than they do of the success of the club." Herzog butted heads with both the players and the front office. On the field, he moved back over to shortstop, playing 138 games in 1914. Only hitting .200 over his first 16 games, Herzog batted .316 thereafter, raising his average to .316 by June 16. His lone home run of the season came against Dan Griner on May 8, when he had two RBI in a 3–0 victory over the Cardinals. In 138 games, he batted .281 with 54 runs scored, 140 hits, 14 doubles, eight triples, and 40 RBI. His 46 stolen bases were topped in the NL only by George Burns's 62. Cincinnati did not do so well, finishing last in the NL with a 60–94 record.
Herzog again played primarily shortstop in 1915. He recorded his only home run of the season on May 1, in a 9–5 loss to the Cardinals. From July 4 through July 6, he played six games, as the Reds had a doubleheader scheduled on each of those dates. Herzog had three hits in the first game of each of the doubleheaders, though he had 14 innings to do so in the July 6 one. In 155 games (579 at bats), he batted .264 with 61 runs scored, 153 hits, one home run, and 42 RBI. For the second year in a row, he was second in the NL in stolen bases, as his 35 were topped only by Max Carey's 36. With a 71–83 record, the Reds finished seventh in the NL this year, with the Giants the only team that was worse than them.
The Reds again got off to a poor start in 1916, going 34–49 in their first 83 games under Herzog. Meanwhile, the Giants were again interested in his services. McGraw sent a telegram to Reds president Garry Herrmann, offering to journey personally to Cincinnati to make a trade for his ex-player. On July 20, the Giants acquired Herzog for the third time, sending future Hall of Famers Christy Mathewson, Bill McKechnie, and Edd Roush to the Reds along with $40,000 for Herzog and Bill Killefer. In 79 games (281 at bats) with the Reds, Herzog had hit .267 with 30 runs scored, 75 hits, one home run, 24 RBI, and 15 stolen bases. Under Herzog's managing, the Reds had gone 165–226 in three seasons, with 10 ties as well.
New York Giants (third stint) (1916–1917)
Herzog was used primarily at second base upon rejoining the Giants. Though not used as manager in New York, Herzog became the team captain by McGraw's choice. After he rejoined the ballclub, the Giants set a record by winning 26 games in a row. In 77 games (280 at bats) with the Giants, Herzog batted .261 with 40 runs scored, 73 hits, zero home runs, 25 RBI, and 19 stolen bases. His combined totals between Cincinnati and New York were a .264 average, 70 runs scored, 148 hits, one home run, and 49 RBI. He ranked fifth in the NL with 34 stolen bases but led the league in times caught stealing with 28. Herzog set an unusual record by playing 98 home games in one season: 50 of his 79 games for the Reds were at home, and 48 of his 77 with the Giants were at home.
During 1917 spring training, Herzog had his most famous fight when he battled Ty Cobb. After the Tiger outfielder showed up late for a Dallas spring training doubleheader because of a golf outing, Herzog and several of his teammates called him names from the Giant bench. Cobb retaliated by sliding into Herzog feetfirst and making contact with his spikes during the second game, prompting a bench-clearing brawl in which Cobb shoved Herzog's face into the dirt. The Dallas Police Department had to help stop the brawl, and Cobb was thrown out of the game. Both teams were staying at the Oriental Hotel, and at dinner that evening, Herzog walked up to Cobb and challenged him to a fight. The two met an hour later in Cobb's room, where the Tiger outfielder had prepared for the fight by moving furniture out of the way and pouring water on the floor. Cobb's leather-soled shoes enabled him to get better footing than Herzog, who wore tennis shoes. The fight lasted for 30 minutes, over the course of which Cobb knocked down Herzog about six times while Herzog only knocked Cobb down once. The scuffle left Herzog's face bloodied and his eyes nearly shut. "I got hell kicked out of me, but I knocked the bum down, and you know that swell head, he’ll never get over the fact that a little guy like me had him on the floor," Herzog declared afterwards. With McGraw vowing revenge, Cobb skipped the rest of the exhibition series against the Giants, heading to Cincinnati to train with the Reds, who were managed by Cobb's friend Mathewson. However, Cobb later expressed the deepest respect for Herzog because of the way the infielder had conducted himself in the fight.
The Giants' second baseman once again, Herzog had a "statistically subpar" season, according to biographer Gabriel Schechter. In 114 games (417 at bats), he batted .235 with 69 runs scored, 98 hits, two home runs, and 31 RBI. His 12 stolen bases were the least by him in a season since 1909. However, the ballclub had another successful season, winning the NL pennant and facing the Chicago White Sox in the 1917 World Series. Playing all six of the games, Herzog batted .250 with one triple and two RBI. With the series tied at two games apiece, the Giants held a 5–2 lead entering the seventh inning of Game 5, but the White Sox scored two runs and had runners on first and third with two outs. Both of them attempted to steal a base, and catcher Bill Rariden threw to pitcher Slim Sallee, who threw to Herzog. The infielder missed the ball, and his error allowed the tying run to score. The White Sox went on to win Games 5 and 6 to clinch the series victory. Falling out of favor with McGraw again after the blunder, Herzog was traded back to the Boston NL team (now known as the Braves) on January 8, 1918, for Doyle and Jesse Barnes.
Boston Braves (second stint) (1918–1919)
In 1918, Herzog's primary position was at second base, though he also saw significant time at first base. His batting average was a low .228 in 118 games (473 at bats), as he recorded 57 runs scored, 108 hits, no home runs, 26 RBI, and 10 stolen bases. In 1919, he was used at second base with Boston once again until he was traded to the Chicago Cubs on August 2 for Les Mann and Charlie Pick. He had batted .280 with 27 runs scored, 77 hits, one home run, 25 RBI, and 16 stolen bases in 73 games for the Braves.
Chicago Cubs (1919–1920)
With the Cubs, Herzog played exclusively at second base for the rest of 1919. In 52 games (193 at bats), he batted .275 with 15 runs scored, 53 hits, no home runs, 17 RBI, and 12 stolen bases. His combined totals between Boston and Chicago were a .278 average, 42 runs scored, 130 hits, one home run, and 42 RBI in 125 games (468 at bats). He and Greasy Neale tied for fifth in the NL with 28 stolen bases.
Herzog played second base for the Cubs in 1920 except for June and early July, when he was used mainly at third base. He became embroiled in controversy that August when he was one of a group of Cubs players accused of deliberately helping the team lose a game to the Phillies. No firm evidence connecting Herzog to the scandal was found, but he was seldom used after that. His only game in September was against the Giants on September 9. Herzog would later be accused by former Giants teammate Rube Benton of attempting a bribe, though that claim has not been verified. Released in January 1921, Herzog would never play in the major leagues again. In 91 games (305 at bats) in 1920, Herzog batted .193 with 39 runs scored, 59 hits, no home runs, and 19 RBI.
Final season (1921) and minor league manager (1924–1926)
After his release from the Cubs, Herzog played one final season of professional baseball, splitting the year between the Columbus Senators and the Louisville Colonels of the Class AA American Association. His $12,000 minor league contract was a record at the time, but Herzog stopped playing the next season when it was not renewed. The Newark Bears of the Class AA International League hired him as their manager in 1924, but they dismissed him before the start of the season. Returning to Maryland, Herzog managed the Easton Farmers of the Class D Eastern Shore League in 1925 and 1926, his final two seasons in professional baseball.
Legacy and career statistics
Herzog set himself apart from other utility players in baseball history by his ability to play second base, shortstop, and third base equally well. According to Russo, "he is generally regarded as one of the most versatile infielders in the history of baseball." A very fast baserunner, he stole 10 or more bases in a season all but the final year of his playing, with a career-high of 46 in 1914. He was also an excellent bunter, and he displayed a good knowledge for the game, figuring out small things he could do that would help the team win. In 1,493 career games played, Herzog batted .259 (1,370 hits in 5,284 at bats) with 705 runs scored, 20 home runs, 449 RBI, and 320 stolen bases in 13 seasons.
Later life
Continuing to live in Ridgely during his playing career, Herzog was well known among the baseball players for his skill at growing cantaloupes. He took on a variety of careers following his playing days. First, he coached the United States Naval Academy baseball team. Then, he worked for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad for many years before eventually working at a Maryland racetrack.
In 1952, Herzog was hit by a car in downtown Baltimore, suffering "multiple lacerations", according to The New York Times. On January 14, 1953, he was discovered in the lobby of a Baltimore hotel, without any money and suffering from advanced tuberculosis. Baseball commissioner Ford Frick helped pay for Herzog to receive treatment at a Baltimore hospital, and several more of his old baseball friends contributed too. Herzog spent eight months battling the disease before dying of it on September 4, 1953. His final resting place was Denton Cemetery in Denton, Maryland, where he was buried next to his wife, Mattie, who had died 11 years before.
In 2008, a carriage house Herzog built in the early 1900s was saved from demolition and moved to the center of Ridgely.
See also
List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
List of Major League Baseball player-managers
References
External links
Major League Baseball second basemen
Major League Baseball third basemen
Major League Baseball shortstops
Baseball players from Baltimore
New York Giants (NL) players
Boston Braves players
Boston Doves players
Boston Rustlers players
Cincinnati Reds players
Chicago Cubs players
1885 births
1953 deaths
Cincinnati Reds managers
Major League Baseball player-managers
Maryland Terrapins baseball players
Minor league baseball managers
York White Roses players
Reading Pretzels players
Louisville Colonels (minor league) players
Columbus Senators players
20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
People from Caroline County, Maryland
Tuberculosis deaths in Maryland
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5315782
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norton%20Air%20Force%20Base
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Norton Air Force Base
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Norton Air Force Base (1942–1994) was a United States Air Force facility east of downtown San Bernardino in San Bernardino County, California.
Overview
For the majority of its operational lifetime, Norton was a logistics depot and heavy-lift transport facility for a variety of military aircraft, equipment and supplies as part of Air Materiel/Air Force Logistics Command (1946–1966), then as part of Military Airlift/Air Mobility Command (1966–1994).
Major secondary missions of Norton Air Force Base was as Headquarters Air Defense Command for Southern California, during the 1950s and 1960s. The Air Force Audio-Visual Center produced air force films for training and public relations. The Air Force Now film, shown at monthly commander's calls at air force bases around the world was produced at Norton. Norton hosted numerous Air Force Reserve transport units. The Office of the Inspector General was located at Norton, as was the Directorate of Aerospace Safety and the Air Force Audit Agency Headquarters.
Norton AFB was closed in 1994 as a result of Base Realignment and Closure action 1988.
History
Leland Francis Norton
Norton Air Force Base was named for San Bernardino native Captain Leland Francis Norton (1920–1944). His parents were Mr. and Mrs. Thomas F. Norton, of 716 Twenty-first Street, San Bernardino. He was commissioned 6 September 1942, at Columbus, Mississippi. Lieutenant Norton was sent to England in January 1944 after duty in the North Atlantic, flying from bases in Greenland. His parents received word on 5 May 1944 that he had been promoted to the rank of captain following a series of pre-invasion "softening-up" bombing missions. While attacking a marshaling yard on his 16th combat mission, Captain Norton's Douglas A-20 Havoc was struck by antiaircraft fire on 27 May 1944 near Amiens, France. After ordering his crew to bail out, Captain Norton perished with his aircraft. His portrait hung in the officers' club until base closing.
World War II
Norton Air Force Base began before World War II as Municipal Airport, San Bernardino, under Army Air Corps jurisdiction. The $100,000 publicly owned was dedicated on Tuesday, 17 December 1940. Due to inclement weather, the ceremonies were held on the grounds of the National Orange Show rather than at the airport itself. During the summer of 1941, it became a training base to meet the needs of the 30,000 Pilot Training Program. In December 1941, within days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, combat-ready fighter planes arrived to protect the Los Angeles area from enemy attack.
The first commanding officer was Colonel (later Major General) Lucas Victor Beau Jr., from February 1942. He set up his initial office at the San Bernardino Chamber of Commerce.
On 1 March 1942, the airport was renamed San Bernardino Army Air Field and the San Bernardino Air Depot was established there. The first aircraft arrived at the new base on 2 June 1942. The base was under the administration of the Fourth Air Service Area Command. All runways were completed by December and night flying was initiated in March 1943. Requests to establish commercial air service by Western Air Lines in mid-late 1942 were refused.
In September 1942, the personnel and training division at the base began a training program for aircraft mechanics and maintenance men, which, by mid-1944, was the largest school of its type in the Air Service command.
The weekly newspaper for the air depot in this era was named the Areascope.
During the war, Norton's primary function was the repair and maintenance of aircraft. In mid-1944, as the Army Air Force reduced its training programs, hundreds of basic and primary training aircraft were flown to the base from all over the west for maintenance and storage.
In February 1944, the Army relocated the regulating station that had operated in the facilities of the Municipal Park in Colton since September 1943 to the Base General Depot in San Bernardino. This unique operation primarily regulated rail traffic between communications and war zones, including the evacuation of patients using hospital trains. The installation also trained personnel in the important work of transportation.
A branch post office of the San Bernardino post office was established in mid-March 1944, replacing an APO address out of Los Angeles that previously served the Base General Depot. Civilians replaced the Army personnel that previously operated the post office at the base.
A large batch of Douglas A-20 Havoc bombers were maintained at the air depot in August 1944 in strategic reserve, ready to be deployed within 72 hours to whatever fighting front required them.
An open house for the public, celebrating the thirty-seventh anniversary of U.S. Army aviation, and the first since the base was established, was held on 1 August 1944. Noted the lead editorial in the San Bernardino Daily Sun that date, "At a cost of $50,000,000, approximately 1,800 acres of farmland has been converted in a period of 28 months into a bustling military establishment. The San Bernardino Air Service command is geared to rebuild 1,000 aircraft engines monthly, to provide mountains of vital supplies for Army Air force installations at home and abroad, to overhaul gun turrets, wings and tail assemblies, repair propellers and improve landing gears. To quote its own slogan, the Air Service command 'keeps 'em flying' for victory."
On 2 August 1944, the Railroad Commission authorized the Associated Telephone Company, Ltd., to sell to the War Department for $36,138 its district telephone plant at the San Bernardino Army Air Field. The War Department already owned part of the facilities, and asked for the sale to eliminate mixed ownership.
By 1945, the base was processing hundreds of new aircraft monthly, readying them for shipment overseas. Types handled included P-51s, F-5 reconnaissance modifications of P-38s, P-47s, and P-61s. San Bernardino Air Service Technical Command also refurbished C-47s, which had seen heavy service, with the 100th C-47 refurbished at the beginning of August 1945, an overhaul process taking 16 days at a rate of one every day and a half.
An open house celebrating the Army Air Force's thirty-eighth birthday was held on 1 August 1945, with a brand new B-29 flown from the Seattle factory and a P-80 both publicly exhibited for the first time in the region. A YP-59A, 42-108771, was flown for the crowd of ~50,000.
At the end of the war, the base became a processing and separation center for the millions of servicemen being discharged. The separation center opened for business on 17 September 1945, part of an immediate program to speed up the release of a backlog of 135,000 AAF men and women, one of 32 temporary discharge bases established. San Bernardino was responsible for handling requests from qualified personnel within a 300-mile radius.
Desert Training Center
During World War II, San Bernardino Army Airfield provided administrative and logistical support for the United States Army Desert Training Center (DTC). The DTC was a massive training facility set up in the Mojave Desert; largely in Southern California and Western Arizona. Its mission was to train United States Army and Army Air Corps units and personnel to live and fight in the desert, to test and develop suitable equipment, and to develop tactical doctrines, techniques and training methods. Known sub-bases and auxiliaries set up to support DTC Army Air Force activities were:
Desert Center Army Airfield
Rice Army Airfield
Gibbs Auxiliary Field
Peik Auxiliary Field
Post-war
Western Air Lines sought again in September 1945 to introduce air service at San Bernardino but the application was denied by the Army Air Force due to heavy congestion at the depot at the time.
Housing shortages affected the base in 1946. On 15 May, Lt. Paul Smith, in charge of housing for San Bernardino Army Airfield, disclosed that 125 enlisted men and officers were seeking accommodations for themselves and their families. "They either have their families in hotels or tourist camps or are unable to be with them. We are particularly interested in relieving this condition for the enlisted men, because of the expense to the men in maintaining their families in hotels," he said. He urged property owners to contact the field's personnel affairs office, by telephone or mail, when vacancies occur.
On 7 April 1947, George G. Lundberg was named base commander.
With Congress loosening purse strings and calling for a greatly strengthened Air Force in 1948, San Bernardino Air Depot began hiring the first of 3,500 civilian workers in May, as authorized by the base's reactivation program. The depot hired 450 for immediate requirements with the remainder of the 3,500 added over the next six months. In June 1948, 2,190 civilians were employed at the base representing an annual payroll of $1,539,000.
California Air National Guard
The wartime 411th Fighter Squadron was allotted to the California Air National Guard, on 24 May 1946 and redesignated as the 196th Fighter Squadron. It was organized at Norton Air Force Base, on 12 September 1946 and federally recognized on 9 November 1946. The squadron was equipped with P-51D Mustangs and assigned to the 146th Fighter Group, at Van Nuys Airport by the National Guard Bureau.
The squadron trained for tactical fighter missions and air-to-air combat under the supervision of Fourth Air Force. In June 1948, the unit received 25 F-80C Shooting Star aircraft. The 196th was one of the first Air National Guard units to receive these new jets.
The 196th was federalized on 10 October 1950 due to the Korean War and departed Norton at this time.
Air Base Wing
From 1 May 1953, installation support was provided by the 2848th Air Base Wing. This unit replaced the 2950th Air Base Wing, and would last until 8 July 1964.
Expansion
Bids were opened on 15 September 1953 for nearly a million dollars of work at Norton, including a 2,450-foot extension of the southwest - northeast runway bringing it to 10,000 feet, long enough for anything in the inventory. The extension requires the closing of the east end of Mill Street at Tippecanoe Avenue, and the relocation of the Pacific Electric track, both of which right-of-ways the runway will cross. The project included taxiways and drainage facilities. The widening of the runway by 50 feet to 200 feet was also proposed. Traffic to Redlands was rerouted off of Mill Street to Central Avenue.
"Directives to acquire land for the runway lengthening were signed in June by the secretary of the Air Force and sent to the Los Angeles office of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers."
Logistics Depot
With the air force moving into the jet age by the mid 1940s, Norton began overhauling jet engines in 1945, and the San Bernardino Air Materiel Area became one of three air force jet overhaul centers by 1953. To accommodate the largest Strategic Air Command (SAC) bombers, the main runway was extended to 10,000 ft by 1954. B-45 Tornado upgrades were performed at Norton in the late 1940s and into the 1950s.
Effective 1 January 1955, the former Army Quartermaster depot at Mira Loma became the Mira Loma Air Force Annex, under the jurisdiction of the San Bernardino Air Materiel Area, announced Maj. Gen. Edward W. Anderson, SBAMA commander.
On 22 March 1956, the San Bernardino Daily Sun reported that "In compliance with stated Air Force policy directing the depots to concentrate their immediate efforts in support of weapons systems with high priority and tactical value, Headquarters AMC recently advised San Bernardino that depot shops here had been selected to service and maintain F100 fighter aircraft. Moving with justifiable speed, the first group of aircraft are already on the base and have started through the IRAN [inspect and repair as necessary - Ed.] line. Numbers to be handled the balance of fiscal 1956 and subsequently is classified information, but the volume is sufficient to occupy some hundreds of NAFB employes [sic] in both Maintenance and Supply, as well as to fill the big hanger [sic] and apron with many of the hottest operational aircraft in existence. Present plans call for locating a double production line for F100s where the B45 aircraft is currently being handled inside the big hangar on the east. The B45 operation will be moved gradually outside to apron space now under construction." The article also noted the addition of B-66s, F-102s, and J57 turbojets to SBAMA responsibility.
Construction of an 18-hole golf course on the base was announced on 29 March 1956.
On 29 November 1957, General Thomas D. White disclosed the development of an anti-missile called the Wizard, the assignment of intercontinental and intermediate-range ballistic missile programs to SAC, and a transfer of the 1st Missile Division to SAC. The San Bernardino Air Force Depot was to assume support for long-range ballistic missile programs. Five civilian contractors attached to the Directorate of Ballistic Missiles at Norton Air Force Base were killed on 21 April 1958 in the crash of United Airlines Flight 736. They were en route to conferences at Offutt Air Force Base, headquarters of SAC.
In the 1960s, Norton expanded its depot support mission by supporting Titan and Atlas Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBM)s, with depot-level logistical support. Also, the Space and Missile Systems Organization (SAMSO), which managed the LGM-30 Minuteman and LGM-118 Peacekeeper programs, was located at Norton from the 1960s. "In January 1961 the new Air Force Secretary, Eugene M. Zuckert, met with top Air Force officials to consider a proposal to relocate the Ballistic Missile Division from Inglewood to San Bernardino Air Materiel Area at Norton AFB, California." As solid-fuel Minuteman missiles entered service, the more problematic liquid-fueled Atlas and Titan systems were removed from alert status. "All of the Atlas Ds were phased out between May and October 1964. From January through March 1965, SAC removed the Atlas Es and Fs, and by June 1965 had deactivated all of the Titan I missiles as well. The Atlas ICBMs were shipped to San Bernardino Air Material Area, Norton AFB, for storage; the Titans were stored at Mira Loma Air Force Station, near Vandenberg AFB." Upon base closure, the mission of SAMSO was transferred to Los Angeles Air Force Station, later, Los Angeles Air Force Base.
On 8 July 1964, the 2848th Air Base Wing was replaced by the 2848th Air Base Group.
The Air Materiel Area was disestablished in 1966.
Strategic Airlift
A change of mission in 1966 from Air Force Logistics Command to Military Airlift Command (MAC) meant that Norton became one of six Military Airlift Command strategic-airlift bases, supporting US Army and Marine Corps' airlift requirements among other functions. Also, a new MAC passenger terminal was built to replace the World War II era (1944) facility to better handle passenger traffic, primarily to and from Southeast Asia. The new airline-style building was activated in 1968. The base newspaper in this era was named The Globetrotter.
Discreet C-130 Hercules modification tests were conducted out of Area II of the base in the late 1960s, with the 1198th Operational Evaluation and Training Squadron operating four highly classified C-130E(I) special operations testbeds modified at Lockheed Air Services, at near-by Ontario Airport under projects Thin Slice and Heavy Chain. Their electronics suites were developed for and identical to those of the MC-130 Combat Talon, with the addition of AN/APQ-115 Forward looking infrared, and 1198th OE&TS test missions were flown out of Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand, under project "Heavy Chain", with the aircraft painted all-black.
A base railroad system interchanged with the Pacific Electric/Southern Pacific branch line on the south side of the installation. When base rail operations were discontinued in the late 1970s, the base diesel locomotive, a General Electric centercab B/B 90/90, USAF 8580, was donated to the Orange Empire Railway Museum at Perris, California.
Air Defense Command
In 1950, Air Defense Command activated the 27th Air Division (Defense) at Norton AFB, being assigned to the Western Air Defense Force. Its mission was the air defense of southern California and later southern Nevada. By 1953, its area of control included a small portion of Arizona. The 27th AD controlled both aircraft interceptor squadrons, as well as general surveillance antiaircraft radar squadrons.
In 1955, the 27th AD established a Manual Air-Defense Control Center (ADCC) (P-84) at Norton to monitor and track aircraft in Southern California. This manual site was replaced in 1959 by a Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) Data Center (DC-17) . The SAGE system was an automated computer network linking Air Force (and later FAA) General Surveillance Radar stations into a centralized center for air defense, intended to provide early warning and response for a Soviet nuclear attack. It was initially under the Los Angeles Air Defense Sector (LAADS), established on 1 February 1959 by redesignation of 27th Air Division.
LAADS was inactivated on 1 April 1966 and the designation was returned as the 27th Air Division, being stationed at Luke AFB, Arizona under Fourth Air Force as part of a consolidation with the inactivating Phoenix Air Defense Sector. DC-17 at Norton was inactivated a few months later on 25 June 1966, its mission being consolidated with SAGE Data Center DC-21 at Luke AFB under the 27th AD.
The SAGE Direction Center closed in 1966 along with the other ADC facilities at Norton. It became the home of the Air Force Audiovisual Service. The windowless, temperature controlled SAGE structure was perfect for film storage. It also was the home of the Air Combat Camera Service. After Norton closed in April 1994, the facility was essentially abandoned, and remained so until 2018 when the building was demolished to make room for future development.
Closure
Norton was placed on the Department of Defense's base closure list in 1989 (the same year that the DoD signed the Federal Facilities Agreement with the EPA).
The closure was cited as due to environmental wastes, inadequate facilities, and air traffic congestion (due to air traffic from Ontario International Airport, twenty miles (32 km) west, and Los Angeles International Airport, west).
The last of the facilities on the base were closed in 1995.
Previous names
Municipal Airport San Bernardino (under Army Air Forces jurisdiction), 2 July 1942
San Bernardino Army Air Field, 14 July 1942
San Bernardino Air Field, 24 December 1947
San Bernardino Air Force Base, 13 January 1948
Norton Air Force Base, 2 March 1950 – 1 April 1994
Major commands to which assigned
Fourth Air Force, 2 July 1942 – 13 October 1942
Air Service Command, 13 October 1942 – 14 July 1944
AAF Materiel and Services Command, 14 July – 31 August 1944
AAF Technical Services Command, 31 August 1944 – 1 July 1945
Air Technical Services Command, 1 July 1945 – 9 March 1946
Air Materiel Command, 9 March 1946 – 1 April 1961
Air Force Logistics Command, 1 April 1961 – 1 July 1966
Military Airlift Command, 1 July 1966 – 1 June 1992
Air Mobility Command, 1 June 1992 – 1 April 1994
Major units assigned
2193rd Communications Squadron
11th Station Complement, 11 May 1942 – 1 February 1943
499th Base HQ/Air Base Squadron, 1 February 1943 – 1 April 1944
4126th Army Air Force Base Unit, 1 April 1944 – 26 September 1947
4126th Air Force Base Unit, 26 September 1947 – 31 August 1948
2928th Depot Maintenance Group, 31 August 1948 – 1 May 1953
9077th Air Reserve Group, 17 June 1949 – 1 November 1955
29th Air Depot Wing, 10 November 1949 – 10 November 1951
San Bernardino Air Material Area, 1 December 1949 – 1 July 1966
1002d Inspector General Group, 1950s - 31 December 1971
2950th Depot Training Wing, 7 November 1951 – 19 November 1952
2848th Air Base Wing, 1 May 1953 – 1 April 1967
Air Force Audio-Visual Center, 8 April 1969 – 30 March 1994
63d Military Airlift Wing, 1 April 1967 – 30 March 1994
944th Military Airlift Group, 25 March 1968 – 1 July 1993 (AFRES)
445th Military Airlift Wing, 1 July 1973 – 30 March 1994 (AFRES)
27th Air Division, 20 September 1950 – 1 October 1959
Los Angeles Air Defense Sector, 15 February 1959 – 25 June 1966
1st Fighter-Interceptor Wing, 1 December 1951 – 6 February 1952
4705th Defense Wing, 1 February 1952 – 1 March 1952
659th Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron, 20 June 1953 – 22 June 1955
685th Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron, 1 January 1951 – 6 February 1952
865th Radar Squadron (SAGE), 8 November 1955 – 1 April 1956
1601st USAF Dispensary (Medical and Dental Clinics), dates including 1967-1970
630 Maintenance Squadron (Total years unknown, but was probably organized in April 1967 along with the 63d MAW. The 630 MS did exist in 1969-70 as noted on my orders when assigned there)
Military Airlift Command Non-Commissioned Officer Academy
Highlights
On 24 March 1944, the second of only two Vultee XP-54 experimental fighters made its first and only flight, landing at Norton with a failed Lycoming engine. The P-54 project was canceled and the airframe grounded to support the first prototype.
Norton AFB served as the last assignment for Chuck Yeager. He retired at the base on 1 June 1975.
Norton AFB was the final duty station of Sgt. John Levitow the lowest ranking member of the Air Force to be awarded the Medal of Honor, where he served as a loadmaster with the 63d Military Airlift Wing.
The famed C-141 Starlifter Hanoi Taxi was based at Norton AFB with the 63d Military Airlift Wing at the time of its famous missions as part of Operation Homecoming.
In 1957, while flying aboard a C-124 Globemaster II, the WAF Band was invited by General James L. Jackson, Deputy Commander of the San Bernardino Air Materiel Area, Air Materiel Command, to move to his headquarters at Norton AFB. The move took place in January 1958. The band retained its training and chain-of-command connection with the USAF band school at Bolling AFB, Washington, D.C. At Norton, the band found it easier to schedule C-124 planes and pilots to keep up their touring schedule. Upon arriving, the 55 female airmen discovered that their new housing facilities were tiny cubicles for rooms and that the shared bathroom had no doors on the toilet stalls, a disappointing change from their former quarters at Lackland AFB, Texas, and at Bolling. The women worked to transform the barracks into a more homey atmosphere. The WAF Band was inactivated in 1961. Because of the warm climate and welcoming environment, some of the women airmen settled permanently in the San Bernardino area after their tour of duty.
Current status
The aviation facilities of the base were converted into San Bernardino International Airport, and 3 of the 4 stationed squadrons (all 4 of which were part of the 63d and 445th Military Airlift Wings) – C-141 Starlifter, C-21, and C-12 Huron aircraft – were moved to nearby March Air Force Base, while the remaining squadron – C-141 aircraft – was moved to McChord Air Force Base, Washington. Control of the airport and surrounding facilities was turned over to a consortium consisting of several nearby cities to manage and oversee its operation. In March 2018, United Parcel Service began operating five cargo flights each week out of the airport. Previously, UPS used the airport for holiday shipments to the company's hub in Louisville. FedEx Express will begin operating daily cargo flights out of San Bernardino International Airport in October 2018, under terms of a new 10-year agreement. In recent years, the airport has added more than 60 acres of concrete ramp, a new 5,000-square-foot cross-dock building with 1.6 acres of secured landside ramp, nearly 100 acres of developable land and specialized cargo equipment. Charter as well as private flights do operate from SBIA and it is also used as a base for firefighting planes when needed.
Recently, private development on the former base has helped turn the unused land into jobs and revenue for the city of San Bernardino as several companies have opened distribution centers on the property. Mattel opened a distribution center in 2004, consolidating three smaller ones in Southern California into a single location. Stater Brothers Markets built a new headquarters and a centralized warehousing facility. The completion of the project in 2007 consolidated the headquarters and a warehouse in nearby Colton and other warehouses in the Inland Empire into a single location. Industrial buildings used by Pep Boys Auto and Kohl's are located on the premises.
Norton in popular culture
Norton AFB was the filming site of The Twilight Zone episode "The Last Flight" in which a World War I Royal Flying Corps pilot is transported in time in a cloud to the 1960s. An authentic Nieuport 28 was provided and flown by Frank Tallman, a Hollywood stunt pilot. The episode first aired on 5 February 1960.
Norton AFB is mentioned in the 1992 film Sneakers. Dan Aykroyd's character Mother states "O.K., boss, this LTX-27 concealable mic is part of the same system that NASA used when they faked the Apollo Moon landings. Yeah, the astronauts broadcast around the world from a soundstage at Norton Air Force Base in San Bernardino, California. So it worked for them, shouldn't give us too many problems."
While preparing for The Division Bell Tour, Pink Floyd spent most of March 1994 rehearsing in a hangar at Norton AFB.
Some scenes for The Fast and the Furious movies were filmed on the flight lines.
The X-Files season 7 Episode "Closure" was filmed on the base.
Hangar and runway scenes of The Aviator were filmed on the flightline.
A scene from the 1979 film When Hell Was in Session starring Hal Holbrook was filmed at Norton Airforce Base. Holbrook (who played Commander Jeremiah Denton) arrives and is processed to leave Vietnam. A nearby hangar and a C-141 can be seen, as well as some Norton Airmen who were used as extras.
See also
San Bernardino International Airport
California World War II Army Airfields
List of USAF Aerospace Defense Command General Surveillance Radar Stations
Norton AFB Museum http://www.nafbmuseum.org/
References
A Handbook of Aerospace Defense Organization 1946 – 1980, by Lloyd H. Cornett and Mildred W. Johnson, Office of History, Aerospace Defense Center, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado
Winkler, David F. (1997), Searching the skies: the legacy of the United States Cold War defense radar program. Prepared for United States Air Force Headquarters Air Combat Command.
Information for Norton AFB Perm, CA
External links
BRAC Recommendation for Closure of Norton Air Force Base
EPA Page on Norton Air Force Base
Old Norton Air Force Base to Become Industrial Park
Norton Air Force Base: Preliminary Master Plan
Installations of the United States Air Force in California
Military in San Bernardino County, California
San Bernardino, California
Aerospace Defense Command military installations
Military installations closed in 1994
Initial United States Air Force installations
Military facilities in Greater Los Angeles
Semi-Automatic Ground Environment sites
Airports established in 1942
1942 establishments in California
1994 disestablishments in California
Military Superfund sites
Superfund sites in California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delay%20box
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Delay box
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"Delay Box" is a common slang term used in drag racing to describe an on-board timer which is a Transmission Brake Delay Timer. A transbrake forces the race car to remain stationary at the starting line, in gear, regardless of how much engine power is applied. When the visual signal is given to start the race, the driver triggers the delay box to begin timing (precisely counting down). If the driver does not interrupt this timing device, the car is launched down the race track at the instant the timer expires (counts to zero). Delay box use was very controversial in the 1980s and 1990s, as it removed a portion of the advantages more experienced racers had. There was a period where technologists added and concealed homemade circuitry inside a delay box that violated some racing associations rules. Racing associations have imposed strict limits on delay boxes today, with manufacturers having to submit to an approval process, which has drastically reduced the number of makers of these devices.
Mechanism
The delay box acts as an on-board timer for the transmission brake (commonly referred to as a "trans-brake"). A transbrake is a part of a racing automatic transmission used in drag racing, and are not found in manual transmissions. The electronic timer is packaged in a metal enclosure when sold to drag racers, thus the slang term delay box. This timer box is a very accurate type of monostable multivibrator (electrical engineers also call this type of multivibrator a "one shot"). The timer box acts like a time-delay relay. Many delay boxes actually have an internal relay to switch output current, but some models have solid state transistorized output circuits. The transistorized type made today almost always use power MOSFET type output circuitry. Drag racing delay boxes are designed to operate from the vehicles 12 volt DC electrical system. Some drag race cars now use 16 volt DC systems, in such a scenario the delay box has to be capable of working properly from 16 volts DC, as well as 12 volts DC.
The race car driver holds an electrical pushbutton switch depressed with a finger or a thumb of his right or left hand until he sees a specific desired visual cue. That electrical pushbutton switch is monitored by the delay box. As long as the race car driver holds the pushbutton depressed the delay box sends 12 Volts DC (or 16VDC) at many Amperes to the race car's transmission (where an internal electromagnetic solenoid located in or on the transmission energizes, which in turn positions a spool valve that directs hydraulic fluid pressure in the transmission valvebody that locks the transmission in forward and reverse gears at the same time).
When the transbrake is engaged at the drag race track starting line (driver holding the pushbutton depressed), the car is held stationary regardless of how much engine power is applied to the drive line. The driver typically applies full throttle at this time, and the car remains stationary at the starting line under full engine power. When the driver sees the desired visual cue before him, the driver promptly releases his finger (or thumb) from the pushbutton. This button release opens the contacts within the pushbutton switch signaling the delay box and the delay box now begins an internal countdown. When the countdown timer reaches zero, the delay box stops current flowing to the solenoid in the transmission and that causes the spool valve to return to its normal position. With the spool valve in its normal position hydraulic fluid pressure in the transmission is removed from the reverse clutch pack (but maintained in the forward clutch pack), this causes the drag race car to "launch" (often with great thrust) from the starting line, accelerating rapidly forward toward the finish line.
History
Delay boxes began appearing in drag race cars in the 1980s. The early units were timers in a sheet metal box with an analog potentiometer and lock nut to establish a setpoint with no readout or feedback to the driver. These early units used a resistor / capacitor charging scheme to trigger a unijunction transistor to release an electromechanical relay. Such drag racing delay timers are very crude by today's standards. Nolen (IKE) Hamma is credited with introducing such early devices to drag racing. (currently DBA as Digital Delay, INC.) Ike Hamma is deceased. His family is assigned a patent for a type of delay timer, his son Charlie Hamma is the current president of Digital Delay Inc., a manufacturer of drag racing timers. Other entities contributed to delay box technology and also have Intellectual Property. Some of these other entities have delay box patents (Reid and Furrow), some entities did not pursue patents for their inventions even though their inventions may have predated those of known patent holders.
In the late 1980s units began appearing in the marketplace that were digital in nature rendering the analog, unijunction, R/C timer design obsolete.
The new digital delay box timers used decimal or binary coded decimal thumbwheel switches to set countdown timer values in digital logic. The thumbwheels also fed back a visual numerical value that the race car driver could use to help him calculate proper settings. A popular early digital unit of this type was designed and produced by Robert Furrow (B. F. Electronics of Weatherford, Oklahoma). Robert Furrow's delay box utilized a quartz crystal for timing accuracy and Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) integrated circuits. Furrow's digital delay box was a substantial improvement in accuracy and ergonomics but suffered in reliability. In the United States many B.F. Electronics delay timers were sold Nationwide.
Shortly thereafter the first microprocessor based delay box timer was introduced by Richard Beutnagel (Thorn Microsystems in Rochester, NY). Richard Beutnagel's design also used a quartz crystal time base for accuracy but without the TTL glue logic. The Thorn Microsystems unit utilized a single chip microcomputer from Intel, a professionally fabricated double sided printed circuit board with plated through holes, large BCD thumbwheel switches, and rugged solid state bipolar output circuitry (no electromechanical relay). The Thorn Microsystems design reduced parts count to "one chip" and one power transistor substantially reduced PCB (printed circuit board) solder interconnections for a significant enhancement in reliability. The firmware embedded within the Intel microcontroller chip performed all the timing and control functions required of the delay box with quartz crystal digital accuracy.
Many new TTL and CMOS glue logic designs continued appearing on the market for several more years. Names like Meziere, Terminator, K&R, ATI, Digital Delay (Ike Hamma), Biondo, Davis, D&D (Danny Duberry) and others figure prominently in the history of drag racing delay boxes. Some of the glue logic type designs had large LED (light emitting diode) readouts to display the timer setting, others featured attractive backlighted LCDs (liquid crystal displays), still others used thumbwheels of varying size and quality. All delay boxes on the market were quartz crystal accurate by the year 1990. Several years elapsed before other delay box designs appeared with embedded microprocessors.
Today, virtually all drag race delay boxes are microprocessor based with intelligent, backlit LCD readouts. The most popular models feature internal crossover time computation (allowing a driver to pick a visual cue from his opponents side of the Christmas tree, the delay box internally does simple math computations for the driver), bump up and bump down compensation (allows a driver to easily make small plus or minus timing adjustments quickly and remotely), crossover compensation (an offset time the driver can set when crossing over), safety interlock (prevents delay box from reactivating once the race car is in motion, a valuable feature), bypass (a feature where the delay box is deactivated before it can finish counting down, thus launching the car immediately), and other features.
Controversial Use
Delay box use was very controversial in the 1980s and 1990s, with the peak of controversy occurring around 1993-1994. This continues to this day but the controversy has dropped substantially from its peak. Delay box use became controversial because experienced racers lost some advantage they had enjoyed over the younger, less experienced rivals. Veteran racers who were against the use of delay boxes complained to race track owners and drag racing sanctioning bodies that the delay boxes were unfair. Delay box usage does give a less experienced driver reaction time accuracy improvements that more experienced racers took time and money to learn. These old time racers said that delay box usage constituted cheating. The term "cheater boxes" was heard at the drag races for many years. Track owners around the United States began creating separate races on the same race day at their facility by dividing racers into two groups or classes, a box class and no-box class. "Some" racers began concealing the delay box and entering the no-box class, therefore actually cheating.
Delay box use was initially thought to be limited to transbrake equipped cars. Delay box use by motorcycle drag racers lagged far behind those in use by the car racers. These factors contributed to the delay box controversy because some racers felt their chosen equipment was incompatible with the use of delay boxes. This was untrue and educating the bracket racing community took time.
A significant reason motorcycle drag racers lagged in implementing delay box electronics is due to the wide variety of driveline configurations on dragbikes. Of the successful bracket racing drag race cars, most had automatic transmissions equipped with transbrakes. Innovation quickly adapted the delay box to cars with dual line locks (devices which locked the brakes on all four wheels electrically), and manual transmissions with the use of a hydraulic throw out bearing to hold the clutch plates apart, and also adapted to dragbikes that used pneumatics or hydraulics to actuate the clutch release, or centrifugal dragbike clutches known as "slider clutches" that engage with the engine's revolutions per minute (RPM) increase. When using a delay box on a motorcycle with a slider clutch, the engine RPM is electronically controlled (capped) by an electronic rev limiter connected to a delay box. When the delay box times out, the engine is allowed to freely rev-up engaging the clutch and launching the motorcycle downtrack. As you can see, delay boxes can be used on both cars and motorcycles. A transmission brake is not required to use a delay box for drag racing. When racers were educated to this, and also shown ways to utilize delay boxes on motorcycles, there was some alleviation of the early controversy.
Delay boxes improve starting line reaction time accuracy for drivers. Delay boxes do not do this autonomously. Driver interaction is still required to launch the vehicle and driver skill is still required to achieve a favorable reaction time. A small number of drag racers took to augmenting delay boxes, or paid technologists for circuitry to do so. These racers concealed customized homemade electronic circuits within the delay box enclosure in a stealthy manner which did violate some drag racing rules. The modifications involved circuitry which enhanced the race car's Elapse Time consistency. Vehicle Elapsed Time is a separate, but equally critical, variable to winning a bracket race. The unethical, hidden home brew circuits performed closed loop control of a drag race car's Elapsed Time ( E.T.). This type of electronic vehicle control was prohibited because it violates rules by automatically performing on-board tasks not triggered by the driver. This circuitry became inserted into a commercial delay box enclosure by the end user as a preferred hiding place. Such home brew circuitry created a "flare up" of the controversy related to electronics in drag racing, additionally, and unfairly tarnishing the delay box. Had these unethical, home brew circuits been hidden elsewhere (or had never been created), the delay box most likely would have been spared regulatory action.
Regulation
The tampering became so widespread in the 1990s that the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) required delay box manufacturers to make the delay boxes harder to modify by end users, and shrink enclosures so there was no room for additional contents. Sealing the delay box enclosure so it would be easy to see if it was tampered with was also part of the process. The NHRA also created rules specifying how a drag racer electrically wired his race car, requiring racers to leave wires unbundled so they could be quickly and easily traced by eye. Rules were also created limiting how many interconnects could attach to the wire between the delay box and the transmission. NHRA track officials were empowered to inspect the wiring to insure it met with the new rules. The NHRA also began requiring delay box manufacturers to pay a fee and submit delay box designs for the NHRA's approval. Then the NHRA instituted rules which allowed only NHRA approved delay boxes at its race tracks. This included revealing trade secrets to the NHRA, while the NHRA refused to enter into Non-Disclosure Agreements with the delay box manufacturers. Once submitted for NHRA approval, and paying the fee, delay box manufactures were not allowed to make any changes in design for any reason without resubmitting to the NHRA for re-approval and paying another fee. To obtain the NHRA's approval, delay box manufacturers had to accommodate the NHRA by making any design changes the NHRA mandated. Essentially the NHRA was now designing delay boxes by proxy. Furthermore, drag racers were prevented from using any delay box they made themselves at home. This is changed the face of drag racing in a huge way. Traditionally, grass roots drag racing was where racers could build their own chassis, engine, transmission, differential, vehicle plumbing & vehicle wiring, etc. Skilled racers could build their own race car with their own hands from parts wherever they acquired them. Racers were not required to buy anything pre-made if they didn't want to. Those days became history almost overnight. Virtually any racer innovation (electronic or mechanical) now came into question and could cause disqualification. An NHRA track could deny the ability to race at their track if they saw something homemade on a race car. The path to racing with the least worry about being disqualified was to buy everything for the car from approved NHRA manufacturers (other sanctioning bodies quickly followed suit, such as the IHRA, NMCA, and others).
Only a few delay box manufacturers were willing to pay NHRA delay box approval fees and submit designs for the NHRA's approval without getting a non-disclosure agreement. Nor did many delay box manufacturers wish to be forced to comply with NHRA design change demands. These manufactures promptly went out of business or transitioned into non-racing related markets. As a result, very few companies manufacture delay boxes for drag racing today and each design is close in functionality to the next. The reduced competition allows these few companies to enjoy the entire market to themselves. Innovation has virtually ceased in the market. The approved manufacturers of delay boxes also enjoy a bonus of reduced competition in the market for their other on-board race timers such as: throttle stop timers, data loggers (data recorders), shifter timers, RPM switches, electronic nitrous oxide injection controllers and other devices. Delay box manufacturers that do not receive NHRA approval are shut out of the entire drag race electronics market.
As mentioned above, in the paragraph one under "Controversial Use", many drag race track operators began dividing race day into "box" and "no box" classes, with "no box class" being prohibited from using any type of delay box in their race cars. However, electronic track timing systems were still used for the "no box class" meaning that a racer willing to cheat could rather easily conceal a delay box somewhere in his car (or on his person), and have an unfair advantage over his competitors. Race track operators therefore created a monumental task for themselves in enforcing rules against electronic devices in Bracket Racings "no box class", and as such, rarely pursue enforcement. On the occasions a track operator does attempt to catch cheaters with delay timers in the "no box" class, the enforcement task can be significantly complex and the results are usually controversial. This creates tension between all racers and between racers and the track operators as well.
The popular United States cable television program "Pinks" (Speed Channel) uses the TV shows host as a flagman with an arm drop technique at the start line (plus finish line human spotters, and camera "photo finishes" similar to those used in horse racing and dog racing). This simulates drag racing's historic roots of post WWII street racing of the 1940s, and non-electronic drag strip racing of the 1950s and 1960s. The delay box is useless in Pinks, since the first pass is run with the Pro tree (.400 three ambers) instead of the Standard Tree (.500 per light), and the second pass and all eliminations are run with an arm drop, which forces the driver to launch at the host's order, and not by a delay box.
Drag racing
Automotive technologies
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List of Excel Saga characters
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This list contains the primary and notable secondary characters of Excel Saga, a Japanese manga and anime series.
Creation
The Excel Saga anime characters were designed by Ishino Satoshi.
ACROSS
Excel
, the title character, was initially the sole officer of ACROSS. Excel approaches her work with an excess of determination and enthusiasm, but a lack of foresight and understanding. She is both impossibly lucky and unthinkably unlucky, yet she never manages to complete a mission without help, and even her successes are usually attained by happenstance. In the anime, she has a tendency to speak extremely quickly. She displays a schoolgirl crush towards Il Palazzo that borders on fanatic obsession, even going as far as to converse with a picture of him while home alone. For an extended period of time in later volumes of the manga, Excel suffers from memory loss, and lives with the Shiouji family under the assumed name, Teriha Shiouji, while Ropponmatsu, disguised as Excel herself, takes her place in the ACROSS ranks.
In the English dub, voice actress Jessica Calvello damaged her voice after the 13th episode, and was replaced by Larissa Walcott for the second half of the series.
Il Palazzo
is the leader of ACROSS. Lord Il Palazzo often prefaces his orders and speeches by proclaiming, "The world is corrupt!" He has little patience for Excel, often assigning complex operations to Hyatt. While presented as a mostly dark and serious character in the original manga, the anime lightens the tone with the recurring gag that, despite all his scheming, Il Palazzo really has nothing to do while Excel and Hyatt are out on missions: he is often seen pursuing surprisingly ordinary hobbies like learning to play the guitar and arranging domino blocks. These foibles notwithstanding, Il's yellow, cat-like eyes and seemingly supernatural powers illustrate his superhuman nature, and both manga and anime make it clear that Lord Il Palazzo suffers from severe psychological disorders, most notably multiple personality disorder.
Hyatt
is Excel's frail junior officer, with a tendency to cough huge amounts of blood, drop dead and suddenly spring back to life in quick succession. In the original manga, Hyatt joins ACROSS by simply answering an advert placed by Il Palazzo; the anime, meanwhile, states that she is a mysterious princess from space (supposedly) with a connection to the Puuchuus and Space Butler. Her curious medical condition is never explained in detail, neither in the manga nor in the anime (although later volumes of the manga hint that Il Palazzo has implanted something in her body that is causing it—and it is implied in the anime that, as she is from Mars, Earth's atmosphere is bad for her lungs). In both the anime and the manga, she is noticeably Il Palazzo's favorite officer, usually receiving lighter punishment and higher promotions than Excel. Despite this, the two girls usually get along just fine, and Excel even calls her "Ha-chan" while Hyatt calls her senpai.
Elgala
Elgala is the third agent of ACROSS and Excel's rival for Il Palazzo's affections. She is cursed with the inability to maintain an internal monologue, constantly speaking aloud her innermost thoughts and feelings. Since Elgala is a snob who thinks nearly everyone is below her, these thoughts are often of the disparaging variety and frequently irritate Excel. Elgala has refined, and expensive tastes, which does not suit the austerity demanded by Excel, leading to frequent conflict. Adding to tension with Excel is the secrecy surrounding Elgala's missions for Il Palazzo. Elgala only appears in the manga.
Department of City Security
Paralleling Il Palazzo's Across is Kabapu's Department of City Security. Kabapu himself occupies a position of inscrutable power in the city, and is able to bend its political establishment to his will. Despite his power, he is an object of ridicule among most of his subordinates due to his appearance, mannerisms, and seeming disregard for lives and laws. Unfazed by this, he informs the six members of the Department that they are to assume the role of the Daitenzin, a sentai fighting force. One Daitenzin is Tooru Watanabe, who pins his hopes for a romantic relationship with Hyatt on his position in the civil service but grows despondent as the nature of his employment becomes clear. Another is Daimaru Sumiyoshi, who is a voice of reason in the Department and is represented as communicating through free-floating text. The third, Norikuni Iwata, is generally disliked for his boorishness but tolerated by his co-workers. Misaki Matsuya, the fourth, is an attractive but ruthless young woman who provides much of the group's leadership. The final Daitenzin are two android bomb-disposal experts called Ropponmatsu Unit 1 and Ropponmatsu Unit 2. Other associates of the Department are Kabapu's assistant Ms. Momochi, and the lolita complex-stricken Gojo Shioji, designer of the Ropponmatsus.
Kabapu
is a large man with a very strange hairstyle and a gigantic removable mustache, Kabapu occupies a position of extreme and shadowy power which is never fully explained, but municipal leaders defer to his wishes, and he has no qualms about silencing dissent by violence. This zeal is a result of his genuine desire to protect the City from all dangers. His trump card is his newly founded Department of City Security, the civilian front for his Municipal Force Daitenzin, into which Watanabe, Iwata, Sumiyoshi, Misaki, and Ropponmatsu are recruited. In later volumes of the manga, Kabapu reveals himself as a survivor of an ancient city called "Solaria", similar to Atlantis, which had brought about its own downfall. He proclaims that his mission is to destroy any remaining Solarian technology so humanity can't misuse it. Both the anime and the manga suggest that he and Il Palazzo are old acquaintances.
Toru Watanabe
is a Japanese twenty-something, Watanabe lives next door to Excel and Hyatt, and close to Norikuni Iwata and Daimaru Sumiyoshi, men whose company he at first detests. Watanabe is infatuated with Hyatt, who seems unaware of his advances. In order to impress her, he claims to be a civil servant and undertakes a position at the Department of City Security to redeem his lie. Much to his consternation, Iwata and Sumiyoshi are hired by the Department at the same time as he. Watanabe is extremely irritable and often reacts to situations with over-the-top emotions: e.g., in the manga allows his feelings for Hyatt to repeatedly compromise his career. He pretty much rues his roommate Iwata's existence. While he starts off as a reasonably normal guy, his appearance and personality change drastically in the manga after his plans to marry Chihaya (Hyatt) are ruined by Il Palazzo taking her back. He ends up being very withdrawn, spiteful, and cynical; and takes up playing S&M video games.
Norikuni Iwata
is a brash, self-centered employee of the Department of City Security. Heavily infatuated with Matsuya and Ropponmatsu Unit 1, Iwata is generally disliked but tolerated by his neighbors and co-workers. His tendency to make inappropriate statements towards women and his rivalry with Ropponmatsu Unit 2 often lead to him being physically assaulted. In volume eight of the manga, Iwata suddenly dies of colon cancer, but is promptly resurrected as a cyborg, with his brain placed into an android replica of his normal body, as created by Shioji.
Daimaru Sumiyoshi
is a voice of reason and understanding in the Department, although he is often the butt of jokes. His most notable quirk is his dialogue, which in the original manga is rendered as text that is unconstrained by bubbles or captions, and simply floats by his head, in comparison to the normal speech balloons used by all the other characters. The anime rendered this unusual trait by making the character mute, with his dialogue appearing as written text that hovers beside him. He communicates with an Okayama accent in the manga and in the Kansai dialect in the anime. These are respectively rendered as the Geordie dialect of England and American southern accent in the English translations of the manga and anime. The manga showcases Sumiyoshi's hobby and greatest feat: documenting all dating simulation games on his complex PC system. The anime, showing his fondness for Ropponmatsu 2, hints at his interest. The manga also features the rest of his family. His 13-year-old sister, Kanal, also speaks in floating text, but is adorable and looks nothing like Daimaru. His mother and father also appear, his father appearing normal but with an accent, and his mother looking very much like Daimaru but speaking normally. He also has an ambiguous relationship with Ropponmatsu 2, spending a great deal of time with her, and being much more affectionate to her than he is to the older Ropponmatsu 1. He is also a friend of Shiouji's, the two bonding over their love of dating game image files.
Misaki Matsuya
: The attractive and intelligent recruit to the Department of City Security, Matsuya is pragmatic and fiercely independent. She is also talented and vicious at repelling Iwata's frequent leers and advances. The manga reveals that she and Iwata were college classmates and that, to her embarrassment, she bears him some genuine affection. She grows closer to Iwata as the series progresses, striking him far less frequently than normal. The only time she seems to feel the need to do so is when Iwata is being idiotic even by his standards, such as trying to track down Excel by telling a young woman that he's looking for "Naked women". Excel Saga English manga adaptor Carl Gustav Horn notes that she "carries the sobering responsibility of being one of the few people in the cast to possess an ounce of sense." On the volume 15 inside cover, Koshi describes her as being "hard on the outside, soft on the inside...tsundere?"
Ropponmatsu
Ropponmatsu Unit 1 -
Ropponmatsu Unit 2 -
The Ropponmatsus are gynoids designed to be a general-purpose, if beautiful, tool for Kabapu. The original Ropponmatsu is a full-figured woman, however, her material density gives her an extremely large weight, and she fails her first mission in bomb disposal. A second Ropponmatsu, Unit 2, was created in the form of a lightweight perky, young cat-girl.
In the manga, only one Ropponmatsu unit is active at any one time; the reason for this is later revealed to be that there is only one central "core" that is switched between the two bodies. Kabapu attests that the core contains the soul of the princess of the lost civilization of Solaria, and he has had the Ropponmatsu body created to house it as part of his plan to destroy all remaining traces of Solaria's technology. Conversely, the anime (produced before this revelation occurred in the manga), has the Ropponmatsus appearing as two distinct entities who frequently cooperate on important tasks. Although they have a tendency to be destroyed on their missions, Shiouji keeps a lot of spares, which play a large role in the penultimate episode of the series. The vast difference between the units leads to some tension between Kabapu and Shioji: both incarnations of Ropponmatsu have a tendency to fail in the course of their duty, due either to extreme mass (Unit 1) or lack of appropriate functionality (Unit 2).
When Excel and Elgala are lost at sea, Il Palazzo creates the ILL Corporation and takes over much of the city's business and resources. He names Excel the president of the corporation, but she is actually Ropponmatsu I, renamed Isshiki. She runs the
business until the Department of City Security starts to regain power. She still has the same limitations, especially her weight, when her power fails, she almost breaks Elgala's back. She is extremely powerful, but will stand down if the situation is not threatening. The Department of City Security tries to retrieve her in the later chapters, as she is somehow linked to Iwata's life, however, Excel surprisingly switches bodies with her.
In the later chapters, Shioji is able to restart Nishiki as a separate entity, and sends her to go after Ishiki.
Gojo Shiouji
is the brilliant creator of the Ropponmatsus and of Kabapu's "mecha." Excel Saga, the anime, constantly suggests that he is a pedophile, but the manga later expands on this to reveal a much more complex back story. Gojo's father, Tenmangu Shiouji, was lauded as one of the world's most foremost scientists, but vanished when Gojo was young. His mother, Miwa Rengaya, suffered a severe behavioral change after Tenmangu disappeared, becoming overtly sexual and showering affection on Gojo, imprinting on him a distorted perception of women. This perception was shattered when Gojo met his young cousin, Umi Rengaya, and was inspired by her purity and innocence. Unfortunately, Umi - who now works as Gojo's laboratory assistant and intern - is now eighteen years old, and lacking in the innocence of her youth, so Gojo has turned his attention to other young girls in the hopes of recapturing that spirit of purity and inspiration.
Supporting characters
In addition to the main cast, Excel Saga features a wide array of secondary characters, and among the most important are the anime's director Nabeshin and the Great Will of the Macrocosm. These two have the power to alter or "reset" the storyline, and Excel and others often appeal for them to do so. Other cast additions in the anime include Pedro and his son Sandora, who both suffer cruel turns of fate and eventually become Nabeshin's students. Their objective is to defeat That Man, who desires to become a god by seducing the Great Will and Pedro's "Sexy Wife." Another prominent force introduced by the anime are the Puchuus, a race of insidiously cute aliens competing with Across for world conquest.
Dr. Sekifumi Iwata (who the manga reveals is a cousin of the Daitenzin Norikuni Iwata) and his associate, Nurse Shiki Fukuya, provide some comedic interludes in the anime but make more substantial appearances in the manga. Finally, Rikdo spends several chapters of the manga introducing and developing other members of the Iwata, Sumiyoshi and Shioji families. Particularly notable is Shioji's mother Miwa Rengaya, whom Kabapu views as key to finding Shioji's mysteriously vanished father, Tenmangu Shioji, but who clearly has a secret enigmatic agenda of her own that is at cross purposes with Kabapu's own desires.
Menchi
is Excel's "pet" dog that also fulfills the role of "emergency rations". Despite numerous threats, Excel comes to care for her after a fashion. Hyatt, though, more intently views Menchi as a ration. In the manga, Menchi gains an apparent ally in Elgâla, only for her to come to view the dog as an emergency food supply as well. Several anime and manga plots, notably episodes ten and nineteen, revolve to some extent around Menchi, her past, and her quest to escape Excel.
Sekifumi Iwata
Uniformly depicted as a horrible, lecherous doctor, Dr. Iwata owes his prominence in the medical profession mostly to family influence. His most distinct physical feature is the X-shaped scar across his entire face, which was given to him by a four-year-old Norikuni Iwata, his cousin, whom he has come to hate since then. His likeness and character are parodies of Osamu Tezuka's Black Jack. Although several chapters of the manga revolve around him or his hospital, he only has cameo appearances in the anime.
Shiki Fukuya
This competent nurse spends most of her time trying to prevent or punish Dr. Iwata's malpractices and misogynies. The manga reveals that she was assigned this role by the Iwata family to guard it against embarrassments caused by Dr. Iwata. She appears along with Dr. Iwata in his cameos in the anime.
Hiyoko Iwata
A distant relative of Sekifumi and Norikuni Iwata, Hiyoko has a short attention span and often wanders away from her bodyguards. She appears only in the manga.
Umi Rengaya
The 18-year-old cousin of Professor Gojo Shiouji (the creator of the Ropponmatsu units), and serves both as his intern and lab assistant. Absent minded, easily flustered, and accident prone Umi is nevertheless very kindhearted, and hardworking; although her personality combined with her general clumsiness amounts to a great deal of trouble for the Professor, and his work. Umi is an avid cosplayer, being shown in a multitude of different parody-esque outfits throughout the course of the series, which regularly proves to be a source of irritation to her crush and employer Shiouji. Umi's first appearance is Volume 12 of the manga, but does not become a prominent character until volume 15, when she becomes the caretaker of the amnesiatic Excel (given the name Teriha Shiouji.) Umi Rengaya only appears in the manga.
Anime-only characters
Rikdo Koshi
is the author of the Excel Saga manga, but he has only one appearance in the story proper of the anime - namely, when he is killed in the first episode by Excel under orders from Lord Il Palazzo. He does, however, narrate the beginning of every episode, voluntarily—usually—giving his approval to the episode's ostensible genre. Also, as a parody of the struggle manga artists often find themselves in with anime adaptations of their work, Nabeshin and Rikudo come to blows, especially towards the anime's end.
The Great Will of the Macrocosm
: The Great Will of the Macrocosm, appears in the form of galaxy with arms (and lips, when necessary), and has the power to reset or alter the storyline. In later episodes she is torn between her love for Pedro and the power over her held by That Man. Episode nineteen reveals that she and Pedro's sexy wife are actually the same being.
Nabeshin
, also known as Afro-man and the Director, is dressed in the likeness of Monkey Punch's Lupin III and sporting a giant afro. Like the Great Will, he is a walking deus ex machina, and appeals are often made to him in that capacity, but apart from cameos in the main storyline he keeps himself to his own subplot with Pedro and That Man.
Pedro
: Pedro is a Colombian immigrant living in F City. Having died while working on a construction project, he wanders the Earth as a spirit, trying to return to his "sexy wife," who has shacked up with Gomez, Pedro's ostensible friend and co-worker, who is really That Man in disguise. Nabeshin later explains that Pedro's ultimate purpose is to become an "Afro-Warrior" under his tutelage, and to fight That Man for the fate of the world.
Puchuu
The : Aliens from outer space who invade Earth in the second and twenty-second episodes, with other frequent appearances. Physically very weak, and shaped like teddy-bears, Puchuu rely on their cuteness to lull potential victims before attack—only Excel and Misaki are depicted as being immune to their cuteness. Once struck with enough force and/or defeated, they are shown to have a face similar to Golgo 13 and their English voices have them sound like Saddam Hussein, although special Puchuu have unique faces and other voices. When their main fleet, led by the Puchuu overlord, arrives in Earth orbit in episode twenty-two, it is repelled by an alliance of Puchuu rebels led by Excel. Debris from the decisive space battle falls to Earth and utterly annihilates F City.
Sara Cosette
Voiced by: Akiko Yajima (Japanese), Mandy Clark (English)
First encountered in episode eight, Sara is a cute, pink-haired, child-sized assassin, who disguises herself as an eight-year-old girl to facilitate her work. Taken with Hyatt, she views Excel with derision. Sara was orphaned earlier, and became an assassin to survive. The Great Will takes pity on her and resets her mother at the end of the episode. However, in episode twenty-six, she becomes a special member of ACROSS, having learned that she could not so easily forget her bloody past. In this episode, it is also revealed that she may be an adult midget, and not a child in a scene where she is revealed to be extremely well endowed and hirsute- "I'm a G-cup!", she joyously yells as her previously strapped-down breasts burst explosively free of their confines. Although in episode twenty-six, she repeatedly refers to herself as being nine years old, creating ambiguity as to her actual age.
Excel Girls
and are a pair of self-promoting, neophyte voice actresses who cosplay as Excel and Hyatt and perform the opening song "Ai (Chuuseishin)" as the Excel Girls. They appear in only three episodes (Episodes 5, 9, and 13) of the anime, in which they often receive much comedic physical abuse at the hands of the real Excel.
That Man
is the most powerful leader of ACROSS, and Pedro's and Nabeshin's nemesis. "That Man" poses as a friend to Pedro and seduces both Pedro's sexy wife and the Great Will. That Man is part of the ACROSS Six, the governing body of ACROSS, and longs to use "the power of the Great Will and the devilishness of the woman" to take over the universe.
External links
Notes and references
Excel Saga
Excel Saga
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Instruments%20of%20Scotland%2C%202002
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List of Statutory Instruments of Scotland, 2002
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This is a complete list of Scottish Statutory Instruments in 2002.
1-100
BSE Monitoring (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/1)
Environmental Impact Assessment (Uncultivated Land and Semi-Natural Areas) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/6)
Act of Sederunt (Amendment of Ordinary Cause Rules and Summary Applications, Statutory Applications and Appeals etc. Rules) (Applications under the Mortgage Rights (Scotland) Act 2001) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/7)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 9) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/9)
River Dee (Kirkcudbright) Salmon Fishery District (Baits and Lures) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/11)
Children (Scotland) Act 1995 (Commencement No. 5) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/12)
Road Works (Inspection Fees) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/13)
Motor Vehicles (Competitions and Trials) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/14)
Local Authorities Etc. (Allowances) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/15)
National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/17)
Scottish Commission for the Regulation of Care (Consultation on Transfer of Staff) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/18)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 4) (Scotland) Partial Revocation (No. 2) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/19)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 7) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/20)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (No. 3) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/21)
Cattle Identification (Notification of Movement) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/22)
Police Act 1997 (Criminal Records) (Registration) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/23)
Children's Hearings (Legal Representation) (Scotland) Amendment Rules 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/30)
Local Authorities' Traffic Orders (Procedure) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/31)
Scottish Legal Services Ombudsman (Compensation) (Prescribed Amount) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/32)
Water Services Charges (Billing and Collection) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/33)
Disease Control (Interim Measures) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/34)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (No. 3) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/35)
Food and Animal Feedingstuffs (Products of Animal Origin from China) (Control) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/36)
Advice and Assistance (Assistance by Way of Representation) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/37)
Sheep and Goats Movement (Interim Measures) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/38)
Sheep and Goats Identification (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/39)
Building Standards (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/40)
Pig Industry Restructuring (Capital Grant) (Scotland) Scheme 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/43)
Pig Industry Restructuring (Non-Capital Grant) (Scotland) Scheme 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/44)
Housing Revenue Account General Fund Contribution Limits (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/45)
Damages (Personal Injury) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/46)
Domestic Water and Sewerage Charges (Reduction) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/47)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 14) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/48)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/49)
Notification of Marketing of Food for Particular Nutritional Uses (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/50)
Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Quota and Third Country Fishing Measures) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/51)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Declaratory (Controlled Area) (Scotland) Amendment and Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/54)
Ethical Standards in Public Life etc. (Scotland) Act 2000 (Stipulated Time Limit) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/55)
Road Traffic (NHS Charges) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/56)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/57)
Sea Fish (Prohibited Methods of Fishing) (Firth of Clyde) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/58)
Nurses, Midwives and Health Visitors (Professional Conduct) (Amendment) Rules 2002 Approval (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/59)
Scottish Social Services Council (Appointments, Procedure and Access to the Register) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/60)
Sweeteners in Food Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/61)
Race Relations Act 1976 (Statutory Duties) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/62)
Children's Hearings (Legal Representation) (Scotland) Rules 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/63)
Food (Star Anise from Third Countries) (Emergency Control) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/64)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/65)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 12) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/66)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/67)
Mobility and Access Committee for Scotland Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/69)
Local Government Finance (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/70)
Standards in Scotland's Schools etc. Act 2000 (Commencement No. 5) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/72)
School Education (Amendment) (Scotland) Act 2002 (Commencement) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/74)
Health and Social Care Act 2001 (Commencement No. 9) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/75)
Preserved Rights (Transfer to Responsible Authorities) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/76)
Public Finance and Accountability (Scotland) Act 2000 (Economy, efficiency and effectiveness examinations) (Specified bodies etc.) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/77)
Public Finance and Accountability (Scotland) Act 2000 (Access to Documents and Information) (Relevant Persons) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/78)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 3) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/80)
Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Conservation Measures) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/81)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 3) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/82)
Financial Assistance for Environmental Purposes (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/83)
Police and Fire Services (Finance) (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/84)
National Assistance (Sums for Personal Requirements) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/85)
National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) and (General Ophthalmic Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/86)
Poultry Meat, Farmed Game Bird Meat and Rabbit Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/87)
Civil Legal Aid (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/88)
Non-Domestic Rate (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/89)
Provision of School Education for Children under School Age (Prescribed Children) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/90)
Non-Domestic Rates (Levying) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/91)
Electricity from Non-Fossil Fuel Sources (Locational Flexibility) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/92)
Electricity from Non-Fossil Fuel Sources (Scotland) Saving Arrangements (Modification) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/93)
Fossil Fuel Levy (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/94)
Adults with Incapacity (Supervision of Welfare Guardians etc. by Local Authorities) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/95)
Adults with Incapacity (Reports in Relation to Guardianship and Intervention Orders) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/96)
Adults with Incapacity (Recall of Guardians' Powers) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/97)
Adults with Incapacity (Non-compliance with Decisions of Welfare Guardians) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/98)
The National Health Service (General Dental Services and Dental Charges) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/99)
The National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/100)
101-200
Council Tax (Exempt Dwellings) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/101)
Council Tax (Dwellings and Part Residential Subjects) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/102)
NHS Education for Scotland Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/103)
Control of Noise (Codes of Practice for Construction and Open Sites) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/104)
Scottish Council for Postgraduate Medical and Dental Education and NHS Education for Scotland (Transfer of Staff) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/105)
Scottish Commission for the Regulation of Care (Appointments and Procedure) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/106)
Prisons and Young Offenders Institutions (Scotland) Amendment Rules 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/107)
Scottish Commission for the Regulation of Care (Staff Transfer Scheme) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/108)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (No. 3) Revocation Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/109)
Dairy Produce Quotas (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/110)
National Health Service (General Medical Services and Pharmaceutical Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/111)
Regulation of Care (Fees) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/112)
Regulation of Care (Applications and Provision of Advice) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/113)
Regulation of Care (Requirements as to Care Services) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/114)
Regulation of Care (Registration and Registers) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/115)
Police Grant (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/116)
Plant Protection Products Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/117)
Water Industry (Scotland) Act 2002 (Commencement and Savings) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/118)
Restriction of Liberty Order (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/119)
Regulation of Care (Excepted Services) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/120)
Clydeport (Closure of Yorkhill Basin) Harbour Revision Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/121)
Town and Country Planning (Fees for Applications and Deemed Applications) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/122)
Police Act 1997 (Commencement No. 10) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/124)
Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/125)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 5) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/126)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 8) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/127)
Act of Sederunt (Ordinary Cause Rules) Amendment (Applications under the Protection from Abuse (Scotland) Act 2001) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/128)
Act of Sederunt (Summary Applications, Statutory Applications and Appeals etc. Rules) Amendment (Detention and Forfeiture of Terrorist Cash) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/129)
Act of Sederunt (Summary Applications, Statutory Applications and Appeals etc. Rules) Amendment (No. 2) (Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/130)
Adults with Incapacity (Public Guardian's Fees) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/131)
Act of Sederunt (Summary Cause Rules) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/132)
Act of Sederunt (Small Claims Rules) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/133)
Budget (Scotland) Act 2001 (Amendment) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/134)
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Procedure Rules Amendment No.2) (Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/136)
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Procedure Rules Amendment) (Convention Rights (Compliance) (Scotland) Act 2001) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/137)
Mull Salmon Fishery District Designation (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/138)
Less Favoured Area Support Scheme (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/139)
Combined Police Area Amalgamation Schemes 1995 (Amendment) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/140)
Combined Fire Services Area Administration Schemes (Variation) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/141)
Nurses, Midwives and Health Visitors (Professional Conduct) (Amendment) (No. 2) Rules 2002 Approval (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/142)
Police Act 1997 (Criminal Records) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/143)
Advice and Assistance (Financial Conditions) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/144)
Civil Legal Aid (Financial Conditions) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/145)
Act of Sederunt (Summary Applications, Statutory Applications and Appeals etc. Rules) Amendment (No. 3) (Adults with Incapacity) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/146)
Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging Waste) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/147)
Food (Figs, Hazelnuts and Pistachios from Turkey) (Emergency Control) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/148)
Food (Peanuts from China) (Emergency Control) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/149)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/152)
National Health Service (General Medical Services and Pharmaceutical Services) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/153)
Aberdeen City Council and Aberdeenshire Council Boundaries (Blackburn) Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/154)
Argyll and Bute Council and West Dunbartonshire Council Boundaries (Ardoch Sewage Works) Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/155)
Glasgow City Council and Renfrewshire Council Boundaries (Braehead) Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/156)
City of Edinburgh Council and West Lothian Council Boundaries (West Farm, Broxburn) Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/157)
Electricity Lands and Generators (Rateable Values) (Scotland) Variation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/158)
Water Undertakings (Rateable Values) (Scotland) Variation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/159)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 4) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/160)
Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982 (Licensing of Houses in Multiple Occupation) Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/161)
Regulation of Care (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement No. 2 and Transitional Provisions) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/162)
Renewables Obligation (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/163)
Plant Health (Great Britain) Amendment (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/164)
Scottish Water (Rate of Return) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/165)
Water Industry (Scotland) Act 2002 (Consequential and Savings Provisions) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/166)
Water and Sewerage Charges (Exemption) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/167)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement No. 4, Transitional Provisions and Savings) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/168)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (No. 3) Amendment (No. 2) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/169)
Community Care and Health (Scotland) Act 2002 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/170)
Housing Support Grant (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/171)
Adults with Incapacity (Scotland) Act 2000 (Commencement No. 1) (Amendment) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/172)
Public Finance and Accountability (Scotland) Act 2000 (Consequential Modifications) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/176)
Home Zones (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/177)
Forth Estuary Transport Authority Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/178)
Food (Jelly Confectionery) (Emergency Control) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/179)
Protection of Wild Mammals (Scotland) Act 2002 (Commencement) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/181)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2001 Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/182)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/183)
Marriage (Scotland) Act 2002 (Commencement) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/184)
Loch Ewe, Isle of Ewe, Wester Ross, Scallops Several Fishery (Variation) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/185)
Little Loch Broom Scallops Several Fishery Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/186)
Road Traffic (Permitted Parking Area and Special Parking Area) (City of Glasgow) Designation Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/187)
Road Traffic (Permitted Parking Area and Special Parking Area) (City of Edinburgh) Designation Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/188)
Adults with Incapacity (Scotland) Act 2000 (Commencement No. 2) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/189)
Adults with Incapacity (Ethics Committee) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/190)
Artificial Insemination of Cattle (Animal Health) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/191)
National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/192)
Registration of Fish Farming and Shellfish Farming Businesses Amendment (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/193)
Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/196)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic, Paralytic and Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning) (Orkney) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/197)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 12) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/198)
Bus User Complaints Tribunal Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/199)
201-300
Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park Designation, Transitional and Consequential Provisions (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/201)
Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park Elections (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/202)
Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Source Records) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/205)
Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/206)
Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Cancellation of Authorisations) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/207)
Adults with Incapacity (Medical Treatment Certificates) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/208)
Police Act 1997 (Enhanced Criminal Record Certificates) (Protection of Vulnerable Adults) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/217)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 3) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/218)
Registration of Fish Farming and Shellfish Farming Businesses Amendment (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/220)
Disease Control and Animal Movements (Interim Measures) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/221)
Plant Health (Phytophthora ramorum) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/223)
National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/224)
Dairy Produce Quotas (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/228)
Local Government Finance (Scotland) (No. 2) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/230)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 4) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/231)
Community Care and Health (Scotland) Act 2002 (Consequential Amendment) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/233)
Meat (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/234)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Solicitors in the Sheriff Court) (Amendment) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/235)
Welfare of Animals (Slaughter or Killing) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/238)
National Health Service (Clinical Negligence and Other Risks Indemnity Scheme) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/239)
Criminal Legal Aid (Scotland) (Fees) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/246)
Criminal Legal Aid (Fixed Payments) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/247)
St Mary's Music School (Aided Places) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/248)
Education (Assisted Places) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/249)
Civil Legal Aid (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/254)
TSE (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/255)
Marriage (Approval of Places) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/260)
Valuation and Rating (Exempted Classes) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/262)
Scottish Transport Group (Dissolution) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/263)
Community Care (Disregard of Resources) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/264)
Community Care (Additional Payments) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/265)
Community Care (Deferred Payment of Accommodation Costs) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/266)
Contaminants in Food (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/267)
National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/268)
Sheriff Court Fees Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/269)
Court of Session etc. Fees Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/270)
Pesticides (Maximum Residue Levels in Crops, Food and Feeding Stuffs) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/271)
Loch Caolisport Scallops Several Fishery (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/272)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Solicitors in the Sheriff Court) (Amendment No. 2) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/274)
Adults with Incapacity (Specified Medical Treatments) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/275)
Designation of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/276)
New Water and Sewerage Authorities Dissolution (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/277)
Extensification Payment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/278)
Plant Protection Products Amendment (No. 2) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/279)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Witnesses and Shorthand Writers in the Sheriff Court) (Amendment) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/280)
Gaming Act (Variation of Fees) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/281)
Education (Student Loans) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/282)
Animal By-Products (Identification) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/283)
Food (Control of Irradiation) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/284)
Feeding Stuffs Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/285)
Teachers' Superannuation (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/288)
Bus Service Operators Grant (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/289)
Travel Concessions (Eligible Services) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/290)
Transport (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement No. 3 and Transitional Provisions) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/291)
Home Zones (Scotland) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/292)
Advisory Council (Establishment) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/293)
Peterhead Bay Authority (Constitution) Revision Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/294)
Air Quality (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/297)
Food and Animal Feedingstuffs (Products of Animal Origin from China) (Emergency Control) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/300)
301-400
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment) (Fees of Solicitors, Shorthand Writers and Witnesses) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/301)
Adults with Incapacity (Specified Medical Treatments) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/302)
The Community Care (Personal Care and Nursing Care) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/303)
Community Care (Assessment of Needs) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/304)
National Waiting Times Centre Board (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/305)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 5) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/306)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 6) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/307)
Aberdeen Harbour Revision (Constitution) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/310)
Local Government Pension Scheme (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/311)
Scottish Secure Tenants (Compensation for Improvements) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/312)
Scottish Secure Tenancies (Abandoned Property) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/313)
Scottish Secure Tenancies (Exceptions) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/314)
Short Scottish Secure Tenancies (Notices) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/315)
Scottish Secure Tenants (Right to Repair) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/316)
Housing (Right to Buy) (Houses Liable to Demolition) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/317)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Scottish Secure Tenancy etc.) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/318)
Short Scottish Secure Tenancies (Proceedings for Possession) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/319)
Scottish Secure Tenancies (Proceedings for Possession) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/320)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement No. 5, Transitional Provisions and Savings) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/321)
Right to Purchase (Application Form) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/322)
Criminal Justice Act 1988 (Offensive Weapons) Amendment (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/323)
Environmental Impact Assessment (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/324)
The Common Agricultural Policy (Wine) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/325)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Solicitors in the Sheriff Court) (Amendment No. 3) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/328)
Advice and Assistance (Financial Conditions) (Scotland) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/329)
Civil Legal Aid (Financial Conditions) (Scotland) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/330)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 7) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/332)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 8) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/333)
Welfare of Farmed Animals (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/334)
Late Payment of Commercial Debts (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/335)
Late Payment of Commercial Debts (Rate of Interest) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/336)
Late Payment of Commercial Debts (Interest) Act 1998 (Commencement No. 6) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/337)
Act of Sederunt (Lands Valuation Appeal Court) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/340)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/345)
Contaminants in Food (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/349)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 9) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/350)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/353)
Scottish Qualifications Authority Act 2002 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/355)
Food and Animal Feedingstuffs (Products of Animal Origin from China) (Emergency Control) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/356)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 10) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/357)
Education (Disability Strategies and Pupils' Educational Records) (Scotland) Act 2002 (Commencement) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/367)
Disease Control (Interim Measures) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/369)
A9 Trunk Road (Ballinluig) (Temporary 50 mph Speed Limit) (Continuation) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/371)
Sports Grounds and Sporting Events (Designation) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/82)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 5) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/383)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 8) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/384)
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Appeals) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/387)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 11) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/388)
Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages (Fees) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/389)
Births, Deaths, Marriages and Divorces (Fees) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/390)
Education (Disability Strategies) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/391)
Food for Particular Nutritional Uses (Addition of Substances for Specific Nutritional Purposes) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/397)
Road Traffic (Permitted Parking Area and Special Parking Area) (Perth and Kinross Council) Designation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/398)
Parking Attendants (Wearing of Uniforms) (Perth and Kinross Council Parking Area) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/399)
Road Traffic (Parking Adjudicators) (Perth and Kinross Council) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/400)
401-500
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 9) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/401)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/402)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 2) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/403)
Conservation of Seals (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/404)
Education (Listed Bodies) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/406)
Electricity Act 1989 (Requirement of Consent for Offshore Generating Stations) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/407)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 3) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/408)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 5) (Scotland) Partial Revocation (No. 2) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/409)
Comhairle nan Eilean Siar (Various Harbours) Harbour Revision Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/410)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Registered Social Landlords) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/411)
Homeless Persons Interim Accommodation (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/412)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Appointment of Arbiter) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/413)
Homeless Persons Advice and Assistance (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/414)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Scottish Secure Tenancy etc.) Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/415)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Registration of Tenant Organisations) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/416)
Conservation of Salmon (Prohibition of Sale) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/418)
Road Humps and Traffic Calming (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/419)
Police Reform Act 2002 (Commencement No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/420)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 10) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/421)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 7) (Scotland) Order 2002 Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/422)
Nursing and Midwifery Student Allowances (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/423)
Food (Figs, Hazelnuts and Pistachios from Turkey) (Emergency Control) (Scotland) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/424)
Food (Peanuts from China) (Emergency Control) (Scotland) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/425)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 12) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/430)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 5) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/431)
Land Registration (Scotland) Act 1979 (Commencement No. 16) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/432)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement No. 6 and Amendment) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/433)
Scottish Secure Tenancies (Exceptions) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/434)
Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/437)
National Health Service (General Medical Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/438)
Criminal Legal Aid (Scotland) (Fees) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/440)
Criminal Legal Aid (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/441)
Criminal Legal Aid (Fixed Payments) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/442)
Sexual Offences (Procedure and Evidence) (Scotland) Act 2002 (Commencement and Transitional Provisions) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/443)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Housing Support Services) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/444)
Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/445)
Bovines and Bovine Products (Trade) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/449)
Local Authorities' Traffic Orders (Exemptions for Disabled Persons) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/450)
Disabled Persons (Badges for Motor Vehicles) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/451)
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Procedure Rules Amendment No. 3) (Sexual Offences (Procedure and Evidence) (Scotland) Act 2002) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/454)
Scottish Local Government Elections Rules 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/457)
Combined Police Area Amalgamation Schemes 1995 Amendment (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/458)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 13) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/465)
Scottish Public Services Ombudsman Act 2002 (Commencement and Revocation of Transitory and Transitional Provisions) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/467)
Scottish Public Services Ombudsman Act 2002 (Amendment) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/468)
Scottish Public Services Ombudsman Act 2002 (Transitory and Transitional Provisions) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/469)
Discontinuance of Legalised Police Cells (Ayr) Rules 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/472)
Water Customer Consultation Panels (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/473)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 14) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/482)
Plant Health (Phytophthora ramorum) (Scotland) (No. 2) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/483)
Pollution Prevention and Control (Designation of Council Directives on Large Combustion Plants and National Emission Ceilings) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/488)
Pesticides (Maximum Residue Levels in Crops, Food and Feeding Stuffs) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/489)
Large Combustion Plants (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/493)
Civil Legal Aid (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/494)
Advice and Assistance (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/495)
Civil Legal Aid (Scotland) (Fees) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/496)
Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/498)
Taxi Drivers' Licences (Carrying of Guide Dogs and Hearing Dogs) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/500)
501-570
Peterhead Harbours Revision (Constitution) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/504)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 10) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/510)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 15) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/511)
Tobacco Advertising and Promotion Act 2002 (Commencement) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/512)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Messengers-At-Arms) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/513)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 2) (Applications under the Protection from Abuse (Scotland) Act 2001) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/514)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Sheriff Officers) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/515)
Act of Sederunt (Summary Cause Rules) (Amendment) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/516)
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Procedure Rules Amendment No 4) (Extradition) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/517)
Potatoes Originating in Egypt (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/518)
Fur farming (Prohibition) (Scotland) Act 2002 (Commencement) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/519)
Seeds (Miscellaneous Amendments) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/520)
Taxi Drivers' Licences (Carrying of Guide Dogs and Hearing Dogs) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/521)
Scottish Local Government Elections Amendment Rules 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/522)
Kava-kava in Food (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/523)
Food Labelling Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/524)
Seeds (Fees) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/526)
Smoke Control Areas (Authorised Fuels) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/527)
Road Traffic (NHS Charges) Amendment (No. 2) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/528)
Poultry Breeding Flocks, Hatcheries and Animal By Products (Fees) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/529)
Disease Control (Interim Measures) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/530)
Sheep and Goats Identification (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/531)
Legal Aid (Scotland) Act 1986 Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/532)
Community Care (Joint Working etc.) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/533)
NHS Quality Improvement Scotland Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/534)
NHS Quality Improvement Scotland (Transfer of Officers) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/535)
Plant Protection Products Amendment (No. 3) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/537)
Removal and Disposal of Vehicles Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/538)
Pigs (Records, Identification and Movement) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/540)
Genetically Modified Organisms (Deliberate Release) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/541)
Budget (Scotland) Act 2002 Amendment Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/542)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 16) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/544)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 11) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/545)
Designation of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (Scotland) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/546)
Local Authorities' Traffic Orders (Exemptions for Disabled Persons) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/547)
Public Service Vehicles (Registration of Local Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/548)
School Crossing Patrol Sign (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/549)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 4) (Scotland) Order 2002 Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/550)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 6) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/551)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 12) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/552)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 14) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/553)
Air Quality Limit Values (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/556)
Inverness Harbour Revision (Constitution) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/557)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 3) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/558)
Act of Sederunt (Debt Arrangement and Attachment (Scotland) Act 2002) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/560)
Scottish Local Government Elections Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/561)
Adoption (Intercountry Aspects) Act 1999 (Commencement No. 7) (Scotland) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/562)
Act of Sederunt (Summary Applications, Statutory Applications and Appeals etc. Rules) Amendment (No. 5) (Proceeds of Crime Act 2002) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/563)
Seeds (Miscellaneous Amendments) (No. 2) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/564)
Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/565)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Messengers-at-Arms) (No. 2) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/566)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Sheriff Officers) (No. 2) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/567)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Solicitors in the Sheriff Court) (Amendment No. 4) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/568)
Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 (Cash Searches: Constables in Scotland: Code of Practice) Order 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/569)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 2) (Personal Injuries Actions) 2002 (S.S.I. 2002/570)
External links
Scottish Statutory Instrument List
Scottish Draft Statutory Instrument List
2002
Statutory Instruments
Scotland Statutory Instruments
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20associated%20with%20the%20University%20of%20London
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List of people associated with the University of London
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The following people spent time at the University of London as either teaching staff or students. In 2015 there were a total of around 2 million University of London alumni across the world.
Until year 2008, all colleges within the federal collegiate system, solely awarded University of London degree. From 2003 onwards some colleges received their own degree-awarding powers. However, these were held in abeyance until 2008, when a number of colleges began to award their own degrees.
Nobel Laureates
There are a total of 84 Nobel Laureates who were either students or staff members at the University of London. Their respective college or colleges is shown in the parenthesis. The following table shows the number of Nobel Laureates from each college:
There are also many non-formal graduates of the University of London who have been awarded honorary degrees and doctorates to Nobel Laureates. Notable names include Amartya Sen (Hon. DSc), Shirin Ebadi (Hon. LLD), George Akerlof (Hon. DSc), Robert Mundell (Hon. DSc), Muhammad Yunus (Hon. DSc)
Politicians and Heads of State
Monarchs and Royalty
Tuanku Jaafar – King of Malaysia, 1994–1999 (LSE)
Letsie III of Lesotho – King of Lesotho
Margrethe II of Denmark – Queen of Denmark, 1972–present (LSE)
Sultan Salahuddin – King of Malaysia 1999–2001 (SOAS)
Princess Beatrice of York - Member of British royal family (GCUL)
Princess Laurentien - Wife of Prince Constantijn (QMUL)
Sophie Evekink - Princess of Bavaria - Wife of Prince Ludwig of Bavaria (UCL)
Napoléon, Prince Imperial – son of Emperor Napoleon III (KCL)
Haakon Magnus – Crown Prince of Norway (LSE)
Mette-Marit – Crown Princess of Norway (SOAS)
Abdulaziz bin Turki al Faisal – Grandson of King Faisal of Saudi Arabia (SOAS)
Prince Prisdang – member of the Thai royal family (KCL)
Camilla, Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms. (ULP)
Hamdan bin Mohammed Al Maktoum, Crown Prince of Dubai (LSE)
Khaled bin Mohamed Al Nahyan, Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi (KCL)
Presidents and prime ministers
Clement Attlee – Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (CITY)
H. H. Asquith – Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (CITY)
Ramsey MacDonald – Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 1924, 1929–1935 (BBK)
Margaret Thatcher – Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (CITY)
Tony Blair – Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (CITY)
Hossein Ala' – Prime Minister of Iran
A.N.R. Robinson – Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, 1986–1981, and President of Trinidad and Tobago, 1997–2003
Natalia Gherman – Acting Prime Minister of Moldova, 2015 (KCL)
Harmodio Arias – President of Panama, 1932–1936 (LSE)
Óscar Arias – President of Costa Rica, 1986–1990, 2006–Present (LSE)
Marouf al-Bakhit – Prime Minister of Jordan, 2005–2007 (KCL)
Errol Walton Barrow – Prime Minister of Barbados, 1962–1966, 1966–1976, 1986–1987 (LSE)
Sükhbaataryn Batbold – Prime Minister of Mongolia, 2009–present (LBS)
Abd ar-Rahman al-Bazzaz – Prime Minister of Iraq, 1965–1966 (KCL)
Marek Belka – Prime Minister of Poland, 2004–2005 (LSE)
Godfrey Binaisa – President of Uganda, 1979–1980 (KCL)
Heinrich Brüning – Chancellor of Germany, 1930–1932 (LSE)
Kim Campbell – Prime Minister of Canada, June–November 1993 (LSE)
Eugenia Charles – Prime Minister of Dominica, 1980–1995 (LSE)
Ellis Clarke – Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, 1976–1987 (UCL)
John Compton – Premier of Saint Lucia, 1964–1979, and Prime Minister of Saint Lucia, February–July 1979 & 1982–1996 (LSE)
Sher Bahadur Deuba – Prime Minister of Nepal, 1995–1997, 2001–2002, 2004–2005 (LSE)
Luisa Diogo – Prime Minister of Mozambique, 1991–1992 (SOAS)
Bülent Ecevit – former Prime Minister of Turkey (SOAS)
Robert Fico – current Prime Minister of Slovakia (UCL)
Rajiv Gandhi – Prime Minister of India 1984–1989 (ICL)
Chaim Herzog – President of Israel 1983–1993 (UCL)
Hirobumi Ito – Prime Minister of Japan, 1885–1888, 1892–1896, 1898, 1900–1901 (UCL)
Guðni Th. Jóhannesson – Icelandic politician; President of Iceland (2016-) (QMUL)
John F. Kennedy – President of the United States of America 1961–1963 (LSE)
Jomo Kenyatta – first President of Kenya, 1964–1978 (LSE)
Mwai Kibaki – President of Kenya, 2002–present (LSE)
Glafcos Klerides – President of Cyprus, 1993–2003 (KCL)
Junichiro Koizumi – Prime Minister of Japan, 2001–2006 (UCL)
Thanin Kraivichien – Prime Minister of Thailand, 1976–1977 (LSE)
Yu Kuo-Hwa – Premier of Taiwan, 1984–1989 (LSE)
Hilla Limann – President of Ghana, 1979–1981 (LSE)
Alfonso López Pumarejo – President of Colombia, 1934–1938, 1942–1945 (LSE)
Michael Manley – Prime Minister of Jamaica, 1972–1980, 1989–1992 (LSE)
Kamisese Mara – Prime Minister of Fiji 1970–1992, President of Fiji 1994–2000 (LSE)
Ahmed Mohamed Mohamoud – President of Somaliland (LSE)
Sir Lee Moore – Prime Minister of Saint Kitts and Nevis, 1979–1980 (KCL)
Robert Mugabe – President of Zimbabwe (UOL)
Emmerson Mnangagwa - President of Zimbabwe (UOL)
Kocheril Raman Narayanan – President of India, 1997–2002 (LSE)
Kwame Nkrumah – President of Ghana, 1960–1966 (LSE)
Basdeo Panday – Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, 1995–2001
Tassos Papadopoulos – President of Cyprus, 2003–2008 (KCL)
Percival Patterson – Prime Minister of Jamaica, 1992–2006 (LSE)
Sir Lynden Pindling – Prime Minister of the Bahamas, 1969–1992 (KCL)
Romano Prodi – Prime Minister of Italy, 1996–1998, 2006–present, President of the European Commission, 1999–2004 (LSE)
Navinchandra Ramgoolam – Prime Minister of Mauritius, 1995–2000 (LSE)
France-Albert René – Prime Minister of Seychelles 1976–1977, and President of Seychelles 1977–2004 (KCL)
Sir Veerasamy Ringadoo – first President of Mauritius, March–June 1992 (LSE)
Moshe Sharett – Prime Minister of Israel, 1953–1955 (LSE)
Constantine Simitis – Prime Minister of Greece, 1996–2004 (LSE)
Anote Tong – President of Kiribati, 2003–present (LSE)
Pierre Trudeau – Prime Minister of Canada, 1968–1979, 1980–1984 (LSE)
Aung San Suu Kyi – incumbent State Counsellor of Myanmar (SOAS)
Htin Kyaw – 9th and incumbent President of Myanmar (ICS)
Nelson Mandela - President of South Africa (UOL)
Other prominent political figures
Alex Chalk, Secretary of State for Justice (CITY)
Billy Strachan, pioneer of black civil rights in Britain
Thérèse Coffey, Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (UCL)
Gillian Keegan, Secretary of State for Education (LBS)
Kemi Badenoch, Secretary of State for Business and Trade (BBK)
Victoria Prentis, Attorney General for England and Wales & Advocate General for Northern Ireland (RHUL)
John Glen (politician), Chief Secretary to the Treasury (KCL)
Nadhim Zahawi, former Chancellor of the Exchequer, Secretary of State for Education, Chairman of the Conservative Party (UCL)
Santu Shahaney IOFS officer. He served as the first Indian Director General of the Indian Ordnance Factories
Masidi Manjun - State Minister of Local Government and Housing. Sabah, Malaysia
V. K. Krishna Menon - 3rd Defence Minister of India (UCL, LSE)
Achim Steiner - Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme
Kemal Derviş - Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme (2005 to 2009)
David Nabarro - Special Adviser to the United Nations Secretary-General on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and Climate Change
Nitin Desai - United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Affairs (1992 to 2003)
Jamal Benomar - United Nations Under-Secretary-General
Mark Lowcock - United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator
John Hocking - United Nations Assistant Secretary-General
Julian Harston - United Nations Assistant Secretary-General
Elliott Abrams – American politician (LSE)
Christopher Addison, 1st Viscount Addison – British minister (QMUL)
B. R. Ambedkar – architect of the Indian Constitution, Indian independence leader, minister and anti-caste system activist (LSE)
Obed Asamoah – Ghanaian Foreign Minister (KCL)
Ziad Bahaa-Eldin – Deputy Prime Minister of Egypt (KCL)
Cherie Booth – wife of British Prime Minister Tony Blair (LSE)
Martin Bourke – Governor of The Turks and Caicos Islands (KCL)
Ed Broadbent – Canadian political leader (LSE)
Dame Lois Browne-Evans – Bermudian opposition leader (KCL)
Rudranath Capildeo – Leader of the Opposition of the Commonwealth of Trinidad and Tobago
Maragatham Chandrasekhar – Indian Cabinet Minister (KCL)
Michael Collins – Irish independence leader (KCL)
Sir John Cockburn – Premier of South Australia
Abdulai Conteh – Vice President of Sierra Leone (KCL)
Sir Stafford Cripps – former Chancellor of the Exchequer (UCL)
David Currie, Baron Currie of Marylebone – British politician, member of the House of Lords (QMUL)
Edwina Currie – British minister (LSE)
Hugh Dalton – Chancellor of the Exchequer (LSE)
Joseph B. Dauda – Sierra Leonean Finance Minister (KCL)
Kemal Derviş – Turkish politician and senior UN administrator
Frank Dobson – British minister (LSE)
Marlene Malahoo Forte – Jamaican Foreign Minister (KCL)
Natalia Gherman – Deputy Prime Minister of Moldova (KCL)
Mahatma Gandhi – Indian Independence Leader (UCL)
Marc Grossman – American Under Secretary of State
Sir Sydney Gun-Munro – Governor-General of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (KCL)
Peter Hain, Baron Hain – British minister and anti-apartheid campaigner (QMUL)
Peter Hennessy, Baron Hennessy of Nympsfield – British politician, member of the House of Lords (QMUL)
Farrer Herschell, 1st Baron Herschell – Lord Chancellor (UCL)
Ajay Kakkar, Baron Kakkar – British surgeon, Professor of Surgery at University College London, member of the House of Lords (QMUL)
Ruth Kelly – British minister (LSE)
Horace Maybray King, Baron Maybray-King – Speaker of the House of Commons (KCL)
Ibrahim Jazi - Jordanian Minister of State for Prime Ministry Affairs
Tessa Jowell – British minister (GCUL)
William Joyce – wartime propagandist (BBK)
Muhammad Zafrulla Khan – Pakistani Foreign Minister (KCL)
Robert F. Kennedy Jr. – son of U.S. Senator Robert F. Kennedy, nephew of LSE graduate President John F. Kennedy, and environmental activist (LSE)
David Lammy – British minister (SOAS)
Emily Lau – Hong Kong political leader (LSE)
Ambrose Lau – Hong Kong political leader
William Hare, 5th Earl of Listowel – Governor General of Ghana (KCL)
James Lowther, 1st Viscount Ullswater – Speaker of the House of Commons (KCL)
John MacGregor, Baron MacGregor of Pulham Market – Leader of the House of Commons (KCL)
Ann Dore McLaughlin – U.S. Secretary of Labor
Anne McLellan – Deputy Prime Minister of Canada (KCL)
Ken Michael – governor of Western Australia (ICL)
Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner – British Cabinet Minister (KCL)
Francis Minah – Vice President of Sierra Leone (KCL)
Nickolay Mladenov – Bulgarian Foreign Minister (KCL)
James Nyamweya – Kenyan Foreign Minister (KCL)
David Owen, Baron Owen of Plymouth – British Foreign Secretary (KCL)
Alice Paul – American suffragist (LSE)
Jacques Parizeau – Premier of Quebec (LSE)
Richard Perle – American political advisor (LSE)
Enoch Powell – British minister and right-wing politician (SOAS)
S. Rajaratnam – Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore and Cabinet minister (KCL)
Sir Shridath Ramphal – Commonwealth Secretary-General and Guyanese Foreign Minister (KCL)
Paul Robeson – American athlete, actor, singer and civil rights activist (SOAS)
Walter Rodney – Guyanese activist (SOAS)
Robert Rubin – U.S. Treasury Secretary
Sir Ernest Satow – British diplomat (UCL)
Stephen Smith – Australian politician
Robert Sobukwe – South African political dissident
Marie Stopes – family planning and eugenics campaigner (UCL)
Gisela Stuart – Member of Parliament, England (Birmingham Edgbaston) (ULIP)
Goh Keng Swee – deputy Prime Minister of Singapore (LSE)
Hayashi Tadasu – Japanese Foreign Minister (KCL)
Teo Chee Hean – Singaporean minister (ICL)
Harold Watkinson, 1st Viscount Watkinson – Minister of Defence (KCL)
David Welch – American Assistant Secretary of State
Frederick Wills – Guyanese Foreign Minister (KCL)
David Wilson – Governor of Hong Kong
Lord Woolf – Chief Justice of England and Wales (UCL)
Abdi Yusuf Hassan – Somali politician and diplomat
Rais Yatim – Malaysian Foreign Minister (KCL)
Winston Set Aung – politician, economist and management consultant, incumbent Deputy Governor of the Central Bank of Myanmar
Rafiq Zakaria – Indian politician
Ahmad Ziadat, Jordanian Minister of Justice
Tom Wolf – Governor of Pennsylvania (UOL)
James McGreevey, former Governor of New Jersey (LSE)
Todd Young - US Senator from Indiana (ISA)
Mark Kirk, US Senator from Illinois (LSE)
Daniel Patrick Moynihan, US Senator from New York (LSE)
John Tower, US Senator from Texas (LSE)
Jon Ossoff - US Senator from Georgia (LSE)
Grace Mugabe - Former First Lady of Zimbabwe & Spouse to Robert Mugabe.
Ferdinand Alexander “Sandro” Araneta Marcos III - Member of the Philippine House of Representatives, eldest son of President Bongbong Marcos and First Lady Liza Araneta-Marcos. (CITY)
Robert F. Kennedy Jr., US Presidential Candidate (LSE)
Armed Forces and Military
Ernst Boepple (1887–1950), German Nazi official and SS officer executed for war crimes
John Harding, 1st Baron Harding of Petherton – Field Marshal and Chief of the Imperial General Staff (KCL)
Jonathon Riley - Lieutenant-General in the British Army (UCL)
Ben Key - Vice Admiral in the Royal Navy (Royal Holloway)
Syed Ata Hasnain - Lieutenant General in the Indian Army (KCL)
Richard Nugee - Lieutenant General in the British Army (KCL)
Robert Fry - Lieutenant General in the Royal Marines (KCL)
Julian Thompson - Major General in the Royal Marines (KCL)
Richard Nugee - Lieutenant General in the British Army and Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff (People) (KCL)
James Fitzgerald Martin - Major General in the British Army
Emmanuel Karenzi Karake - Lieutenant General in Rwandan Defence Forces
Clergy and Religious Figures
Berhaneyesus Demerew Souraphiel – Catholic cardinal and Archbishop of Addis Abeba
Mirza Tahir Ahmad – Khalifatul Masih IV, Caliph (Imam) IV of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community
Alan Campbell – controversial Pentecostal pastor
George Carey, Baron Carey of Clifton – Archbishop of Canterbury (KCL)
Robert William Dale – Nonconformist church leader
Mark Elvins – Capuchin friar (HEY)
Philip Edgecumbe Hughes – New Testament scholar, Professor at Westminster Theological Seminary
Bernard Lonergan – theologian, philosopher and economist (HEY)
Michael Anthony Moxon – Dean of Truro Cathedral (HEY)
John Anthony McGuckin – Orthodox priest and poet (HEY)
Njongonkulu Ndungane – Archbishop of Cape Town (KCL)
Keith Riglin – Bishop of Argyll and The Isles (HEY) (KCL)
Sir Jonathan Sacks – Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth (KCL)
Lindsay Urwin – Bishop of Horsham (HEY)
Oliver D. Crisp (KCL)
Other religious figures
Heidi Baker – Christian missionary (KCL)
Muhammad Abdul Bari – Secretary General of the Muslim Council of Britain (KCL)
Shaw Clifton – General of The Salvation Army (KCL)
Francis Lyon Cohen - rabbi and Army chaplain (KCL)
Richard Coles – priest, musician and journalist (KCL)
Leonard Coulshaw – Chaplain of the Fleet (KCL)
Frank Curtis – Provost of Sheffield (KCL)
Thomas Pelham Dale – Ritualist clergyman (KCL)
Rob Frost – Methodist evangelist (KCL)
Robert Gandell – biblical scholar (KCL)
Donald Clifford Gray – clergyman (KCL)
Walter Homolka – rabbi (KCL)
Donald Howard – Provost of St Andrew's Cathedral, Aberdeen (KCL)
Lawrence Jackson – Provost of Blackburn (KCL)
Eric James – Chaplain Extraordinary to HM the Queen (KCL)
George Jack Kinnell – Provost of St Andrew's Cathedral, Aberdeen (KCL)
Kenneth Leech – priest (KCL)
Peter Mallett – Chaplain-General to the Forces (KCL)
Michael Nott – Provost of Portsmouth (KCL)
Hugh Smith – Chaplain-General of Prisons (KCL)
Frederick Spurrell – priest and archaeologist (KCL)
Nobel Peace Prize
Óscar Arias (LSE)
Ralph Bunche (LSE)
Nelson Mandela (ULIP)
Philip Noel-Baker (LSE)
Aung San Suu Kyi (SOAS)
Joseph Rotblat (QMUL)
Archbishop Desmond Tutu (KCL)
Nobel Prize for Literature
Bertrand Russell (LSE)
George Bernard Shaw (LSE)
Rabindranath Tagore (UCL)
T. S. Eliot (BBK)
Harold Pinter (CSSD)
Wole Soyinka (ULIP)
Derek Walcott (ULIP)
Mario Vargas Llosa (KCL/QMUL)
Scientists and Mathematicians
Biologists and Botanists
David Bellamy (KCL & RHUL)
Qui-Lim Choo - co-discoverer of Hepatitis C and of the Hepatitis D genome (KCL)
Soraya Dhillon MBE - pharmacologist (KCL)
Michael Houghton - co-discoverer of Hepatitis C and of the Hepatitis D genome (KCL)
Keith Campbell - led team that cloned Dolly the sheep (KCL)
W.D. Hamilton (LSE)
Thomas Henry Huxley (ICL)
Richard Owen (QMUL)
Robert Swinhoe
Katherine Warington (RHUL)
Chemists
Sir Derek Harold Richard Barton (ICL & BBK)
Michael Barnett (KCL)
William Boon (KCL)
John Eddowes Bowman the Younger (KCL)
Sir John Cadogan (KCL)
Sir Arthur Herbert Church (KCL)
G Marius Clore (UCL)
Leslie Crombie (KCL)
Sir William Crookes (ICL)
Charles Frederick Cross (KCL)
John Frederic Daniell (KCL)
Richard Dixon (KCL)
Sir Arthur Duckham - President of the Institution of Chemical Engineers
Sir Edward Frankland (QMUL & ICL)
Rosalind Franklin (KCL & BBK)
Victor Gold (KCL)
Leticia González (KCL)
Otto Hahn (UCL)
Sir Walter Haworth (ICL)
Jaroslav Heyrovský (UCL)
Sir Graham Hills (BBK)
August Wilhelm von Hofmann (ICL)
Sir Cyril Hinshelwood (ICL)
Sir Herbert Jackson (KCL)
Sir Aaron Klug (BBK)
Michael Levitt (KCL)
Nick Lane (UCL)
Catherine Nobes (UCL)
Augustine Ong (KCL)
Geoffrey Ozin (KCL)
Arthur Thomas Palin, pioneer in water quality testing
Sir William Henry Perkin (ICL)
William Henry Perkin, Jr. (ICL)
Raymond Peters (KCL)
Sir George Porter (ICL/UCL)
Juda Hirsch Quastel (ICL)
Sir William Ramsay (UCL)
Sir Robert Robinson (UCL)
Eric Scerri (KCL)
Sir Frederick Soddy (UCL)
Richard Laurence Millington Synge (LI)
Sir Jocelyn Field Thorpe (KCL)
Alexander Robertus Todd (LI)
Matthew H. Todd (QMUL & UCL)
Vincent du Vigneaud (UCL)
Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson (ICL)
Rob Williams
Computer Scientists
Steve Bourne (KCL)
Ian H. S. Cullimore (KCL)
Darren Dalcher (KCL)
Dora Metcalf (KCL)
Hassan Ugail (KCL)
Engineers and Inventors
Sir William Anderson (KCL)
Rutherford Aris
Ayodele Awojobi (ICL)
Richard Beeching, Baron Beeching (ICL)
Alexander Graham Bell (UCL)
Henry Brogden (KCL)
Henry Marc Brunel (KCL)
William Clark (KCL)
Donald Watts Davies (ICL)
Henry Deane (KCL)
James H. Ellis (ICL)
Tommy Flowers
Sir Douglas Fox (KCL)
Sir Stanley Hooker (ICL)
Sir Alec Issigonis (ULIP)
Walter Katte (KCL)
Frederick William Lanchester (ICL)
Sir William Henry Preece (KCL)
Alec Reeves (ICL)
Bill Strang (KCL)
Thomas Walker (KCL)
Sir Charles Wheatstone (KCL)
Mark Whitby (KCL)
Sir John Wolfe-Barry (KCL)
Geologists, Environmental Scientists and Physical Geographers
George Barrow (KCL)
Henry William Bristow (KCL)
Robert Ashington Bullen (KCL)
David Edgar Cartwright (KCL)
Sir George Deacon (KCL)
Archibald Thomas John Dollar (KCL)
William Fyfe (ICL)
Arthur Holmes (ICL)
Rosemary Hutton
Mike Hulme (KCL)
David Lary (KCL)
David Linton (KCL)
Sir Charles Lyell (KCL)
Halford John Mackinder (LSE)
Grant Mossop (ICL)
Charles F. Newcombe
Sir Dudley Stamp (KCL)
Sir Gilbert Walker (ICL)
Sidney Wooldridge (KCL)
John Anthony Allan (SOAS and KCL)
John Milne – inventor of the seismometer (KCL)
James Haward Taylor (KCL)
Errol White (KCL)
Immunologists
Anne O'Garra (UCL)
Noreen Murray – molecular geneticist who helped develop a vaccine against Hepatitis B (KCL)
Max Theiler – 1951 Nobel laureate who developed a vaccine against yellow fever (KCL)
Mathematicians
Sir David Cox (BBK & ICL)
Sir Arthur Lyon Bowley (LSE)
Simon Donaldson (ICL)
Patrick du Val (ULIP)
Louis Mordell (BBK)
Klaus Roth (UCL & ICL)
Tom Willmore (KCL)
David Acheson (KCL)
Colin Bushnell (KCL)
Keith Devlin (KCL)
Graham Everest (KCL)
Aubrey William Ingleton (KCL)
Leon Mirsky (KCL)
Sir Martin Taylor (KCL)
Henry William Watson (KCL)
Psychologists, Sociologists and Anthropologists
Havelock Ellis (KCL)
Dame Uta Frith (KCL)
Dinesh Bhugra (KCL)
Akbar S. Ahmed (SOAS)
Fei Xiaotong (LSE)
Anthony Giddens (LSE)
David Hirsh
Carol Jeffrey
Satoshi Kanazawa (LSE)
Ernest Krausz (1931-2018)
Bronislaw Malinowski (LSE)
Karl Mannheim (LSE)
Z.K. Mathews (LSE)
Humphry Osmond (KCL)
Talcott Parsons (LSE)
J. Philippe Rushton (BBK)
Jane Stewart
Arthur Waley (SOAS)
Ulrike Schmidt (KCL)
Raymond Cattell (KCL)
Physicians
Tedros Adhanom (LSHTM), 8th Director-General of the World Health Organization
Edgar Adrian (QMUL)
Francis Anstie (KCL)
Simon Baron-Cohen (KCL)
Thomas Gregor Brodie (KCL)
Edgar Crookshank (KCL)
Henry Hallett Dale (QMUL)
Ara Darzi, Baron Darzi of Denham (ICL)
David Blow (ICL)
Dr Thomas Bond (KCL)
Michael Foster (UCL)
Henry Gray (SGUL)
Thomas Hodgkin (KCL)
John Hunter (SGUL)
William Hunter (SGUL)
Edward Jenner (SGUL)
Joseph Lister (KCL)
Peter Mansfield (QMUL)
J. F. O. Mustapha
Sir Victor Ewings Negus (KCL)
Ronald Ross (QMUL)
Patrick Steptoe (SGUL)
John Vane (QMUL)
Robert Winston, Baron Winston (ICL/QMUL)
Guy Alfred Wyon
Nurses
Florence Nightingale (KCL)
Cicely Saunders (KCL)
Alice Fisher (KCL)
Lucy Osburn (KCL)
Emmy Rappe (KCL)
Henny Tscherning (KCL)
Theodora Turner (KCL)
Kofoworola Abeni Pratt (KCL)
Physicists and Astronomers
Sir Edward Appleton (KCL)
Charles Barkla (KCL)
J. D. Bernal (BBK)
Patrick Blackett, Baron Blackett (ICL)
Sir William Henry Bragg (UCL)
Jocelyn Burnell (UCL)
Louis Essen
Sir John Ambrose Fleming (UCL)
Dennis Gabor (ICL)
Raymond Gosling (KCL)
Peter Higgs (KCL)
Charles K. Kao (UCL/ICL)
Geraint F. Lewis
Kathleen Lonsdale (RHUL & UCL)
Robert May, Baron May of Oxford (ICL)
James Clerk Maxwell (KCL)
William George Penney (ICL)
Sir Owen Richardson (KCL)
Abdus Salam (ICL)
Keith Shine (ICL)
Simon Singh (ICL)
Duncan Steel
Edward Teller (UCL)
Sir George Paget Thomson (ICL)
Edward James Stone (KCL)
Michael Fisher (KCL)
Thomas Young (SGUL)
Andrew Fabian (KCL)
Claudio Maccone (KCL)
Marcelo Gleiser (KCL)
Louis Slotin (KCL)
John Edwin Midwinter (KCL)
The arts
Novelists, Poets and Playwrights
Dannie Abse (KCL)
John Adair (KCL)
Alfred Ainger (KCL)
Richard Aldington (UCL)
Mulk Raj Anand (UCL)
Alfred Austin
J. G. Ballard (QMUL)
Arnold Bennett
Alain de Botton (KCL)
Sir Malcolm Bradbury (QMUL)
Raymond Briggs (UCL)
Anita Brookner (KCL)
Robert Browning (UCL)
G. K. Chesterton (UCL)
Arthur C. Clarke (KCL)
Dame Ivy Compton-Burnett (RHUL)
Bernard Cornwell
Richmal Crompton (RHUL)
George Eliot (RHUL)
T. S. Eliot (BBK)
Nissim Ezekiel (BBK)
C. S. Forester (KCL)
Sir W. S. Gilbert (KCL)
Ann Granger
Michael Grothaus (CITY)
Radclyffe Hall (KCL)
Thomas Hardy (KCL)
Susan Hill (KCL)
Ruth Prawer Jhabvala (QMUL)
John Keats (KCL)
Charles Kingsley (KCL)
Hanif Kureishi (KCL)
W. Somerset Maugham (KCL)
Natyaguru Nurul Momen
Michael Morpurgo (KCL)
Andrew Motion (RHUL)
China Miéville (LSE)
Gladys Mitchell (GCUL)
John Ruskin (KCL)
Lao She (SOAS)
Sir Leslie Stephen (KCL)
H. G. Wells (ICL & ULIP)
Virginia Woolf (KCL)
Samir El-Youssef
Actors, Comedians and TV Stars
Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje (KCL)
Sir David Attenborough (LSE)
Rory Bremner (KCL)
Graham Chapman (QMUL)
Julian Clary (GCUL)
Nazia Hassan (GCUL)
Zoheb Hassan (GCUL)
Greer Garson (KCL)
Ricky Gervais (UCL)
Loyd Grossman (LSE)
Harry Hill (SGUL)
Emma Freud (RHUL)
Cairns James
Dom Joly (SOAS)
Boris Karloff
Robert Kilroy-Silk (LSE)
Bill O'Reilly (QMUL)
Devika Rani (RAM)
Mark Strong (RHUL)
Bree Turner (KCL)
Sir Charles Wyndham (KCL)
Directors and Film-Makers
Herbert Brenon (KCL)
Derek Jarman (KCL)
Natyaguru Nurul Momen
Laura Mulvey (BBK)
Christopher Nolan (UCL)
Musicians, Composers and Conductors
Nazia Hassan – singer (KCL)
Filiz Ali – pianist and musicologist (KCL)
Peter Asher – musician and record producer (KCL)
Sir John Barbirolli – conductor (RAM)
Arnold Bax – composer (RAM)
Sir Richard Rodney Bennett – composer (RAM)
Sir Harrison Birtwistle – composer (RAM & KCL)
Fiona Brice – violinist (KCL)
Dennis Brain – French hornist (RAM)
Ming Bridges – singer (KCL)
David Bruce – composer (KCL)
Steven Burke – video game music composer and sound designer (KCL)
Bernard Butler – Suede (QMUL)
John Cale – The Velvet Underground (GCUL)
Coldplay members Chris Martin, Will Champion, and Jon Buckland (UCL)
John Dankworth – jazz composer (RAM)
John Deacon – Queen (KCL)
Suzi Digby – conductor and musician (KCL)
Pete Doherty – The Libertines (QMUL)
Adam Dick – Two Crown King (LSE)
Bruce Dickinson – Iron Maiden (QMUL)
John Evan – keyboardist for Jethro Tull (KCL)
Lesley Garrett – soprano (RAM)
Sir John Eliot Gardiner – conductor (KCL)
Sir W. S. Gilbert – one half of Gilbert and Sullivan (KCL)
Evelyn Glennie – percussionist (RAM)
Dame Myra Hess – pianist (RAM)
Terence Yung - pianist (UOL)
Sir Clifford Curzon – pianist (RAM)
Sir Simon Rattle – conductor (RAM)
Joe Jackson (RAM)
Mick Jagger – The Rolling Stones (LSE)
Alex James – Blur (GCUL)
Sir Elton John (RAM)
Linton Kwesi Johnson (GCUL)
Judge Jules – trance DJ, BBC Radio 1 (LSE)
Dame Felicity Lott – soprano (RHUL & RAM)
Brian May – Queen (ICL)
Brian Molko – Placebo (GCUL)
Michael Nyman – composer (KCL & RAM)
Kele Okereke – Bloc Party (KCL)
Denise Orme – music hall singer (RAM)
Mat Osman – Suede (LSE)
Alec Palao – musician, music historian, producer (KCL)
Sir Arthur Sullivan – one half of Gilbert and Sullivan (RAM)
Howard Talbot – composer and conductor (KCL)
Jody Talbot – composer (RHUL)
Jeffrey Tate – conductor (KCL)
Adnan Sami (KCL)
Gilli Smyth – musician who performed with Gong amongst others (KCL)
KT Tunstall – singer-songwriter (RHUL)
Dame Eva Turner – opera singer (RAM)
Maxim Vengerov – violinist (RAM)
Sir Henry Wood – conductor (RAM)
Dido (singer) – singer and songwriter (BBK)
Yiruma – pianist (KCL)
Justin Hayward Young – lead singer of The Vaccines (KCL)
Artists
Pegaret Anthony (KCL)
Bernd Behr (GCUL)
Vanessa Bell (KCL)
Albert Bruce-Joy (KCL)
Joseph Crawhall III (KCL)
Ian Davenport (GCUL)
Grenville Davey (GCUL)
Tristram Ellis (KCL)
Peter Henry Emerson (KCL)
Tracey Emin (GCUL)
Anya Gallaccio (GCUL)
Cyril Wiseman Herbert (KCL)
Damien Hirst (GCUL)
Gary Hume (GCUL)
Michael Landy (GCUL)
Sarah Lucas (GCUL)
Wendy McMurdo (GCUL)
Ross McNicol (KCL)
Steve McQueen (GCUL)
Cathy de Monchaux (GCUL)
Ronald Moody (KCL)
Richard Mosse (KCL)
Robyn O'Neil (KCL)
Simon Patterson (GCUL)
Mary Quant – fashion designer (GCUL)
Bridget Riley (GCUL)
Mark Wallinger (GCUL)
Sophia Wellbeloved (KCL)
Gillian Wearing (GCUL)
Catherine Yass (GCUL)
Businesspeople
Lim Kok Thay — Malaysia Billionaire, Chairman & CEO of Genting Group
Rakesh Aggarwal (KCL)
Sir David Arculus – chairman of the Board O2 (LBS)
Delphine Arnault – billionaire French businesswoman (LSE)
Walter Owen Bentley – founder of Bentley Motors (KCL)
Kumar Mangalam Birla – Chairman of Aditya Birla Group (LBS)
Michael Cowpland – founder of Corel (ICL)
Isabel dos Santos – Africa's richest woman and its first female billionaire (KCL)
Clara Furse – Chief Executive of the London Stock Exchange (LSE)
Calouste Gulbenkian – Armenian oil magnate (KCL)
Sir Richard Greenbury – former chairman and Chief Executive of Marks & Spencer (LBS)
Stelios Haji-Ioannou – founder of EasyGroup (LSE)
Klaus Heymann – entrepreneur & founder of Naxos Records (KCL)
Omar Ishrak – Chairman & CEO of Medtronic (KCL)
Huw Jenkins – CEO of UBS Investment Bank (LBS)
Sir Ronald Norman (KCL)
Sir Edward Packard (KCL)
Moez Kassam – Founder of Anson Group (LBS)
Spiro Latsis – billionaire (LSE)
Charles Lee – Former chairman of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange (LSE)
Sir Deryck Maughan – CEO and Chairman of Salomon Brothers (KCL)
Eric Nicoli – CEO of EMI (KCL)
Jorma Ollila – Former CEO of Nokia (LSE)
Gary Tanaka – founder of Amerindo(ICL)
David E. Potter – founder and Chairman of Psion, Chairman of Symbian (ICL)
Danny Lui – founder of Lenovo (ICL)
Sir Ralph Robins (CEO of Rolls-Royce) (ICL)
Sir Alliott Verdon Roe (KCL)
Chew Choon Seng – CEO of Singapore Airlines (ICL)
David Rockefeller – American billionaire and business tycoon (LSE)
Iain Conn – Group Managing Director of BP (ICL)
Tim Pryce – CEO of Terra Firma Capital Partners (KCL)
David Sullivan – billionaire businessman; media magnate, West Ham United football club owner (QMUL)
Colin Dyer – CEO of Jones Lang LaSalle (ICL)
Maurice Saatchi – founder of Saatchi and Saatchi (LSE)
Winston Wong – businessman (ICL)
Sir Richard Sykes – chairman of GlaxoSmithKline (KCL)
Keith Duckworth – founder of Cosworth Engineering (ICL)
Michael Birch – founder of Bebo (ICL)
Koh Boon Hwee – Chairman of DBS Bank, Singapore(ICL)
George Soros – financial speculator and philanthropist (LSE)
Stephen Bernard Streater – founder of Eidos (KCL)
Sir David Tang – businessman and founder of Shanghai Tang fashion chain (KCL)
Tony Wheeler – founder of Lonely Planet (LBS)
Naveen Selvadurai – co-founder of Foursquare (KCL)
Economists
George Akerlof (LSE)
Sir Roy Allen (LSE)
Eurfyl ap Gwilym (KCL)
Kenneth Binmore (ICL)
Ronald Coase (UOL & LSE)
William Cunningham (KCL)
Robert F. Engle III (LSE)
Fred Harrison
Friedrich von Hayek (LSE)
James Heckman (UCL)
Sir John Hicks (LSE)
Leonid Hurwicz (LSE)
William Stanley Jevons (UCL)
Richard Jones (KCL)
Charles Kennedy (ICL)
Israel Kirzner (ULIP)
Mervyn King (LSE)
Paul Krugman (LSE)
Sir Arthur Lewis (LSE)
James Meade (LSE)
Merton Miller (LSE)
Robert Mundell (LSE)
Mark Pennington (LSE & KCL)
Christopher Pissarides (LSE)
Lionel Robbins (LSE)
Amartya Sen (LSE)
Nicholas Stern (LSE)
Sidney Webb, 1st Baron Passfield (BBK & KCL)
Janet Yellen (LSE)
Historians
Ali M. Ansari (KCL)
Ram Sharan Sharma eminent Historian of Ancient India
Sir Raymond Beazley (KCL)
Antony Beevor (BBK)
Matthew Bennett (KCL)
Brian Bond (KCL)
Asa Briggs, Baron Briggs (ULIP)
Sir William Laird Clowes (KCL)
Sebastian Cox (KCL)
Paul Davis (KCL)
Henri Dorra (KCL)
Richard J. Evans (BBK)
Orlando Figes (BBK)
Katherine Elizabeth Fleming (KCL)
Ian Gooderson (KCL)
Andrew Gordon (KCL)
Judith Green (KCL)
Mark Grimsley (KCL)
Eric Grove (KCL)
Richard Grunberger (KCL)
D. G. E. Hall (KCL)
Christopher Harper-Bill (KCL)
Eric Hobsbawm (BBK)
David Irving (ICL)
Robert Knecht (KCL)
Amélie Kuhrt (KCL)
Andrew Lambert (KCL)
Bernard Lewis (SOAS)
Desmond Morton (LSE)
Percy Newberry (KCL)
Peter Paret (KCL)
Sir Nikolaus Pevsner (BBK)
Ben Pimlott (BBK)
David Rohl (UCL)
Philip Sabin (KCL)
George Albert Wells (BBK)
Conrad Russell (UCL)
David Cannadine (UL)
Arnaldo Momigliano (UCL)
Gary Sheffield (KCL)
Anne Somerset (KCL)
Geoffrey Till (KCL)
Colin White (KCL)
Donald Wiseman (KCL)
Journalists
Anita Anand (KCL)
Ruaridh Arrow (KCL)
Martin Bashir (KCL)
Cyril Kenneth Bird (KCL)
Lisa Brennan-Jobs (KCL)
Sana Bucha (KCL)
Daniel Ford (KCL)
Edward Greenspon (LSE)
Sydney Jacobson, Baron Jacobson (KCL)
Ellie Harrison (KCL)
Charles Franklin Hildebrand
Bernard Levin (LSE)
Michael Lewis (LSE)
Sophie Long (KCL)
Jonathan Maitland (KCL)
Ira Mathur (KCL)
Hargreaves Parkinson (KCL)
Trevor Phillips (ICL)
Chapman Pincher (KCL)
Richard Sambrook (BBK)
Laurie Taylor (BBK)
Xiao Qian (SOAS)
Claire Rayner (KCL)
Tom Rogan (KCL)
Roger Royle (KCL)
John Sandes (KCL)
Nicholas Stuart (KCL)
Judges and lawyers
Harry Woolf, Baron Woolf, Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales (UCL)
George Leggatt, Lord Leggatt, Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (CITY)
Gordon Slynn, Baron Slynn of Hadley, Lord of Appeal in Ordinary (GCUL)
Dixon Kwame Afreh, Justice of the Supreme Court of Ghana (2002–2003) (UOL)
Christopher Weeramantry, Judge and vice-president of the International Court of Justice (UOL)
Yang Ti-liang, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (UCL)
Leslie Gibson (judge), Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (UOL)
Joseph Horsford Kemp, Attorney General and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (UOL)
Meigh Goodman, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (UOL)
Fielding Clarke, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (UOL & KCL)
Roberto Ribeiro (judge), Permanent Judge of the Court of Final Appeal (LSE)
Woo Kwok-hing, Vice-President of the Court of Appeal of the High Court (UCL)
Joseph Fok, Permanent Judge of the Court of Final Appeal (UCL)
Teresa Cheng, Secretary for Justice (Hong Kong) (UOL)
Michael David Thomas, Attorney General of Hong Kong (LSE)
Wong King Wah, Registrar (Hong Kong) (UOL)
Peter Cheung (judge), Justice of Appeal of the Court of Appeal of the High Court (UOL)
Michael Hartmann, Chairman of the Hong Kong Market Misconduct Tribunal and the Securities and Futures Appeals Tribunal and Non-Permanent Judge of the Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong (UOL)
Jeremy Poon, Chief Judge of the High Court (UCL)
Joseph Fok, Permanent Judge of the Court of Final Appeal (UCL)
Carlye Chu, Vice President of the Court of Appeal of the High Court (LSE)
Maria Yuen, Justice of Appeal of the Court of Appeal of the High Court (UOL)
Andrew Chan (judge), Judge of the Court of First Instance of the High Court (UOL)
Bola Ajibola, Judge of the International Court of Justice (UOL)
William Brett, 1st Viscount Esher - Master of the Rolls (KCL).
Philippe Couvreur – Registrar at the International Court of Justice (KCL)
Abdul Koroma – Judge of the International Court of Justice (KCL)
Patrick Lipton Robinson – Judge of the International Court of Justice (KCL)
Meir Shamgar – President/Chief Justice of the Israel Supreme Court (UOL)
Michael Ashikodi Agbamuche – Nigerian Attorney General (KCkimL)
Salahuddin Ahmad – Attorney General of Bangladesh (LSE)
Edward Williams, Judge of the Supreme Court of Queensland, Australia (UOL)
Syed Ishtiaq Ahmed – former Attorney General of Bangladesh (LSE)
Dame Geraldine Andrews (KCL)
Sir Robin Auld – Lord Justice of Appeal (KCL)
Sir Horace Avory – Judge and criminal lawyer (KCL)
Sir Harry Dias Bandaranaike – Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Ceylon (KCL)
Sir Harold Bollers – Chief Justice of Guyana (KCL)
Kofi Adumua Bossman – Justice of the Supreme Court of Ghana (KCL)
Sir Mackenzie Chalmers (KCL)
Francis Chang-Sam – Seychellois Attorney General (KCL)
Dame Bobbie Cheema-Grubb – High Court Judge (KCL)
Sir Fielding Clarke – Chief Justice of Fiji, Hong Kong and Jamaica (KCL)
Segun Toyin Dawodu – physician, entrepreneur, journalist, attorney and founder Dawodu.com (KCL/UOL)
Edmund Davies, Baron Edmund-Davies – Lord Justice of Appeal and Law Lord (KCL)
Albert Venn Dicey – English jurist (ICL)
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Jack Higgins, British writer
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References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambroughton
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Lambroughton
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Lambroughton is a village in the old Barony of Kilmaurs, Scotland. This is a rural area famous for its milk and cheese production and the Ayrshire or Dunlop breed of cattle.
Although Kilmaurs is in the council area of East Ayrshire, Lambroughton is now in fact in North Ayrshire, part of a narrow finger of land included in that council area with the parish of Dreghorn.
Origins of the name
The lands of Lambroughton lie in the parish of Dreghorn. A Laird of Lamrochton is recorded in the 14th century. The place name has many variants, such as, Lambruchton, Lambrochton, Lamrochtoune (1544), Lambrachton, Lambrachtoun, Lambrachtoune (1332), Lambroughtoune (1794), Lambriegton, Lambughton (1672), Lambructon (1669), Lammerachtounhead (1745–1755), Lamburghtonn (1776), Lambroychtoune (1561), Lambrieghton and Lambristoune. The 'Mc' part of the name was dropped and Lamrochton became Lambroughton after passing through several intermediate stages. There are several modern farms with 'Lambroughton' incorporated, namely 'Townhead of Lambroughton', 'East Lambroughton', 'West Lambroughton' and 'Mid Lambroughton'. Timothy Pont's map of 'Cuninghamia', surveyed in the early 17th century (1604–1608), but not published until the 1654 atlas by Joan Blaeu indicates the place names of 'Lambrochmill', 'Mains of Lambrochton' and 'Lambrochton B.(bridge?)'. Ainslie in 1821 only names Lambriegtonend and Lambriegton for Mid Lambroughton.
Many of the name forms give a soft pronunciation to the 'gh', as in 'Lamberton', however the original Scots pronunciation may have been more like the 'och' in 'loch', thus 'Lambrochton' would be closer to the original.
The Cunningham family's connection with Lambroughton
The Barony was originally held by the powerful De Morville family. The feudal allocation of tenements to the vassals of De Morville was carried out very carefully, with the boundaries being walked and recorded. The term 'ton' at this time was added to the site of the dwelling house, not necessarily a grand stone-built structure, which was bounded by a wall or fence. The tenements were held in a military tenure, the land being in exchange for military assistance to the overlord. In later years the military assistance could be exchanged for financial payment. Robertson records Lambruchton as one of the many lands held by the De Morvilles.
It is likely that the Lambroughton mentioned in the early records refer to the site the farm now known as Townhead of Lambroughton. Pont records a Mains of Lambrochtoun in 1604 and as the term 'mains' refers to the home farm of an estate, cultivated by or for the 'owner', then we can assume that the main dwelling was here or hereabouts. The 'place ' of Lambroughtoun is mentioned in 1544. It was the custom of a landowner or farmer to take the name of the land which he owned or cultivated.
Warnebald/Wernebald or Vernebald from Flanders was a vassal of Hugh de Morville (died 1202), hereditary Constable of Scotland. They both came to Scotland via Burg in Cumbria. Hugh granted the Barony of Kilmaurs to Wernebald in around 1140 and Lambrochton was the most important of the lands given in this grant
The earliest reference to the use of the Lambroughton name in any form of personal context seems to be that of a William de Lambristoune who was a witness to a charter conveying the lands of Pokellie (Pokelly) from Sir Gilchrist More to a Ronald Mure at a date around 1280. We do not know if this William was a Cunninghame, however we are told by Timothy Pont the cartographer and topographer in the early 17th century that Lambrouchtoune was the "ancientest inheritance of the predecessors of the Cunninghames of Glencairne". Kennedy records that Lambroughton was part of the dowry of a grand-daughter of the High Constable.
The Barony of Kilmaurs was composed of the lands of Buston, also Bowieston and Buythstoun (now Buiston), Fleuris (now Floors), Lambroughton, Whyrrig, (now Wheatrig) and previously Quhytrige, and Southwick or Southuck (now South Hook). South Hook (previously also Southeuck or Seurnbenck) is near Knockentiber and was part of the tenement of Lambroughton within the barony, showing that the lands of Lambroughton were fairly sizeable at one time.
King Alexander II (1198–1249) gave the whole barony of Kilmaurs to Henry de Conyghame and then it is recorded that all the lands of Cunyngham were granted to a Robert Stuart, son of Walter (before 1321). Robert the Bruce, who ruled from 1306 to 1329, rewarded his loyal supporters, the Cunninghames, by granting the lands of Lambrachton and Polquharne (also Polcarn) to a Hugo de Cunynghame of Lambroughton who died without issue and in 1321 the king then gave the lands of Lambrachton and Grugere to Robertus de Conyngham of Kilmaurs. This Robert was then known as Robert de Cunninghame of Lambroughton.
These grants were to the exclusion of the Morville heirs. Prominent 13th-century nobleman Alan of Galloway was a maternal grandson of Richard de Morville, and two of his granddaughters, Margaret and Elena (Ela) de Quincy, married into the de Ferrers and de la Zouche families. Cousins Alan de la Zouche and William de Ferrers had held these lands, but were dispossessed. The 1328 Northampton peace treaty between Scotland and England did not return lands to those who had suffered forfeiture. During the reign of Edward II the dispossessed lords, including de la Zouche and De Ferrers, under the leadership of Edward Balliol invaded Scotland and may have regained their lands temporarily. In 1363 under the treaty of David II with Edward III of England, the lord 'Ferrars' was still trying to repossess lands in Scotland.
The importance of the tenement is illustrated by the efforts made by dispossessed lords to recover them and by fact that William Cunninghame of Lamberton (see 'Lamberton in the Scottish Borders') (1297–1328) was Bishop of St. Andrews in 1322 and he was the 'Guardian of Scotland' for a time during the inter-regnum when Cumyn, Baliol, Bruce and others were disputing the crown of Scotland.
King Robert III (1340–1406) granted the lands of Lambrochton and Kilmaurs to Sir William Cuninghame. Another source states that the lands of Lamburgton (sic) were granted to the family by Royal Charter in 1319 following the Cunningham support at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, being an addition to their Kilmaurs lands. Robert Stewart, first Duke of Albany (Brother of King Robert III) later granted these lands to Robert Cuninghame. In 1413 Sir William de Cunynghame Lord of Kilmaurs endowed the collegiate church at Kilmaurs with all of his lands of the Southuck (now South Hook) within the tenement of Lambrachtoun and other properties. The income was to pay for three priests to say prayers for the safety of his soul, that of his parents and of Hervy the church's founder, etc. In 1346 a William Baillie, the Baillie of Lambistoun or Lambimtoun, vulgarly called Lamington is listed by Dalrymple amongst the prisoners taken by the English at the Battle of Durham which had taken place on 17 October of that year. He was in the company of a Thomas Boyd of Kilmarnock and Andrew Campbell of Loudoun. Details of the Lairds of Lambroughton are contained within the papers of Dick Cunyngham (1627) of Prestonfield, Midlothian.
The Cunninghame chiefs had only a slight connection with the barony of Kilmaurs after 1484 when Finlaystone became the family seat. Sir William Cunningham of Kilmaurs had married Margaret Denniston, sole heir to Sir Robert Denniston in 1405. The dowry included the baronies of Denniston and Finlaystone in Renfrewshire, the lands of Kilmaronock in Dumbartonshire, and the barony of Glencairn in Dumfrieshire. In 1616, many parcels of land belonging to the Barony of Kilmaurs were disposed of, together with Kilmaurs place and other possessions. In 1520, Lambrochton was acquired by Hugh, first Earl of Eglintoun (see Townhead of Lambroughton). Paterson (1866) states that Lambruchton was one of the lands inherited by Alexander Cuninghame of Corshill in May 1546, held by right of Royal Charter.
John Howie, prior to the Scottish Reformation, was a vicar and occupant of the lands of Lambrochton. He was later installed as the first Protestant Reader at Kilmaurs.
In 1632, Alexander Conyngham had Lambroughton and Crumshaw Mills; in 1640, Johne Conyngham held part of the lands of Langmure, probably including Lambroughton, at a valuation of £200 a year, the rest being held by Stewart Fergushill at £66, 12 shillings and 10 pence.
In 1667, Mr. John Cuninghame of Lambrughton (later Sir John) was one of the thirteen Commissioners of Supply for Ayrshire. The main purpose of the commissioners was to organise the collection, in an effective manner, of taxes. Their significance was that they held their power directly from royal authority and not as a feudal right. They later took on the role of organising education and the control of roads, bridges and ferries. They were replaced in 1890 by the County Councils, but survived with a few vestigial functions until 1929.
Sir John Cunninghame of Lambroughton was the patron of Dreghorn and Kilmaurs kirks in 1670. He was an advocate, one of the most distinguished lawyers of his day, and obtained the sanction of parliament to use vacant stipends for the purpose of repairing churches and manses in these parishes. He already possessed the lands of Lambruchton, before acquiring in 1683 the barony of Caprington from John, Earl of Glencairn. John Cuninghame of Broomhill, Lambructon, and Caprington was created a baronet on 21 September 1669 to him and his male heirs only. and died 1684, succeeded by his son, Sir William, who is titled 'of Caprington' only. The history of the family is that of the Cunninghame's of Caprington from this point on. In 1667 John Cuninghame of Lambrochton (sic) sold Brounehill to William Cuninghame. The property had been held by the Cuninghame of Lagland, cadets of the Earls of Glencairn.
In 1675, Sir John Cunninghame Bart., conveyed to Robert Cunningham, druggist / apothecary, Edinburgh, the lands of 'Langmuir, Langsyde, Auldtoun and Lambrochtoune in whose family they seem to have remained until 1820, when George Cunninghame was the owner. This same Robert was cousin-german to Anne, daughter of Sir Robert Cunynghame of Auchinharvie and inherited the lands of Crivoch-Lindsay, together with Crivoch corn mill and Fairlie-Crivoch, including the Chapel lands and glebe of Fairlie-Crivoch. See Chapeltoun.
Various mentions are made to a Thirdpart, such as in 1574, when it was a thirdpart or 5 merkland of Lambroughtoun Robertoune, being in that barony and not part of the Barony of Kilmaurs.
Townhead of Lambroughton (Lambrochtoune) itself must have passed to the Longmuirs by 1734, as it is recorded by McNaught that Gabriel Longmuir of what is now High Langmuir owned the farm at this date.
Townhead of Lambroughton
Armstrong's map of 1775 shows a Lamberton, Pont's map of the 17th century shows a Mains of Lambrochton, Arrowsmith in 1807 shows Lamberton, Ainslie's map of 1821 shows a Lambrieghtonend and finally Aitken's map of 1829 gives a Townhead of Lamberton, occupied by a Mr. Orr Esq. References to Lambroughtonend seem to be a confusion with the old farm of that name which was abandoned when East Lambroughton was built.
By 1866, Alexander Orr Esq. is the owner of Townhead of Lambroughton. The name Lambroughton Head is however indicated by the 1858 and 1895 OS maps, but finally by 1897, the 6 inches to the mile OS shows the name Townhead of Lambroughton, which it has retained ever since. In 1561, the site is referred to as the Town of Lambroychtoune.
The old Stewarton to Irvine road seems to have run through the group of buildings at Lambroughton and as it no longer does, then its course would probably have been altered when the turnpike road was constructed in the 1760s. The old entrance onto the Chapeltoun to Kilmaurs road is no longer in use, but it may represent part of the original route of the 1775 road and some evidence of a road running through the farmyard and out to run behind Laigh Castleton farm is evident from ground conditions. A lane also ran off a crossroads (now a 'T' junction of sorts) near Floors and ran down to the farm as shown on Ainslie's 1821 map. A lane ran from Mid Lamb. directly to Townhead of Lamb until the turnpike was constructed.
McNaught states that one Hugh Lamberton, a merchant of Glasgow, left £300 in the early 19th century as the Lamberton Mortification to be used to provide fuel, food or clothing for the local poor. He may have come from Townhead of Lambroughton, as he was obviously a man with strong local connections.
A marriage stone built into a wall on the farm reads 'AL MR 1707'. This may be Alexander Langmuir; however, it predates the ownership of the farm by his father Gabriel Longmuir in 1734. Another stone bears a date which seems to be 1724 and was part of a two-story building demolished in 2006.
Reid's Family History gives the occupants, but not necessarily the owners, with Alexander Langmuir in 1532, John in 1603, Alexander in 1609 and his first wife Isabel (nee Langmure) and daughter Isabel. His second wife was Janet Tod. In 1666 we have Alexander Langmure, John Langmuir in 1710, Alexander in 1721, John Langmuir in 1730 and Gabriel Langmuir in 1730, who as stated below, was an owner occupier. Alexander Langmuir was living there in 1762 and in 1794 Alexander Longmuir was referred to in papers held in the Scottish National Archives as a 'Portioner' of Lambroughton. The records of Dreghorn Parish church give these dates as the family tradition was to become church elders.
Samuelle Moors of Lambroughtoune purchased lands in Chapletoune from John Faulds of Kingswell Muir in 1709, with Thomas Brown as the tenant. An Adam Moor had been a previous occupant.
Townhead of Lambroughton (Lambrochtoune) itself must have passed to the Longmuirs by 1734 as it is recorded by McNaught that Gabriel Longmuir of what is now High Langmuir owned the farm at this date. In 1811–1813, Alexander Longmuir held the property, his wife being Margaret Roid (Reid). In 1820, Robertson gives Lambertonhead a rental value of £118, the proprietor being William Orr, Esq.
As stated, Lambrouchton-head was owned in 1734 by Gabriel Longmuir who was succeeded by Alexander Longmuir, whose sister, Margaret, married William Orr in Langmuir, Kilmaurs. Their eldest son William Orr succeeded to the property in 1808 and built the present mansion house. William married Grizell Lock of Hollybush in Paisley and had eight sons and two daughters. The eldest son, Alexander inherited the property in 1856 and married Margaret Gilmour of Dunlop. They had seven children who inherited the property conjointly. Alexander Orr Esquire of Lambroughton Mains died on 5 June 1860, aged 62, however Margaret lived on until the age of 92, dying on 22 December 1909. They were both buried in Dreghorn parish churchyard.
Townhead of Lambroughton is include in Davis's book and he records it as being a small estate long independent of the larger estates which surround it and comments on the old building of 1724.
The placename changed from Mains of Lambroughton in 1604, to Lambroughton-Head in 1858 and finally to Townhead of Lambroughton by 1897. The name change reflects the status of the site, from firstly being a 'ton' of the tenement held by the feudal vassal to a small estate amongst other Lambroughton farms to a modern farm amongst others of equal status. The usage of Townhead, Mid and Townend is quite commonly found when the same identifying 'surname' name is used.
Langmuir and its connection with Townhead of Lambroughton
The estate of Langmuir (now High Langmuir) used to include Auldtoun (previously Auldtoune), Langsyde, part of Lambroughton and also part of Busbie.
Lambroughtonend
The 1789 Montgomerie Estate Plan by Ainslie shows a farm by this name existing on the other side of the road from the existing East Lambroughton, reached by a lane branching off the toll road. Its lands encompass all of the field running down to the woods. It appears that this farm was demolished and East Lambroughton was built to replace it, recycling worked stones from the old farm can be seen in the present building (2010). The 'footprint' and some foundations stones of the old Lambroughtonend Farm can still be seen in the field (2010), next to the site of a small burn, now piped down to the Lochrig Burn. William Roy's map of 1745 - 47 shows a roughly 'L' shaped farm and tree belts at this location.
East Lambroughton Farm
Thomson's map of 1828 does not mark this farm, however Aitken's map of 1829 names the farm as 'Lamberton', however by 1858 the name becomes East Lambroughton, presumably to clarify potential confusion with the other farms, as indicated by the 6 in. to the mile OS map. East Lambroughton is shown but not named on the 1895 OS. East Lambroughton is not marked on the Pont's (1604) or Armstrong's (1775) map.
James Nairn was christened on 30 October 1788 in Stewarton. James lived in East Lambroughton in the 1841 and 1851 censuses. He died there on 17 October 1861. No record of marriage or children exists. The parents of local character, businessman, steam, tractor and agricultural implements enthusiast Frank 'Rob Roy' Neill lived here for a short while after they were married, moving to Kilmaurs after about a year. Frank's father was a Traction engine driver as witnessed by the Birth Certificate of his son. The father of Davie Smith of Peacockbank Farm was born here. Mr. Tom & Mrs. Nancy Forrest lived at East Lambroughton Cottages when they were first built. The Forrests moved to Byres Farm.
The farmhouse was eventually divided into three separate 'flats' with the three families being McNiven, Rae and Kelly. The McNiven's were the first occupants of Number 3, Chapeltoun Terrace and the Rae's were the first to occupy Number 4. Jimmy Rae had been the Ploughman at Castleton Farm. These council built houses are just across the field from the old farm buildings. Number 3 was later occupied in their retirement by John and Minnie Hastings of West Lambroughton and the Bull family lived at Number 1.
A traveller named Stanley Macallan lived as an unofficial occupant of the upper room for a while in the late 1980s.
The building seems to have been constructed from an extension of an existing cottage, a second floor being added using sandstone, rather than whinstone, probably taken from the demolished Lambroughton End farm. Many alterations are visible with several closed off door ways and windows.
Mid Lambroughton Farm
Aitken's 1829 map gives the name Mid Lamberton and Ainslie's 1821 map only records the farm as Lambreighton. The farm is not marked on the Pont's (1604) or Armstrong's (1775) map. On 17 June 1821 John Calderwood and his spouse Jean Templeton in Mid Lambrighton (sic) had a lawful daughter born 16 May and baptized at Dreghorn parish church, named Jean. The farm was originally a single story height and was thatched, however following a fire it was given a second floor, the changes being clearly 'readable' in the stonework of the external walls. During renovations a fire charred beam was found, strong enough to have been retained. James Forrest was a noted botanist and an active member of the Kilmarnock Glenfield Ramblers around the 1930s. A 'James Forrest, Farmer' is acknowledged by Strawhorn in his 'List of Helpers' for his account of the parish of Stewarton in 1951.
David Parker Forrest died on 11 January 1934 and is recorded on the impressive family memorial in Stewarton cemetery. The farm is marked on the 1858 OS with a milestone (Irvine 5¾ miles and Stewarton 1 mile) opposite its entrance, but now buried (see 'The Turnpike'). Close to the farm in a field near the 'cut' in the main road, is a large depression with a mound of earth, which is said locally to be the site of a meteorite strike. The 1897 OS of to the mile and other more recent OS maps show no pond or mound, backing up this belief. Drains are shown on the 1789 Montgomerie Estate map and a small bog is indicated in the corner of the field close to the toll road. When new sheds were being constructed circa 1950 a stone axe head was found, now preserved in the Dick Institute.
West Lambroughton Farm
Aitken's 1829 map gives the name as both South and West Lamberton on different pages. The farm is not marked on the Pont's (1604) or Armstrong's (1775) map. The farm does not appear on Ainslie's 1821 map, however it does appears on Thomson's 1828 map, with Townhead of Lambroughton next to it, known as Lambroughtonhead in the Montgomerie Estate plans. Lambroughtonend Farm no longer exists, having been replaced by East lambroughton. A lane which ran down to a ford across the river Annick at Bankend. John Allan and his wife Margaret Hunter lived here in the 19th century. John died, aged 67 in 1885 and was buried in Dreghorn Parish churchyard. In 1788 - 91 a smithy existed near the farm on the other side of the road beside the lane running to the ford and stepping stones.
Lambroughtonhead
As stated this farm is shown in the Montgomerie Estates plans by John Ainslie in 1789 as having existed on the other side of the toll road from West Lambroughton.
Lambroch Bridge, and the Garrier, Lochridge and Bracken Burns
Lambroch bridge could be a bridge over the Annick, however it seems to be located by Pont where the Brackenburn has its confluence with the Garrier (Previously Gawreer) burn. Alton, the 'Old Ton' is near to this confluence and a bridge over the rivulet would be important for access as the flow of water would have been much more substantial than today, especially during floods and the bridge could double as a dam if required. The Garrier burn is now seasonal as its headwaters are the drained loch at Lochside near Buiston, pronounced 'Biston', (previously Buston). The word 'Gaw' is the term given to a 'cut made by a plough'. The Garrier is still pronounced locally as 'Gawreer' locally despite the cartographers best efforts to change it to Garrier.
The Buiston loch is famous as the site of the Dark Ages crannog (lake dwelling) discovered and excavated by Duncan McNaught. Another possibility is that the bridge was over the Garrier burn near its confluence with the Lochridge (Lochrig) Burn between Cranshaw (now Hillhead) Farm and Wheatrig Farm. Some Ordnance Survey maps confuse the Brakenburn, which is near Kilmaurs, with the Garrier. A bridge would be a significant feature in the 17th century, when a ford was the usual way in which rivers were crossed, as dangerous as this was. See the note on Maid Morville's Mound commemorating the drowning of a De Morville daughter at a ford on the river Irvine near Dreghorn.
Lambroughton Crossroads
The Lambroughton Crossroads were the site for festivities where the farm hands would meet for singing, dancing and trials of strength. One 'ghost story' relates that when a well-liked and respected octogenarian farmer from West Lambroughton died in the 1990s, at around midnight on the night before the funeral the sound of dancing in hobnail boots could be heard coming from the crossroads with a tawny owl screeching its presence from a nearby telegraph pole for the first and only known time. The height above sea level is 74 metres at the centre of the crossroads.
Lambroch Mill
The existence of Lambroch Mill is shown up until 1775 (Armstrong, scale to 1 Mile), however the positioning is not near the river and unless the Lochridge (formerly Lochrig) burn was used to fill a millpond then the site was probably on the River Annick (previously Annoch (1791–1793), Annock or Annack Water) near where the farm of Laigh Castleton (formerly Nether Castleton) is situated. At one time Laigh Castleton was part of the Robertland Estate and more recently the Lainshaw estate.
A well-made lane runs from Laigh Castleton down to the River Annick. The shape of the enclosure at the end of this road, the presence of piles of stones and what may have been a weir fairly conclusively show this to have been the site of a mill. The 1829 Robert Aitken's survey and the 1858 OS map indicates 'stepping stones' here (the old weir) and a ford a hundred metres or so upstream. A building is indicated, which may have been the grain store on the other side of the river, the ford would have provided easy access. A track from here, the grain store, to High Chapeltoun is shown on one of Aitken's maps. Ploughing in this field did not bring up any stones, suggesting that this was a wooden building.
Running from nearly opposite the present entrance to Townhead of Lambroughton is what appears to have been a lane in 1829, leading directly to a mill, from Townhead of Lambroughton with hedgerow banks on either side. Grain could have been easily lowered down or flour hauled up from this lane's termination. This lane and the one to the mill site are clearly shown on the 1895 OS map, published in 1897. Laigh Castleton could also have been the miller's dwelling and farm, however it does not appear on a map by name until around 1828 and it is missing from Aitken's in 1829; the 1775 map has a building indicated, but it is named Mill, despite being set well back from the river. The name Mill could be interpreted as meaning that Laigh Castleton was linked with a mill though being the miller's dwelling. A 1779 Estate map of Lainshaw shows that lands to the East of the lane to the supposed mill belonged to Lambroughton.
Thirlage was the feudal law by which the laird could force all those farmers living on his lands to bring their grain to his mill to be ground. Additionally they had to carry out repairs on the mill, maintain the lade and weir, as well as conveying new millstones to the site. The Thirlage Law was repealed in 1779 and after this many mills fell out of use as competition and unsubsidised running costs took their toll. This may explain why no sign of the mill is visible on Thomson's 1828 map, Aitken's 1829 map, or the 1858 OS map. Other mills, such as Dalgarven Mill near Kilwinning, survived almost to the present day through a mixture of luck, a reliable water supply and investment at the right time. Dalgarven Mill is now a museum. The last unrestored working mill in Ayrshire was Coldstream near Beith which last worked in 1979; the last traditional Ayrshire miller being Andrew Smith.
Floors Farm
On Aitken's 1829 map Floors is recorded as 'Fleurs' and in 1572 it was written as 'Fluris' in a charter granted to John Cunninghame of The Hill, Kilmaurs. The farm is recorded as Meikle Floors, meaning Large or Big Floors, on the 1911 OS map. One possibility is that the farm is named after William de Ferreres who obtained lands in Lambrachton (sic) and Grugere (now Grugar) from Hugo de Morville, upon his marriage to his daughter Margaret in the 14th century. Allan de La Zuche married her sister Ela and was also given lands in Lambrachton (sic) and Grugere (now Grugar). It is not clear how the lands were apportioned other than the possible application of the name Ferreres to the farm now known as Floors, and thus a Ferreres to Fluris to Fleurs to Floors transition would provide an explanation. Floors does not however appear on either Pont's (1604–1608) or Armstrong's (1775) map.
Alexander Orr and his wife Mary Galt lived at 'Mikle Floors', as recorded on their tombstone in Dreghorn parish churchyard. He died in March 1784 aged 73. The family appear to be related to the Orrs of Townhead of Lambroughton. William Mair and his spouse Jane Richmond farmed 'Floors' in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. William died aged 79 on 24 March 1908 and Jane aged 64 on 12 April 1900. A forgotten tragedy is that of the accidental drowning at Floors of their 18-month-old son, William Wylie Mair, on 10 September 1864. They are all buried in the St Maurs-Glencairn churchyard. The 1897 OS map shows two ponds at Floors, a fair sized one situated to the left of the slope leading up to the railway bridge on the farm side and the other, a smaller one, near the buildings on the Titwood side of the farm. In 1861 the Eglinton Papers show that new barns, etc. were built at Floors by the Earl of Eglinton.
The Lady Constance coal mine was just across the railway line from the farm and was locally known as the 'Floors Mine'. Another Floors Farm is found at Eaglesham where Rudolf Hess crashed his Messerschmitt Bf 110 in 1941.
Alton, Wheatrig and Hillhead and Cranshaw Farms
Little Alton (Alton end in 1788 - 91) had a sluice and a dam indicated in the 1860 OS, causing the Garrier Burn to form a pond in the area on the opposite side of the lane. The purpose of this arrangement is unknown, however a Crumshaw or Crunshaw Mill (Cranshaw) is mentioned in several early 17th-century documents and this may have been the site or possibly up at Lochend, which is also mentioned as existing at that time. The name Cothouse is given to these two cottages in Aitken's 1829 map. A cothouse was a cottage tied to a farm labourer and latterly they were often used as homes for the old and infirm, usually widows. According to Aiton they had 'no internal partitions, no smoke-funnels or glass in the windows and had damp clay floors about square. Masons, wrights, smiths, shoe-makers and weavers sometimes lived in buildings of this general description.
Alton Farm (1912 & 1923), also Aulton (1820), Auldton, Auldtoun, Old Town (1807) and Oldtoun (1654 & 1775) has therefore been referred to as 'old' as far back as the early 17th century and it may have been one of the first 'touns' in the area. The term alltan in Gaelic is however the diminutive of allt, therefore a little stream, which fits well. Altonhead Farm lies nearby. As noted elsewhere, in 1675 Sir John Cunninghame Bart., conveyed to Robert Cunningham, druggist / apothecary, Edinburgh, the lands of 'Auldtoun, Langmuir, Langsyde and Lambrochtoune in whose family they seem to have remained until 1820, when George Cunninghame was the owner. The 1788 - 91 Eglinton Estate plans mark an Aulton Law just above the farm and below the small wood.
A track ran from Wheatrig, (previously Whatrig, Whiterig in 1775, Whiteriggs in 1832 and Whyrigg in 1654) Farm to Hillhead Farm. A Cranshaw Farm is marked in 1832 and 1821, but not marked in 1775. A cran in Scots was a "crane" or "heron" and the 'shaw' or small wood is still present. In the days when the loch was present cranes would have been a common sight and may even have nested in the wood, hence the name. Herons are still very common in the area. Cranshaw was a farm located near Little Alton on the northern side of the lane, clearly indicated in the Montgomerie Estate plans of 1788 - 91.
James Templeton and his spouse Agnes Steele farmed 'Hillhead' in the late 19th century, with James dying on 14 March 1905 aged 84 and Agnes on 16 August 1902, aged 79. They were buried in the Kilmaurs-Glencairn church cemetery.
Robertson records that the widow of Mr. James Ross of Whiteriggs (Wheatrig), Christian Wallace daughter to the Laird of Auchans, married William Rankine of Shiel and thereafter became Lady Dreghorn. She had two children by this marriage, Robert and Catherine. John Cowan and his spouse Martha Martin farmed Wheatrig in the early 19th century, John dying aged 63 on 8 March 1836 and Martha on 16 October 1860. They are buried in the Kilmaurs-Glencairn church cemetery. The Eglinton estate improved the farm in 1862, building a turnip shed, milk house, etc.
Between Hillhead Farm and Wheatrig Farm is a dwelling marked as Lochend on the 1860 OS, although it is not marked on earlier or later maps. It is mentioned, together with Crumshaw Mill in 1618. It lies on the old track that connected the two farms and it is close to the confluence of the Garrier and Lochridge Burns, suggesting that a small loch or lochan could well have existed here. A wet meadow still exists at this point, suggesting that the loch was drained during the period of agricultural improvements around 1775. A very large underground culvert was built to carry the large volumes of water away from this area, although its course is no longer known locally. The Lochridge Burn, Garrier Burn and Brackenburn all merge before Alton Bridge. The old bridge here, with its proximity to the 'Old Toun', may have been the Lambroch Bridge marked on Pont's 1654 map.
Titwood Farm
Robbie Burns' uncle, Robert Burnes worked at Titwood Farm, later moved to Stewarton and was buried in the Laigh Kirk where a memorial was erected by public subscription organised by the Stewarton Literary Society. He is known to have helped guard the Stewarton Laigh Church graveyard against the activities of body snatchers. Titwood (Tetwood in 1828) was also the last farm in the district to use a horse mill to drive farm machinery. J. Dunlop of Titwood is said to have first bred 'Ayrshire Cows' at one of his home farms.
The turnpike and milestones
Wheeled vehicles were unknown to farmers in the area until the end of the 17th century and prior to this sledges were used to haul loads as wheeled vehicles were useless. Roads were mere tracks and such bridges as there were could only take pedestrians, men on horseback or pack-animals. The first wheeled vehicles to be used in Ayrshire were carts offered gratis to labourers working on Riccarton Bridge in 1726. In 1763 it was till said that no roads existed between Glasgow and Kilmarnock or Kilmarnock and Ayr and the whole traffic was by twelve pack horses, the first of which had a bell around its neck. A mill-wand was the rounded piece of wood acting as an axle with which several people would role a millstone form the quarry to the mill and to permit this the width of some early roads was set at a 'mill-wand breadth'.
General Roy's Military Survey map of Scotland (1745–1755) marks the Lambroughton brae road as being part of the 'Post' road from Irvine to Glasgow, therefore giving it some importance as the mails were carried along it. This same road running up from Cunninghamhead was made into a turnpike by the 'Ayr Roads Act of 1767' and the opportunity was taken to move the route away from Townhead of Lambroughton through which it used to run. The date of construction is unclear as the 1775 map doesn't show a new route. The nearest toll house was on the right as the road joins with the Stewarton to Kilmaurs road opposite the site of the old Lainshaw Mill and the Peacockbank toll.
The name 'turnpike' originated from the original 'gate' used being just a simple wooden bar attached at one end to a hinge on the supporting post. The hinge allowed it to 'open' or 'turn' This bar looked like the 'pike' used as a weapon in the army at that time and therefore we get 'turnpike'. The term was also used by the military for barriers set up on roads specifically to prevent the passage of horses.
In addition to providing better surfaces and more direct routes, the turnpikes settled the confusion of the different lengths given to miles, which varied from 4,854 to nearly . Long miles, short miles, Scotch or Scot's miles (5,928 ft), Irish miles (6,720 ft), etc. all existed. seems to have been an average!
Another important point is that when these new toll roads were constructed the turnpike trusts went to a great deal of trouble to improve the route of the new road and these changes could be quite considerable as the old roads tended to go from farm to farm, hardly the shortest route! The tolls on roads were abolished in 1878 to be replaced by a road 'assessment', which was taken over by the county council in 1889.
Red sandstone milestones were positioned every mile. Only one survives in the hedge opposite the entrance to the upper Law Mount field, indicating Stewarton and Irvine 6¾ miles, another was positioned opposite the entrance to Mid Lambroughton farm and as with the others the only remaining clue is a 'kink' in the hedgerow as seen near Langlands Farm. The milestones were buried during the Second World War so as not to provide assistance to invading troops, German spies, etc. This seems to have happened all over Scotland, however Fife was more fortunate than Ayrshire, for the stones were taken into storage and put back in place after the war had finished.
The short section of woodland on the right beyond Castleton heading towards Stewarton is known as Peter's Brae or Peter's Planting on the 1779 estate map and the 1858 OS. The identity of Peter is unknown. Just beyond this point is an entrance gate with sandstone gateposts and a short wall either side, which was the end of the original driveway down from Lochridge House. Later it branched off next to Peacockbank (previously Pearcebank) Farm from what is now the main road, but which didn't exist. One branch went to Stewarton and the other to the Irvine road. The OS map of 1911 clearly shows the routes taken and the 1779 map shows only the old entrance onto the Irvine road.
Thomas Oliver. "roadmaker in Stewarton" estimated in 1769 that the Kilmarnock to Irvine Toll Road would cost seven shilling per fall from Annick Bridge to Gareer Burn, but ten shillings per fall from Gareer Burn to Corsehouse bridge (Crosshouse) because of the lack of suitable materials locally.
Limekilns
Limekilns are a common feature of farms in the area and limestone was quarried locally. Limekilns seem to have come into regular use about the 18th century and were located at Wheatrig, Haysmuir, Bonshaw, High Chapeltoun, Sandylands (now Bank End) and Alton. Large limestone blocks were used for building but the smaller pieces were burnt, using coal dug in the parish to produce lime which was a useful commodity in various ways: it could be spread on the fields to reduce acidity, for lime-mortar in buildings or for lime-washing on farm buildings. It was regarded as cleansing agent.
Natural history
Hares are a common site on the Kilmaurs road near the Townhead of Lambroughton old entrance, but rabbits are a rarity hereabouts. Red foxes can be seen and heard in the woods by the Annick and migrating geese use the fields as a migration stop. Lapwings are an annual visitor as are the swallows and house martins which nest in the buildings of East Lambroughton farm. Other animals present include pipistrelle bats, moles, hedgehogs, common toads, kestrels, treecreepers, ravens, wagtails, house sparrows, blue tits, great tits, pheasants, common snipe, wrens, buzzards, chaffinches, blackbirds, greenfinches, and rooks. The rare hummingbird hawk-moth was seen near the Lambroughton Crossroads in 1985 and Duncan McNaught also recorded this species in 1912.
The Stewarton flower
The Stewarton flower, named for its local abundance by the Kilmarnock Glenfield Ramblers, is otherwise known as pink purslane (Claytonia sibirica) is found in damp areas. This plant was introduced from North America, quite possibly at the Lainshaw Estate for in the Anderson Plantation it was in 1997 almost the dominant undergrowth species. The white flowered variety was introduced here and the normal pink variety spread from elsewhere. As far away as Dalgarven Mill the white flowered variety still dominates. The plant is very adept at reproducing by asexual plantlets and this maintains the white gene pool around Stewarton. The pink variety has not been able to predominate here, unlike almost everywhere else in the lowlands of Scotland, England and Wales.
Barony of Roberton
Robertson mentions this barony, once part of the Barony of Kilmaurs, which ran from Kilmaurs south to the River Irvine. It had no manor house and belonged to the Eglinton family latterly. Hugh Montgomerie, Ist Earl of Eglinton, had a charter on 3 February 1499 from James V of the £40 lands of old extent of Roberton in Cunninghame. These lands were part of the Lands and Barony of Ardrossan at one time; the following properties were part of the barony: parts of Kilmaurs, Knockentiber, Craig, Gatehead, Woodhills, Greenhill, Altonhill, Plann, Hayside, Thorntoun, Rash-hill Park, Milton, Windyedge, Fardelhill, Muirfields, Corsehouse. Smith states that Roberton castle belonged to the Cunninghames, but had been completely rooted out by the 1890s.
Thorntoun Estate
Thorntoun house and estate was part of the ancient Barony of Robertoun and is first recorded as belonging to a branch of the Montgomeries, descended from Murthhaw Montgomery, who is mentioned in the Ragman's Roll of 1296. A Johne of Montgomery of Thornetoun is mentioned in a legal document of 1482. By the beginning of the 17th century Thorntoun had passed into the ownership of another ancient and renowned Ayrshire family, the Mures, a branch of the Mures of Rowallan Castle near Kilmaurs. Some confusion exists in the surviving records, for either an Archibald or a James Mure, Burgess of Glasgow, married Margaret, daughter of Robert Ross of Thorntoun on 27 June 1607. Nothing is known of how and when this Ross family came to possess Thorntoun. A Hew Muir was one of their sons, and another, James Muir of Thorntoun, married a Janet Naper, who died in 1626. Robert Muir, son of James & Janet, is mentioned in a document of 1634.
An Archibald Muir of Thorntoun was knighted by William III in 1699 and his daughter, Margaret, married John Cuninghame of Caddel, in Ardrossan. Their son, Lieut-Col. John Cuninghame of Caddel & Thorntoun was born in 1756 and died in 1836. John's spouse was Sarah Peebles, who was born in 1783 and died in 1854. They had six children, Andrew, Anna, Archibald, Christiana, Margaret and Sarah. They all died relatively young, except for Sarah who survived to inherit Thorntoun. Her spouse was George Bourchier Wrey. They had a son, George Edward Bourchier Wrey who had succeeded to the property by 1912. The Lieut-Col and his family are buried or commemorated at the family burial plot in the cemetery of Kilmaurs-Glencairn kirk.
Other items of interest in the locality
The Law Mount or Moot Hill
The Law Mount (OS maps), Castleton Law mount, Moat Hill or Moot Hill overlooking Lainshaw House and above Castleton (previously Over or High Castleton) is an artificial mound which was thought to have a bailey and therefore be a castle motte, hence the name of the farms. Linge is of the opinion that the supposed bailey, clearly visible from the road under the appropriate light conditions, is a natural geographic feature. The mound is 19 m in diameter and 3.5 m in height. At the top its diameter is 12 m and seen by satellite imagery it is clearly too small to have been a motte, however it may originally have only been an observation post. It is locally known as 'Pinkie Hill' or the 'Jerry's helmet'.
Carmel Bank House was formerly known as 'Mot' or 'Mote' House and was the site of a Motte Hill.
Another possibility that suggests the secondary use of the mound and fits with its more recent local names, is that it was the site of the Justice Hill where proclamations of the Lainshaw Castle or possibly the Lambroughton Baronial Court's judgements and sentence was carried out here. For serious crimes the men were hung here and women were drowned in the Annick Water below the mound. This situation, known as the feudal Barony right of 'pit and gallows' existed at many other sites, such as at Kilmarnock, Aiket, Ardrossan, Dalry, Largs, Carnell, Giffen and Mugdock where the castle, mound and lochan have this scenario attached to their history. The Boyds, Lords of Kilmarnock, had their gallows at Gallows-Knowe which stood in Wellington street. Often the mounds were wooded and a dule tree may have been used as the gallows. Brehons or Judges administered justice from these 'Court Hills', especially in the highlands. Aiket castle had a "court hill" mound nearby, as did Riccarton which is now the site of a church and the village of Tinwald exists near Dumfries its name is derived from the same root as that of the famous Tynwald parliament site in the Isle of Man.
High Castleton had been a part of the Robertland Estate and was farmed by William Smith and his spouse Jessie Gibson in the late 18th century. William died aged 83 on 14 December 1913, whilst Jessie died aged 64 on 7 April 1895. They were both buried at the Laigh Kirk, Stewarton. The fields between the Law Mount and Laigh Castleton were known by the quaint names of East and West Tinkerdyke Parks.
Gibbie the Fox-Killer
Hunter or Tod Gibbie was a character in Sir Walter Scott's Guy Mannering, based on Gabriel Young who lived in Kilmaurs. Gabriel had a pack of twelve slow-hounds to give tongue, six greyhounds to catch by speed and eight terriers to deliver the coup de grâce. The hunts were always on foot, often of short duration and accompanied by all and sundry. He was paid, just like the mole-catcher, to rid the farms of foxes without any notions of sport. Gibbie was the last of his kind.
Christian Shaw and the witches
At the age of 11 this young girl, daughter of the Laird of Bargarran, in the parish of Erskine, took a violent dislike to one Catherine Campbell, a domestic servant. Christian decided to achieve the death of Catherine by feigning possession by evil spirits, so she threw fits with violent contortions of her body and ejected egg-shells, fur balls, chicken bones, etc. forth from her mouth. So convincing was she, that she achieved a great deal of attention, and this encouraged her in the end to accuse twenty-four men and women, old and young, of taking an oath to follow Satan. Six were hung and then burned at Paisley and one committed suicide in gaol in 1697. Strangely several of her victims willingly confessed their pact with the Devil. This was one of the most cunning and diabolical episodes in the annals of witchcraft, however Christian was never held to account and went on to marry Mr. Millar, the minister of Kilmaurs from 1718 - 21 and after his death actually set the foundations for the thread manufacturing trade of Paisley.
The Kilmaurs Burgh of Barony
In 1577 (Strawhorn gives 1527), King James V erected Kilmaurs as a Burgh of Barony, under a charter from Cuthbert, 3rd. Earl of Glencairn. of rich land, in lots of each, was apportioned to 40 persons in order to 'induce mechanics to reside in Kilmaurs', such as shoemakers, cutlers, skinners, carpenters, waukers and wolsters. At one time 30 cutlers and a good many tinkers resided in Kilmaurs and gave the town a reputation for craftmanship which lingers on to this day (2006). James, the fourteenth Earl of Glencairn broke the centuries-old connection of the Cunnighame family with the area by selling the estate of Kilmaurs in 1786 to the Marchioness of Titchfield.
The Lifters and Non-Lifters
The Secessionists were those who had split in the 18th century from the established Presbyterian church. David Smyton or Smeaton had been 'called' to Kilmaurs, however he developed the belief that in the dispensation of the Sacrament, it was essential that the bread must be first lifted before being blessed. Such a small point was taken very seriously by Smeaton and he fought hard for in his view Divine Authority would accept no latitude in this matter. The Weston Tavern was formerly Smyton's manse, built in 1740, however it was disposed of in 1789 upon his death. The 'Non-lifter' congregation built a meeting house and manse at Holland Green on the Fenwick Road. Tradition has it that Smyton forgot to 'lift the bread' at his first service following his victory in maintaining the possession of the Secession church in Kilmaurs.
Robert Burns must have heard him preach and commented in a letter to Margaret Chalmers in 1787 that "The whining cant of love, except in real passion, and by a masterly hand, is to me as insufferable as the preaching cant of Old Smeaton, Whig minister at Kilmaurs.".
Tour, Kirklands and Pathfoot
The Abbot of Kelso granted part of these 'Lands of Touer' to David Cuninghame of Robertland in 1532. The property stayed in the Robertland family and their descendants until 1841, when Robert Parker Adam purchased the lands and rebuilt the Mansion House in the old English style. Tour (Tower in 1820) has an ice house. A copper alloy flanged axehead was found by a metal-detectorist in a ploughed field near Tour House in 1991. It is now in the Glasgow Kelvinside Museum. William Cathcart had the property in 1820 with a rental value of £126 4s 10d Robertson.
At NS414406 an old inhabitant in 1912, backed by other reliable informants, stated that in his grandfather's time there were a few thatched cottages, forming a small hamlet called Pathfoot, near the vicarage tower; the site now forms part of the Tour plantation, which extends W to the railway viaducts over the Carmel Water. All traces of Pathfoot have long ago disappeared.
The Darien affair
The Darien Company was an attempt by the Scots to set up a trading colony in America in the late 1690s, however the opposition from England and elsewhere was so great that the attempt failed with huge losses and great financial implications for the country and for individuals. Half of the whole circulating capital of Scotland was subscribed and mostly lost. In Cunninghame some examples of losses are Major James Cunninghame of Aiket (£200), Sir William Cunninghame of Cunninghamhead (£1000), Sir Archibald Mure of Thorntoun (£1000), William Watson of Tour (£150) and James Thomson of Hill in Kilmaurs (£100).
Knockenlaw Mound and the De Soulis family
This mound, called Knockinglaw on the 1896 OS, still exists in very poor condition, near Little Onthank. It was a tumulus in which urns had been found. It had a powder magazine built into it at one stage and was eventually effectively removed altogether. It is involved in one of the versions of the stories of the killing of Lord Soulis. He is said to have been killed here in 1444 after leading a band of English mercenaries into the Kilmarnock area and then subsequently suffering a rout at the hands of the Boyd's of Dean Castle. Dean Castle at one time belonged to the De Soulis family. A memorial stone, dating from at least 1609, to Lord Soulis is to be found set into a wall at the High Church, by the railway viaduct. A brass plaque with details of the De Soulis coat of arms used to be set into the road near this spot. The Soulis Cross was in Soulis Street, but is now housed in the Dick Institute. A notorious Lord Soulis is linked with the evil redcaps at Hermitage Castle in the Borders. He could only be bound by a three-stranded rope of sand, but they got over the problem of hanging him by binding him in a lead sheet and boiling himn to death for the murder of the Laird of Branxholm. Robertson points out that the coat of arms of the De Soulis & De Morville families is identical and they may therefore have been related. The De Soulis family lost their lands due to their involvement in 'The Soulis Plot' to depose Robert the Bruce. The family were unsuccessful claimants to the throne of Scotland.
A final role of the mound was in the holding of a 'court' at Knockenlaw by the Earl of Glencairn when he was attempting to claim the Lordship of Kilmarnock from the Boyd's. In the event the supporters of the Boyd's turned up in force and the Earl had to abandon his attempt. The Roman Well, said to be of great antiquity was located nearby. These sites are now hidden beneath housing estates.
Micro history, traditions and archaeology
In 1780 Kilmarnock Council paid Robert Fraser 2s. 6d. for "dressing a Maypole", one of the last recorded examples of the rural festival of the first of May in Scotland, having been put down by Act of Parliament immediately after the Reformation.
McNaught records that John Armour was a resident clockmaker in 1726, with Kilmaurs clocks regarded as having brass dials of the highest standard. He had one arm shorter than the other and was called 'Clockie' for this reason.
Both Beattie and the Kilmarnock Glenfield Ramblers refer to the iron bridge over the Carmel Water near St Maurs-Glencairn church as being the oldest iron bridge in Scotland. It was erected following a 1d subscription from each of the house-houlds of Kilmaurs. The council demolished it without consultation in around 2000 and replaced it with a wooden bridge.
John Gemmell is buried in St Maurs-Glencairn churchyard. He was surgeon to the Royal American Reformers, one of the loyal militias who fought against the American 'rebels' in the American War of independence.
Templehouse and its associated fortalice are mentioned by Dobie and were located in Stewarton on the lands of Meikle-Corsehill Farm. The name Templehouses was still current in the 1860s on the OS map for the tenements along from the Mill House Inn. The fortalice is not marked, however an area on the opposite side of the road from Templehouses was known as 'The Castle' within living memory. Robertson in 1820 gives the proprietor as William Deans Esq. and the rental value as £13.
Morton Park, overlooked by Kilmaurs Place, was given by the Morton family of Lochgreen in 1921; the official opening was 9 September 1922.
A terrapin was found living in the Carmel burn in 2006. Kingfishers were seen there in 2004, 2005 and 2006. Mink were seen in 1995 and 2000. Dippers and grey wagtails are regularly sighted.
The poet William C. Lamberton of Kilmaurs was also a shoemaker and the Kilmarnock town chaplain. He published a volume of verses in 1878 under the nom de plume of 'An Ayrshire Volunteer'.
The Monk's or Mack's Well water runs into the Carmel beneath Kilmaurs Place. It is said that many years ago the local lord tried to prevent the local people from using the well. It dried up until the lord changed his mind, but has run continuously ever since.
In 1820 Kilmaurs Parish had only four freeholders qualified to vote and Dreghorn had only five, these being the proprietors of Cunninghamhead, Annock Lodge, Langlands (2) and Warwickhill. On Saturday, 3 March 1827 a remarkable snow-storm hit Ayrshire. The snow lay up to twenty feet deep in places and it snowed for twenty-four hours. A strong wind got up and drifts covered even the tops of the hedges so the roads were all but hidden.
A Mrs Lambroughton lived at Fulshaw Farm in the 1950s, a rare example of the name being used in this form. The name is still (2006) linked to Fulshaw Farm Cottage.
In Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English Church and People written in AD 731 is recorded the case of a Cunningham of Northumbria who died after a gradually worsening illness. All his grieving family were gathered around his corpse when he suddenly sat up. Everyone ran away, apart from his wife to whom he told the story of his adventure. He had been guided in death by a man in a shining robe to a broad, deep, dark valley of infinite length and from here he crossed a high wall beyond which was a broad and pleasant meadow. His guide told him that he had to return to live amongst men again and despite his reluctance to go he found himself back in his body again, alive.
Standalane—a number of properties in this area have this name, however no obvious pattern exists, other than its humorous use in connection with lonely or solitary places or a dwelling just outside a village or town.
Aiton in 1811 mentions "a curious notion that has long prevailed in the County of Ayr, and elsewhere, that the wool of sheep was pernicious to the growth of thorns."
Feuds were a feature of life in old Ayrshire and in 1547 Sir Neil Montgomerie of Lainshaw was killed by Lord Boyd of Kilmarnock in a skirmish which took place in the streets of Irvine (Robertson 1908).
Near Langlands Farm in the hedgerow of the main road is a rare example of a wild pear tree. The blossom is outstanding in the month of May, but in the absence of another tree nearby it doesn't set fruit. The nearest grows near Chapeltoun Mains.
The old sandstone parapet of the bridge overlooking the site of Cunninghamhead railway station has many carvings on it, probably made over the years by local children and pupils from the primary school as they waited and watched the old steam and diesel trains going by on this long closed line. Extensive cattle sidings and docks can still be made out here (2006). Ayrshire or Cunninghame cattle were sent from here to all parts of the United Kingdom and Empire beyond. Ayrshire cattle were sent from nearby Wheatrig Farm to restock the Falkland Islands after the war with Argentina.
A number of small whinstone quarries were also present in the area, such as at Townhead of Lambroughton on the 1858 OS. The area is later marked as a fox covert and the old road down from Floors ran beside it.
An unusual feature of Kilmaurs Mill was a carved stone showing a millstone drive spider or rind (often used on Miller's tombstones as a symbol of the milling trade) on which the upper grindstone rested, a ring of rope, a bill for dressing millstones, and a grain shovel.
A ball of fine-grained sandstone, 2½ ins in diameter, with the surface ornamented by six equal, circular and slightly projecting discs, found at Jock's Thorn Farm (NS 417 410). 387 are known from Scotland, but only two from Ayrshire. They are from the neolithic or Bronze Age and their function is not known, however they may be symbols of power, equivalent to the orb in the British Coronation ceremony.
In 1911 McNaught records the last sighting of an otter. This took place at the Brackenburn Bridge on 9 September in full moonlight. They have probably made a comeback in the last few years (2000–2006).
Next to the St Maurs-Glencairn church is a patch of woodland which was once an orchard. The Tour streamlet joins the Carmel nearby and before the confluence can be found an old well, arched over, known as the Lady's well, with never-failing, excellent and refreshingly cool water. A small wooden bridge used to run across to it from the church glebe side.
Lord John Boyd Orr, awarded the Nobel Peace Prize was born in Holland Green on the Fenwick Road in Kilmaurs. He may have been related to the Orr's of Townhead of Lambroughton.
The dovecot at Tour below St Maurs-Glencairn Church is dated 1636 on its door lintel (not 1630 as stated by McNaught). It is rectangular on plan, with a centre ridge roof and crow-stepped gables. Only the foundations of the tower still exist, the remains having been taken down in the late 20th century. Kilmaurs was spelt Kylmawse in circa 1564 (1980). The fields below the kirk, running down to the footbridge over the Carmel are named in the 1860 OS. 'Broomy knowe', presumably named after broom and the knowe on which the old orchard was situated, lies to the left of the Tour rivulet. Bounded by the hedge on the right and the rivulet on the left is the 'Dovecot Fauld'. The Scots term 'fauld' means a meadow which is manured by keeping animals on it; pigeon droppings from the nearby dovecot seem to have been used, at least in part, judging from its name. Finally, the field on the other side of the hedge, running towards the Carmel is called 'Girnal', meaning a granary in Scots, suggesting that such a building once stood hereabouts. These fields seem to have formed the glebe of the kirk.
Kilmaurs Council House had the top twelve feet of the steeple thrown down by a lightning strike in 1874. The front steps were smashed, but no one came to harm. The "juggs", which dangle from an iron chain, were last used officially in 1812 to hold a young woman who had been found guilty of theft. She was later drummed out of the parish by a mob.
The Stewarton cricket ground was located between Wardhead House and Lochridge House. A golf course also existed here for a few years after WW2.
The Royal Mail re-organised its postal districts in the 1930s and at that point many hamlets and localities ceased to exist officially, such as Templehouse, Darlington, Goosehill and other areas in Stewarton.
Kilmaurs was famous for producing cutlery and swords, the local expression "As gleg as a Kilmaurs whittle", with the addition that "it cuts an inch before the tip"; meaning "the sharpest of the sharpest". A restaurant by the name of the Gleg Whittle existed here until 2006.
The parish council chambers in Kilmaurs, the 'juggs' or 'jougs', has a fine example of a stepped Mercat Cross in an enclosure behind it, the cross is surmounted by a large sandstone ball and dated 1830.
Views in Kilmaurs
See also
Chapeltoun
Cunninghamhead
Corsehill
William de Lamberton
Dean Castle
A Researcher's Guide to Local History terminology
Lady's Well
Cunninghamhead, Perceton and Annick Lodge
Thorntoun Estate
Lambroughton Loch
References
Sources
Cunningham, Ian C. (2006). The Nation Surveyed. Timothy Pont's Maps of Scotland. Edinburgh : John Donald. .
Salter, Mike (2006). The Castles of South-West Scotland. Malvern : Folly. .
Service, John (1890). Thir Notandums, being the literary recreations of the Laird Canticarl of Mongrynen. Edinburgh : Y. J. Pentland.
Urquhart, Robert H. et al. (1998). The Hearth Tax for Ayrshire 1691. Ayrshire Records Series V.1. Ayr : Ayr Fed Hist Soc .
Bibliography
Bayne, John F. (1935). Dunlop Parish - A History of Church, Parish, and Nobility. Pub. T.& A. Constable, pp. 10–16.
Davis, Michael C. (1991). The Castles and Mansions of Ayrshire. Pub. Spindrift Press, Ardrishaig, pps. 206–207.
Hart-Davis, Duff (2002). Fauna Britannica. . p. 84
Hill, D.O. (MDCCCXL). 1840. The Land of Burns. Pub. Glasgow.
Mackenzie, W.C. (1916). The Races of Ireland and Scotland. Pub. Alexander Gardner. p. 301.
Paterson, James (1847). History of Ayr and a Genealogical Account of the Ayrshire Families. p. 452.
Robertson, William (1908). Ayrshire. Its History and Historic Families. Vols. 1 & 2. Pub. Ayr.
Rollie, James (1980). The invasion of Ayrshire. A Background to the County Families. Pub. Famedram. p. 83.
External links
The narrated history of Lamberton Kirk, Berwickshire
Commentary on the Murder of Thomas a Becket
Commentary and video on the Lands of Floors
Commentary and video on Lambroughton Loch
YouTube video of East Lambroughton and Lambroughtonend
Video of East Lambroughton and Chapeltoun Terrace
Details of the De Soulis, De Morville and other families.
General Roy's Military Survey map of Scotland.
History of North Ayrshire
Villages in East Ayrshire
Buildings and structures in North Ayrshire
Former country houses in Scotland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx%27s%20theory%20of%20human%20nature
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Marx's theory of human nature
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Some Marxists posit what they deem to be Karl Marx's theory of human nature, which they accord an important place in his critique of capitalism, his conception of communism, and his materialist conception of history. Marx does not refer to human nature as such, but to Gattungswesen, which is generally translated as "species-being" or "species-essence". According to a note from Marx in the Manuscripts of 1844, the term is derived from Ludwig Feuerbach's philosophy, in which it refers both to the nature of each human and of humanity as a whole.
In the sixth Theses on Feuerbach (1845), Marx criticizes the traditional conception of human nature as a species which incarnates itself in each individual, instead arguing that human nature is formed by the totality of social relations. Thus, the whole of human nature is not understood, as in classical idealist philosophy, as permanent and universal: the species-being is always determined in a specific social and historical formation, with some aspects being biological.
The sixth thesis on Feuerbach and the determination of human nature by social relations
The sixth of the Theses on Feuerbach, written in 1845, provided an early discussion by Marx of the concept of human nature. It states:
Feuerbach resolves the essence of religion into the essence of man [menschliches Wesen = 'human nature']. But the essence of man is no abstraction inherent in each single individual. In reality, it is the ensemble of the social relations. Feuerbach, who does not enter upon a criticism of this real essence is hence obliged:
1. To abstract from the historical process and to define the religious sentiment regarded by itself, and to presuppose an abstract — isolated - human individual.
2. The essence therefore can by him only be regarded as 'species', as an inner 'dumb' generality which unites many individuals only in a natural way.
Thus, Marx appears to say that human nature is no more than what is made by the "social relations". Norman Geras's Marx and Human Nature (1983), however, offers an argument against this position. In outline, Geras shows that, while the social relations are held to "determine" the nature of people, they are not the only such determinant. However, Marx makes statements where he specifically refers to a human nature which is more than what is conditioned by the circumstances of one's life. In Capital, in a footnote critiquing utilitarianism, he says that utilitarians must reckon with "human nature in general, and then with human nature as modified in each historical epoch". Marx is arguing against an abstract conception of human nature, offering instead an account rooted in sensuous life. While he is quite explicit that "[a]s individuals express their life, so they are. Hence what individuals are depends on the material conditions of their production", he also believes that human nature will condition (against the background of the productive forces and relations of production) the way in which individuals express their life. History involves "a continuous transformation of human nature", though this does not mean that every aspect of human nature is wholly variable; what is transformed need not be wholly transformed.
Marx did criticise the tendency to "transform into eternal laws of nature and of reason, the social forms springing from your present mode of production and form of property". For this reason, he would likely have wanted to criticise certain aspects of some accounts of human nature. Some people believe, for example, that humans are naturally selfish – Immanuel Kant and Thomas Hobbes, for example. (Both Hobbes and Kant thought that it was necessary to constrain our human nature in order to achieve a good society – Kant thought we should use rationality, Hobbes thought we should use the force of the state – Marx, as we shall see, thought that the good society was one which allows our human nature its full expression.) Most Marxists will argue that this view is an ideological illusion and the effect of commodity fetishism: the fact that people act selfishly is held to be a product of scarcity and capitalism, not an immutable human characteristic. For confirmation of this view, we can see how, in The Holy Family Marx argues that capitalists are not motivated by any essential viciousness, but by the drive toward the bare "semblance of a human existence". (Marx says "semblance" because he believes that capitalists are as alienated from their human nature under capitalism as the proletariat, even though their basic needs are better met.)
Needs and drives
In the 1844 Manuscripts the young Marx wrote:
Man is directly a natural being. As a natural being and as a living natural being he is on the one hand endowed with natural powers, vital powers – he is an active natural being. These forces exist in him as tendencies and abilities – as instincts. On the other hand, as a natural, corporeal, sensuous objective being he is a suffering, conditioned and limited creature, like animals and plants. That is to say, the objects of his instincts exist outside him, as objects independent of him; yet these objects are objects that he needs – essential objects, indispensable to the manifestation and confirmation of his essential powers.
In the Grundrisse Marx says his nature is a "totality of needs and drives". In The German Ideology he uses the formulation: "their needs, consequently their nature". We can see then, that from Marx's early writing to his later work, he conceives of human nature as composed of "tendencies", "drives", "essential powers", and "instincts" to act in order to satisfy "needs" for external objectives. For Marx then, an explanation of human nature is an explanation of the needs of humans, together with the assertion that they will act to fulfill those needs. (c.f. The German Ideology, chapter 3). Norman Geras gives a schedule of some of the needs which Marx says are characteristic of humans:
...for other human beings, for sexual relations, for food, water, clothing, shelter, rest and, more generally, for circumstances that are conducive to health rather than disease. There is another one ... the need of people for a breadth and diversity of pursuit and hence of personal development, as Marx himself expresses these, 'all-round activity', 'all-round development of individuals', 'free development of individuals', 'the means of cultivating [one's] gifts in all directions', and so on.
Marx says "It is true that eating, drinking, and procreating, etc., are ... genuine human functions. However, when abstracted from other aspects of human activity, and turned into final and exclusive ends, they are animal."
Productive activity, the objects of humans and actualisation
Humans as free, purposive producers
In several passages throughout his work, Marx shows how he believes humans to be essentially different from other animals. "Men can be distinguished from animals by consciousness, by religion or anything else you like. They themselves begin to distinguish themselves from animals as soon as they begin to produce their means of subsistence, a step which is conditioned by their physical organisation." In this passage from The German Ideology, Marx alludes to one difference: that humans produce their physical environments. But do not a few other animals also produce aspects of their environment as well? The previous year, Marx had already acknowledged:
It is true that animals also produce. They build nests and dwellings, like the bee, the beaver, the ant, etc. But they produce only their own immediate needs or those of their young; they produce only when immediate physical need compels them to do so, while man produces even when he is free from physical need and truly produces only in freedom from such need; they produce only themselves, while man reproduces the whole of nature; their products belong immediately to their physical bodies, while man freely confronts his own product. Animals produce only according to the standards and needs of the species to which they belong, while man is capable of producing according to the standards of every species and of applying to each object its inherent standard; hence, man also produces in accordance with the laws of beauty.
In the same work, Marx writes:
The animal is immediately one with its life activity. It is not distinct from that activity; it is that activity. Man makes his life activity itself an object of his will and consciousness. He has conscious life activity. It is not a determination with which he directly merges. Conscious life activity directly distinguishes man from animal life activity. Only because of that is he a species-being. Or, rather, he is a conscious being – i.e., his own life is an object for him, only because he is a species-being. Only because of that is his activity free activity. Estranged labour reverses the relationship so that man, just because he is a conscious being, makes his life activity, his essential being, a mere means for his existence.
Also in the segment on estranged labour:
Man is a species-being, not only because he practically and theoretically makes the species – both his own and those of other things – his object, but also – and this is simply another way of saying the same thing – because he looks upon himself as the present, living species, because he looks upon himself as a universal and therefore free being.
More than twenty years later, in Capital, he came to muse on a similar subject:
A spider conducts operations that resemble those of a weaver, and a bee puts to shame many an architect in the construction of her cells. But what distinguishes the worst architect from the best of bees is this, that the architect raises his structure in imagination before he erects it in reality. At the end of every labour-process, we get a result that already existed in the imagination of the labourer at its commencement. He not only effects a change of form in the material on which he works, but he also realises a purpose of his own that gives the law to his modus operandi, and to which he must subordinate his will. And this subordination is no mere momentary act.
From these passages we can observe something of Marx's beliefs about humans. That they characteristically produce their environments, and that they would do so, even were they not under the burden of "physical need" – indeed, they will produce the "whole of [their] nature", and may even create "in accordance with the laws of beauty". Perhaps most importantly, though, their creativity, their production is purposive and planned. Humans, then, make plans for their future activity, and attempt to exercise their production (even lives) according to them. Perhaps most importantly, and most cryptically, Marx says that humans make both their "life activity" and "species" the "object" of their will. They relate to their life activity, and are not simply identical with it. Michel Foucault's definition of biopolitics as the moment when "man begins to take itself as a conscious object of elaboration" may be compared to Marx's definition hereby exposed.
Life and the species as the objects of humans
To say that A is the object of some subject B, means that B (specified as an agent) acts upon A in some respect. Thus if "the proletariat smashes the state" then "the state" is the object of the proletariat (the subject), in respect of smashing. It is similar to saying that A is the objective of B, though A could be a whole sphere of concern and not a closely defined aim. In this context, what does it mean to say that humans make their "species" and their "lives" their "object"? It's worth noting that Marx's use of the word object can imply that these are things which humans produces, or makes, just as they might produce a material object. If this inference is correct, then those things that Marx says about human production above, also apply to the production of human life, by humans. And simultaneously, "As individuals express their life, so they are. What they are, therefore, coincides with their production, both with what they produce and with how they produce. The nature of individuals thus depends on the material conditions determining their production."
To make one's life one's object is therefore to treat one's life as something that is under one's control. To raise in imagination plans for one's future and present, and to have a stake in being able to fulfill those plans. To be able to live a life of this character is to achieve "self-activity" (actualisation), which Marx believes will only become possible after communism has replaced capitalism. "Only at this stage does self-activity coincide with material life, which corresponds to the development of individuals into complete individuals and the casting-off of all natural limitations. The transformation of labour into self-activity corresponds to the transformation of the earlier limited intercourse into the intercourse of individuals as such".
What is involved in making one's species one's object is more complicated. In one sense, it emphasises the essentially social character of humans, and their need to live in a community of the species. In others, it seems to emphasise that we attempt to make our lives expressions of our species-essence; further that we have goals concerning what becomes of the species in general. The idea covers much of the same territory as "making one's life one's object": it concerns self-consciousness, purposive activity, and so forth.
Humans as homo faber?
It is often said that Marx conceived of humans as homo faber, referring to Benjamin Franklin's definition of "man as the tool-making animal" – that is, as "man, the maker", though he never used the term himself. It is generally held that Marx's view was that productive activity is an essential human activity, and can be rewarding when pursued freely. Marx's use of the words work and labour in the section above may be unequivocally negative; but this was not always the case, and is most strongly found in his early writing. However, Marx was always clear that under capitalism, labour was something inhuman, and dehumanising. "labour is external to the worker – i.e., does not belong to his essential being; that he, therefore, does not confirm himself in his work, but denies himself, feels miserable and not happy, does not develop free mental and physical energy, but mortifies his flesh and ruins his mind". While under communism, "In the individual expression of my life I would have directly created your expression of your life, and therefore in my individual activity I would have directly confirmed and realised my true nature, my human nature, my communal nature".
Marx and race
There are multiple examples of racism in Marx works, with adverse references to people of colour including those of Black African heritage, Indians, Slavs and Jews. For example;:
"The Jewish n(word) Lassalle who, I'm glad to say, is leaving at the end of this week, has happily lost another 5,000 talers in an ill-judged speculation. The chap would sooner throw money down the drain than lend it to a 'friend,' even though his interest and capital were guaranteed. ... It is now quite plain to me—as the shape of his head and the way his hair grows also testify—that he is descended from the negroes who accompanied Moses' flight from Egypt (unless his mother or paternal grandmother interbred with a n(word)). Now, this blend of Jewishness and Germanness, on the one hand, and basic negroid stock, on the other, must inevitably give rise to a peculiar product. The fellow's importunity is also n(word)-like." Karl Marx, "Marx to Friedrich Engels in Manchester", 1862
Tremaux "proved that the common Negro type is the degenerate form of a much higher one ... a very significant advance over Darwin." Karl Marx, letter to Friedrich Engels, August 7, 1866
"Take Amsterdam, for instance, a city harboring many of the worst descendants of the Jews whom Ferdinand and Isabella drove out of Spain and who, after lingering a while in Portugal, were driven out of there too and eventually found a place of retreat in Holland. ... Here and there and everywhere that a little capital courts investment, there is ever one of these little Jews ready to make a little suggestion or place a little bit of a loan. The smartest highwayman in the Abruzzi is not better posted about the locale of the hard cash in a traveler's valise or pocket than these little Jews about any loose capital in the hands of a trader ... These small Jewish agents draw their supplies from the big Jewish houses ... and practice great ostensible devotion to the religion of their race." Karl Marx, "The Russian Loan", 1856
"What is the worldly religion of the Jew? Huckstering. What is his worldly God? Money. ... Money is the jealous god of Israel, in face of which no other god may exist. Money degrades all the gods of man—and turns them into commodities. ... The bill of exchange is the real god of the Jew. His god is only an illusory bill of exchange. ... The chimerical nationality of the Jew is the nationality of the merchant, of the man of money in general." Karl Marx, "On the Jewish Question", 1844
"This splendid territory [the Balkans] has the misfortune to be inhabited by a conglomerate of different races and nationalities, of which it is hard to say which is the least fit for progress and civilization. Slavonians, Greeks, Wallachians, Arnauts, twelve millions of men, are all held in submission by one million of Turks, and up to a recent period, it appeared doubtful whether, of all these different races, the Turks were not the most competent to hold the supremacy which, in such a mixed population, could not but accrue to one of these nationalities." Karl Marx, "The Russian Menace to Europe", 1853
"Thus we find every tyrant backed by a Jew, as is every Pope by a Jesuit. In truth, the cravings of oppressors would be hopeless, and the practicability of war out of the question, if there were not an army of Jesuits to smother thought and a handful of Jews to ransack pockets. ... The fact that 1,855 years ago Christ drove the Jewish money-changers out of the temple, and that the money-changers of our age, enlisted on the side of tyranny, happen again to be Jews is perhaps no more than a historic coincidence." Karl Marx, "The Russian Loan", 1856
"The expulsion of a Leper people from Egypt, at the head of whom was an Egyptian priest named Moses. Lazarus, the leper, is also the basic type of the Jew." Karl Marx, letter to Friedrich Engels, May 10, 1861
"Abraham, Isaac and Jacob were fantasy-mongers, that the Israelites were idolators ... that the tribe of Simeon (exiled under Saul) had moved to Mecca where they built a heathenish temple and worshipped stones." Karl Marx, letter to Engels, June 16, 1864
"Indian society has no history at all, at least no known history. What we shall call its history is but the history of the successive invaders who founded their empires on the passive basis of that unresisting and unchanging society." Karl Marx, New York Daily Tribune, August 8, 1853
"Russia is a name usurped by the Muscovites. They are not Slavs, do not belong at all to the Indo-German race, but are des intrus [intruders], who must again be hurled back beyond the Dnieper, etc." Karl Marx, letter to Friedrich Engels, June 24, 1865
Human nature and historical materialism
Marx's theory of history attempts to describe the way in which humans change their environments and (in dialectical relation) their environments change them as well. That is:
Not only do the objective conditions change in the act of reproduction, e.g. the village becomes a town, the wilderness a cleared field etc., but the producers change, too, in that they bring out new qualities in themselves, develop themselves in production, transform themselves, develop new powers and ideas, new modes of intercourse, new needs and new language.
Further Marx sets out his "materialist conception of history" in opposition to "idealist" conceptions of history; that of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, for instance. "The first premise of all human history is, of course, the existence of living human individuals. Thus the first fact to be established is the physical organisation of these individuals and their consequent relation to the rest of nature." Thus:History does nothing, it "possesses no immense wealth", it "wages no battles". It is man, real, living man who does all that, who possesses and fights; "history" is not, as it were, a person apart, using man as a means to achieve its own aims; history is nothing but the activity of man pursuing his aims.So we can see that, even before we begin to consider the precise character of human nature, "real, living" humans, "the activity of man pursuing his aims" is the very building block of Marx's theory of history. Humans act upon the world, changing it and themselves; and in doing so they "make history". However, even beyond this, human nature plays two key roles. In the first place, it is part of the explanation for the growth of the productive forces, which Marx conceives of as the driving force of history. Secondly, the particular needs and drives of humans explain the class antagonism which is generated under capitalism.
Human nature and the expansion of the productive forces
It has been held by several writers that it is Marx's conception of human nature which explains the "development thesis" concerning the expansion of the productive forces, which according to Marx, is itself the fundamental driving force of history. If true, this would make his account of human nature perhaps the most fundamental aspect of his work. Norman Geras wrote (italics in original): "historical materialism itself, this whole distinctive approach to society that originates with Marx, rests squarely upon the idea of a human nature." It highlights that specific nexus of universal needs and capacities which explains the human productive process and man's organized transformation of the material environment; which process and transformation it treats in turn as the basis both of the social order and of historical change. G.A. Cohen wrote: "The tendency's autonomy is just its independence of social structure, its rootedness in fundamental material facts of human nature and the human situation." Allen Wood wrote: "Historical progress consists fundamentally in the growth of people's abilities to shape and control the world about them. This is the most basic way in which they develop and express their human essence."
In his article "Reconsidering Historical Materialism", however, Cohen gives an argument to the effect that human nature cannot be the premise on which the plausibility of the expansion of the productive forces is grounded:
Production in the historical anthropology is not identical with production in the theory of history. According to the anthropology, people flourish in the cultivation and exercise of their manifold powers, and are especially productive - which in this instance means creative - in the condition of freedom conferred by material plenty. But, in the production of interest to the theory of history, people produce not freely but because they have to, since nature does not otherwise supply their wants; and the development in history of the productive power of man (that is, of man as such, of man as a species) occurs at the expense of the creative capacity of the men who are agents and victims of that development.
The implication of this is that hence "one might ... imagine two kinds of creature, one whose essence it was to create and the other not, undergoing similarly toilsome histories because of similarly adverse circumstances. In one case, but not the other, the toil would be a self-alienating exercise of essential powers". Hence, "historical materialism and Marxist philosophical anthropology are independent of, though also consistent with, each other". The problem is this: it seems as though the motivation most people have for the work they do isn't the exercise of their creative capacity; on the contrary, labour is alienated by definition in the capitalist system based on salary, and people only do it because they have to. They go to work not to express their human nature but to find theirs means of subsistence. So in that case, why do the productive forces grow – does human nature have anything to do with it? The answer to this question is a difficult one, and a closer consideration of the arguments in the literature is necessary for a full answer than can be given in this article. However, it is worth bearing in mind that Cohen had previously been committed to the strict view that human nature (and other "asocial premises") were sufficient for the development of the productive forces – it could be that they are only one necessary constituent. It is also worth considering that by 1988, Cohen appears to have considered that the problem was resolved.
Some needs are far more important than others. In The German Ideology Marx writes that "life involves before everything else eating and drinking, a habitation, clothing and many other things". All those other aspects of human nature which he discusses (such as "self-activity") are therefore subordinate to the priority given to these. Marx makes explicit his view that humans develop new needs to replace old: "the satisfaction of the first need (the action of satisfying, and the instrument of satisfaction which has been acquired) leads to new needs".
Human nature, Marx's ethical thought and alienation
Geras said of Marx's work that: "Whatever else it is, theory and socio-historical explanation, and scientific as it may be, that work is a moral indictment resting on the conception of essential human needs, an ethical standpoint, in other words, in which a view of human nature is involved."
Alienation
Alienation, for Marx, is the estrangement of humans from aspects of their human nature. Since – as we have seen – human nature consists in a particular set of vital drives and tendencies, whose exercise constitutes flourishing, alienation is a condition wherein these drives and tendencies are stunted. For essential powers, alienation substitutes disempowerment; for making one's own life one's object, one's life becoming an object of capital. Marx believes that alienation will be a feature of all society before communism.
Gerald Cohen's criticism
One important criticism of Marx's "philosophical anthropology" (i.e. his conception of humans) is offered by Gerald Cohen, the leader of Analytical Marxism, in "Reconsidering Historical Materialism" (in Callinicos, ed., 1989). Cohen claims: "Marxist philosophical anthropology is one sided. Its conception of human nature and human good overlooks the need for self-identity than which nothing is more essentially human." (p. 173, see especially sections 6 and 7). The consequence of this is held to be that "Marx and his followers have underestimated the importance of phenomena, such as religion and nationalism, which satisfy the need for self-identity. (Section 8.)". Cohen describes what he sees as the origins of Marx's alleged neglect: "In his anti-Hegelian, Feuerbachian affirmation of the radical objectivity of matter, Marx focused on the relationship of the subject to an object which is in no way subject, and, as time went on, he came to neglect the subject's relationship to itself, and that aspect of the subject's relationship to others which is a mediated (that is, indirect), form of relationship to itself."
Cohen believes that people are driven, typically, not to create identity, but to preserve that which they have in virtue, for example, of "nationality, or race, or religion, or some slice or amalgam thereof". Cohen does not claim that "Marx denied that there is a need for self-definition, but [instead claims that] he failed to give the truth due emphasis." Nor does Cohen say that the sort of self-understanding that can be found through religion etc. is accurate. Of nationalism, he says "identifications [can] take benign, harmless, and catastrophically malignant forms" and does not believe "that the state is a good medium for the embodiment of nationality".
See also
Antihumanism
Marx's theory of alienation
Parametric determinism
References and further reading
All the quotations from Marx in this article have used the translation employed by the Marxists Internet Archive. This means that you can follow the external reference links, and then search on that page using your browser's search function for some part of the text of the quotation in order to ascertain its context.
Primary texts
The two texts in which Marx most directly discusses human nature are the Comments on James Mill and the piece on Estranged Labour in the Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (published in 1932). Both of these pieces date from 1844, and as such were written by the young Marx; some analysts (Louis Althusser, etc.) assert that work from this period differs markedly in its ideas from the later work.
Accounts prior to 1978
In certain aspects, the views of many earlier writers on this topic are generally believed to have been superseded. Nevertheless, here is a selection of the best writing prior to 1978. Much of it addresses human nature through the strongly related concept of alienation:
Erich Fromm, Marx's Concept of Man. With a Translation of Marx's Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts by T. B. Bottomore, (1961).
Eugene Kamenka, The Ethical Foundations of Marxism (1962). The entire book can be read online.
István Mészáros, Marx's Theory of Alienation (1970). Sections can be read online.
Bertell Ollman, Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society (1971). Many chapters, including some directly relevant to human nature, can be read online.
John Plamenatz, Karl Marx's Philosophy of Man, (1975).
Recent general accounts
Marx and Human Nature: Refutation of a Legend by Norman Geras (1983) is a concise argument against the view that Marx did not believe there was something such as human nature, in particular the confusion surrounding the sixth of the Theses on Feuerbach.
Part I provides a highly readable survey of the evidence concerning what Marx thought of human nature and his concept of alienation. See especially chapter 2. The preface to the second edition (2004) of Wood's book can be read online. The first edition was published in 1983.
Marx and the Missing Link: Human Nature by W. Peter Archibald (1989).
Marxism and Human Nature by Sean Sayers (1998).
The young Karl Marx: German philosophy, Modern politics, and human flourishing by David Leopold (2007) See Chapter 4 for close reading of Marx's 1843 texts, relating human nature to human emancipation.
Fellow Creatures: Our Obligations to the Other Animals by Christine M. Korsgaard (Oxford U. Press 2018) , pp. 48–50, 67, 196.
The debate over human nature and historical materialism
Pages 150–160 (i.e. chapter 6, section 4) of G.A. Cohen's seminal Karl Marx's Theory of History (KMTH) (1978) contain an account of the relation of human nature to historical materialism. Cohen argues that the former is necessary to explain the development of the productive forces, which Marx holds to drive history.
This basic view is endorsed by Geras (1983) and .
The view, however, was criticised by Erik Olin Wright and Andrew Levine in an article entitled Rationality and Class Struggle, first published in the New Left Review. It can be found as chapter 1 of Marxist Theory (ed. Alex Callinicos, 1989).
It was also criticised by Joshua Cohen, in a review of KMTH in the Journal of Philosophy.
G.A. Cohen draws out some difficulties with his own presentation in KMTH in the article "Reconsidering Historical Materialism". (First published 1983 in Marxism: NOMOS XXVI, ed. Chapman and Pennock; now available in Marxist Theory ed. Alex Callinicos, 1989; and in History, Labour, and Freedom, G.A. Cohen, 1988). The article's contentions (for a five-point summary, see Callinicos pp. 173–4) concern the connection of Marx's historical materialism to his "philosophical anthropology" – basically, his conception of human nature.
Chapter 5 of G.A. Cohen's History, Labour and Freedom (1988) is entitled Human Nature and Social Change in the Marxist Conception of History and is co-authored by Cohen and Will Kymlicka. (First published 1988 in the Journal of Philosophy.) The purpose of the chapter is to defend Cohen's contention in his KMTH that there is an autonomous tendency of the productive forces to develop, where "autonomous" means "independent of particular social relations". The text is a response to the criticisms of J. Cohen, Levine and Wright. That is, G.A. Cohen and Kymlicka seek to show that there are no grounds for an a priori denial' of the claim that "extra-social features of human nature and the human situation operate powerfully enough to generate an historical tendency capable of overcoming recaltricant social structures" (p. 106). There may be thought to be a tension between the claims of this article and those of "Reconsidering Historical Materialism".
Footnotes
Human nature
Philosophical anthropology
Philosophical theories
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Little Tich
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Harry Relph (21 July 186710 February 1928), professionally known as Little Tich, was a English music hall comedian and dancer during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He was best known for his acrobatic and comedic "Big-Boot Dance", which he performed in Europe and for which he wore boots with soles long. Aside from his music hall appearances, he was also a popular performer in Christmas pantomimes and appeared in them annually at theatres throughout the English provinces. He repeated this success in London, where he appeared in three pantomimes at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, between 1891 and 1893 alongside Dan Leno and Marie Lloyd.
Born in Cudham, Kent, Little Tich began performing aged ten when he developed a dance and tin-whistle act which he showcased at public houses in Sevenoaks. In the early 1880s he formed a blackface act and gained popularity with performances at the nearby Rosherville Pleasure Gardens and Barnard's Music Hall in Chatham. He travelled to London and appeared at the Forester's Music Hall in 1884. Later that year, he adopted the stage name "Little Tich", which he based on his childhood nickname of "Tichborne", acquired through his portly stature and physical likeness to the suspected Tichborne Claimant Arthur Orton. The terms "titchy" or "titch" were later derived from "Little Tich" and are used to describe things that are small.
Little Tich's act further developed during a tour of the United States between 1887 and 1889 where he established the Big-Boot Dance and impressed audiences with his ability to stand on the tips of the shoes and to lean at extraordinary angles. In the 1890s he developed the Serpentine Dance and had a major success with the Christmas pantomime Babes in the Wood in Manchester during the 1889–90 season. In 1891, he was recruited by the impresario Augustus Harris to appear in that year's spectacular Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, Christmas pantomime Humpty Dumpty. He starred in a further two productions at the theatre including Little Bo Peep (1892) and Robinson Crusoe (1893).
Between 1896 and 1902 Little Tich performed in his own musical theatre company, and spent much of his time in Paris, where he became a popular variety artist. For his music hall acts, he created characters based on everyday observations. The characterisations used were "The Gas Inspector", "The Spanish Señora" and "The Waiter"; all three were later recorded onto shellac discs, of which he made twenty in total. He was married three times and fathered two children. In 1927 he suffered a stroke, which was partly triggered by a blow to the head which he had accidentally received during an evening performance at the Alhambra Theatre. He never recovered fully from the injury, and died the following year at his house in Hendon, aged 60.
Biography
Family background and early life
Little Tich was born Harry Relph in Cudham, Kent (now in the London Borough of Bromley). He was the last of eight children born to Richard Relph (1790–1881), a farmer and publican, and his wife Mary, née Moorefield (1835–1893). The Relph family were close and lived in relative affluence. Richard Relph was a committed family man and was known in the village for his sharp business acumen. His early wealth, which was attributed to a series of successful horse-trading deals, enabled him to purchase his first public house, the Rising Sun in Fawkham. In 1818 he married Sarah Ashenden and they had eight children; she died in 1845. In 1851 he moved to Cudham, bought the Blacksmith's Arms and an adjoining farm, and started a new family with Mary Moorefield, a nurse-maid governess from Dublin.
Little Tich was born with an extra digit on each hand, webbed from the little finger to the centre joint. He also experienced stunted growth. He reached in height by the age of ten, but grew no taller. His physical differences from other children caused him to become socially withdrawn and lonely. Nevertheless, his disabilities earned him fame and were an asset to his parents' business. Patrons would travel from neighbouring counties to witness his peculiarities, and the youngster revelled in the attention, dancing comically on his father's saloon bar to curious guests.
Little Tich was educated at Knockholt, a three-mile walk from Cudham. From an early age, he displayed considerable academic ability and also excelled in art; by the time he was five, his drawings were being sold to patrons of the Blacksmith's Arms by his father. Little Tich became interested in the travelling performers whom his father often employed to entertain guests at the inn. He would mimic the dancers, singers and conjurors, causing much amusement to both his family and his patrons. So good were his impersonations that his siblings frequently took him to neighbouring public houses where they would get him to perform in exchange for money. These experiences prepared Little Tich for his future career. As a result of what he saw, he, like his father, became a strict teetotaller in later years, and showed a deep loathing for boisterous and intoxicated people. Little Tich revelled in his local celebrity status; however, the older he got the more self-conscious he became and wrongly interpreted the audience's laughter as being aimed more at his disabilities rather than his comical performances.
Move to Gravesend and early performances
Richard Relph sold the Blacksmith's Arms and the adjoining farm in 1875 and moved his family to Gravesend. The socially withdrawn Little Tich was forced to adapt to much busier surroundings; day-trippers, holidaymakers and fishermen often frequented the streets and occupied the plethora of public houses which adorned the port and neighbouring roads. He resumed his education, this time at Christ Church School, where he spent the next three years. In 1878 the headmaster deemed him too educationally advanced for the school, and Richard Relph was advised to secure for his young son a watchmaking apprenticeship instead; Relph ignored the advice.
By 1878 Little Tich's parents were unable to financially provide for him further and he sought full-time employment as a lather boy in a barber's shop in Gravesend. One evening, together with a friend whose brother was appearing in a talent contest, he visited a music hall for the first time and quickly became "hooked" on the idea of being able to perform. Thanks largely to his local celebrity status of being a "freak", he was welcomed into the many public houses which catered for soldiers, sailors, merchant seamen and day-trippers from London.
By 1878, Little Tich had saved enough money to buy himself a tin whistle which he used to "amuse [him]self by playing all the jolly and sentimental pantomime songs of the day". To earn money, he began busking to local theatre goers who were waiting in the outside queues. On the way home from his busking performances, he devised eccentric dances, much to the amusement of his onlooking neighbours. Little Tich made his stage debut as Harry Relph at the age of 12 in 1879. The venue—although unidentified—was described by his daughter Mary as being a "back-street, free-and-easy" where the acts were predominantly made up of amateurs and beginners. The audiences were often harsh and they would display their displeasure by throwing objects onto the stage.
One evening, having exhausted the list of amateur talent, the compere called on Little Tich and his tin-whistle to take up the next turn. The performance was a success and Little Tich returned every night, often accompanying his tin-whistle piece with impromptu dance routines. News of his performances spread, and he was soon signed up by the proprietor of the neighbouring Royal Exchange music hall, who bought his new signing a pair of clogs. Little Tich became a popular draw at the hall and often sang thirty songs a night. It was here that he discovered the art of blackface, a popular type of entertainment widely performed around the British Isles at the time.
1880s
Early London engagements
At the start of the 1880s, Little Tich assumed the stage name "The Infant Mackney" and graduated to the world of open-air theatre. The following year, he joined a blackface troupe who performed regularly at the Rosherville Pleasure Gardens; the local historian J.R.S. Clifford described them as "a band of minstrel darkies of a superior type". Little Tich's transition from amateur to professional performer came when he appeared in a weekly spot at Barnard's Music Hall in Chatham. Lew Barnard, the hall's proprietor, offered him 35 shillings a week. Thrilled at the prospect of appearing in a proper music hall, Little Tich changed his name from The Infant Mackney to Young Tichborne, a nickname he had gained while living in Cudham years earlier. He enjoyed initial success at Barnard's, but audience numbers soon diminished and his pay was reduced to 15 shillings a week as a result. To supplement his income, he resumed his position in the barber's shop and took on a string of menial jobs that lasted six months.
In 1881 Little Tich left home with his sister Agnes, who chaperoned her young brother around the music halls and variety clubs throughout England. By now, he had swapped the tin-whistle for a picco pipe which he used to accompany his clog dancing routine. He despised his early experiences of provincial touring as he was often forced to sleep in dosshouses with very little money or food. To survive, he would often return to busking outside music halls to the waiting audiences. In the early months of 1884, he secured an engagement at a rundown public house called The Dolphin in Kidderminster, where he was paid £2 a week. He also hired his first agent who, unbeknown to Little Tich, had advertised him as a "freak" and a "six-fingered novelty". The comedian was furious with the description and quickly dispensed with the agent's services. By the summer months, his engagements had become infrequent so he used the long periods of unemployment constructively. He learned how to read and write music and taught himself to play various musical instruments including the piano, fiddle and cello. He also mastered dancing in big boots.
In November 1884 he changed his stage name for the third time to Little Tich, which derived from Tichborne, and "Tich" or "Tichy" became a common term meaning small. His reasoning for the name change was to capitalise on the release of the Tichborne claimant fraudster Arthur Orton who was then touring the British Isles in the hope of reopening the case. The change of name also coincided with the signing of a new agent who was known in London for being "one of the brightest and youngest in [show]business". The agent, Edward Colley (1859–1889), was equally thrilled with the acquisition of a new star and secured him a double engagement at the Marylebone Music Hall where he appeared as "Little Titch, The Most Curious Comique in Creation" and immediately after at the Forester's Music Hall, where he was billed as "Little Titch, the Funny Little Nigger". A reporter for The Era predicted "We shall probably hear a great deal more about Little Titch, as he seems to be one of the few that can invest the business of the Negro comedian with any humour."
By Christmas 1884, Little Tich was a resident performer in four London music halls: the Middlesex Music Hall where he had an 8 pm billing, the Marylebone (at 9 pm), the Star Palace of Varieties in Bermondsey (at 10 pm), and Crowders Music Hall in Mile End (at 11 pm). Out of the four halls, he had the most success at the Marylebone and fulfilled a ten-week run. A critic for The Era who witnessed him perform at the Marylebone thought that he was "a curious comic" and that "his antics, his sayings and his business generally [were] very amusing, and he will doubtless improve in his singing, which is weak at present, even for a Negro delineator". The commentator further noted that "he appear[ed] to be quite a young man at present; but his dancing is peculiarly funny, though his dress in one of his characters is vulgar and suggestive; this should be altered".
Having been a success in London for nearly a year, Little Tich travelled to Scotland to appear in pantomime for the first time during the 1885–86 Christmas season. Robinson Crusoe opened at the Royal Princess Theatre in Glasgow and he appeared in the small role of Chillingowadaborie, a black-faced attendant for one of the main characters King Tum-tum. The following Christmas, Little Tich starred for a second time in pantomime, this time at the Pavilion Theatre, Whitechapel in a production of Cinderella in which he played "King Mischief".
American success
The American impresario Tony Pastor came to England in 1886 and signed Little Tich for a tour of the United States. Pastor had seen the comedian perform at a small music hall called Gatti's-in-the-Road near to Westminster Bridge and was recruiting for his Gaiety Theatre Company. Little Tich left for America in the early months of 1887 and assumed his first role for Pastor in a burlesque version of The Hunchback of Notre-Dame, playing the lead character for a fee of £10 a week. Later, during a successful run in a parody of Louis Bertin's opera La Esmeralda, he impressed audiences with his "Big-Boot Dance", and Pastor engaged his new star for a further two seasons in the mock-opera which had a total run of nine months. To show his appreciation for the record profits and huge audience attendances, Pastor presented Little Tich with a gold medal and a rare white Bohemian Shepherd dog which the comedian called Cheri.
Little Tich's success under Pastor brought him to the attention of the Chicago State Opera Company, who secured him on a two-year contract for a fee of $150 a week. Before the contract commenced, he was allowed to travel back to England where he honoured a pantomime commitment by appearing in Dick Whittington at the Theatre Royal in Brighton. In the piece he took the billing of "Tiny Titch" and played the Emperor Muley. In June 1888, at the Chicago Opera House, Little Tich starred in The Crystal Slipper, a burlesque loosely based on Cinderella; the production was a hit for the comedian and completed a run of over ten months. The Era described him as "the quaint little Negro comedian" and called his American engagement "brilliantly successful". During The Crystal Slipper, Little Tich met the English dancer Laurie Brooks, whom he married in Cook County, Illinois on 20 January 1889. That year marked the end of Little Tich's "blacking up" routine, which he had performed in between his commitments for the Chicago State Opera Company. He was told by a producer that the American audiences would find the black face and English accent too much of a contrast and opined "a deaf mute with one eye could see you aint a coon". Little Tich initially became worried at the prospect of appearing on stage without make-up, but found that the audience approved of the change.
As the months progressed, the tour matured and news of his performances travelled across America. To compensate for the loss of his blackface act, Little Tich perfected his Big-Boot Dance instead and swapped from boots which he found more suitable for his size. He had also mastered a quick change into the novelty footwear which he could perform in minutes. One stage director became concerned that the pause was too long for the audience to wait, and he threw the boots onto the stage causing the star to run back out in front of the waiting audience to put the boots on in front of them. While he did this, the orchestra provided an accompaniment of "till ready" music. For the audience, this provided much hilarity and they assumed it was part of the act. The unintentional sketch was "an instant hit" and the comedian incorporated this into his future Big-Boot Dance routine.
In April 1889 Little Tich briefly returned to London to star at the Empire Theatre in Leicester Square where he was poorly received by audiences. As a result, the manager of the theatre reduced the comedian's wages to £6 a week. The experience left him bitter towards the English entertainment industry and he returned to America to appear in a new production for the Chicago State Opera. The production, Bluebeard Junior, was not as successful as its predecessor, but toured for seven months. Despite his bad reviews back in England, Little Tich began to feel homesick and he was allowed to return home a few months short of his contract expiration. Once back, he and his wife set up home at 182 Kennington Road, Lambeth; Laurie later gave birth to the couple's son Paul on 7 November 1889.
1890s
Return to London and West End debut
In the later months of 1889 Little Tich secured an engagement at the London Pavilion in Piccadilly Circus. This time, he found his English critics to be complimentary about his talent, but as their praise was largely about his success in America, he considered them hypocritical. News of his much-improved performances travelled throughout the country and he was visited by Thomas W. Charles, manager of Manchester's Prince's Theatre. Charles offered Little Tich a leading role in his forthcoming pantomime Babes in the Wood. The 1889–90 production was a huge success for the comedian and his performance reportedly earned him "the heartiest applause of the evening".
By the early months of 1890, Augustus Harris, the influential manager of the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, had travelled to Manchester to look for new talent for his theatre's forthcoming 1890–91 pantomime. Impressed with what he saw, he offered the comedian a theatrical residency at Drury Lane but he was forced to withdraw it as Little Tich was contracted to Charles for a further year; Harris instead signed Little Tich for a two-year contract starting the following season. The deal required Little Tich to star in two pantomimes for a wage of £36 a week. Following on from his success in Babes in the Wood which culminated in April 1890, the theatre manager Rollo Balmain cast him as Quasimodo in a production of The Hunchback of Notre-Dame at the Theatre Royal, Plymouth. The show featured a burlesque centrepiece which required Little Tich to dress as a ballerina and gave him the opportunity to perform two of his earliest songs, "Smiles" and "I Could Do, Could Do, Could Do with a Bit", both written for him by Walter Tilbury.
In 1890 Little Tich continued to impress his London music hall audiences and appeared on the front covers of both the Entr'acte and the Music Hall magazines, with the latter being widely available in the majority of London music hall auditoriums. Towards the end of the year, Little Tich appeared at the opening of the Tivoli Music Hall, before returning to Manchester at Christmas to fulfil the second of his two pantomime engagements for Thomas Charles in Little Bo-peep, in which he played Toddlekins. The following year he reprised his role of Quasimodo and toured the provinces in The Hunchback of Notre-Dame with Balmain's company.
Life at Drury Lane
The year 1891 signalled a new era in the career of Little Tich. The Drury Lane pantomimes were known for their extravagance and splendour and featured lavish sets and big budgets. The first of the Drury Lane pantomimes in which Little Tich appeared was Humpty Dumpty in 1891 which also starred Drury Lane regulars Marie Lloyd, Dan Leno and Herbert Campbell. As well as the title role, Little Tich also played the minor part of the Yellow Dwarf in the harlequinade. It was during the latter characterisation that he revived his Big-Boot Dance, which was a hit with audiences. The following Christmas, he equalled this success with his second pantomime Little Bo-Peep in which he played the part of "Hop of my Thumb". As well as Leno, Lloyd and Campbell, Harris recruited the singers Ada Blanche and Cecilia Loftus as principal boy and girl respectively. Harris was thrilled with Little Tich and signed him for the 1893–94 pantomime Robinson Crusoe in which he played Man Friday. The Derby Daily Telegraph called the comedian "one of the most amusing pantomime dames of all time". Despite a budget of £30,000, Robinson Crusoe failed to equal the success of the previous two shows, which caused Harris to rethink his cast. Unaware of Harris's plans, Little Tich approached him with a view of a pay rise; the proposition angered the manager and not only was his request refused, but he was also ruled out of any future production.
New theatrical ventures and international engagements
In the early months of 1891, Little Tich completed a successful tour of Germany. Two years later he developed the character Miss Turpentine for his self-choreographed sketch The Serpentine Dance, which he performed over the next three years in Hamburg, Geneva, Rotterdam, Brussels, Nice, Monte Carlo, Barcelona and Budapest; the tour also enabled him to become fluent in French, German, Italian and Spanish. He portrayed Miss Turpentine as an eccentric ballerina who wore an ill-fitting tutu. The dance was a comic variation of the well-known skirt dance belonging to Loie Fuller, which had been popular in France years earlier. Another successful characterisation was that of an eccentric Spanish dancer, which Little Tich devised while touring Europe, and like The Serpentine Dance, relied heavily on acrobatic choreography and comic miming rather than eccentric singing and joke reciting.
It was around this period when Little Tich was inducted into the fledgling entertainers' fraternity, the Grand Order of Water Rats. In 1906, he would serve as "King Rat" for the order. In 1894, free from his contractual obligations at Drury Lane, he took a three-year break from the English music hall scene and travelled to France to fulfil a number of engagements; over the next ten years, he divided his time between there and England. In the early months of 1895, he moved from music hall to variety theatre, a transition which many of his contemporaries had already successfully achieved. Lord Tom Noddy was showcased in September 1896 and ran at the Garrick Theatre, London for two months. The production had minimal success in the capital but was received well in the provinces. The show provided Little Tich with the chance to promote himself as a serious actor and to separate himself from the reputation of simply being the "deformed dwarf from the music hall". The audience were described as being "very large" whose "bursts of laughter w[ere] frequent and loud". A reporter for the Edinburgh Evening News thought that Little Tich was "the life and soul of the sketch" whose singing was "fairly good while [his] dancing was smart", while the critic William Archer dismissed Little Tich as being the "Quasimodo of the music halls, whose talent lies in a grotesque combination of agility with deformity".
He formed his own theatre company in mid-1895, and produced his first show called Lord Tom Noddy, in which he also starred. He commissioned the dramatist George Dance to write the piece and made him a partner in the company. On 11 December 1896, Little Tich was invited to appear at the Folies Bergère in France, where he starred in a short piece as Miss Turpentine and performed the Big-Boot Dance. One journalist for the Sunday Referee claimed that "no artist since Loie Fuller, four years earlier, had scored such a success", and as a result, he signed a two-year contract at the Folies. Little Tich returned to England in the later months of 1897, where he self-produced the second of his company's two shows, a musical comedy called Billy. Despite the show enjoying a healthy provincial tour after opening in Newcastle, one reporter thought that "it ha[d] not very much to recommend it", but thought that Little Tich gave "some excellent fooling" and that it "[was] impossible not to laugh at some of the eccentricities". However, the farce failed to make it to the West End of London. Little Tich saw this as a snub and he refused to perform in the capital again. Instead, he travelled to South Shields, where he appeared briefly in a successful short play called Giddy Ostend before retreating to France.
In 1898 he broke the Folies contract shortly before its expiry after being scouted by Joseph Oller, who hired him to perform at the Olympia Music Hall in Paris. Following the breach of contract, the Folies manager Édouard Marchand initiated legal action against the comedian, who settled out of court for an undisclosed sum. The theatrical manager C.B. Cochran who had seen the comedian perform during this period, described him as "a reincarnation of the dwarf court-jesters of the Middle Ages—the little English Don Antonio of Velasquez". By now, Little Tich had become frustrated with his English audiences. With Billy failing to reach London and the unequal level of success in the English capital compared to France made him shun the English variety theatre scene altogether in the final years of the century. He returned to the less-popular music halls as a result, where he remained for the rest of his career.
1900s
Marriage troubles
In September 1894, Little Tich and Laurie established the family home in the rue Lafayette, Paris. During 1897, while Little Tich was away on a tour of England, Germany and Austria, Laurie eloped to Berlin with the French actor François Marty, leaving her husband responsible for their young son Paul. Unable to care for Paul, Little Tich sent him to England to live with relatives. That year, Little Tich met the dancer Julia Recio during an engagement at the Olympia Music Hall in Paris and the two began a relationship. They moved to a flat in the boulevard Poissonnière, Paris, where they lived together, though keeping this a secret until after Laurie Relph's death in 1901. In 1900 Little Tich appeared in the French capital's Phono-Cinéma-Théâtre where he performed the Big-Boot Dance, which was recorded on film by the French director Clément-Maurice. Years later, the film-maker Jacques Tati called the piece "a foundation for everything that has been realised in comedy on the screen".
In 1902, Little Tich starred in a special, one-off revue with Marie Lloyd at the Tivoli theatre called The Revue, which was staged to celebrate the coronation of Edward VII. The following year, Little Tich's performance at the Oxford Music Hall was described as being "... a very droll turn" by a reporter for The Cornishman newspaper, who also called his Big-Boot Dance "wonderful". Little Tich rented another London property at 1 Teignmouth Road in Kilburn, to escape his life with Julia, which he was finding increasingly mundane. Despite their troubles, he married Julia in a discreet London ceremony on 31 March 1904 at St Giles Register Office and rented a further address at 44 Bedford Court Mansions in Bloomsbury. Although initially happy, the marriage quickly deteriorated as a result of differing opinions over social activities and money; Julia was a sociable and extravagant person, whilst Little Tich preferred a quieter and thriftier lifestyle.
By 1906, Little Tich and Julia had become so estranged that she moved to a neighbouring flat, rented for her by her husband. The couple never publicly announced their separation, and he continued to provide financial support for his wife and fund her extravagant lifestyle for the next twenty years. Years later, Paul Relph admitted "Father and Julia never loved one another. Poor, poor father. His life was one long misery through her." Over the next four years, Little Tich continued to perform in both England and France and earned £10,000 a year. In 1905 he appeared in the second of a further three films for the French film industry called Le Raid Paris–Monte Carlo en deux heures, directed by Georges Méliès. This was followed by Little Tich in 1907, and Little Tich, the Tec two years later.
In 1907 Little Tich travelled to South Africa, where he appeared in a successful, nine-week engagement for a fee of £500 a week. Soon after, he returned to England to take part in the Music Hall War, which saw the Variety Artistes' Federation fight for more freedom and better working conditions on behalf of music hall performers. In 1909 he received a serious leg injury while on stage at the Belfast Hippodrome during a performance of the Serpentine Dance. A doctor in the audience diagnosed a dislocated knee, which forced the comedian to take seven weeks' recuperation. Little Tich's performance was described by a reporter for the Evening Telegraph and Post as being "up to date" and declared the Serpentine Dance was "next to the Big-Boot Dance in popularity".
Recording career and new family
In 1910, Little Tich became the adoptive father of Rodolphe Knoepper, an orphan born in 1899 to the brother of the Russian acrobat Harry Alaska. Alaska had previously worked for Little Tich as his dresser and after his death, Knoepper moved into the Relph residence in France and started his education there. After a few months of living with Little Tich, he was moved to London to stay with Julia. In later years Little Tich's daughter Mary said that her father treated Knoepper as more of a son than Paul, who became estranged from the family by the 1920s. While in Paris in 1910, Little Tich was made an officer of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques by the French Ministry of Public Instruction for his services to the stage.
Towards the end of 1910, he travelled to Scotland to complete a short engagement at the King's Theatre in Dundee. His performance was described by a theatre reviewer for the Evening Telegraph as being "downright genuine fun" and "very entertaining". The following year Little Tich recorded the first of a selection of his music hall songs on one-sided shellac discs used in the early acoustic recording process. Songs included "The Gas Inspector", "King Ki-Ki", "The Toreador" and "The Zoo Keeper" and were followed two years later by "The Waiter", "The Weather", "The Don of the Don Juans" and "A Risky Thing to Do".
In 1915 Little Tich cut short his engagement at the Golders Green Hippodrome to take up a better offer in Paris. As a result, the proprietors of the Hippodrome sued for breach of contract and he had to pay them £103 in compensation. That year he recorded "The Tallyman", "The Gamekeeper", "The Skylark" and "The Pirate" onto disc before heading to the northern English provinces to prepare for that year's Christmas pantomime at the Royal Court Theatre in Liverpool. It was there that he met Winifred Latimer (1892–1973), a singer and actress who had had some success on the London stage under Seymour Hicks a few years previously. Tich and Winifred were both starring in the Christmas pantomime Sinbad the Sailor, in which Little Tich played the title role and Winifred supported him as the principal boy. The two grew close and against her parents wishes, they began a relationship, shortly before the pantomime closed in the early months of 1916. Sinbad the Sailor was a big success and Winifred was widely praised for her performance, which she attributed to the guidance she received from Little Tich.
In 1916 Winifred moved into a rented flat in Camden, chosen by Little Tich for its close proximity to his house in Bedford Square; this enabled him to visit her with less chance of being recognised. In 1917 he recorded "Tally-Ho!" and "The Best Man", the final two songs from his repertoire, onto shellac discs. That year Winifred became pregnant, which ended her career on the stage, a situation which pleased Little Tich immeasurably. However, Winifred was ostracised by her family and had to contend with life as an unmarried mother with no career and no chances of ever realising her remaining theatrical ambitions. On 23 February 1918, while Little Tich was performing in Brighton, she gave birth to a daughter whom she named Mary. She and Mary then moved to 64 Gloucester Place in Marylebone.
Last years and death
By 1920, relations between Little Tich and Winifred's parents had improved and they welcomed him into the family. Despite renting a new, six-room flat in Marylebone for his daughter and mistress, the comedian was now finding it increasingly difficult to support Winifred, Mary and Julia on his earnings as the years of generosity had drastically depleted his savings. His annual income in 1921 and 1922 had topped £9,750 but had dropped to £3,743 by 1923. In 1925 he earned £6,300 but this fell the following year to just £2,100. Worried by the drastic reduction in pay, he reduced Julia's payments, which angered her family. Another money-saving plan was to stop renting properties in London and secure a mortgage on a small house instead. To avoid speculation about his affair with Winifred, he decided to remain at Bedford Court Mansions, and bought a newly built house in Shirehall Park, Hendon, North-West London in September 1925 for Winifred and Mary to move into. Soon after, he embarked on a successful tour of Europe which culminated at Christmas the same year. He returned to London and took part in a Christmas benefit at the London Coliseum, where he performed the Big-Boot Dance. The performance was by then proving too strenuous for the 58-year-old comedian, and he decided to retire it that year.
On the morning of 7 January 1926, Julia Relph died of a cerebral haemorrhage in the flat which Little Tich had rented for her. Despite their estrangement, the comedian was distraught at her death and spent two nights at the apartment with her corpse. A few days later, he moved in with Winifred where he arranged his wife's funeral, staying in the spare bedroom as a "house guest". He made frequent visits back to Bedford Court Mansions to organise Julia's paperwork and discovered that his wife had been having an affair with his friend Emile Footgers and that she was ten years older than she had led her husband to believe. Little Tich also found that she had used his money to buy a house in Golders Green as a future investment for Paul's daughter Constance, and that his wife had participated in a secret scam to blackmail the comedian out of large quantities of cash. Despite the revelations, Little Tich mourned deeply for his wife and spoke fondly of her for the rest of his life.
On 10 April 1926, Little Tich married Winifred at Caxton Hall, Westminster, with little publicity. Later that evening, he appeared at the Camberwell Palace in a short but popular engagement, while his new wife returned home to Hendon. For the honeymoon, the family travelled to Bristol, where Little Tich appeared on stage with the French actress Mistinguett, who presented him with a tributary gold statue of him wearing big boots. At the end of that year, the family paid a working visit to Australia, where he toured the Sydney theatres for a fee of £300 a week; he received a lukewarm reception from audiences.
The following March, Little Tich and his family returned to England. He made only one appearance on stage that year, in November, when he introduced a new song called "The Charlady at the House of Commons". For the character's appearance he wore a ripped and dirty frock, a scrag wig and carried an old mop and bucket which he borrowed from home. The act required him to flip the mop up into the air and grab the handle before carrying on singing. During one evening's performance at the Alhambra Theatre, the trick went wrong and he received a blow to his head from the mop. Despite the pain, he continued with the piece and refused to seek medical treatment for the resulting bump and intense headache which followed.
One December morning in 1927, whilst getting ready for a family day out, Little Tich was conversing with his wife who was in a separate room, upstairs at Shirehall Park. When he stopped responding, she became concerned, went to the room where her husband was, and found him slumped and insensible in a chair. He was taken to hospital where doctors diagnosed a stroke. He became mute and lost all feeling on the right side of his body, but was discharged from hospital and returned home to Hendon. He was frequently visited by the surgeon Sir Alfred Fripp, who made a secondary diagnosis of pernicious anaemia which he cited as having played an instrumental part in the comedian's seizure.
On the morning of 10 February 1928, Little Tich died at his home in Shirehall Park, Hendon, aged 60 and he was later buried at East Finchley Cemetery. His death and funeral were national news. The author and theatre critic Walter MacQueen-Pope predicted that Little Tich would be remembered for his "physical peculiarity and the expression 'tichy', meaning small". A reporter for The Daily News called him "[the] comedian whose popularity had never waned and whose name was as famous in 1928 as it was when music-halls flourished 30 years ago". Writing in 1974, the author Naomi Jacob thought that Little Tich would be remembered for many years to come stating that "there is no reason why such names as Little Tich and Marie Lloyd should be forgotten any more than such names as Salvini, Bernhardt and Henry Irving".
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Little Tich (Harry Relph) at Who's Who of Victorian Cinema.
Sax Rohmer and Little Tich:Chapter Sixteen, taken from Little Tich: A Book of Travels (And Wanderings).
A collection of Harry Relph (Little Tich) volumes is held by the Victoria and Albert Museum Theatre and Performance Department.
1867 births
1928 deaths
English male comedians
Vaudeville performers
Music hall performers
Pantomime dames
Burials at East Finchley Cemetery
Articles containing video clips
20th-century English comedians
Pathé Records artists
Columbia Records artists
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5318218
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Blue%20Bird%20%28fairy%20tale%29
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The Blue Bird (fairy tale)
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"The Blue Bird" (French: L’oiseau bleu) is a French literary fairy tale by Madame d'Aulnoy, published in 1697. An English translation was included in The Green Fairy Book, 1892, collected by Andrew Lang.
The tale is Aarne–Thompson type 432, The Prince as Bird. Others of this type include "The Feather of Finist the Falcon", "The Green Knight", and "The Greenish Bird".
Plot summary
After a wealthy king loses his dear wife, he meets and falls in love with a woman, who is also recently widowed and they marry. The king has a daughter named Florine and the queen also has a daughter named Truitonne. While Florine is beautiful and kind-hearted, Truitonne is spoiled, selfish and ugly and it is not too long before she and her mother become jealous of Florine's beauty.
One day, the king decides the time has come to arrange his daughters' marriages and soon, Prince Charming visits the kingdom. The queen is determined for him to marry Truitonne, so she dresses her daughter in all her finery for the reception and bribes Florine's ladies-in-waiting to steal all her dresses and jewels. But her plan backfires for when the Prince claps eyes on Florine, he falls in love with her at once and pays attention only to her. The queen and Truitonne are so furious that they badger the king until he agrees to lock Florine up for the length of the visit and they attempt to blacken her character to the Prince.
The queen sends Prince Charming many gifts, but when he hears they are from Truitonne, he rejects them. The queen angrily tells him that Florine will be locked in a tower until he leaves. Prince Charming is outraged and begs to speak with Florine for a moment. The devious queen agrees, but she goes to meet the Prince instead. In the darkness of their meeting place, Prince Charming mistakes Truitonne for Florine and unwittingly asks for the princess's hand in marriage.
Truitonne conspires with her fairy godmother, Mazilla, but Mazilla tells her it will be difficult to deceive the Prince. At the wedding ceremony, Truitonne produces the Prince's ring and pleads her case. When Prince Charming realises he has been tricked, he refuses to marry her and nothing that Truitonne or Mazilla do can persuade him. At last, Mazilla threatens to curse him for breaking his promise and when Prince Charming will still not agree, Mazilla transforms him into a blue bird.
The queen, on hearing of the news, blames Florine; she dresses Truitonne as a bride and shows her to Florine, claiming that Prince Charming has agreed to marry her. She then persuades the King that Florine is so infatuated with Prince Charming that she had best remain in the tower until she comes to her senses. However, the bluebird flies to the tower one evening and tells Florine the truth. Over many years, the bluebird visits her often, bringing her rich gifts of jewels.
Over the years, the queen continues to look for a suitor for Truitonne. One day, exasperated by the many suitors that have rejected Truitonne, the Queen seeks Florine in her tower, only to find her singing with the bluebird. Florine opens the window to let the bird escape, but the Queen discovers her jewellery and realises that she has been receiving some kind of aid. She accuses Florine of treason, but the bluebird manages to foil the queen's plot.
For many days, Florine does not call the bluebird for fear of the queen's spy; but one night, as the spy sleeps soundly, she calls the bluebird. They continue to meet for some nights thereafter until the spy hears one of their meetings and tells the Queen. The Queen orders for the fir tree, where the bird perches, to be covered with sharp edges of glass and metal, so that he will be fatally wounded and unable to fly. When Florine calls for the bluebird and he perches on the tree, he cuts his wings and feet and cannot fly to Florine. When the bluebird does not answer Florine's call, she believes he has betrayed her. Luckily, an enchanter hears the Prince lamenting and rescues him from the tree.
The enchanter persuades Mazilla to change Prince Charming back into a man for a few months, after which if he still refuses Truitonne, he will be turned back into a bird.
One day, Florine's father dies and the people of the kingdom rise up and demand Florine's release. When the Queen resists, they kill her and Truitonne flees to Mazilla. Florine becomes queen and makes preparations to find King Charming.
Disguised as a peasant woman, Florine sets out on a journey to find the King and meets an old woman, who proves to be another fairy. The fairy tells her that King Charming has returned to his human form after agreeing to marry Truitonne and gives her four magical eggs. The first egg she uses to climb a great hill of ivory. The second contains a chariot pulled by doves that brings her to King Charming's castle, but she can not reach the king in her disguise. She offers to sell to Truitonne the finest jewellery that King Charming had given her, and Truitonne shows it to the King to find out the proper price. He recognizes it as the jewellery he gave to Florine and is saddened. Truitonne returns to Florine, who will sell them only for a night in the Chamber of Echoes, which King Charming had told her of one night: whatever she says in there will be heard in the king's room. She reproaches him for leaving her and laments all night long, but he has taken a sleeping potion, and does not hear her.
She breaks the third egg and finds a tiny coach drawn by mice. Again, she trades it for the Chamber of Echoes, and laments all the night long again, but only the pages hear her.
The next day, she opens the last egg and it holds a pie with six singing birds. She gives it to a page, who tells her that the King takes sleeping potions at night. She bribes the page with the singing birds and tells him not to give the King a sleeping potion that night. The King, being awake, hears Florine and runs to the Chamber of Echoes. Recognising his beloved, he throws himself at her feet and they are joyfully reunited.
The enchanter and the fairy assure them that they can prevent Mazilla from harming them, and when Truitonne attempts to interfere, they quickly turn her into a sow. King Charming and Queen Florine are married and live happily ever after.
Publication history
The tale of "The Blue Bird" (L'Oiseau Bleu) is one of Madame d'Aulnoy's most famous fairy tales, with republications in several compilations.
The tale was renamed Five Wonderful Eggs and published in the compilation Fairy stories my children love best of all.
Legacy
The tale was one of many from d'Aulnoy's pen to be adapted to the stage by James Planché, as part of his Fairy Extravaganza. The tale was retitled as King Charming, or the Blue Bird of Paradise when adapted to the stage.
Analysis
Tale type
The tale is classified, in the international Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index, as tale type ATU 432, "The Prince as Bird". In the French Catalogue, d'Aulnoy's tale gives its name to the French tale type AT 432, L'Oiseau Bleu.
Motifs
French folklorists Paul Delarue and Marie-Louise Thénêze noted that in d'Aulnoy's tale, the heroine bribes her step-sister with precious objects to allow for access to Charmant. This motif does not appear in other oral variants of the same type, but it does occur as an episode of type ATU 425A, "The Animal (Monster) as Bridegroom".
Variants
Europe
In a Greek tale, The Merchant's Daughter, Daphne, the youngest of the titular merchant's daughters, asks for her father to bring her "The Golden Ring". The Golden Ring is a prince from a foreign country (India) who, after meeting the merchant, tells him he saw Daphne in his dreams and wishes to marry her. The merchant gives his daughter a letter, a cup and the golden ring. The prince metamorphoses into a pigeon to meet Daphne by her window in secret, flies in and jumps into a cup to become human. Some time later, jealous of her hidden happiness, her sisters see that a knife is inside the cup and summon the prince to be hurt while in bird form. It happens thus, and Prince Fortunate (the prince's name) flies back to his kingdom. Learning of her beloved's injuries, Daphne dons a masculine disguise, sails to India and wanders to her prince's kingdom. On the way, she overhears the conversation between two birds about a way to cure the prince: one would have to kill the birds and dip their bodies in a spring to make an ointment that can heal the prince. Daphne kills the birds, prepares the ointment and goes to Prince Fortunate's castle in a doctor's disguise to apply the cure on his body.
In an Armenian tale published both by author A. G. Seklemian and Armenian literary critic with the title "Невеста родника" ("The Bride of the Fountain"), a mother goes to the market to buy dresses for her three daughters, but forgets about the gift for her youngest. She stops by a fountain and sighs: "Eh!" ("Tush", in Seklemian's translation). Suddenly, a man jumps out of the fountain and asks the woman about the matter. After hearing about the dress, the man suggests she takes her daughter to the fountain and shout "Eh!". The woman bring her daughter to the fountain, shouts "Eh!", the man appears and gives her the dress. The woman leaves her daughter with the man in the fountain and two months later, the girl returns. The man comes to the girl's window at night in the form of a partridge. The girl's sisters begin to envy her happiness and place razors on the window, for the next time the man flies in. And so it happens: the man flies in, injures himself in the razors and flies back to where he came from. Days pass, and the girl, sensing something is wrong with her husband, decides to look for him. The girl goes back to the fountain, summons her husband and father-in-law with "Eh!". The bridegroom asks his father to wear his eagle outfit, fly away with the girl and drop her in the desert. He carries out his son's orders and the girl ends up lost in the desert. Composing herself, she wanders off through the dunes until she reaches two dervishes talking about curing diseases: to heal razor wounds, one needs only milk from a nursing mother who just gave birth to a son, and dried blood. The girl goes to the fountain again with the remedy and treats her bridegroom's wounds. French author translated the tale into French as La fiancée de la source.
In a Georgian tale titled "Крахламадж" ("Krahlamaj"), a king has three daughters who are supervised by a governess. One day, he has to go on a journey and asks his daughters what they want as presents from the trip: the eldest asks for a dress unlike any other, the middle one for a jewel that shines brighter than the sun, and the youngest for the krahlamaj flower. The king goes on his journey and finds gifts for the elder ones, but cannot seem to find the krahlamaj, since no one appears to have heard of it. The king then reaches a distant kingdom, where a prophetess knows about the krahlamaj flower, and explains the situation: the king of this distant kingdom prayed to God for a son, even if he is an angel from Heaven, and God granted him one; at the same time, a flower sprouted at the garden and, a few days later, the little baby grew wings and flew back to Heaven; the king becomes sad, but another angel explains that his son can be summoned back to Earth by placing shiny objects and petals from the krahlamaj flower in a room, and clean it from any piece of glass. The prophetess then tells the first king that the flower is fiercely guarded by animals in the king's garden, but he can avoid them by throwing them fresh meat. The first king takes the flower and goes back to his daughters, giving them the presents. The princesses' governess, who worked at the second king's palace, knows the secret of the krahlamaj flower, so she puts it in a pot, places some shiny objects and some petals in a room, and prince Krahlamaj flies down from Heaven to meet the youngest princess. Later, the eldest princess spies on the cadette and, seeing the beautiful, angelic youth, grows jealous, and hatches a plan: the elder princess places glass on the bed and, when Krahlamaj appears next, he hurts himself and flies back to his kingdom badly hurt. Sensing her beloved's disappearance, the youngest princess dresses in masculine attire, takes the krahlamaj flower she owned and rushes to the prince's distant kingdom. She reaches her beloved's kingdom, where she learns the prince has been bedridden for years, so she introduces herself as a magician who has come to cure the prince, and is takes to his chambers. The princess enters the chambers and sees the injured prince, and, just as she comes, the smell of the krahlamaj flower she brought with her begins to heal the prince. After he is completely cured, the princess and the prince marry.
Asia
Middle East
In a Middle Eastern tale titled Tamara, the titular Tamara is a beautiful girl, the youngest of three poor sisters. One day, she finds a magical talking peacock, who tells her he is Prince Bahadin, cursed by a sorcerer on his half-brothers' orders to become a peacock by dawn and human at night. They spend nights together, and he leaves a bag of gold coins for her, then departs in bird form. Eventually, Bahadin and Tamara marry, and he allows his sisters-in-law to live with them. One day, the couple converse about something that may endanger his life: shards of broken glass. Somehow, one of Tamara's sisters, Layal, places some on the windowpane. Bahadin flies in the room in peacock form and is badly hurt by it, then makes a return for his kingdom in Mount Carmel. Tamara learns of her beloved's ordeal and rides to find a cure for him.
Iraq
Russian professor V. A. Yaremenko published an Iraqi tale that combined tale types ATU 432 and 425D, "Vanished Husband [Learned of By Keeping Inn/Bath-house]"), and claimed that it was "very popular" among populations who dwell in Shatt al-Arab.
Africa
Egypt
Scholar Hasan El-Shamy collected an Egyptian tale in 1971 from a female storyteller. In this tale, titled Pearls-on-Vines, a king has to go the peregrination to Mecca and asks his three daughters what presents they want when he comes back. The two elders insist on material possessions, while the youngest only wishes for his safe return. The two sisters insist that their younger sibling must be wishing for something. An old woman advises her to asks for "Pearls-on-Vines", who is actually "the son of the king of the Moslem jinn". The prince Pearls-on-Vines appears to him in a dream and tells him to pass along instructions to his daughter: to make a hole in the wall and sprinkle it with rosewater. The prince materializes in the princess's room in the form of a snake, and her sisters prepare a trap for him.
Algeria
In an Arab Algerian tale collected by engineer Jeanne Scelles-Millie with the title La Fille du Roy et le Rosier ("The King's Daughter and the Rosebush"), a king has seven daughters, the youngest of which he loves the best of all, to her sisters' jealousy. One day, their father is ready to go to Mecca, and asks what presents he can bring him. They each ask for material gifts, but the youngest seems uncertain about her gift. Her elder sisters consult with a sorceress, who advises them to suggest a rosebush for their sister. The youngest princess follows her sisters' suggestion and asks the king for a rosebush, and curses her father not to come back until he finds her gift. The king goes to Mecca and buys gifts for his six elder daughters, but cannot seem to find the specific rosebush, and his camel does not move at all. The king is advised by an old man to stop by a cave entrance, sacrifice a ram and wait until a white dog comes to take the meat. It happens thus: the king sees a black dog and a white dog come out of the cave and take the meat. He enters the cave and meets a prince, who asks him the purpose of his visit. The king explains about his search for a gift for his daughter, and the prince says he is the rosebush, and orders the man to return home, for he will come to his daughter through the air and with the storm and the rain. The king returns home and tells his youngest daughter about the prince. The youngest princess waits in her room for the rosebush prince, talks to him all night and he flies away, leaving her some gold in the morning. As time passes, her elder sisters begin to envy her good fortune, and place needles by the window. The next time the rosebush prince flies in, he injures himself in the needles and has to fly back to his kingdom. The youngest princess decides to seek him out, and stops by a lion's den. She overhears a conversation between a lion and a lioness about the rosebush prince and how their liver and heart can cure him. After the lions sleep, the princess kills them to take their heart and liver to cure the prince.
America
Author Elsie Spicer Eells recorded a Brazilian variant titled The Parrot of Limo Verde (Portuguese: "O Papagaio do Limo Verde"): a beautiful princess receives the visit of a parrot (in fact, a prince in disguise).
Mentions in other works
In the autobiography The Words from Jean-Paul Sartre, The Blue Bird was mentioned by the author as one of the first books he liked as a child.
In the ballet, The Sleeping Beauty, the Bluebird and Princess Florine make an appearance at Aurora's wedding celebration.
See also
The Canary Prince
The Enchanted Snake
Prince Sobur (Indian fairy tale)
References
External links
Works by Madame d'Aulnoy
Fictional passerine birds
Fairies and sprites in popular culture
Birds in popular culture
Fiction about shapeshifting
ATU 400-459
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5318527
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient%20Greek%20cuisine
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Ancient Greek cuisine
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Ancient Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality for most, reflecting agricultural hardship, but a great diversity of ingredients was known, and wealthy Greeks were known to celebrate with elaborate meals and feasts.
The cuisine was founded on the "Mediterranean triad" of cereals, olives, and grapes, which had many uses and great commercial value, but other ingredients were as important, if not more so, to the average diet: most notably legumes. Research suggests that the agricultural system of Ancient Greece could not have succeeded without the cultivation of legumes.
Modern knowledge of ancient Greek cuisine and eating habits is derived from textual, archeological, and artistic evidence.
Meals
In the homeric epics of Iliad and Odyssey, three meals are mentioned.
Ariston (ἄριστον)
Dorpon (δόρπον) or Dorpos (δόρπος)
Deipnon (δεῖπνον)
Ariston was the early meal, while dorpon was the late meal. Deipnon could be either, without reference to time.
In the later age Greeks had the below meals:
Acratisma (ἀκράτισμα)
Ariston
Deipnon
Acratisma was the early meal (similar to the ariston of the homeric age), ariston was the middle meal and deipnon was the evening meal (similar to the dorpon of the homeric age).
Description of the meals
Breakfast
Breakfast ( akratismós and ἀκράτισμα akratisma, acratisma) consisted of barley bread dipped in wine ( ákratos), sometimes complemented by figs, dates or olives. They also ate a sort of pancake called (tēganítēs), (tagēnítēs) or (tagēnías), all words deriving from (tágēnon), "frying pan". The earliest attested references on tagenias are in the works of the 5th century BC poets Cratinus and Magnes.
Tagenites were made with wheat flour, olive oil, honey and curdled milk, and were served for breakfast. Another kind of pancake was (staititēs), from (staitinos), "of flour or dough of spelt", derived from (stais), "flour of spelt". Athenaeus in his Deipnosophistae mentions staititas topped with honey, sesame and cheese.
Lunch
A quick lunch ( áriston) was taken around noon or early afternoon.
Dinner
Dinner ( deīpnon), the most important meal of the day, was generally taken at nightfall. An additional light meal ( hespérisma) was sometimes taken in the late afternoon. / aristódeipnon, literally "lunch-dinner", was served in the late afternoon instead of dinner.
Epideipnis (ἐπιδειπνίς) was a second course at dinner.
Eating customs
Men and women took their meals separately. When the house was small, the men ate first and the women afterwards. Respect for the father who was the breadwinner was obvious. Slaves waited at dinners. Aristotle notes that "the poor, having no slaves, would ask their wives or children to serve food."
The ancient Greek custom of placing terracotta miniatures of furniture in children's graves gives a good idea of its style and design. The Greeks normally ate while seated on chairs; benches were used for banquets. Tables - high for normal meals, low for banquets - were initially rectangular. By the 4th century BC, most tables were round, often with animal-shaped legs (for example lion's paws).
Loaves of flat bread were occasionally used as plates; terracotta bowls were more common. Dishes became more refined over time, and by the Roman period plates were sometimes made out of precious metals or glass. Cutlery was not often used at the table. Use of the fork was unknown; people ate with their fingers. Knives were used to cut the meat. Spoons were used for soups and broths. Pieces of bread ( apomagdalía) could be used to spoon the food or as napkins to wipe the fingers.
Social dining
As with modern dinner parties, the host could simply invite friends or family; but two other forms of social dining were well documented in ancient Greece: the entertainment of the all-male symposium, and the obligatory, regimental syssitia.
Symposium
The symposium ( sympósion), traditionally translated as "banquet", but more literally "gathering of drinkers", was one of the preferred pastimes for Greek men. It consisted of two parts: the first dedicated to food, generally rather simple, and a second part dedicated to drinking. However, wine was consumed with the food, and the beverages were accompanied by snacks ( tragēmata) such as chestnuts, beans, toasted wheat, or honey cakes, all intended to absorb alcohol and extend the drinking spree.
The second part was inaugurated with a libation, most often in honor of Dionysus, followed by conversation or table games, such as kottabos. The guests would recline on couches ( klínai); low tables held the food or game boards.
Dancers, acrobats, and musicians would entertain the wealthy banqueters. A "king of the banquet" was drawn by lots; he had to direct the slaves as to how strong to mix the wine.
With the exception of courtesans, the banquet was strictly reserved for men. It was an essential element of Greek social life. Great feasts could only be afforded by the rich; in most Greek homes, religious feasts or family events were the occasion of more modest banquets.
The banquet became the setting of a specific genre of literature, giving birth to Plato's Symposium, Xenophon's work of the same name, the Table Talk of Plutarch's Moralia, and the Deipnosophists (Banquet of the Learned) of Athenaeus.
Syssitia
The syssitia ( tà syssítia) were mandatory meals shared by social or religious groups for men and youths, especially in Crete and Sparta. They were referred to variously as hetairia, pheiditia, or andreia (literally, "belonging to men").
They served as both a kind of aristocratic club and as a military mess. Like the symposium, the syssitia was the exclusive domain of men – although some references have been found to substantiate all-female syssitia. Unlike the symposium, these meals were hallmarked by simplicity and temperance.
Ingredients and dishes
Grains
Breads and cakes
Cereals formed the staple diet. The two main grains were wheat ( sītos) and barley ( krithē).
When Greece was conquered by Rome during the 3rd century B.C., commercial bakeries were well known and spread. In fact Pliny the Elder suggests that the production of bread moved from the family to the “industrial” thanks to the work of skilled artisans (according to Pliny, starting from 171 BC). Plato favored home production over commercial production and in Gorgias, described Thearion the baker as an Athenian novelty who sells goods that could be made at home.
In ancient Greece, bread was served with accompaniments known as opson , sometimes rendered in English as "relish". This was a generic term which referred to anything which accompanied this staple food, whether meat or fish, fruit or vegetable.
Cakes may have been consumed for religious reasons as well as secular. Philoxenus of Cythera describes in detail some cakes that were eaten as part of an elaborate dinner using the traditional dithyrambic style used for sacred Dionysian hymns: "mixed with safflower, toasted, wheat-oat-white-chickpea-little thistle-little-sesame-honey-mouthful of everything, with a honey rim".
Athenaeus says the charisios was eaten at the "all-night festival", but John Wilkins notes that the distinction between the sacred and secular can be blurred in antiquity.
Ancient writers mention melitoutta (), which was a honeycake.
Wheat
Wheat grains were softened by soaking, then either reduced into gruel, or ground into flour ( aleíata) and kneaded and formed into loaves ( ártos) or flatbreads, either plain or mixed with cheese or honey. Leavening was known; the Greeks later used an alkali ( nítron) and wine yeast as leavening agents. Dough loaves were baked at home in a clay oven ( ipnós) set on legs.
Bread wheat, difficult to grow in Mediterranean climates, and the white bread made from it, were associated with the upper classes in the ancient Mediterranean, while the poor ate coarse brown breads made from emmer wheat and barley.
A simpler baking method involved placing lighted coals on the floor and covering the heap with a dome-shaped lid ( pnigeús); when it was hot enough, the coals were swept aside, and dough loaves were placed on the warm floor. The lid was then put back in place, and the coals were gathered on the side of the cover.
The stone oven did not appear until the Roman period. Solon, an Athenian lawmaker of the 6th century BC, prescribed that leavened bread be reserved for feast days. By the end of the 5th century BC, leavened bread was sold at the market, though it was expensive.
Barley
Barley was easier to grow than wheat, but more difficult to make bread from. Barley-based breads were nourishing but very heavy. Because of this, it was often roasted before being milled into coarse flour ( álphita). Barley flour was used to make maza, the basic Greek dish. Maza could be served cooked or raw, as a broth, or made into dumplings or flatbreads. Like wheat breads, it could also be augmented with cheese or honey.
In Peace, Aristophanes employs the expression , literally "to eat only barley", with a meaning equivalent to the English "diet of bread and water".
Millet
Millet was growing wild in Greece as early as 3000 BCE, and bulk storage containers for millet have been found from the Late Bronze Age in Macedonia and northern Greece. Hesiod describes that "the beards grow round the millet, which men sow in summer."
Millet is listed along with wheat in the 3rd century BCE by Theophrastus in his "Enquiry into Plants"
Emmer
Black bread, made from emmer (sometimes called "emmer wheat"), was cheaper (and easier to make) than wheat; it was associated with the lower classes and the poor.
Legumes
Legumes were essential to the Greek diet, and were harvested in the Mediterranean region from prehistoric times: the earliest and most common being lentils - which have been found in archeological sites in Greece dating to the Upper Paleolithic period. As one of the first domesticated crops to be introduced to Greece, lentils are commonly found at regional archaeological sites from the Upper Paleolithic.
Lentils and chickpeas are the most frequently mentioned legumes in classical literature.
Bitter vetch – This plant was present in Greece from at least 8000 BCE, and was occasionally eaten in Classical times. Most ancient literature that mentions it describes it as animal food and having a disagreeable taste. Several classical authors suggest medicinal uses for it.
Black beans – Homer mentions the threshing a black bean (not black turtle beans) as a metaphor in the Iliad
Broad beans – Broad, or Fava Beans are rare in archeological sites, but are common in classical literature. They were eaten both as main dishes and also included in desserts (mixed with figs). In addition to describing them as food, classical authors attribute various medicinal qualities to the beans.
Chickpeas – Chickpeas are mentioned almost as frequently in classical literature as lentils (by Aristophanes and Theophrastus among others), but are found rarely in archeological sites in Greece. As they are found in prehistoric sites in the Middle East and India, it is likely their use was a late addition to the Ancient Greek diet
Grass peas – Like bitter vetch, grass peas were grown in ancient Greece mainly for animal fodder, however they were occasionally eaten in times of famine
Lentils – Theophrastus states that "of the leguminous plants, the lentil is the most prolific"
Lupin bean – Lupin (or Lupine, Lupini) beans were present in the Mediterranean region from prehistoric times and were cultivated in Egypt by at least 2000 bce. By classical times, the Greeks were using them for both food and animal fodder.
Garden peas – Peas are commonly found in some of the earliest archaeological sites in Greece, but are rarely mentioned in classical literature. However Hesiod and Theophrastus both include them as food eaten by Greeks
Fruit and vegetables
In ancient Greece, fruit and vegetables were a significant part of the diet, as the ancient Greeks consumed much less meat than in the typical diet of modern societies. Legumes would have been important crops, as their ability to replenish exhausted soil was known at least by the time of Xenophon.
Hesiod (7th-8th century BCE) describes many crops eaten by the ancient Greeks, among these are artichokes and peas.
Vegetables were eaten as soups, boiled or mashed ( etnos), seasoned with olive oil, vinegar, herbs or gáron, a fish sauce similar to Vietnamese nước mắm. In the comedies of Aristophanes, Heracles was portrayed as a glutton with a fondness for mashed beans. Poor families ate oak acorns ( balanoi). Olives were a common appetizer.
In the cities, fresh vegetables were expensive, and therefore, the poorer city dwellers had to make do with dried vegetables. Lentil soup ( phakē) was the workman's typical dish. Cheese, garlic, and onions were the soldier's traditional fare. In Aristophanes' Peace, the smell of onions typically represents soldiers; the chorus, celebrating the end of war, sings Oh! joy, joy! No more helmet, no more cheese nor onions! Bitter vetch ( orobos) was considered a famine food.
Fruits, fresh or dried, and nuts, were eaten as dessert. Important fruits were figs, raisins, dates and pomegranates. In Athenaeus' Deipnosophistae, he describes a dessert made of figs and broad beans. Dried figs were also eaten as an appetizer or when drinking wine. In the latter case, they were often accompanied by grilled chestnuts, chick peas, and beechnuts.
Animals
Meat
In the 8th century BC Hesiod describes the ideal country feast in Works and Days:
Meat is much less prominent in texts of the 5th century BC onwards than in the earliest poetry, but this may be a matter of genre rather than real evidence of changes in farming and food customs. Fresh meat was most commonly eaten at sacrifices, though sausage was much more common, consumed by people across the economic spectrum. In addition to the flesh of animals, the ancient Greeks often ate inner organs, many of which were considered delicacies such as paunches and tripe.
Hippolochus (3rd Century BCE) describes a wedding banquet in Macedonia with "chickens and ducks, and ringdoves, too, and a goose, and an abundance of suchlike viands piled high... following which came a second platter of silver, on which again lay a huge loaf, and geese, hares, young goats, and curiously moulded cakes besides, pigeons, turtle-doves, partridges, and other fowl in plenty..." and "a roast pig — a big one, too — which lay on its back upon it; the belly, seen from above, disclosed that it was full of many bounties. For, roasted inside it, were thrushes, ducks, and warblers in unlimited number, pease purée poured over eggs, oysters, and scallops"
Spartans primarily ate a soup made from pigs' legs and blood, known as melas zōmos (), which means "black soup". According to Plutarch, it was "so much valued that the elderly men fed only upon that, leaving what flesh there was to the younger". It was famous amongst the Greeks. "Naturally Spartans are the bravest men in the world," joked a Sybarite, "anyone in his senses would rather die ten thousand times than take his share of such a sorry diet". It was made with pork, salt, vinegar and blood. The dish was served with maza, figs and cheese sometimes supplemented with game and fish. The 2nd–3rd century author Aelian claims that Spartan cooks were prohibited from cooking anything other than meat.
The consumption of fish and meat varied in accordance with the wealth and location of the household; in the country, hunting (primarily trapping) allowed for consumption of birds and hares. Peasants also had farmyards to provide them with chickens and geese. Slightly wealthier landowners could raise goats, pigs, or sheep. In the city, meat was expensive except for pork. In Aristophanes' day a piglet cost three drachmas, which was three days' wages for a public servant. Sausages were common both for the poor and the rich. Archaeological excavations at Kavousi Kastro, Lerna, and Kastanas have shown that dogs were sometimes consumed in Bronze Age Greece, in addition to the more commonly-consumed pigs, cattle, sheep, and goats.
Fish
Herodotus describes a "large fish... of the sort called Antacaei, without any prickly bones, and good for pickling," probably beluga found in Greek colonies along the Dnieper River. Other ancient writers mention skipjack tuna (pelamys); tuna (thynnoi); swordfish (xifiai); sea raven (korakinoi); black carp (melanes kyprinoi), porpoise (phykaina), and mackerel (scomber).
In the Greek islands and on the coast, fresh fish and seafood (squid, octopus, and shellfish) were common. They were eaten locally but more often transported inland. Sardines and anchovies were regular fare for the citizens of Athens. They were sometimes sold fresh, but more frequently salted. A stele of the late 3rd century BC from the small Boeotian city of Akraiphia, on Lake Copais, provides us with a list of fish prices. The cheapest was skaren (probably parrotfish) whereas Atlantic bluefin tuna was three times as expensive. Common salt water fish were yellowfin tuna, red mullet, ray, swordfish or sturgeon, a delicacy which was eaten salted. Lake Copais itself was famous in all Greece for its eels, celebrated by the hero of The Acharnians. Other fresh water fish were pike-fish, carp and the less appreciated catfish. In classical Athens, eels, conger-eels, and sea-perch () were considered to be great delicacies, while sprats were cheap and readily available.
Fowl
Ancient Greeks consumed a much wider variety of birds than is typical today. Pheasants were present as early as 2000 BCE. Domestic chickens were brought to Greece from Asia Minor as early as 600 BCE, and domesticated geese are described in The Odyssey (800 BCE). Quail, moorhen, capon, mallards, pheasants, larks, pigeons and doves were all domesticated in classical times, and were even for sale in markets. Additionally, thrush, blackbirds, chaffinch, lark, starling, jay, jackdaw, sparrow, siskin, blackcap, Rock partridge, grebe, plover, coot, wagtail, francolin, and even cranes were hunted, or trapped, and eaten, and sometimes available in markets.
Eggs and dairy products
Eggs
Greeks bred quails and hens, partly for their eggs. Some authors also praise pheasant eggs and Egyptian goose eggs, which were presumably rather rare. Eggs were cooked soft- or hard-boiled as hors d'œuvre or dessert. Whites, yolks and whole eggs were also used as ingredients in the preparation of dishes.
Milk
Hesiod describes "milk cake, and milk of goats drained dry" in his Works and Days. Country dwellers drank milk ( gala), but it was seldom used in cooking.
Butter
Butter ( bouturon) was known but seldom used: Greeks saw it as a culinary trait of the Thracians of the northern Aegean coast, whom the Middle Comic poet Anaxandrides dubbed "butter eaters".
Cheese and yogurt
Cheesemaking was widespread by the 8th Century BCE, as the technical vocabulary associated with it is included in The Odyssey.
Greeks enjoyed other dairy products. pyriatē and Oxygala () were curdled milk products, similar to cottage cheese or perhaps to yogurt. Most of all, goat's and ewe's cheese ( tyros) was a staple food. Fresh cheeses (sometimes wrapped in Drakontion leaves to retain freshness) and hard cheeses were sold in different shops; the former cost about two thirds of the latter's price.
Cheese was eaten alone or with honey or vegetables. It was also used as an ingredient in the preparation of many dishes, including fish dishes (see recipe below by Mithaecus). However, the addition of cheese seems to have been a controversial matter; Archestratus warns his readers that Syracusan cooks spoil good fish by adding cheese.
Spices and seasonings
The first spice mentioned in Ancient Greek writings is cassia: Sappho (6th-7th Century BCE) mentions it in her poem on the marriage of Hector and Andromache. The ancient Greeks made a distinction between Ceylon cinnamon and cassia.
Ancient Greeks used at least two forms of pepper in cooking and medicine: one of Aristotle's students, Theophrastus, in describing the plants that appeared in Greece as a result of Alexander's conquest of India and Asia Minor,
listed both black pepper and long pepper, stating "one is round like bitter vetch...: the other is elongated and black and has seeds like those of a poppy : and this kind is much stronger than the other. Both however are heating...".
Theophrastus lists several plants in his book as "pot herbs" including dill, coriander, anise, cumin, fennel, rue, celery and celery seed.
Recipes
Homer describes the preparation of a wine and cheese drink: taking "Pramnian wine she grated goat's milk cheese into it with a bronze grater [and] threw in a handful of white barley meal." (Book 11 of the Iliad)
One fragment survives of the first known cookbook in any culture, it was written by Mithaecus (5th Century BCE) and is quoted in the "Deipnosophistae" of Athenaeus. It is a recipe for a fish called "tainia" (meaning "ribbon" in Ancient Greek - probably the species Cepola macrophthalma),
"Tainia": gut, discard the head, rinse, slice; add cheese and [olive] oil.
Archestratus (4th Century BCE), the self-titled "inventor of made dishes," describes a recipe for paunch and tripe, cooked in "cumin juice, and vinegar and sharp, strong-smelling silphium".
Drink
The most widespread drink was water. Fetching water was a daily task for women. Though wells were common, spring water was preferred: it was recognized as nutritious because it caused plants and trees to grow, and also as a desirable beverage. Pindar called spring water "as agreeable as honey".
The Greeks would describe water as robust, heavy or light, dry, acidic, pungent, wine-like, etc. One of the comic poet Antiphanes's characters claimed that he could recognize Attic water by taste alone. Athenaeus states that a number of philosophers had a reputation for drinking nothing but water, a habit combined with a vegetarian diet (see below). Milk, usually goats' milk, was not widely consumed, being considered barbaric.
The usual drinking vessel was the skyphos, made out of wood, terra cotta, or metal. Critias also mentions the kothon, a Spartan goblet which had the military advantage of hiding the colour of the water from view and trapping mud in its edge. The ancient Greeks also used a vessel called a kylix (a shallow footed bowl), and for banquets the kantharos (a deep cup with handles) or the rhyton, a drinking horn often moulded into the form of a human or animal head.
Wine
The Greeks are thought to have made red as well as rosé and white wines. Like today, these varied in quality from common table wine to valuable vintages. It was generally considered that the best wines came from Thásos, Lesbos and Chios.
Cretan wine came to prominence later. A secondary wine made from water and pomace (the residue from squeezed grapes), mixed with lees, was made by country people for their own use. The Greeks sometimes sweetened their wine with honey and made medicinal wines by adding thyme, pennyroyal and other herbs. By the first century, if not before, they were familiar with wine flavoured with pine resin (modern retsina). Aelian also mentions a wine mixed with perfume. Cooked wine was known, as well as a sweet wine from Thásos, similar to port wine.
Wine was generally cut with water. The drinking of akraton or "unmixed wine", though known to be practised by northern barbarians, was thought likely to lead to madness and death. Wine was mixed in a krater, from which the slaves would fill the drinker's kylix with an oinochoe (jugs). Wine was also thought to have medicinal powers. Aelian mentions that the wine from Heraia in Arcadia rendered men foolish but women fertile; conversely, Achaean wine was thought to induce abortion.
Outside of these therapeutic uses, Greek society did not approve of women drinking wine. According to Aelian, a Massalian law prohibited this and restricted women to drinking water. Sparta was the only city where women routinely drank wine.
Wine reserved for local use was kept in skins. That destined for sale was poured into pithoi, (large terra cotta jugs). From there they were decanted into amphoras sealed with pitch for retail sale. Vintage wines carried stamps from the producers or city magistrates who guaranteed their origin. This is one of the first instances of indicating the geographical or qualitative provenance of a product.
Kykeon
The Greeks also drank kykeon (, from kykaō, "to shake, to mix"), which was both a beverage and a meal. It was a barley gruel, to which water and herbs were added. In the Iliad, the beverage also contained grated goat cheese. In the Odyssey, Circe adds honey and a magic potion to it. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, the goddess refuses red wine but accepts a kykeon made of water, flour, and pennyroyal.
Used as a ritual beverage in the Eleusinian Mysteries, kykeon was also a popular beverage, especially in the countryside: Theophrastus, in his Characters, describes a boorish peasant as having drunk much kykeon and inconveniencing the Assembly with his bad breath. It also had a reputation as a good digestive, and as such, in Peace, Hermes recommends it to the main character who has eaten too much dried fruit.
Ancient writers
Timachidas the Rhodian wrote 11 books with dinner recipes. Noumenios, Matreas the Pitanean, Hegemon the Thasian, who was called Lentil-soup, Artemidoros, who was called the Pseudoaristophanean, and Philoxenos, son of Leukadios, wrote cookbooks.
In addition, some flat-cakes took their names from Philoxenos and were called Philoxenean (Φιλοξένειοι πλακοῦντες).
Zopyrinus (Ζωπύρινος) was an author of a work on cookery.
Cultural beliefs about the role of food
Food played an important part in the Greek mode of thought. Classicist John Wilkins notes that "in the Odyssey for example, good men are distinguished from bad and Greeks from foreigners partly in terms of how and what they ate. Herodotus identified people partly in terms of food and eating".
Up to the 3rd century BC, the frugality imposed by the physical and climatic conditions of the country was held as virtuous. The Greeks did not ignore the pleasures of eating, but valued simplicity. The rural writer Hesiod, as cited above, spoke of his "flesh of a heifer fed in the woods, that has never calved, and of firstling kids" as being the perfect closing to a day. Nonetheless, Chrysippus is quoted as saying that the best meal was a free one.
Culinary and gastronomical research was rejected as a sign of decadence: the inhabitants of the Persian Empire were considered so due to their luxurious taste, which manifested itself in their cuisine. The Greek authors took pleasure in describing the table of the Achaemenid Great King and his court: Herodotus, Clearchus of Soli, Strabo and Ctesias were unanimous in their descriptions.
In contrast, Greeks as a whole stressed the austerity of their own diet. Plutarch tells how the king of Pontus, eager to try the Spartan "black gruel", bought a Laconian cook; 'but had no sooner tasted it than he found it extremely bad, which the cook observing, told him, "Sir, to make this broth relish, you should have bathed yourself first in the river Eurotas"'. According to Polyaenus, on discovering the dining hall of the Persian royal palace, Alexander the Great mocked their taste and blamed it for their defeat. Pausanias, on discovering the dining habits of the Persian commander Mardonius, equally ridiculed the Persians, "who having so much, came to rob the Greeks of their miserable living".
In consequence of this cult of frugality, and the diminished regard for cuisine it inspired, the kitchen long remained the domain of women, free or enslaved. In the classical period, however, culinary specialists began to enter the written record. Both Aelian and Athenaeus mention the thousand cooks who accompanied Smindyride of Sybaris on his voyage to Athens at the time of Cleisthenes, if only disapprovingly. Plato in Gorgias, mentions "Thearion the cook, Mithaecus the author of a treatise on Sicilian cooking, and Sarambos the wine merchant; three eminent connoisseurs of cake, kitchen and wine." Some chefs also wrote treatises on cuisine.
Over time, more and more Greeks presented themselves as gourmets. From the Hellenistic to the Roman period, the Greeks — at least the rich — no longer appeared to be any more austere than others. The cultivated guests of the feast hosted by Athenaeus in the 2nd or 3rd century devoted a large part of their conversation to wine and gastronomy. They discussed the merits of various wines, vegetables, and meats, mentioning renowned dishes (stuffed cuttlefish, red tuna belly, prawns, lettuce watered with mead) and great cooks such as Soterides, chef to king Nicomedes I of Bithynia (who reigned from the 279 to 250 BC). When his master was inland, he pined for anchovies; Soterides simulated them from carefully carved turnips, oiled, salted and sprinkled with poppy seeds. Suidas (an encyclopaedia from the Byzantine period) mistakenly attributes this exploit to the celebrated Roman gourmet Apicius (1st century BC) — which may be taken as evidence that the Greeks had reached the same level as the Romans.
Specific diets
Vegetarianism
Orphicism and Pythagoreanism, two common ancient Greek religions, suggested a different way of life, based on a concept of purity and thus purification ( katharsis) — a form of asceticism in the original sense: askēsis initially signifies a ritual, then a specific way of life. Vegetarianism was a central element of Orphicism and of several variants of Pythagoreanism.
Empedocles (5th century BC) justified vegetarianism by a belief in the transmigration of souls: who could guarantee that an animal about to be slaughtered did not house the soul of a human being? However, it can be observed that Empedocles also included plants in this transmigration, thus the same logic should have applied to eating them. Vegetarianism was also a consequence of a dislike for killing: "For Orpheus taught us rights and to refrain from killing".
The information from Pythagoras (6th century BC) is more difficult to define. The Comedic authors such as Aristophanes and Alexis described Pythagoreans as strictly vegetarian, with some of them living on bread and water alone. Other traditions contented themselves with prohibiting the consumption of certain vegetables, such as the broad bean, or of sacred animals such as the white cock or selected animal parts.
It follows that vegetarianism and the idea of ascetic purity were closely associated, and often accompanied by sexual abstinence. In On the eating of flesh, Plutarch (1st–2nd century) elaborated on the barbarism of blood-spilling; inverting the usual terms of debate, he asked the meat-eater to justify his choice.
The Neoplatonic Porphyrius (3rd century) associates in On Abstinence vegetarianism with the Cretan mystery cults, and gives a census of past vegetarians, starting with the semi-mythical Epimenides. For him, the origin of vegetarianism was Demeter's gift of wheat to Triptolemus so that he could teach agriculture to humanity. His three commandments were: "Honour your parents", "Honour the gods with fruit", and "Spare the animals".
Athlete diets
Aelian claims that the first athlete to submit to a formal diet was Ikkos of Tarentum, a victor in the Olympic pentathlon (perhaps in 444 BC). However, Olympic wrestling champion (62nd through 66th Olympiads) Milo of Croton was already said to eat twenty pounds of meat and twenty pounds of bread and to drink eight quarts of wine each day. Before his time, athletes were said to practice xērophagía (from xēros, "dry"), a diet based on dry foods such as dried figs, fresh cheese and bread. Pythagoras (either the philosopher or a gymnastics master of the same name) was the first to direct athletes to eat meat.
Trainers later enforced some standard diet rules: to be an Olympic victor, "you have to eat according to regulations, keep away from desserts (…); you must not drink cold water nor can you have a drink of wine whenever you want". It seems this diet was primarily based on meat, for Galen (ca. 180 AD) accused athletes of his day of "always gorging themselves on flesh and blood". Pausanias also refers to a "meat diet".
See also
Byzantine cuisine
Greek cuisine
List of ancient dishes
Nutrition in Classical Antiquity
References
Works cited
Briant, P. Histoire de l'Empire perse de Cyrus à Alexandre. Paris: Fayard, 1996. , translated in English as From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2002
Dalby, A. Siren Feasts: A History of Food and Gastronomy in Greece. London: Routledge, 1996.
Dodds, E.R. "The Greek Shamans and the Origins of Puritanism ", The Greek and the Irrational (Sather Classical Lectures). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962 (1st edn 1959).
Flacelière R. La Vie quotidienne en Grèce au temps de Périclès. Paris: Hachette, 1988 (1st edn. 1959) , translated in English as Daily Life in Greece at the Time of Pericles. London: Phoenix Press, 2002
Migeotte, L., L'Économie des cités grecques. Paris: Ellipses, 2002 (in French)
Wilkins, J., Harvey, D. and Dobson, M. Food in Antiquity. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1995.
Further reading
Amouretti, M.-Cl. Le Pain et l'huile dans la Grèce antique. De l'araire au moulin. Paris: Belles Lettres, 1989.
Delatte, A. Le Cycéon, breuvage rituel des mystères d'Éleusis. Paris: Belles Lettres, 1955.
Detienne, M. and Vernant, J.-P. (trans. Wissing, P.). The Cuisine of Sacrifice Among the Greeks. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1989 (1st edn. 1979)
Davidson, James. Courtesans and Fishcakes: The Consuming Passions of Classical Athens. Fontana Press. 1998.
External links
"Végétarisme, au commencement…" (French language article on the origins of vegetarianism)
A Taste of the Ancient World (University of Michigan)
Ancient Greek Recipes and posts about Ancient Greek Cuisine
Greek
Greek cuisine
Ancient Greece
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-libertarianism
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Right-libertarianism
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Right-libertarianism, also known as libertarian capitalism, right-wing libertarianism, or colloquially as libright is a libertarian political philosophy that supports capitalist property rights and defends market distribution of natural resources and private property. The term right-libertarianism is used to distinguish this class of views on the nature of property and capital from left-libertarianism, a type of libertarianism that combines self-ownership with an egalitarian approach to natural resources. In contrast to socialist libertarianism, right-libertarianism supports free-market capitalism. Like most forms of libertarianism, it supports civil liberties, especially natural law, negative rights, the non-aggression principle, and a major reversal of the modern welfare state.
Right-libertarian political thought is characterized by the strict priority given to liberty, with the need to maximize the realm of individual freedom and minimize the scope of public authority. Right-libertarians typically see the state as the principal threat to liberty. This anti-statism differs from anarchist doctrines in that it is based upon strong individualism that places less emphasis on human sociability or cooperation. Right-libertarian philosophy is also rooted in the ideas of individual rights and laissez-faire economics. The right-libertarian theory of individual rights generally follows the homestead principle and the labor theory of property, stressing self-ownership and that people have an absolute right to the property that their labor produces. Economically, right-libertarians make no distinction between capitalism and free markets and view any attempt to dictate the market process as counterproductive, emphasizing the mechanisms and self-regulating nature of the market whilst portraying government intervention and attempts to redistribute wealth as invariably unnecessary and counter-productive. Although all right-libertarians oppose government intervention, there is a division between anarcho-capitalists, who view the state as an unnecessary evil and want property rights protected without statutory law through market-generated tort, contract and property law; and minarchists, who support the need for a minimal state, often referred to as a night-watchman state, to provide its citizens with courts, military, and police.
While influenced by classical liberal thought, with some viewing right-libertarianism as an outgrowth or as a variant of it, there are significant differences. Edwin Van de Haar argues that "confusingly, in the United States the term libertarianism is sometimes also used for or by classical liberals. But this erroneously masks the differences between them". Classical liberalism refuses to give priority to liberty over order and therefore does not exhibit the hostility to the state which is the defining feature of libertarianism. As such, right-libertarians believe classical liberals favor too much state involvement, arguing that they do not have enough respect for individual property rights and lack sufficient trust in the workings of the free market and its spontaneous order leading to support of a much larger state. Right-libertarians also disagree with classical liberals as being too supportive of central banks and monetarist policies.
Like libertarians of all varieties, right-libertarians refer to themselves simply as libertarians. Being the most common type of libertarianism in the United States, right-libertarianism has become the most common referent of libertarianism there since the late 20th century while historically and elsewhere it continues to be widely used to refer to anti-state forms of socialism such as anarchism and more generally libertarian communism/libertarian Marxism and libertarian socialism. Around the time of Murray Rothbard, who popularized the term libertarian in the United States during the 1960s, anarcho-capitalist movements started calling themselves libertarian, leading to the rise of the term right-libertarian to distinguish them. Rothbard himself acknowledged the co-opting of the term and boasted of its "capture [...] from the enemy".
Definition
People described as being left-libertarian or right-libertarian generally tend to call themselves simply libertarians and refer to their philosophy as libertarianism. In light of this, some authors and political scientists classify the forms of libertarianism into two groups, namely left-libertarianism and right-libertarianism, to distinguish libertarian views on the nature of property and capital.
The term libertarian was first used by late Enlightenment freethinkers, referring to those who believed in free will, as opposed to necessity, a now-disused philosophy that posited a kind of determinism. The word libertarian is first recorded in 1789 coined by the British historian William Belsham, in a discussion against free will from the author's deterministic point of view. This debate between libertarianism in a philosophical-metaphysical sense and determinism would continue into the early nineteenth century, especially in the field of Protestant theology.<ref name="theo">Jared Sparks, Collection of Essays and Tracts in Theology, from Various Authors, with Biographical and Critical Notices, publicado por Oliver Everett, 13 Cornhill, 1824 (ver, Writings of Dr. Cogan, 205).</ref> The Merriam-Webster Dictionary, in English, attests to this ancient use of the word libertarian by describing its meaning as "an advocate of the doctrine of free will "and, taking a broad definition, also says that he is" a person who holds the principles of individual freedom especially in thought and action ".
Many decades later, libertarian was a term used by the French libertarian communist Joseph Déjacque to mean a form of left-wing politics that has been frequently used to refer to anarchism and libertarian socialism since the mid- to late 19th century. With the modern development of right-libertarian ideologies such as anarcho-capitalism and minarchism co-opting the term libertarian in the mid-20th century to instead advocate laissez-faire capitalism and strong private property rights such as in land, infrastructure and natural resources, the terms left-libertarianism and right-libertarianism have been used more often as to differentiate between the two. Socialist libertarianism has been included within a broad left-libertarianismHicks, Steven V.; Shannon, Daniel E. (2003). The American Journal of Economics and Sociology. Blackwell Pub. p. 612. while right-libertarianism mainly refers to laissez-faire capitalism such as Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism and Robert Nozick's minarchism.
Right-libertarianism has been described as combining individual freedom and opposition to the state, with strong support for free markets and private property. Property rights have been the issue that has divided libertarian philosophies. According to Jennifer Carlson, right-libertarianism is the dominant form of libertarianism in the United States. Right-libertarians "see strong private property rights as the basis for freedom and thus are—to quote the title of Brian Doherty's text on libertarianism in the United States—"Radicals for Capitalism".
Herbert Kitschelt and Anthony J. McGann contrast right-libertarianism—"a strategy that combines pro-market positions with opposition to hierarchical authority, support of unconventional political participation, and endorsement of feminism and of environmentalism"—with right-authoritarianism.Mudde, Cas (2016). The Populist Radical Right: A Reader (1st ed.). Routledge. .
Mark Bevir holds that there are three types of libertarianism, namely left, right and consequentialist libertarianism as promoted by Friedrich Hayek.
According to contemporary American libertarian Walter Block, left-libertarians and right-libertarians agree with certain libertarian premises, but "where [they] differ is in terms of the logical implications of these founding axioms". Although some libertarians may reject the political spectrum, especially the left–right political spectrum, right-libertarianism and several right-oriented strands of libertarianism in the United States have been described as being right-wing, New Right,Robinson, Emily; et al. (2017). "Telling stories about post-war Britain: popular individualism and the 'crisis' of the 1970s". Twentieth Century British History. 28 (2): 268–304. radical right and reactionary.
American libertarian activist and politician David Nolan, the principal founder of the Libertarian Party, developed what is now known as the Nolan Chart to replace the traditional left-right political spectrum. The Nolan Chart has been used by several modern American libertarians and right-libertarians who reject the traditional political spectrum for its lack of inclusivity and see themselves as north-of-center. It is used in an effort to quantify typical libertarian views that support both free markets and social liberties and reject what they see as restrictions on economic and personal freedom imposed by the left and the right, respectively, although this latter point has been criticized. Other libertarians reject the separation of personal and economic liberty or argue that the Nolan Chart gives no weight to foreign policy.
Since the resurgence of neoliberalism in the 1970s, right-libertarianism has spread beyond North America via think tanks and political parties.Gregory, Anthony (24 April 2007). "Real World Politics and Radical Libertarianism". LewRockwell.com. . Retrieved 25 January 2020. In the United States, libertarianism is increasingly viewed as this capitalist free-market position.
Terminology
As a term, right-libertarianism is used by some political analysts, academics and media sources, especially in the United States, to describe the libertarian philosophy which is supportive of free-market capitalism and strong right to property, in addition to supporting limited government and self-ownership, being contrasted with left-wing views which do not support the former. In most of the world, this particular political position is mostly known as classical liberalism, economic liberalism and neoliberalism. It is mainly associated with right-wing politics, support for free markets and private ownership of capital goods. Furthermore, it is usually contrasted with similar ideologies such as social democracy and social liberalism which generally favor alternative forms of capitalism such as mixed economies, state capitalism and welfare capitalism.
Peter Vallentyne writes that libertarianism, defined as being about self-ownership, is not a right-wing doctrine in the context of the typical left–right political spectrum because on social issues it tends to be left-wing, opposing laws restricting consensual sexual relationships between or drug use by adults as well as laws imposing religious views or practices and compulsory military service. He defines right-libertarianism as holding that unowned natural resources "may be appropriated by the first person who discovers them, mixes her labor with them, or merely claims them—without the consent of others, and with little or no payment to them". He contrasts this with left-libertarianism, where such "unappropriated natural resources belong to everyone in some egalitarian manner". Similarly, Charlotte and Lawrence Becker maintain that right-libertarianism most often refers to the political position that because natural resources are originally unowned, they may be appropriated at will by private parties without the consent of, or owing to, others.
Samuel Edward Konkin III, who characterized agorism as a form of left-libertarianismD'Amato, David S. (27 November 2018). "Black-Market Activism: Samuel Edward Konkin III and Agorism". Libertarianism.org. Retrieved 21 November 2019. and strategic branch of left-wing market anarchism, defined right-libertarianism as an "activist, organization, publication or tendency which supports parliamentarianism exclusively as a strategy for reducing or abolishing the state, typically opposes Counter-Economics, either opposes the Libertarian Party or works to drag it right and prefers coalitions with supposedly 'free-market' conservatives".
Anthony Gregory maintains that libertarianism "can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations". While holding that the important distinction for libertarians is not left or right, but whether they are "government apologists who use libertarian rhetoric to defend state aggression", he describes right-libertarianism as having and maintaining interest in economic freedom, preferring a conservative lifestyle, viewing private business as a "great victim of the state" and favoring a non-interventionist foreign policy, sharing the Old Right's "opposition to empire".
Old Right
Murray Rothbard, whose writings and personal influence helped create some strands of right-libertarianism, wrote about the Old Right in the United States, a loose coalition of individuals formed in the 1930s to oppose the New Deal at home and military interventionism abroad, that they "did not describe or think of themselves as conservatives: they wanted to repeal and overthrow, not conserve". Bill Kauffman has also written about such "old right libertarians". Peter Marshall dates right-libertarianism and anarcho-capitalism in particular back to the Old Right and as being popularized again by the New Right.
Individuals who are seen in this Old Right libertarian traditionRadosh, Ronald (1975). Prophets on the Right: Profiles of Conservative Critics of American Globalism. New York City, New York: Simon. include Frank Chodorov,Hamilton, Charles H. (1980). Fugitive Essays: Selected Writings of Frank Chodorov. Indianapolis, Indiana: Liberty. John T. Flynn,Moser, John (2005). Right Turn: John T. Flynn and the Transformation of American Liberalism. New York City, New York: New York University Press. Garet Garrett,Ramsey, Bruce (2008). Unsanctioned Voice: Garet Garrett, Journalist of the Old Right. Caldwell, Indiana: Caxton. Rose Wilder Lane,Wilder Lane, Rose (2007) [1943]. The Discovery of Freedom: Man's Struggle against Authority. Auburn, Alabama: Mises Institute. H. L. Mencken, Albert Jay NockNock, Albert Jay (June 1936). "Isaiah’s Job". Atlantic Monthly (157): 641–649. and Isabel Paterson.Cox, Stephen D. (2004). The Woman and the Dynamo: Isabel Paterson and the Idea of America. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction. What those thinkers had in common was opposition to the rise of the managerial state during the Progressive Era and its expansion in connection with the New Deal and the Fair Deal whilst challenging imperialism and military interventionism. However, Old Right was a label about which many or most of these figures might have been skeptical as most thought of themselves effectively as classical liberals rather than the national defense and social conservatism of thinkers associated with the later movement conservatism, with Chodorov famously writing: "As for me, I will punch anyone who calls me a conservative in the nose. I am a radical".Hamilton, Charles H. (1981). "Introduction". Fugitive Essays: Selected Writings of Frank Chodorov Compiled. p. 29. Their opposition and resistance to the state approached philosophical anarchism with Nock and amounted to statelessness in Chodorov's case. On the other hand, Lew Rockwell and Jeffrey Tucker identifies the Old Right as being culturally conservative, arguing that "[v]igorous social authority—as embodied in the family, church, and other mediating institutions—is a bedrock of the virtuous society" and that "[t]he egalitarian ethic is morally reprehensible and destructive of private property and social authority".
While libertarian was popularized by the libertarian socialist Benjamin Tucker around the late 1870s and early 1880s, H. L. Mencken and Albert Jay Nock were the first prominent figures in the United States to describe themselves as libertarian as a synonym for liberal. They believed that Franklin D. Roosevelt had co-opted the word liberal for his New Deal policies which they opposed and used libertarian to signify their allegiance to classical liberalism, individualism and limited government.
In the 1960s, Rothbard started publishing Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought, believing that the left–right political spectrum had gone "entirely askew" since conservatives were sometimes more statist than liberals and tried to reach out to leftists and go beyond left and right. In 1971, Rothbard wrote about right-libertarianism which he described as supporting free trade, property rights and self-ownership. Rothbard would later describe it as anarcho-capitalism and paleolibertarianism.
Philosophy
Right-libertarianism developed in the United States in the mid-20th century from the works of European liberal writers such as John Locke, Friedrich Hayek and Ludwig von Mises and is the most popular conception of libertarianism in the United States today.Lester, J. C. (22 October 2017). "New-Paradigm Libertarianism: a Very Brief Explanation". PhilPapers. Retrieved 26 June 2019. It is commonly referred to as a continuation or radicalization of classical liberalism. The most important of these early right-libertarian philosophers were modern American libertarians such as Robert Nozick and Murray Rothbard.
Although often sharing the left-libertarian advocacy for social freedom, right-libertarians also value capitalism while rejecting institutions that intervene the free market on the grounds that such interventions represent unnecessary coercion of individuals and therefore a violation of their economic freedom. Anarcho-capitalistsMarshall, Peter (2008). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. p. 565. "In fact, few anarchists would accept the 'anarcho-capitalists' into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice, Their self-interested, calculating market men would be incapable of practicing voluntary co-operation and mutual aid. Anarcho-capitalists, even if they do reject the State, might therefore best be called right-wing libertarians rather than anarchists". seek complete elimination of the state in favor of private defense agencies while minarchists defend night-watchman states which maintain only those functions of government necessary to safeguard natural rights, understood in terms of self-ownership or autonomy.
Right-libertarians are economic liberals of either the Austrian School (majority) or the Chicago school of economics (minority) and support laissez-faire capitalism which they define as the free market in opposition to state capitalism and interventionism. Right-libertarianism and its individualism have been discussed as part of the New Right in relation to neoliberalism and Thatcherism. In the 20th century, New Right liberal conservatism influenced by right-libertarianism marginalized other forms of conservatism.
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes right-libertarian philosophy as follows:
Libertarianism is often thought of as 'right-wing' doctrine. This, however, is mistaken for at least two reasons. First, on social—rather than economic—issues, libertarianism tends to be 'left-wing'. It opposes laws that restrict consensual and private sexual relationships between adults (e.g., gay-sex, non-marital sex, and deviant sex), laws that restrict drug use, laws that impose religious views or practices on individuals, and compulsory military service. Second, in addition to the better-known version of libertarianism—right-libertarianism—, there is also a version known as 'left-libertarianism. Both endorse full self-ownership, but they differ with respect to the powers agents have to appropriate unappropriated natural resources (land, air, water, etc.).
Right-libertarians are distinguished from left-libertarians by their relation to property and capital. While both left-libertarianism and right-libertarianism share general antipathy towards power by a government authority, the latter exempts power wielded through free-market capitalism. Historically, libertarians such as Herbert Spencer and Max Stirner supported the protection of an individual's freedom from powers of government and private ownership. While condemning governmental encroachment on personal liberties, right-libertarians support freedoms on the basis of their agreement with private property rights and the abolishment of public amenities is a common theme in right-libertarian writings.Carson, Kevin (8 November 2015). "Are We All Mutualists?" Center for a Stateless Society. Retrieved 23 March 2020. "This willingness to recognize the joint homesteading of land and natural resources (in such historical forms as village open-field systems, common pasture and waste, public rights of way and town commons, common fisheries, etc.) is a refreshing contrast to the all too many right-libertarians who insist that property can only be owned by individuals (most notably Ayn Rand’s claim that the theft of Native American tribal land by European settlers was justified because they didn’t believe in any “legitimate" form of property rights)."
While associated with free-market capitalism, right-libertarianism is not opposed in principle to voluntary egalitarianism and socialism.McManus, Matt (26 May 2019). "Classical Liberals" and the Alt-Right". Merion West. Retrieved 17 June 2020. "In his great work Anarchy, State, and Utopia, Nozick hypothesizes about a future where a "minimal state" exists and individuals are free to experiment with as many different forms of life as they choose. This may even include communist or socialist communities, where individuals would willingly choose to share property in common and live according to more egalitarian principles of distributive justice. But no one form of life would be enforced by political authorities, which had no business telling free and equal individuals what the best way to live was." However, right-libertarians believe that their advocated economic system would prove superior and that people would prefer it to socialism.Hoppe, Hans-Hermann (2013) [1988]. A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism (2nd ed.). Auburn, Alabama: Mises Institute. . For Nozick, it does not imply support of capitalism, but merely that capitalism is compatible with libertarianism, something which is rejected by anti-capitalist libertarians.Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilbur R. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America: An Encyclopedia. SAGE Publications. p. 1006. "[S]ocialist libertarians view any concentration of power into the hands of a few (whether politically or economically) as antithetical to freedom and thus advocate for the simultaneous abolition of both government and capitalism".
According to Stephen Metcalf, Nozick expressed serious misgivings about capitalism, going so far as to reject much of the foundations of the theory on the grounds that personal freedom can sometimes only be fully actualized via a collectivist politics and that wealth is at times justly redistributed via taxation to protect the freedom of the many from the potential tyranny of an overly selfish and powerful few. Nozick suggested that citizens who are opposed to wealth redistribution which fund programs they object to should be able to opt-out by supporting alternative government-approved charities with an added 5% surcharge. Nonetheless, Nozick did not stop from self-identifying as a libertarian in a broad sense and Julian Sanchez has argued that his views simply became more nuanced.
Non-aggression principle
The non-aggression principle (NAP) is often described as the foundation of several present-day libertarian philosophies, including right-libertarianism. The NAP is a moral stance which forbids actions that are inconsistent with capitalist private property and property rights. It defines aggression and initiation of force as violation of these rights. The NAP and property rights are closely linked since what constitutes aggression depends on what it is considered to be one's property. The principle has been used rhetorically to oppose policies such as military drafts, taxation and victimless crime laws.
Property rights
While there is debate on whether right-libertarianism and left-libertarianism or socialist libertarianism "represent distinct ideologies as opposed to variations on a theme", right-libertarianism is most in favor of capitalist private property and property rights. Right-libertarians maintain that unowned natural resources "may be appropriated by the first person who discovers them, mixes his labor with them, or merely claims them—without the consent of others, and with little or no payment to them". This contrasts with left-libertarianism in which "unappropriated natural resources belong to everyone in some egalitarian manner". Right-libertarians believe that natural resources are originally unowned and therefore private parties may appropriate them at will without the consent of, or owing to, others (e.g. a land value tax).
Right-libertarians are also referred to as propertarians because they hold that societies in which private property rights are enforced are the only ones that are both ethical and lead to the best possible outcomes. They generally support free-market capitalism and are not opposed to any concentrations of economic power, provided it occurs through non-coercive means.
State
There is a debate amongst right-libertarians as to whether or not the state is legitimate. While anarcho-capitalists advocate its abolition, minarchists support minimal states, often referred to as night-watchman states. Minarchists maintain that the state is necessary for the protection of individuals from aggression, breach of contract, fraud and theft. They believe the only legitimate governmental institutions are courts, military and police, although some expand this list to include the executive and legislative branches, fire departments and prisons. These minarchists justify the state on the grounds that it is the logical consequence of adhering to the non-aggression principle. Some minarchists argue that a state is inevitable, believing anarchy to be futile. Others argue that anarchy is immoral because it implies that the non-aggression principle is optional and not sufficient to enforce the non-aggression principle because the enforcement of laws under anarchy is open to competition. Another common justification is that private defense agencies and court firms would tend to represent the interests of those who pay them enough.
Right-libertarians such as anarcho-capitalists argue that the state violates the non-aggression principle by its nature because governments use force against those who have not stolen or vandalized private property, assaulted anyone, or committed fraud. Others argue that monopolies tend to be corrupt and inefficient and that private defense and court agencies would have to have a good reputation to stay in business. Linda and Morris Tannehill argue that no coercive monopoly of force can arise on a truly free market and that a government's citizenry can desert them in favor of a competent protection and defense agency.
Philosopher Moshe Kroy argues that the disagreement between anarcho-capitalists who adhere to Murray Rothbard's view of human consciousness and the nature of values and minarchists who adhere to Ayn Rand's view of human consciousness and the nature of values over whether or not the state is moral is not due to a disagreement over the correct interpretation of a mutually held ethical stance. He argues that the disagreement between these two groups is instead the result of their disagreement over the nature of human consciousness and that each group is making the correct interpretation of their differing premises. According to Kroy, these two groups are not making any errors with respect to deducing the correct interpretation of any ethical stance because they do not hold the same ethical stance.
Taxation as theft
The idea of taxation as theft is a viewpoint found in a number of political philosophies. Under this view, government transgresses property rights by enforcing compulsory tax collection. Right-libertarians see taxation as a violation of the non-aggression principle.
Schools of thought
Anarcho-capitalism
Anarcho-capitalism advocates the elimination of centralized states in favor of capitalism, contracts, free markets, individual sovereignty, private property, the right-libertarian interpretation of self-ownership and voluntaryism. In the absence of statute, anarcho-capitalists hold that society tends to contractually self-regulate and civilize through participation in the free market which they describe as a voluntary society.Stringham, Edward (2007). Anarchy and the Law: The Political Economy of Choice. Transaction Publishers. p. 51. . In an anarcho-capitalist society, courts, law enforcement and all other security services would be provided by privately funded competitors rather than through taxation and money would be privately and competitively provided in an open market. Under anarcho-capitalism, personal and economic activities would be regulated by private law rather than through politics. Anarcho-capitalists support wage labour and believe that neither protection of person and property nor victim compensation requires a state. Autarchism promotes the principles of individualism, the moral ideology of individual liberty and self-reliance whilst rejecting compulsory government and supporting the elimination of government in favor of ruling oneself to the exclusion of rule by others.
The most well-known version of anarcho-capitalism was formulated in the mid-20th century by Austrian School economist and paleolibertarian Murray Rothbard. Widely regarded as its founder, Rothbard combined the free-market approach from the Austrian School with the human rights views and a rejection of the state from 19th-century American individualist anarchists and mutualists such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker, although rejecting their anti-capitalism and socialist economics, along with the labor theory of value and the normative implications they derived from it. In Rothbardian anarcho-capitalism, exemplified in For a New Liberty, there would first be the implementation of a mutually agreed-upon libertarian "legal code which would be generally accepted and which the courts would pledge themselves to follow". This legal code would recognize contracts, individual sovereignty, private property, self-ownership, and tort law as part of the principle of non-aggression In the tradition following David D. Friedman, exemplified in The Machinery of Freedom, anarcho-capitalists do not rely upon the idea of natural law or natural rights (deontological libertarianism) and follow consequentialist libertarianism, presenting economic justifications for a free-market capitalist society.
While some authors consider anarcho-capitalism a form of individualist anarchism, many others disagree with this as individualist anarchism is largely socialistic. Rothbard argued that individualist anarchism is different from anarcho-capitalism and other capitalist theories due to the individualist anarchists retaining the labor theory of value and socialist economics. Many anarchist activists and scholars deny that anarcho-capitalism is a form of anarchism, or that capitalism is compatible with anarchism, regarding it instead as right-libertarian. Anarcho-capitalists are distinguished from anarchists and minarchists. The latter advocate a night-watchman state limited to protecting individuals from aggression and enforcing private property. On the other hand, anarchists support personal property (defined in terms of possession and use, i.e. mutualist usufruct)Hargreaves, David H. London (2019). Beyond Schooling: An Anarchist Challenge. London: Routledge. pp. 90–91. . "Ironically, Proudhon did not mean literally what he said. His boldness of expression was intended for emphasis, and by 'property' he wished to be understood what he later called 'the sum of its abuses'. He was denouncing the property of the man who uses it to exploit the labour of others without any effort on his own part, property distinguished by interest and rent, by the impositions of the non-producer on the producer. Towards property regarded as 'possession' the right of a man to control his dwelling and the land and tools he needs to live, Proudhon had no hostility; indeed, he regarded it as the cornerstone of liberty, and his main criticism of the communists was that they wished to destroy it." and oppose capital concentration, interest, monopoly, private ownership of productive property such as the means of production (capital, land and the means of labor), profit, rent, usury and wage slavery which are viewed as inherent to capitalism.McKay, Iain (2008). An Anarchist FAQ. I. "Anarchism and 'anarcho'-capitalism" Oakland/Edinburgh: AK Press. . Anarchism's emphasis on anti-capitalism, egalitarianism and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from anarcho-capitalism and other types of right-libertarianism.Gay, Kathlyn; Gay, Martin (1999). Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO. p. 15. . "For many anarchists (of whatever persuasion), anarcho-capitalism is a contradictory term, since 'traditional' anarchists oppose capitalism".Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). "Anarchism". The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press: 385–404. . "Individualisms that defend or reinforce hierarchical forms such as the economic-power relations of anarcho-capitalism [...] are incompatible with practices of social anarchism. [...] Increasingly, academic analysis has followed activist currents in rejecting the view that anarcho-capitalism has anything to do with social anarchism" (pp. 393–394).
Ruth Kinna writes that anarcho-capitalism is a term coined by Rothbard to describe "a commitment to unregulated private property and laissez-faire economics, prioritizing the liberty-rights of individuals, unfettered by government regulation, to accumulate, consume and determine the patterns of their lives as they see fit". According to Kinna, anarcho-capitalists "will sometimes label themselves market anarchists because they recognize the negative connotations of 'capitalism'. But the literatures of anarcho-capitalism draw on classical liberal theory, particularly the Austrian School—Friedrich von Hayek and Ludwig von Mises—rather than recognizable anarchist traditions. Ayn Rand's laissez-faire, anti-government, corporate philosophy—Objectivism—is sometimes associated with anarcho-capitalism". Other scholars similarly associate anarcho-capitalism with anti-state liberal schools such as neo-classical liberalism, radical neoliberalism and right-libertarianism. Anarcho-capitalism is usually seen as part of the New Right.
Conservative libertarianism
Conservative libertarianism combines laissez-faire economics and conservative values. It advocates the greatest possible economic liberty and the least possible government regulation of social life whilst harnessing this to traditionalist conservatism, emphasizing authority and duty.
Conservative libertarianism prioritizes liberty as its main emphasis, promoting free expression, freedom of choice and laissez-faire capitalism to achieve cultural and social conservative ends whilst rejecting liberal social engineering. This can also be understood as promoting civil society through conservative institutions and authority such as education, family, fatherland and religion in the quest of libertarian ends for less state power.
In the United States, conservative libertarianism combines conservatism and libertarianism, representing the conservative wing of libertarianism and vice versa. Fusionism combines traditionalist and social conservatism with laissez-faire economics. This is most closely associated with Frank Meyer. Hans-Hermann Hoppe is a cultural conservative right-libertarian, whose belief in the rights of property owners to establish private covenant communities, from which homosexuals and political dissidents may be "physically removed", has proven particularly divisive. Hoppe also garnered controversy due to his support for restrictive limits on immigration which critics argue is at odds with libertarianism.
Minarchism
Within right-libertarian philosophy, minarchism is supportive of a night-watchman state, a model of a state whose only functions are to provide its citizens with courts, military and police, protecting them from aggression, breach of contract, fraud and theft whilst enforcing property laws. 19th-century Britain has been described by historian Charles Townshend as standard-bearer of this form of government among European countries.
As a term, night-watchman state () was coined by German socialist Ferdinand Lassalle, an advocate of social-democratic state socialism, to criticize the bourgeois state. Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises, a classical liberal who greatly influenced right-libertarianism, later opined that Lassalle tried to make limited government look ridiculous, but that it was no more ridiculous than governments that concerned themselves with "the preparation of sauerkraut, with the manufacture of trouser buttons, or with the publication of newspapers".
Robert Nozick, a right-libertarian advocate of minarchism, received a National Book Award in category Philosophy and Religion for his book Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974), where he argued that only a minimal state limited to the narrow functions of protection against "force, fraud, theft, and administering courts of law" could be justified without violating people's rights.
Neo-classical liberalism
Traditionally, liberalism's primary emphasis was placed on securing the freedom of the individual by limiting the power of the government and maximizing the power of free market forces. As a political philosophy, it advocated civil liberties under the rule of law, with an emphasis on economic freedom. Closely related to economic liberalism, it developed in the early 19th century, emerging as a response to urbanization and to the Industrial Revolution in Europe and the United States. It advocated a limited government and held a belief in laissez-faire economic policy.
Built on ideas that had already arisen by the end of the 18th century such as selected ideas of John Locke, Adam Smith, Thomas Robert Malthus, Jean-Baptiste Say and David Ricardo, it drew on classical economics and economic ideas as espoused by Smith in The Wealth of Nations and stressed the belief in progress, natural law and utilitarianism. These liberals were more suspicious than conservatives of all but the most minimal government and adopted Thomas Hobbes's theory of government, believing government had been created by individuals to protect themselves from one another. The term classical liberalism was applied in retrospect to distinguish earlier 19th-century liberalism from the newer social liberalism.
Neoliberalism emerged in the era following World War II during which social liberalism was the mainstream form of liberalism while Keynesianism and social democracy were the dominant ideologies in the Western world. It was led by neoclassical economists such as Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman, who advocated the reduction of the state and a return to classical liberalism, hence the term neo-classical liberalism, not to be confused with the more left-leaning neoclassical liberalism,Tomasi, John; Zwolinski, Matt (2 April 2012). "A Bleeding Heart History of Libertarianism". Cato Unbound. Cato Institute. Retrieved 20 September 2020. an American bleeding-heart libertarian school originating in Arizona. However, it did accept some aspects of social liberalism such as some degree of welfare provision by the state, but on a greatly reduced scale. Hayek and Friedman used the term classical liberalism to refer to their ideas, but others use the term to refer to all liberalism before the 20th century, not to designate any particular set of political views and therefore see all modern developments as being by definition not classical.
In the late 19th century, classical liberalism developed into neo-classical liberalism which argued for government to be as small as possible to allow the exercise of individual freedom. In its most extreme form, neo-classical liberalism advocated social Darwinism. Right-libertarianism has been influenced by these schools of liberalism. It has been commonly referred to as a continuation or radicalization of classical liberalism and referred to as neo-classical liberalism.
Neolibertarianism
The concept of neolibertarianism gained a small following in the mid-2000s among right-leaning commentators who distinguished themselves from neoconservatives by their support for individual liberties and from libertarians by their support for foreign interventionism.
Paleolibertarianism
Paleolibertarianism was developed by American libertarian theorists Murray Rothbard and Lew Rockwell. Combining conservative cultural values and social philosophy with a libertarian opposition to government intervention, it overlaps with paleoconservatism..
In the United States, paleolibertarianism is a controversial current due its connections to the alt-right and the Tea Party movement. Besides their anti-gun control stance in regard to gun laws and politics in support of the right to keep and bear arms, these movements, especially the Old Right and paleoconservatism, are united by an anti-leftist stance. In the essay "Right-Wing Populism: A Strategy for the Paleo Movement", Rothbard reflected on the ability of paleolibertarians to engage in an "outreach to rednecks" founded on libertarianism and social conservatism. He cited former Louisiana State Representative David Duke and former United States Senator Joseph McCarthy as models for the new movement.
In Europe, paleolibertarianism has some significant overlap with right-wing populism. Former European Union-parliamentarian Janusz Korwin-Mikke from KORWiN supports both laissez-faire economics and anti-immigration and anti-feminist positions.
Propertarianism
Propertarianism advocates the replacement of states with contractual relationships. Propertarian ideals are most commonly cited to advocate for a state or other governance body whose main or only job is to enforce contracts and private property.Bader, Ralf M.; Meadowcroft, John (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia (2011). Cambridge University Press. p. 151.
Propertarianism is generally considered right-libertarian because it "reduce[s] all human rights to rights of property, beginning with the natural right of self-ownership".
As a term, propertarian appears to have been coined in 1963 by Edward Cain, who wrote:
Since their use of the word "liberty" refers almost exclusively to property, it would be helpful if we had some other word, such as "propertarian", to describe them. [...] Novelist Ayn Rand is not a conservative at all but claims to be very relevant. She is a radical capitalist, and is the closest to what I mean by a propertarian.
By country
Since the 1970s, right-libertarianism has spread beyond the United States. With the foundation of the Libertarian Party in 1971, many countries followed the example and led to the creation of libertarian parties advocating this type of libertarianism, along with classical liberalism, economic liberalism and neoliberalism, around the world, including the United Kingdom, Israel and South Africa. Internationally, the majority of those libertarian parties are grouped within the International Alliance of Libertarian Parties. There also exists the European Party for Individual Liberty at the European level.
Murray Rothbard was the founder and co-founder of a number of right-libertarian and right-libertarian-leaning journals and organizations. Rothbard was the founder of the Center for Libertarian Studies in 1976, the Journal of Libertarian Studies and co-founder of the Mises Institute in 1982, including the founding in 1987 of the Mises Institute's Review of Austrian Economics, a heterodox economics journal later renamed the Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, right-libertarianism emerged and became more prominent in British politics after the 1980s neoliberalism and the economic liberalism of the premiership of Margaret Thatcher, albeit not as prominent as in the United States during the 1970s and the presidency of Republican Ronald Reagan during the 1980s.
Prominent British right-libertarians include former director of the Libertarian Alliance Sean Gabb and philosopher Stephen R. L. Clark, who are seen as rightists. Gabb has called himself "a man of the right" and Clark self-identifies as an "anarcho-conservative"."Slaves and Citizens" and "Anarchists against the Revolution," The Political Animal: Biology, Ethics, and Politics (London: Routledge 1999). Gabb has also articulated a libertarian defense of the British Empire. At the same time, Gabb has given a generally appreciative commentary of left-libertarian Kevin Carson's work on organization theory and Clark has supported animal rights, gender inclusiveness and non-judgmental attitude toward some unconventional sexual arrangements.Stephen R. L. Clark, "Sexual Ontology and Group Marriage," Philosophy 58 (1983): 215–227.Clark, Peace.
Apart from the Libertarian Party, there is also a right-libertarian faction of the mainstream Conservative Party that espouses Thatcherism.
United States
Right-libertarianism is the dominant form and better known version of libertarianism in the United States, especially when compared with left-libertarianism. Robert Nozick and Murray Rothbard have been described as the most noted advocate of this type of libertarianism. Unlike Rothbard, who argued for the abolition of the state, Nozick argued for a night-watchman state. To this day, there remains a division between anarcho-capitalists that advocate its abolition and minarchists who support a night-watchman state. According to Nozick, only such a minimal state could be justified without violating people's rights. Nozick argued that a night-watchman state provides a framework that allows for any political system that respects fundamental individual rights and therefore morally justifies the existence of a state.
Already a radical classical liberal and anti-interventionist strongly influenced by the Old Right, especially its opposition to the managerial state whilst being more unequivocally anti-war and anti-imperialist, Rothbard had become the doyen of right-libertarianism.Doherty 565-569. Before his departure from the New Left, with which he helped build for a few years a relationship with other libertarians, Rothbard considered liberalism and libertarianism to be left-wing, radical and revolutionary whereas conservatism to be right-wing, reactionary and counter-revolutionary. As for socialism, especially state socialism, Rothbard argued that it was not the opposite of libertarianism, but rather that it pursued liberal ends through conservative means, putting it in the political center.Roderick T. Long, "Rothbard's 'Left and Right': Forty Years Later" (Rothbard Memorial Lecture, Austrian Scholars Conference 2006). By the time of his death in 1995, Rothbard had involved the segment of the libertarian movement loyal to him in an alliance with the growing paleoconservative movement,Doherty 561-5. seen by many observers, libertarian and otherwise, as flirting with racism and social reaction. Suggesting that libertarians needed a new cultural profile that would make them more acceptable to social and cultural conservatives, Rothbard criticized the tendency of proponents of libertarianism to appeal to "'free spirits,' to people who don't want to push other people around, and who don't want to be pushed around themselves" in contrast to "the bulk of Americans", who "might well be tight-assed conformists, who want to stamp out drugs in their vicinity, kick out people with strange dress habits." While emphasizing that it was relevant as a matter of strategy, Rothbard argued that the failure to pitch the libertarian message to Middle America might result in the loss of "the tight-assed majority".
At least partly reflective of some of the social and cultural concerns that lay beneath Rothbard's outreach to paleoconservatives is paleolibertarianism. In an early statement of this position, Lew Rockwell and Jeffrey Tucker arguing for a specifically Christian libertarianism. Later, Rockwell would no longer consider himself a "paleolibertarian" and was "happy with the term libertarian." While distancing himself from the paleolibertarian alliance strategy, Rockwell affirmed paleoconservatives for their "work on the immigration issue" and maintained that "porous borders in Texas and California" could be seen as "reducing liberty, not increasing it, through a form of publicly subsidized right to trespass."
Hans-Hermann Hoppe argued that "libertarians must be conservatives." Hoppe acknowledged what he described as "the importance, under clearly stated circumstances, of discriminating against communists, democrats, and habitual advocates of alternative, non-family centered lifestyles, including homosexuals."Stephan Kinsella, "Hoppe on Covenant Communities and Advocates of Alternative Lifestyles," LewRockwell.com (n.p, 26 May 2010). He disagreed with Walter Block and argued that libertarianism need not be seen as requiring open borders. Hoppe attributed "open border enthusiasm" to "egalitarianism". While defending market anarchy in preference to both, Hoppe argued for the superiority of monarchy to democracy by maintaining that monarchs are likely to be better stewards of the territory they claim to own than are democratic politicians, whose time horizons may be shorter.
Defending the fusion of traditionalist conservatism with libertarianism and rejecting the view that libertarianism means support for a liberal culture, Edward Feser implies that a central issue for those who share his viewpoint is "the preservation of traditional morality—particularly traditional sexual morality, with its idealization of marriage and its insistence that sexual activity be confined within the bounds of that institution, but also a general emphasis on dignity and temperance over self-indulgence and dissolute living."
California Governor Ronald Reagan appealed to right-libertarians in a 1975 interview with Reason by stating to "believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism." However, President Reagan, Reaganomics and policies of the Reagan administration have been criticized by libertarians, including right-libertarians such as Rothbard,Riggenbach, Jeff (5 February 2011). "The Reagan Fraud – and After". Mises Institute. Retrieved 20 September 2020. who argued that the Reagan presidency has been "a disaster for libertarianism in the United States" and Reagan himself was "a dramatic failure". Among other reasons, this was because Reagan turned the United States' big trade deficit into debt and the United States became a debtor nation for the first time since World War I under Reagan.Johnston, Oswald (17 September 1985). "Big Trade Deficit Turns U.S. Into Debtor Nation: First Time Since 1914". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2 May 2020. Ron Paul was one of the first elected officials in the nation to support Reagan's presidential campaign and actively campaigned for Reagan in 1976 and 1980. Paul quickly became disillusioned with the Reagan administration's policies after Reagan's election in 1980 and later recalled being the only Republican to vote against the Reagan budget proposals in 1981, aghast that "in 1977, Jimmy Carter proposed a budget with a $38 billion deficit, and every Republican in the House voted against it. In 1981, Reagan proposed a budget with a $45 billion deficit—which turned out to be $113 billion—and Republicans were cheering his great victory. They were living in a storybook land." Paul expressed his disgust with the political culture of both major parties in a speech delivered in 1984 upon resigning from the House of Representatives to prepare for a failed run for the Senate and eventually apologized to his libertarian friends for having supported Reagan. By 1987, Paul was ready to sever all ties to the Republican Party as explained in a blistering resignation letter. While affiliated with both Libertarian and Republican parties at different times, Paul stated to have always been a libertarian at heart.
Walter Block identifies Feser, Hoppe, and Paul as "right-libertarians". Rothbard's outreach to conservatives was partly triggered by his perception of negative reactions within the Libertarian Party to Ron Paul 1988 presidential campaign because of Paul's conservative appearance and his discomfort with abortion. Nonetheless, Paul himself did not make cultural issues central to his public persona during his 2008 and 2012 presidential campaigns for the Republican presidential nomination and focused on a simple message of support for personal freedom and civil liberties, commitment to fiscal discipline and opposition to war, although he did continue to take what some regarded as a conservative position regarding immigration, arguing for some restrictions on cross-border freedom of movement.
Paul's fellow libertarian anti-militarist Justin Raimondo, a co-founder of Antiwar.com, described himself as a "conservative paleolibertarian". Unlike Feser and Rockwell, Raimondo's Reclaiming the American Right argued for a resurgence of Old Right political attitudes and did not focus on the social and cultural issues that are of central importance to Feser and Rockwell.
Free State Project
One of the most prominent groups dedicated to promulgating and instituting right-libertarian values is the Free State Project. The Free State Project is an activist libertarian movement formed in 2001. It is working to bring libertarians to the state of New Hampshire to protect and advance liberty. , the project website showed that 19,988 people have pledged to move and 6,232 people identified as Free Staters in New Hampshire.
Free State Project participants interact with the political landscape in New Hampshire in various ways. In 2017, there were 17 Free Staters in the New Hampshire House of Representatives, and in 2021, the New Hampshire Liberty Alliance, which ranks bills and elected representatives based on their adherence to what they see as libertarian principles, scored 150 (out of 380 rated) representatives as "A-" or above rated representatives. Participants also engage with other like-minded activist groups such as Rebuild New Hampshire, Young Americans for Liberty, and Americans for Prosperity.
Criticism
Criticism of right-libertarianism includes ethical, economic, environmental, pragmatic and philosophical concerns,Sterba, James P. (October 1994). "From Liberty to Welfare". Ethics. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell. 105 (1): 237–241. including the view that it has no explicit theory of liberty. It has been argued that laissez-faire'' capitalism does not necessarily produce the best or most efficient outcome, nor does its philosophy of individualism and policies of deregulation prevent the abuse of natural resources.
Use of the NAP as a justification for right-libertarianism has been criticized as circular reasoning and as a rhetorical obfuscation of the coercive nature of right-libertarian property law enforcement, with critics arguing that the principle redefines aggression in their own terms.
Jeffrey H. Reiman criticized right-libertarians' support of private property, arguing that "the holders of large amounts of property have great power to dictate the terms upon which others work for them and thus in effect the power to 'force' others to be resources for them".
See also
Anarchism and capitalism
Anarcho-capitalism
Capitalism
Conservative liberalism
Constitutionalism
Criticism of democracy
Debates within libertarianism
Egalitarianism
Fiscal conservatism
Free banking
Free market
Freedom of association
Issues in anarchism
Labor mobility
Libertarianism
Libertarianism in South Africa
Libertarianism in the United Kingdom
Market fundamentalism
Objectivist movement
Outline of libertarianism
Patriot movement
Republican Liberty Caucus
Sovereign citizen movement
References
Bibliography
External links
Libertarianism
Libertarianism
Libertarianism
Libertarianism by form
Libertarianism in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%2015%20postal%20covers%20incident
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Apollo 15 postal covers incident
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The Apollo 15 postal covers incident, a 1972 NASA scandal, involved the astronauts of Apollo 15, who carried about 400 unauthorized postal covers into space and to the Moon's surface on the Lunar Module Falcon. Some of the envelopes were sold at high prices by West German stamp dealer Hermann Sieger, and are known as "Sieger covers". The crew of Apollo 15—David Scott, Alfred Worden, and James Irwin—agreed to take payments for carrying the covers; though they returned the money, they were reprimanded by NASA. Amid much press coverage of the incident, the astronauts were called before a closed session of a Senate committee and never flew in space again.
The three astronauts and an acquaintance, Horst Eiermann, had agreed to have the covers made and taken into space. Each astronaut was to receive about $7,000 (). Scott arranged to have the covers postmarked on the morning of the Apollo 15 launch on July 26, 1971. They were packaged for space and brought to him as he prepared for liftoff; he brought them aboard in a pocket of his space suit. They were not included on the list of the personal items he was taking into space. The covers spent July 30 to August 2 on the Moon inside Falcon. On August 7, the date of splashdown, the covers were postmarked again on the recovery carrier . One hundred were sent to Eiermann (and passed on to Sieger); the remaining covers were divided among the astronauts.
Worden had agreed to carry 144 additional covers, largely for an acquaintance, F. Herrick Herrick; these had been approved for travel to space. Apollo 15 carried a total of approximately 641 covers. In late 1971, when NASA learned that the Herrick covers were being sold, the astronauts' supervisor, Deke Slayton, warned Worden to avoid further commercialization of what he had been allowed to take into space. After Slayton heard of the Sieger arrangement, he removed the three as backup crew members for Apollo 17, though the astronauts had by then returned compensation from Sieger. The Sieger matter became generally known in the newspapers in June 1972. There was widespread coverage; some commentators argued that astronauts should not be allowed to reap personal profits from NASA missions.
By 1977, all three former astronauts had left NASA. In February 1983, Worden sued, alleging the seizure of the envelopes without a hearing had violated the Constitution. The Department of Justice concluded it had no grounds for fighting the suit, and the government returned all the covers in an out-of-court settlement that July. One of the postal covers given to Sieger sold for over $50,000 in 2014 ().
Background
After the start of the Space Age with the launch of Sputnik I on October 4, 1957, astrophilately (space-related stamp collecting) began. Nations such as the United States and USSR issued commemorative postage stamps depicting spacecraft and satellites. Astrophilately was most popular during the years of the Apollo program's Moon landings from 1969 to 1972. Collectors and dealers sought philatelic souvenirs related to the American space flight program, often through specially-designed envelopes (known as covers). Cancelling covers submitted by the public became a major duty of the employees of the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) post office on space mission launch days.
The American astronauts participated in creating collectables. Beginning in the late 1960s, Harold G. Collins, head of the Mission Support Office at KSC, arranged for specially designed envelopes to be printed for the different missions, and to be canceled on the launch dates. Such unflown philatelic covers were often gifts for the astronauts' friends, or for employees of NASA and its contractors. Although it was not publicly known until September 1972, 15 of the men who entered space as Apollo program astronauts before Apollo 15 had agreed with a West German named Horst Eiermann to autograph 500 philatelic items (postcards and blocks of stamps) in exchange for $2,500. This included a member of each mission between Apollo 7 (1968) and Apollo 13 (1970). These items were not taken into space.
The astronauts were allowed to take Personal Preference Kits (PPKs) into space with them. These small bags, with their contents limited in size and weight, contained personal items the astronauts wanted to be flown as souvenirs of the mission. As the spaceflights moved toward and culminated in the Moon landings, the public's fascination with items flown in space increased, as did their value.
Covers were prepared by the crews and flown on Apollo 11, Apollo 13 and Apollo 14. Ed Mitchell, lunar module pilot for Apollo 14, took his to the Moon's surface in a PPK. These were often retained by the astronauts for many years; Apollo 11's Neil Armstrong kept his until he died, and they were not offered for sale until 2018, when one sold for $156,250.
The Apollo 15 mission began when the Saturn V launch vehicle blasted off from KSC on July 26, 1971, and ended when the astronauts and the Command Module Endeavour were recovered by the helicopter carrier on August 7. Onboard Endeavour were Mission Commander David Scott, Command Module Pilot Alfred Worden and Lunar Module Pilot James Irwin. The Lunar Module Falcon, with Scott and Irwin aboard, landed on the Moon on July 30, and remained there for just under 67 hours. The mission set several space records and was the first to use the lunar rover. Scott and Irwin rode it to explore the area around the landing site during three periods of extravehicular activity (EVA). On August 2, before finishing the final EVA and entering the Lunar Module, Scott used a special postmarking device to cancel a first day cover provided by the United States Postal Service bearing two new stamps, whose designs depicted lunar astronauts and a rover, commemorating the tenth anniversary of Americans entering space. That cover was returned to the Postal Service after the mission, and is now in the Smithsonian Institution's National Postal Museum.
Preparation
Eiermann knew a stamp dealer named Hermann Sieger from Lorch, West Germany. The two had met by chance while on a bus to observe the launch of Apollo 12 in late 1969; Eiermann heard by Sieger's Swabian inflection that they were from the same part of Germany, and invited him to his house. Sieger got the idea for the lunar covers after hearing that the Apollo 12 astronauts had taken a Bible with them. When Sieger learned that Eiermann knew many astronauts, he proposed that an Apollo crew be persuaded to take covers to the Moon. Eiermann did not think astronauts would take money to do so, but agreed to ask them when Sieger characterized the payments as investments for the astronauts' children. Eiermann did not mention Sieger's name in his approach to the astronauts.
Eiermann lived in Cocoa Beach, Florida at the time of Apollo 15, and was a local representative of Los Angeles-based Dyna-Therm Corporation, which was a NASA contractor. According to Scott's autobiography, one night several months before launch, the astronauts' supervisor, Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton, had Scott and the other crew members come to dinner at Eiermann's house; Scott described Eiermann as a longtime friend of Slayton. Worden, in his autobiography, agreed that the crew was invited to dinner there, but described Scott as inviting his crewmates, and did not mention involvement by Slayton. In his testimony before a congressional committee in 1972, Scott described Eiermann as a "friend of ours", someone with whom he had dined and who knew many people at KSC, including a number of the astronauts. Scott also told the committee that he had met Eiermann at a party, rather than through another astronaut.
At the dinner, Eiermann proposed the astronauts carry 100 special stamp covers, to be flown to the Moon. Worden stated that he and Irwin, who had not previously gone into space, were assured that this was common practice. Worden recalled that the astronauts were told the covers would not be sold until some time in the future after the Apollo program had ended. They would receive $7,000 each. They were informed that other Apollo crews had made and profited from similar agreements. Earlier astronauts had been given free life insurance by Life magazine. This benefit was no longer available by the time of Apollo 15. Worden wrote that to ensure their families were provided for given the severe risks and dangers of their profession, the astronauts agreed to the deal, planning to put the payments aside as funds for their children. At the time, Scott earned $2,199 a month ($13,000 as of 2020) as an astronaut, Worden $1,715 and Irwin $2,235.
According to Scott, the astronauts also decided the covers would make good gifts and requested an additional 100 each for a total of 400 covers. Scott indicated in his testimony that after discussion with his crewmates, he expected the covers to be a "very private and noncommercial enterprise." He added: "I admit that this is wrong. I understand it very clearly now. But at the time, for some naive and thoughtless reason, I did not understand the significance of it." Irwin wrote in his autobiography that the initial meeting with Eiermann took place in May 1971, and that the astronauts met with him twice thereafter. Eiermann relayed instructions from Sieger on how to prepare the covers: they were to be postmarked twice, at KSC on the date of launch and on the recovery ship on the date of splashdown, and carry a signed statement from the astronauts with a certification from a notary. The certification would make the covers more sellable in Europe, where a notary is a legal professional who often verifies the document, not just the signatures.
An additional 144 covers were flown pursuant to an understanding between Worden and F. Herrick Herrick of Miami, a retired movie director and a stamp collector. According to a letter reporting on the stamp incident from NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher to the chairman of the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, Clinton P. Anderson, Herrick was a friend of the three astronauts who had arranged for Worden, also a stamp collector, to buy an album full of stamps and proposed the astronauts take covers into space. These would be split and set aside for some years, and then sold. In his book Worden said he had been introduced to Herrick at lunch by former race car driver Jim Rathmann, and that Herrick proposed the plan. Worden also related his insistence the covers must be held, unsold and unpublicized, until after the Apollo program had ended, and he had retired from NASA and the Air Force. "I didn't want to do anything that would embarrass either myself or NASA, and I believed Herrick was as good as his word. It was a huge lapse in judgment on my part to trust this stranger. I was too old to believe in Santa Claus." In his 1972 testimony before the Senate committee, Worden described Herrick as a friend with whom he had had past dealings, and with whom he discussed the possibility of commemorative covers. According to a 1978 Justice Department report, before the Apollo 15 flight Herrick advised Worden that taking covers to the Moon would be a prudent investment because they would be valuable to stamp collectors.
While Scott and his crewmates were completing their mission training, a controversy developed within NASA and Congress over some of the souvenir silver medallions the crew of Apollo 14 had carried to the Moon. The private Franklin Mint, which had supplied the medallions in question, melted down some of those that had been flown. These were mixed with a large quantity of other metal, and commemorative medallions were struck from the mass, used as a premium to attract people to pay to join the Franklin Mint Collector's Club. The fact that some part of the medals had flown to the Moon was used in the mint's advertisements. Because the Apollo 14 crew had accepted no money, they were not disciplined. Slayton reduced the number of medallions each member of Apollo 15 could take along by half. He warned the Apollo 15 crew against carrying any items into space that could make money for them or others. In August 1965, Slayton had issued regulations requiring that items astronauts planned to carry be listed, approved by him, and checked for safety in space if similar items had not already been flown. Each crew member was bound by NASA standards of conduct issued in 1967 forbidding using one's position to make money for oneself or another person.
Creation and spaceflight
Eiermann was supposed to create the cachet for the special covers he had proposed, but time ran short and Scott did it instead. He used the Apollo 15 mission patch to create the design, and gave it to Collins of the Mission Support Office. Collins arranged with the Brevard Printing Company of Cocoa, Florida for the design to be reproduced on both regular and lightweight envelopes. The company performed the work and billed Alvin B. Bishop Jr. $156 for the lightweight envelopes and $209 for the regular ones. Bishop, a public relations executive who specialized in the aerospace industry, and knew many astronauts, created specially designed covers for a number of the Apollo missions, which he supplied only to the crew and their families. He was at the time employed by Hughes Enterprises in Las Vegas; the company paid the bill.
Herrick secured the services of a commercial artist, Vance Johnson, with whom Worden discussed the design, resulting in 100 envelopes depicting the phases of the Moon. Worden listed these covers as part of the contents of his PPK for Slayton's approval, along with 44 first day covers that he owned. Ad-Pro Graphics, Inc. of Miami printed the Herrick envelopes, along with card inserts stating the accompanying cover had been carried on Apollo 15. Herrick paid the firm's bill of $50.50; he also obtained the postage stamps for the covers, and two rubber stamps stating the dates of the launch and splashdown. The design was printed on labels that were affixed to the envelopes. Not all Herrick covers are identical, as different cachets, rubber stamp impressions and combinations of postage stamps were used. Worden also carried a cover postmarked in 1928, autographed by aviation pioneer Orville Wright.
In addition to those brought by Scott and by Worden, Irwin carried 96 covers, one with a "flown-to-the-Moon" theme, eight with an Apollo 15 design, and 87 covers honoring Apollo 12, carried as a favor for Barbara Gordon, wife of Apollo 12 astronaut Dick Gordon. Barbara Gordon, a stamp collector, had wanted her husband to take the covers on his lunar mission, but he had refused. The flown-to-the-moon cover was a favor for a friend of Dick Gordon. Apollo 15 carried the cover from the Postal Service to be canceled on the surface of the Moon. The agency also sent a backup, stowed in the Command Module with another cancellation device, for use on the homeward journey if Scott did not get to postmark the lunar cover.
All covers except the group of 400 had been approved by Slayton, who stated in his testimony that he would almost certainly have approved them if asked (assuming their weight could be negotiated with the Flight Manager), on condition that they stay in the Command Module and not go to the lunar surface. In July 1972, after the story broke, William Hines of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote that "the idea that this complicated caper could have been carried out without the knowledge and at least tacit permission of Slayton is regarded by people familiar with NASA as ludicrous. Slayton's tight rein over his sometimes fractious charges is legendary".
The crew bought several hundred of the ten-cent First Man on the Moon postage stamp issue. These were affixed to the lightweight envelopes by secretaries in the Astronaut Office. Collins had made arrangements for the KSC post office to open at 1:00 am EDT on launch day—opening this facility so early on an Apollo launch morning was not unusual—and brought several hundred of the stamped covers. Once the envelopes had been run through the cancellation machine, he took them to the astronaut quarters, where members of the Flight Crew Support Team vacuum sealed them in Teflon-covered fiberglass to fireproof them for space. Normally, if the Flight Crew Support Team found that an item was not on an astronaut's PPK list, they would add it, and make sure it was approved, but team leader James L. Smotherman stated that he "goofed", explaining that he had confused the 400 covers with the Herrick envelopes, which had been approved by Slayton. Since the 400 covers had not been approved by Slayton, they were considered unauthorized. Scott stated, "I never intended to bootleg the covers. If I had intended to bootleg the covers, I certainly would not have allowed Mr. Collins to handle them or the rest of the people to assist me." Like other items being placed in the pockets on Scott's space suit (for example, his sunglasses), they were first shown to him by the suit technicians helping him dress. Divided into two packets, the bundled covers were about thick and weighed about ; they entered the spacecraft in Scott's pocket. Apollo 15 blasted off for the Moon at 9:34 am on July 26, 1971, with three astronauts and about 641 covers aboard.
At some point while the mission was en route to the Moon, the 400 covers were moved into the lunar lander Falcon; in his testimony, Scott agreed this violated the rules. He stated he did not recall how the transfer took place, and that he was only certain that the envelopes went to the lunar surface because they were in the bag of items taken out of the Falcon in preparation for the return to Earth. Worden stated in his testimony that they were aware of the presence of the covers in the Command Module after the mission's launch, but he did not recall if the covers had been among the many items moved into the Falcon in preparation for the lunar landing; he did not believe the matter had been discussed during the flight. He wrote in his autobiography that the night he had agreed to the deal with Eiermann "was the last I heard or thought of about the covers until after the flight ... What arrangements Dave [Scott], Eiermann, and Sieger made to get the covers onto the flight, I never knew until later. Dave later told a congressional committee that he had placed them in a pocket of his spacesuit, but he never shared that information with me". He indicated that the covers he had arranged to have on board, including those from Herrick, remained in his PPK in the Command Module throughout the flight. The testimony before Congress, from multiple individuals including Apollo 15 astronauts, was that carrying the covers did not interfere with the mission in any way.
Apollo 15 splashed down about north of Honolulu at 4:46 pm EDT (UTC–04:00) on August 7, 1971; the crew was retrieved by helicopters from the Okinawa. Scott had asked that a supply of the twin space stamps of the design he had canceled on the Moon (issued August 2) be available on the Okinawa, and on July 14, Forrest J. Rhodes, who ran the postal facility at KSC, wrote to the Chief Petty Officer in charge of the Okinawas post office. The ship replied on the 20th, saying the stamps could be obtained in time. The stamps were secured from the post office at Pearl Harbor; 4,000 were flown to the Okinawa at sea by helicopter, reportedly in the custody of a naval officer joining the vessel. The astronauts had no money with them; their purchases were paid for by high-ranking officers aboard the Okinawa, who were later reimbursed. The crew had the assistance of Okinawa crew members in affixing the stamps to the 400 covers for cancellation by the ship's post office. The Irwin covers were not postmarked, either at liftoff or splashdown. Worden wrote in his book that he never saw the covers Scott had brought until the astronauts were on the flight to Houston. However, as Scott mentioned he was having them postmarked with the splashdown date, Worden arranged to have that done for the ones he had taken into space. On the flight, the 400 covers were autographed by the three astronauts; the Herrick covers were also signed while en route. Irwin remembered the signing took several hours.
Distribution and scandal
On August 31, 1971, C.G. Carsey, a clerk in the Astronaut Office in Houston, typed certifications on 100 of the covers, with the aid of other NASA employees in her office. The certifications stated the cover had been on the Moon aboard the Falcon. The covers already carried a handwritten statement signed by Scott and Irwin that they had been landed on the Moon on July 30. Carsey later stated that in signing the certifications as a Texas notary public, she only intended to certify their signatures were genuine. The question of whether Carsey had improperly certified that the covers had been landed on the Moon (something she had no personal knowledge of) was the subject of an investigation by the Texas Attorney General. With the notary certifications, the last of Sieger's requirements for the covers was fulfilled. On September 2, Scott sent the 100 covers by registered mail to Eiermann, who was in Stuttgart, where he had moved. Eiermann turned the covers over to Sieger, and was rewarded with a commission of about $15,000—ten percent of the anticipated proceeds. The remaining 300 were entrusted by the astronauts to a Houston-area stamp collector who arranged with a local printer to have an inscription stating that the cover had been carried to the Moon printed in the upper left. The printer discovered there were 298 covers, not 300; the stamp collector consulted Scott, who told him not to worry about it. One of Irwin's covers from the group of eight, with a shamrock design as its cachet, was given to Rhodes and one to the president of the Kennedy Space Center Philatelic Society; Irwin said in 1972 that he had retained the other six.
Sieger notified his customers of the flown covers via a mailing, selling them at DM 4,850 (about $1,500 at the time), with a discount to those who bought more than one. He kept one for himself, and by November had sold the remaining 99. He numbered and signed the backs of the envelopes in the lower left as a token of their genuineness.
Worden recalled in his book that he sent the agreed number of 44 covers to Herrick soon after returning from space. He also sent him 60 belonging to himself for safekeeping, and gave 28 to friends. Herrick consigned 70 covers to Robert A. Siegel, a prominent New York dealer. Siegel sold ten covers for a total of $7,900, receiving a commission from Herrick of 25 percent. Herrick sold three himself for $1,250 each and placed several on commission in Europe.
In late October 1971, a potential customer for one of the Herrick covers wrote to NASA to inquire about its authenticity. On November 5, Slayton responded, saying NASA could not confirm whether it was genuine. He warned Worden to ensure that his covers would not be further commercialized. Worden wrote an angry letter to Herrick. In June 1972, Herrick instructed Siegel to send 60 covers to Worden in Houston, which he did by registered mail. Until this point, Siegel had assumed the 60 covers belonged to Herrick.
Probably before they made an official NASA trip to Europe in November 1971, the Apollo 15 astronauts received and completed the paperwork necessary to open accounts in a Stuttgart-area bank to receive the agreed $7,000 payments. According to Scott's testimony, while they were in Europe, they heard the Sieger covers were being sold commercially. Scott called Eiermann, who promised to look into it. The astronauts indicated they received the bankbooks in early 1972. Irwin remembered in his autobiography that before their trip to Europe, Scott came to him and said, "Jim, we are in trouble now—they are starting to sell the envelopes over there", and that the covers cast a shadow over their European trip. Scott said the crew discussed it among themselves, then decided that the receipt of funds was improper. In late February they returned the bankbooks to Eiermann, who responded that the astronauts should receive something for their efforts. Howard C. Weinberger, in his account of the Apollo 15 covers, deemed the astronauts' refusal "an effort to save their careers and reputations". The crew initially agreed to accept albums filled with aerospace-themed stamps for their children, including issues in honor of Apollo 15. Scott related that they decided this too was improper and said they wanted nothing. This final refusal happened in April 1972. Worden remembered, "we did this before NASA asked us anything about a deal with Sieger—before NASA even knew about it".
Discussion of the covers in European philatelic publications alerted collectors in the United States. On March 11, 1972, Lester Winick, president of a group of collectors of space stamps and covers known as the Space Topics Study Group, sent a letter to NASA's general counsel asking a number of questions about the Sieger covers. The letter was forwarded for a response to Slayton, who casually mentioned it to Irwin in late March; Irwin told him to talk to Scott. Slayton spoke with Worden on the assumption that the covers referred to were among the group of 144, but Worden told him this was not necessarily the case and that he should talk to Scott. Slayton did talk to Scott in mid-April, just before the launch of Apollo 16. Scott told him there had been 400 covers not on the approved list, and that 100 had been given to a friend. In his autobiography, Slayton wrote that he confronted Scott and Worden about what he called a "regular goddamn scandal": "they told me what the deal was, and I got pretty goddamn angry. So I was through with Scott, Worden, and Irwin. After 16 splashed down, I kicked them off the backup crew for 17." One reason for Slayton's anger was that he had defended the astronauts as rumors of the high prices being paid for the covers circulated; according to Andrew Chaikin in his history of the Apollo program, Slayton "went out on a limb to defend his people". Slayton wrote to Winick, stating that the spacecraft had carried covers, but NASA could not confirm these particular envelopes had been taken; he did not tell Winick unauthorized covers had been flown. He sent a copy of his response to the general counsel's office at NASA Headquarters in Washington, which took no action. Slayton did not inform Administrator Fletcher, Deputy Administrator George M. Low or his own superior, Christopher C. Kraft of the postage stamp incident or of the disciplinary action he had taken.
In early June 1972, Low heard from a member of his staff of the possibility covers flown on Apollo 15 might have been sold in Europe. He asked Associate Administrator Dale D. Myers to enquire through NASA management channels for information. Low kept Fletcher informed of the situation as it developed. Myers made an interim report to Low on the 16th. Before he could make his final report on the 26th, the story broke with an article in The Washington Sunday Star on June 18. Kraft interviewed Scott on the 23rd. Low ordered a full investigation by NASA's Inspections Division on June 29.
According to Low in his personal notes, during the investigation, Scott, who had to that point maintained that the astronauts had never intended to profit from the Sieger covers, disclosed the information about the German bank accounts. Once the facts had been developed, Low consulted with Fletcher, Kraft, Slayton and others regarding whether to expel the three men from the Astronaut Corps and return them to the Air Force, to reprimand them and retain them within NASA outside the corps, or to reprimand them but allow them to remain astronauts. Low accepted Kraft's recommendation to reprimand the astronauts, and to state that their actions would be taken into consideration in their future assignments. Low asked to meet with the crew members before making a final decision, and this took place on July 10, Scott and Worden individually at Low's Washington office and Irwin by telephone. All admitted the basic facts, with Scott making "the point for the first time that his intention had really been to use the funds for a trust fund for his children, and not for any direct personal use". Worden, also admitting the facts, stated that he felt he had "taken most of the beating", and in a way was relieved the full story was being aired. Irwin, who had already decided to leave NASA, expressed his concern for Scott's future.
Later on July 10, the three astronauts were reprimanded for poor judgment, something that made it extremely unlikely that they would be selected to fly in space again. Richard S. Lewis, in his early history of the Apollo program, noted that "in the atmosphere of wheeling and dealing that has characterized government agency-industrial contractor relations in the Space Age, the unauthorized freight that the Apollo 15 crew hauled to the moon was a boyish prank. In the rhetoric of space program critics, though, it was branded as exploitation for personal gain of the most costly technological development in history. In the press, the astronauts were treated like fallen angels." Kraft remembered in his memoirs that Slayton told him, "They did it. There was no hiding. Dave just said sure, nothing wrong with it, right?" Scott, while stating, "we made a mistake in even considering it", felt that the reaction "was turning into a witch-hunt". Worden, though admitting blame for entering into the deal, felt that NASA had not adequately supported him, and that Scott had not taken full responsibility for his role. He believed that Slayton would not have required them to leave the Astronaut Corps if left to himself, but that Kraft had insisted. Irwin, who would become an evangelist after leaving the Astronaut Corps, said that NASA had no choice but to reprimand them. He hoped he could turn the experience to use in his ministry, that it would help him empathize with others who had erred.
In mid-July, the media reported on the dispute over the sculpture Fallen Astronaut, left on the Moon by Scott in tribute to those killed in the American and Soviet space programs; the sculptor was having copies made for public sale, over the astronauts' objection. Due to the increasing publicity surrounding the incident, and concerned about the appearance of commercialization of Apollo 15, the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences set a hearing for August 3. It called a number of NASA employees including the astronauts, Slayton, Kraft, Fletcher and Low to appear. Fletcher and Low had tried to talk Senator Anderson out of having a hearing, but the chairman insisted. Worden remembered that while there were difficult questions asked about the astronauts' conduct, part of the committee's concern was why NASA management had allowed another incident to happen so quickly after the Apollo 14 Franklin Mint matter. Members also wanted to know how it was that NASA's chain of command permitted allegations against the astronauts to go unreported to senior management. Because of the efforts of Fletcher and Low, Anderson invoked a rarely used Senate rule for when testimony might impact the reputation of witnesses or others, closing the hearing to the public. Kraft recalled that while he and Low were grilled by the committee, the senators treated the astronauts "like gods".
Aftermath
None of the Apollo 15 crew flew in space again. Given that the reprimands meant they would likely never be promoted by the Air Force, they were offered other positions at NASA where their skills could be used. Scott was made a technical adviser on the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (the first joint mission with the Soviet Union) and retired from the Air Force in 1975. He became director of NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center, retiring from NASA in October 1977 and entering the private sector. Worden transferred to NASA's Ames Research Center in California, remaining there until his 1975 retirement both from the Air Force and NASA, and then entered the private sector. Irwin retired in 1972 and founded an evangelical group.
Fletcher asked astronauts still with NASA, and even those who were not, such as Apollo 7's Wally Schirra, to turn in all flown covers in their possession to NASA pending a determination of whether they were government property. Kraft related that there was resistance from astronauts, but "we confiscated them, sometimes under duress". These covers were returned when the Justice Department chose to take no action, "and whatever happened to them was kept quiet". Among the astronauts interviewed in NASA's investigation was Apollo 13's Jack Swigert, who denied any dealings with envelopes; after he subsequently admitted he had, Low removed him from Apollo-Soyuz.
Kraft suspended some fifteen astronauts who "had broken faith with us and ignored a standing order from Deke"; some, having apologized and served their suspensions, flew on Skylab in the mid-1970s. The covers affair resulted in prejudice in the Air Force against former astronauts (all three Apollo 15 astronauts had served there). This deterred Apollo 14's Stu Roosa from returning to the Air Force when he left NASA, leading him to go into business instead. Although Apollo 16's Charles Duke had taken covers to the lunar surface in April 1972, changes to the PPK procedures instituted by NASA meant that none were taken on Apollo 17 that December. Today, astronauts are forbidden by federal regulation from taking philatelic items into space as mementos.
The remaining covers in the Apollo 15 astronauts' control (298 from the group of 400 and 61 more from Worden) were held by NASA during the investigation; Worden said he surrendered them at Kraft's request on the understanding they would be returned once the investigation was over, but the covers were transferred to the National Archives in August 1973. There was a Justice Department investigation into the covers. Its Criminal Division decided in 1974 that no prosecution was warranted, but the Civil Division the following year assumed the covers would be retained by the government. Kraft wrote, "it was questionable that any law had been broken and [the Justice Department] realized that dragging astronauts into court would not be a popular pastime."
In December 1978, the Justice Department issued a report indicating that while the government might have some claim to the Herrick covers (due to the appearance of having been made for profit), it probably did not have any claim to the 298 remaining covers, which the astronauts had said were intended as gifts. The department sent a secret memo to NASA that same year, effectively stating that the government took the covers without "any legal proceedings against the astronauts," and in the process "may have violated their constitutional rights," according to a press source in the Justice Department. In 1979, the department informed NASA that it had concluded that the government would likely lose if the astronauts sued for the covers. There was opposition among senators to the covers being returned, and in February 1980 Howard Cannon of Nevada introduced a joint resolution that the government should keep the covers because of their commercialization and advise the Attorney General to "defend any civic action brought" regarding them. It passed the Senate but died in the House of Representatives.
In February 1983, Worden sued, alleging NASA violated the Constitution by seizing the covers without a hearing. At this time, the Justice Department reminded NASA of its 1978 secret memo. The government concluded NASA either approved the covers or knew they would be aboard Apollo 15 and, in an out-of-court settlement, returned all the envelopes to the three astronauts in July 1983. The settlement was finalized on July 15, with the government agreeing to release the covers unconditionally, whereupon Worden's legal counsel would terminate the suit. That same year, NASA announced plans to fly about 260,000 postal covers aboard the Space Shuttle STS-8 mission, with the U.S. Postal Service to sell them and split the profits with NASA; Worden remarked in his 2011 memoirs that he was amused by this, pointing out that NASA's covers were intended for "unabashed commercial exploitation."
In July 1983, the Associated Press reported on the government's return of the covers, describing how the Justice Department "decided it had no grounds for fighting" the suit and that Worden had agreed to dismiss it, with the 359 envelopes returned. Justice Department lawyer John Seibert stated that NASA had either authorized the envelopes or knew they would be carried into space. The Justice Department read a statement to The Washington Post, printed July 29, explaining how in its decision to return the 61 covers claimed by Worden, it also chose to return the other 298 that Scott and Irwin carried, dividing the latter equally between all three men. Worden's lawyer, James Fleming, said the astronauts were "very happy" with the result. Lawyers also said the three men agreed among themselves not to sell the covers right away, keeping them as mementos and reminders of what had happened. In 2013, Corey S. Powell and Laurie Gwen Shapiro of Slate magazine suggested that the 1978 investigation "largely exonerated" the astronauts, and opined that the return of the covers in 1983 effectively rescinded the accusations.
Some of the covers were later sold by the astronauts. One of the group of 298 covers impounded by the government and owned by Scott sold at the January 2008 Novaspace auction for $15,000. A Sieger cover sold in 2014 for over $55,000, the highest auction price to that point—the auctioneer noted that it was one of only four Sieger covers to come to public sale since the initial distribution. Worden sold many of the returned Herrick covers to pay debts from his unsuccessful 1982 run for Congress. When asked in 2011 where the covers were, he said, "Lord only knows. Some of them sold, some of them are still in a safety deposit box. They're probably all over the world by now." In his memoir, Worden expressed remorse at what had happened, writing: “Even if I didn’t break any formal rules, in hindsight I had broken an unspoken trust.” In a 2013 interview with Scott, Slate found that "he's vexed by lingering inaccuracies in the Wikipedia entry about the incidents. We ask: Why didn't he get a friend to log in and correct the entries? He responds with a startled pause. 'Is that right? I didn't know you could do that!' "
Summary of covers
See also
Apollo insurance covers – unflown covers created by Apollo astronauts for sale by their families if they died while on the mission.
Robbins medallions – space-flown medallions from the Gemini and Apollo flights.
U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps § Space Achievement Decade Issue of 1971 (Apollo 15 mission commemorated)
"The Man Who Sold the Moon" – Robert Heinlein's 1950 story about a privately funded lunar mission paid for, in part, by covers to be taken to the Moon.
Notes
References
Additional numbers following page numbers for some books are Kindle locations.
Sources
External links
NASA News Release 72-189, "Articles Carried on Manned Space Flights" from collectspace.com
1972 controversies
Apollo 15
Space exploration on stamps
Scandals in the United States
1971 in the United States
1972 in the United States
History of spaceflight
Postal history of the United States
David Scott
James Irwin
Alfred Worden
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-Continent%20Airlines
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Mid-Continent Airlines
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Mid-Continent Airlines was an airline which operated in the central United States from the 1930s until 1952 when it was acquired by and merged with Braniff International Airways. Mid-Continent Airlines was originally founded as a flight school at Rickenbacker Airport in Sioux City, Iowa, during 1928, by Arthur Hanford Jr., a dairy operator. The Hanford Produce Company was the largest creamery in the United States with over 100 trucks in operation. The company was primarily a dairy but also sold ice cream and poultry. The Hanford's also founded and built the new Rickenbacker Airport and operated eight gas stations and several service repair garages under the name Hanford's, Inc. The airport was a division of Hanford's, Inc., but the service stations and garages were later sold to finance airline operations. Mid-Continent was based in Kansas City, Missouri at the time of its acquisition by Braniff.
History
Hanford's Tri-State Airlines
The company was founded in 1928 at Rickenbacker Airport in Sioux City, Iowa, as a small flight school by Arthur S. Hanford Sr and his son Arthur S. Hanford Jr. Soon the company became known as Hanford's Tri-State Airlines, which offered charter service and scheduled flights from Sioux City to Omaha, Nebraska, Minneapolis, Minnesota and Bismarck, North Dakota.
The fleet consisted of Stearmans, American Eagles, Ryans, Travel Airs, Eagle Rocks and one Sikorsky amphibian, which was used for operations in the Northern lake country.
In 1934 it was awarded Air Mail Route 16 for runs from Chicago to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Intermediate routings included Milwaukee, Madison, Wisconsin; Rochester, St. Paul, Minneapolis, Minnesota; Fargo, Grand Forks and Pembina, North Dakota, and finally Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The company was also awarded Air Mail Route 26 from Minneapolis to Kansas City with intermediate stops at Sioux Falls, Sioux City and Omaha, and finally between Sioux Falls and Bismarck/Mandan with enroute stops at Huron and Aberdeen. Service began over Route 16 in June 1934 and over Route 26 in July 1934.
At this time, the company moved its headquarters to Minneapolis. However, when the Chicago to Winnipeg route was sold in December 1934 to Northwest Airlines, general offices were moved back to Sioux City. Its fleet included four four-passenger Lockheed Vegas and three Ford Tri-Motors. Route 26 required three-engine equipment, which Hanford's did not initially have and therefore, leased the route to Rapid Air Lines for a brief period from June 1, 1934 until December 1, of the same year. The two carriers had merged in 1933 to form Hanford-Rapid Airlines but were operated as separate entities.
New Management
On June 23, 1935, Hanford's founder Arthur Hanford Jr. was killed in a tragic plane crash while on a training mission. His father, Arthur Sr., assumed the Presidency and then searched for someone to operate the airline that had a solid vision to ensure the fledgling airline's future. He found Thomas Fortune Ryan III of Lockheed Aircraft, who Mr. Hanford had met while buying aircraft at Lockheed for his airline.
The airline was acquired in May 1936 by Thomas Fortune Ryan III, the grandchild of financier and industrial pioneer Thomas Fortune Ryan. The same year, Ryan moved the headquarters to Kansas City and Arthur S. Hanford Sr., was elected president of the new company and J. W. Bill Miller joined the company as vice president and general manager. At the time of the change in ownership, Hanford's employed 64 people, served nine cities and held route certificates that totaled 838 miles. The Ryan's only purchased six of Hanford's aircraft including two Ford Trimotors and four 4-passenger single-engine Lockheed Vegas.
The new Hanford-Rapid Airlines moved to Fairfax Airport at Kansas City, Missouri. Here the company moved into the building that was once occupied by United Airlines. Mr. Ryan III also moved to Kansas City and became the airline's Executive Vice President. The new management began replacing aging equipment, strengthening the existing organization and began a comprehensive study of possible expansion opportunities was implemented almost immediately.
Hanford-Rapid Airlines served the following cities: Minneapolis/St. Paul, Minnesota; Bismarck/Mandan, North Dakota; Aberdeen, South Dakota; Huron, South Dakota; Sioux Falls, South Dakota; Sioux City, Iowa; Omaha, Nebraska and Kansas City, Missouri. At the time of purchase, the airline flew one daily round trip between Minneapolis/St. Paul and Bismarck/Mandan with intermediate stops at Sioux Falls, Sioux City, Huron and Aberdeen. One daily round trip was also flown between Omaha and Kansas City.
As a result of the purchase of Hanford's Tri-State Airlines by the Ryan's, Mid-Continent Airlines was incorporated under the laws of the State of Delaware on May 6, 1936. The company officially began air carrier operations on July 1, 1936, under the corporate name of Hanford Airlines, Inc. The purchase of Hanford Airlines assets included its air mail contract and the liabilities associated with that contract in addition to the Ford Trimotor and Lockheed Vega airliners.
Lockheed Electra L-10 Airliner Joins the Fleet
One of the first moves of the new Ryan led management was the introduction of the new Lockheed L-10 Electra twin-engine airliner. Luxurious seating for ten passengers made this aircraft popular among passengers at the time. On July 10, 1936, the new aircraft was pressed into service amidst colorful ceremonies for the newly dubbed "The Sioux Chief" airliner. Mr. Ryan led a contingent of VIPs and airliner management on the inaugural flight from Kansas City to Minneapolis/St. Paul Wold-Chamberlain Airport. Guest passengers included Mr. Eddie Rickenbacker, Mr. W. N. DeWald, Operations Manager, Mr. J. W. Bill Miller, Vice President and General Manager and Mr. Justin Bowersock, Aviation Editor of The Kansas City Star Newspaper along with other members of the press.
The new Electra was already an industry star. Just before Mid-Continent introduction of L-10 service, the famed James Harold "Jimmy" Doolittle established an all-time speed record for a passenger airliner flying between Chicago and New Orleans.
Expansion Southbound
On August 30, 1936, Hanford inaugurated new air mail, express and passenger service between Kansas City and Tulsa, Oklahoma. Hanford began the tradition of inviting a Native American Chief to fly on its inaugural flights. Chief Crazy Bull, a Sioux Native from the Rosebud Reservation in North Dakota, was a VIP on the first flight, which was christened in Kansas City by Miss Loraine Norquist, daughter of Mr. E. E. Norquist. Also on board was Mr. Alexander W. Graham, Mr. Homer Bredow, Chairman of the Aviation Committee of the Kansas City Chamber of Commerce; Colonel Ruby D. Garrett; Mr. Clarence R. Mooney, Public Relations Director of the Kansas City Chamber; Mr. Thomas R. Ryan III; Mr. J. W. Bill Miller; Mr. W. N. DeWald, Operations Manager at Hanford and Mr. Malcolm L. Boss, Traffic Manager.
The flight was flown by Captain A. J. "Al" Jaster. Captain Jaster continued on with Mid-Continent Airlines and ultimately retired from Braniff Airways, Inc. He had flown over 3 million miles during his career with Hanford and Mid-Continent.
During this time, Hanford became the first US airline to operate scheduled flights over unlighted airways. The Airline used the new onboard direction finding equipment to navigate without lighter ground navigation aids over its Kansas City to Tulsa route.
Mid-Continent Airlines
The company was renamed Mid-Continent Airlines in 1938 after expanding service into the oil boom cities in the Mid-continent Oil Field out of a hub in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Company management felt that the new name would better identify it with the Midwest region that it served.
On December 11, 1939, Mr. Ryan was elected President of the company and Mr. Hanford Sr., became the Chairman of the Board of Directors. He retained that position until his death in the fall of 1941.
In 1940, Mid-Continent doubled its route miles and personnel with it was awarded a certificate to operate a new route between Minneapolis and St. Louis, with intermediate stops at Rochester, Minnesota; Des Moines and Ottumwa and between Des Moines and Kansas City. An additional route was awarded between Bismarck and Minot, North Dakota.
As was fashionable for the era, Mid-Continent named its routes of flight as follows :
The Kansas Citian - Minneapolis/St. Paul - Sioux City - Omaha - Kansas City - operated with Lockheed L-10 Electra airliners
The Missourian - Minneapolis/St. Paul - Rochester - Des Moines - Ottumwa - St. Louis - operated with Lockheed Lodestar airliners
The Corn Husker : Minneapolis/St. Paul - Watertown - Huron - Sioux City - Sioux-Falls - Omaha - Kansas City - operated with Lockheed Lodestar airliners
The Dakotan : Minneapolis/St. Paul - Sioux Falls - Huron - Aberdeen - Bismarck/Mandan - Minot - operated with Lockheed L-10 Electra airliners
That same year, the Lockheed Lodestar airliner was added to the fleet, which seated 14-passengers in comfort. The Lodestar was the fastest commercial plane in service at the time.
The company flew 6 million revenue passenger miles that year; Braniff had 36 million and industry leader American had 312 million. After World War II Mid-Continent expanded to Shreveport, Louisiana, New Orleans and Houston.
Chief Wapello
Mid-Continent adopted a unique corporate logo that honored Native Americans and their Chiefs. Specifically, MCA selected the famed Chief Wapello as their company mascot and logo, which featured either the Chief's face or his full upper body with arms and hands drawing a bow and arrow.
The Great Chief Wapello commanded the Meskwaki Tribe, which was also known as the Fox Tribe. The Tribe migrated from what is today Ontario, Canada, to what is today, Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois and Iowa, which covered a large section of Mid-Continent's service area. The Chief was known for his ability to work with white settlers and avoid conflict.
Wartime Service
In 1941, Thomas F. Ryan III became president of Mid-Continent Airlines. He served as president until he joined the United States Army March 6, 1942. At that time, J. W. Bill Miller was elected President and General Manager, which he held until the merger with Braniff Airways in 1952.
From May 1942 to September 1944, Mid-Continent flew a cargo route for the Army Air Transport Command, which carried nearly 17,000 pounds of critical war materials. The Airline also operated scheduled passenger services with a greatly reduced fleet and it also trained Army pilots and mechanics and modified military aircraft. The company modified the famed B-25s that General Jimmy Doolittle used to bomb Tokyo.
By June 1942, the company had remanded 70 percent of its fleet to the US Military. However, by 1943, the fleet had been restored to 50 percent of its pre-war count.
From Lodestars to DC-3s
In January 1945, Mid-Continent began replacing its Lockheed Lodestars with luxurious 21-passenger twin-engine Douglas DC-3 airliners. This revolutionary new airliner increased the company's available space by 223 percent and enabled it to significantly increase its schedule.
During this period, the company had improved it maintenance procedures to an unprecedented level. As a result, this improvement enabled the Airline to operate 85 percent of its pre-war scheduled mileage by late 1943 and by the end of 1944, it had surpassed its 1941 full fleet scheduled mileage all despite its reduction in fleet size by 50-percent.
Down to the Gulf Coast
In August 1945, Mid-Continent inaugurated new extension service from Tulsa to New Orleans, Louisiana, with intermediate stops at Fort Smith, Arkansas; Texarkana, Arkansas/Texas and Shreveport, Louisiana. Seven months later in March 1946, the company began stopping at Mason City, Iowa, on its Des Moines to Minneapolis route and in July 1945, service was added at Muskogee, Oklahoma, on the Tulsa to New Orleans flights. During wartime service, the company had discontinued service at Aberdeen, Bismarck/Mandan and Minot as well as St. Joseph, Missouri. In September 1946, all service was restored to these destinations.
Colonel Thomas F. Ryan III returned from military service in February 1946 after having served as Staff Officer under General Douglas MacArthur in the Pacific. At this time, Mr. Ryan was elected Chairman of the Board of Directors of Mid-Continent Airlines.
In February 1947, service was extended from Tulsa to Houston, Texas, with an intermediate stop at Tyler, Texas, and a month later service was inaugurated between Sioux City and Des Moines on April 15, 1947. On July 15, 1947, Mid-Continent inaugurated service at Longview/Kilgore/Gladewater, Texas, on its Tulsa to Houston flights. In addition, service to Ottumwa, Iowa, which had been suspended during wartime, was reinstated.
Air Cargo Service Inaugurated
On January 1, 1947, Mid-Continent rang in the new year with the inauguration of air cargo service over its route system.
New Service and Growth Expansion
In 1948, the Airline inaugurated service at Quincy, Illinois and Waterloo, Iowa. Also, in January 1948, the company also inaugurated new service between Kansas City and St. Louis, Missouri.
On May 5, 1949, the Airline's board of directors approved a measure for an agreement for the purchase of St. Louis-based Parks Airlines, Inc., which was planned to become a wholly owned subsidiary of Mid-Continent. The entire plan, of course, required Civil Aeronautics Board approval. The purchase agreement called for the exchange of stock rather than cash payments. Ultimately, the CAB did not approve the merger on August 1, 1950.
However, the CAB did award all of the routes in the North Central Route Investigation Case to Mid-Continent but with certain restrictions. Service began between Sioux City and Chicago and Rockford and Milwaukee on September 26, 1950, which was the day the new award became effective. The cities of Sioux City, Waterloo, Dubuque, Rockford, Chicago and Milwaukee all received two flights daily, while a third roundtrip was added between Waterloo and Chicago on December 1, 1950.
Several merger prospects were in the works for Mid-Continent during the 1940s. Northwest Airlines and American Airlines proposed mergers with the airline in the 1940s but they were not approved.
During 1949, Mid-Continent's modern fleet of fine airliners flew over 105 million passenger miles. In comparison, Hanford Airlines flew 1 million passenger miles in 1936. Mid-Continent's Revenue Passengers flown totaled 340,636, in 1949, compared to 5,214 during 1936. The company completed 92.6 percent of its scheduled flights in 1942 but by 1944 that had increased to 96.68 and in 1949 an impressive 97.73 percent were completed. Since the first Hanford flight in 1928 and for the next 15 year, the combined companies flew 473 million passenger miles flown, without a single passenger or crew fatality. In October 1951, the company flew to 34 airports.
The Convair 240 Enters Service
On February 16, 1950, the airline's board of directors approved the purchase of four 40-passenger twin-engine turbo-prop Convair 240 airliners and related equipment at a cost of over $2 million. The aircraft, previously owned by Pan American World Airways Systems, featured a comfortable pressurized cabin and cruise at a speed of 300 miles per hour.
Less than for months later on June 1, 1950, the new luxury airliners went into service between Minneapolis/St. Paul and Kansas City with intermediate stops at Sioux Falls, Sioux City and Omaha. In addition, the new Convair began service between the Twin Cities and Rochester and Des Moines and Kansas City and finally, and from Kansas City south to Houston via Tulsa.
New Minneapolis/St. Paul Maintenance Center
New maintenance facilities were announced on October 1, 1950. A spacious new hangar would be built at Minneapolis/St. Paul's Wold-Chamberlin Airport. The new facility would double the space it currently occupied at MSP and could accommodate the carrier's new Convairliners. The cost of the new facility was US$375,000, with construction beginning in December 1950 and only seven months later, the company took possession of the new hangar in July 1951.
Kansas City Airport
After the Great Flood of 1951, Kansas City, Missouri moved to build a new airport away from the river for Mid-Continent and TWA, whose main overhaul base was located in a former B-25 bomber factory at Fairfax Airport. The new airport was to be called Mid-Continent Airport to honor the roots of Mid-Continent Airlines. This airport would eventually become Kansas City International Airport.
New Fleet Additions and Improvements
On June 11, 1951, Mid-Continent ordered six new Convair 340 twin-engine 46-passenger luxury aircraft from Consolidated-Vultee Aircraft Company of San Diego, California. The aircraft were scheduled for delivery beginning in 1953 and the order was taken up by Braniff Airways, which was the first airline to put the model in service on November 1, 1952.
Also during 1953, the DC-3 fleet was increased by four and a fleet modernization program was commenced. The upgrade program included the installation new integral steps to the entry doors and increased passenger capacity from 21 to 24 passengers.
Merger with Braniff Airways
Before the airport opened, Mid-Continent Airlines was acquired by Braniff International Airways on August 16, 1952. According to Braniff Airways corporate files housed at Braniff Airways Foundation in Dallas, Texas, the merger between Mid-Continent and Braniff was first reviewed in 1940.
At the time of the merger, Mid-Continent featured a strong route system throughout the central Midwest of the United States stretching from as far north as Minot, North Dakota, and as far south as New Orleans, Louisiana. The short-haul route system complimented the Braniff Airways network and added what became Braniff strongholds such as Minneapolis/St. Paul, Sioux City, Sioux Falls, Omaha, Kansas City, Des Moines, St. Louis, Shreveport and New Orleans.
Oklahoma service would now include McAlester and Muskogee with Paris added in Texas, connecting Tyler and Houston. The merger gave Braniff more of a presence east of a Tulsa, Oklahoma City and Dallas line whereas Braniff was prevalent on the western side of that line. The presence switched north of Kansas City with Braniff more predominant on the east side of a Kansas City to Chicago line and Mid-Continent the predominant carrier on the Western side. The amalgamation of the two carrier's created a solid north and south flow to feed Braniff's Latin American route system.
Braniff began official negotiations with Mid-Continent on January 16, 1952, when a letter of application was filed with the CAB for the merger on January 24, 1952. However, Braniff had been studying a possible merger with Mid-Continent since 1940. The Civil Aeronautics Board approved the merger on May 26, 1952, with an effective date of August 16, 1952. Mid-Continent Chairman Thomas Ryan and President J. W. Miller became officers of Braniff Airways, Inc., at that time.
On August 16, 1952, Mid Continent Airlines operated over 6200 route miles to 35 cities in the Midwest United States. The fleet consisted of 23 Douglas DC-3 aircraft, four Convair 240 aircraft as well as six Convair 340's that were on order.
Interchange with Eastern Airlines
By 1952, Mid-Continent had entered into a "through plane" interchange agreement with Eastern Air Lines which enabled single plane service between Kansas City and Miami, Florida, via intermediate stops in St. Louis, Atlanta, Georgia and Jacksonville, Florida.
Celebrates 90th Anniversary
Mid-Continent Airlines celebrated its 90th Anniversary during 2018. This anniversary coincided with the 90th Anniversary Celebration of Braniff Airways, which also began service during the same year on June 20.
Fleet in 1952
When they merged on August 16, 1952, Mid-Continent had a fleet of Douglas DC-3s as well as five Convairliners including Convair 240 and Convair 340 aircraft. The DC-3s were operated for several more years while the Convair 240s were retired during 1953. The new Convairs continued flying for Braniff Airways until the mid-1960s. The airline had six Convair 340s on order at the time of the merger.
Destinations in 1951
By the early 1950s, the airline's route system stretched from Minnesota and North Dakota in the north central U.S. to the Gulf Coast in Louisiana and Texas. According to its September 1, 1951, system timetable, Mid-Continent was serving the following destinations:
United States
Arkansas
Fort Smith, Arkansas
Texarkana, Arkansas Texas/Arkansas
Illinois
Chicago, Illinois
Quincy, Illinois
Rockford, Illinois
Iowa
Des Moines, Iowa
Dubuque, Iowa
Mason City, Iowa
Ottumwa, Iowa
Sioux City, Iowa original headquarters
Waterloo, Iowa
Louisiana
New Orleans, Louisiana
Shreveport, Louisiana
Minnesota
Minneapolis/St. Paul, Minnesota - Hub
Missouri
Joplin, Missouri
Jefferson City, Missouri served prior to 1951
Kansas City, Missouri Hub & airline headquarters\
Rochester, Minnesota
St. Joseph, Missouri
St. Louis, Missouri
Nebraska
Lincoln, Nebraska
Omaha, Nebraska
North Dakota
Bismarck, North Dakota Bismarck/Mandan
Fargo, North Dakota served prior to 1951
Grand Forks, North Dakota served prior to 1951
Minot, North Dakota
Pembina, North Dakota served prior to 1951
Oklahoma
Muskogee, Oklahoma
McAlester, Oklahoma served prior to 1951
Tulsa, Oklahoma
South Dakota
Aberdeen, South Dakota
Huron, South Dakota
Sioux Falls, South Dakota
Watertown, South Dakota
Texas
Houston, Texas
Longview, Texas Longview/Kilgore/Gladewater
Paris, Texas
Tyler, Texas
Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin served prior to 1951
Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Canada
Manitoba
Winnipeg, Manitoba served briefly in 1934 (as Hanford Airlines)
Braniff International continued to serve the vast majority of the destinations listed above following its acquisition of Mid-Continent in 1952; however, by 1960 Braniff had ceased serving many of the smaller cities previously served by Mid-Continent.
Incidents and accidents
February 27, 1951,Convair CV-240-2 (N90664) crashed on climbout from Tulsa International Airport after the flaps were retracted at a too low air speed following engine problems; all 34 passengers and crew survived, but the aircraft was written off. The aircraft was operating a Minneapolis-Houston service with intermediate stops.
March 2, 1951, Mid-Continent Airlines Flight 16, a Douglas DC-3A (N19928), stalled and crashed at Sioux City, Iowa while making a turn to land, killing 16 of 25 on board. The aircraft was operating a Kansas City-Minneapolis service with intermediate stops.
June 11, 1941, just after midnight, Mid-Continent Airlines Flight 8, a Lockheed Model 10 Electra, registered as NC16058, originated at Tulsa, Oklahoma, at 7:30 p.m., with Minneapolis, Minnesota, as its terminating destination. Intermediate stops at Kansas City, Missouri, Omaha, Nebraska, Sioux City, Iowa, and Sioux Falls, Huron, and Watertown, South Dakota, were scheduled to be made on the route. On approach to Sioux City, the aircraft made a downwind approach and landing and subsequently landed to far down the runway to prevent exiting the runway end across a road and into a field in an upright position. The probable cause was determined to be inaccurate weather observation made by the Company radio operator and reported to the flight crew, resulting in pilot making a downwind landing. A contributing factor was failure of the airport lighting system appropriately and accurately light the runway area.
Intellectual Property of Mid-Continent Airlines
The trademarks, logos, likenesses, slogans and copyrights of Mid-Continent Airlines are currently owned by Braniff Airways, Inc. Braniff Airways Foundation administers Mid-Continent's intellectual property for Braniff Airways, Inc. Mid-Continent's name and Native American Chief Wapello logo are registered trademarks of Braniff Airways, Inc.
See also
Doolittle Raid
List of defunct airlines of the United States
References
External links
Official Braniff International Website
Braniff Flying Colors Historical Page
Braniff Airways Foundation
Mid-Continent Airlines advertising, route maps, and timetables
Mid-Continent Airlines advertising
Defunct airlines of the United States
Airlines established in 1928
American companies established in 1928
American companies disestablished in 1952
Airlines disestablished in 1952
Braniff
Defunct companies based in Missouri
1928 establishments in Iowa
1952 disestablishments in Missouri
1952 mergers and acquisitions
Airlines based in Missouri
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Cup%20of%20Life
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The Cup of Life
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"The Cup of Life" (Spanish: "La Copa de la Vida") is a song recorded by Puerto Rican singer Ricky Martin for his fourth studio album, Vuelve (1998). Martin created the song after FIFA requested of him an anthem. The song was written by Luis Gómez Escolar, Desmond Child, and Draco Rosa, while the production was handled by the latter two. It was released by Columbia Records on March 9, 1998, as the second single from the album, and became the official song of the 1998 FIFA World Cup held in France. A primarily Spanish language samba-rooted Latin pop song, it carries a soccer-heavy message with fully positive lyrics.
The song has received highly positive reviews from music critics, who complimented its energy and lyrics. "The Cup of Life" has been ranked as the best World Cup anthem of all time by multiple publications, including The Atlantic, Dallas Observer, and The Fader. It is also one of Martin's most commercially successful songs worldwide, appearing on the charts in more than 60 countries, and reaching number one in 30 countries. It has received several certifications, including platinum in Australia and France. The accompanying music videos were directed by Wayne Isham and filmed during a sold-out concert in Puerto Rico.
To promote the song, Martin performed it for many television programs and award shows, including the 1998 FIFA World Cup Final. His performance at the 1999 Grammy Awards was greeted with a massive standing ovation and received acclaim from critics. It is known as a game-changer for Latin music worldwide, being credited as ushering in the "Latin explosion". Martin's performance of the song during the first inauguration of George W. Bush was also ranked as one of the "Best Inauguration Performances of All Time" by several sources. Multiple artists and contestants on various music talent shows have covered the song, including Carlito Olivero and Alondra Santos.
Background and release
In 1995, Ricky Martin released his third studio album A Medio Vivir, and "María" was chosen as the album's second single, which became a huge success. While he was on tour and recording Vuelve in 1997, "María" caught the attention of FIFA. They contacted Martin and asked him to create a song as the 1998 FIFA World Cup anthem. "I have to admit that the challenge made me a bit nervous, but the massive growth potential for my career was such that I decided to accept." Martin wrote about the request in Me, his official autobiography. Following his acceptance, musicians K.C. Porter, Robi Rosa, and Desmond Child joined him and they started working on "The Cup of Life". Martin wrote about the recording in Me:
The song was released by Columbia Records on March 9, 1998, as the second single from the album. It was later released as the lead single from the album in Asian and European markets. Sony Music Asia released a promo CD containing three versions of "María", and "The Cup of Life". In Australia, "The Cup of Life" was released as a double A-side single with "María". "La Copa de la Vida" was included as the eighth track on Vuelve, released February 12, 1998, and its Spanglish radio edit was included as the ninth track on Martin's fifth studio album Ricky Martin, released May 11, 1999. An extended play, titled La Copa de la Vida (Remixes), was also released in 1998, which includes eight remixes of the song.
Music and lyrics
Musically, "La Copa de la Vida" is a primarily Spanish language samba-rooted Latin pop song, and features elements of batucada, salsa, dance, mambo, and Europop. John Lannert from Billboard says it resonates "much closer to Brazilian grooves than to sounds emanating from Martin's place of birth - Puerto Rico". According to the song's sheet music on Musicnotes.com, "The Cup of Life" is composed in the key of C minor with a groove of 108 beats per minute. Martin's vocals span from the low note of G4 to the high note of Ab5. Although the song is mostly in Spanish, Martin also uses a few words in English and French in the chorus.
The track was written by Spanish musician Luis Gómez Escolar, American songwriter Desmond Child, and American musician Draco Rosa, with its production being handled by Desmond Child and Rosa. "La Copa de la Vida" runs for a total of 4 minutes and 27 seconds, and the English version is called "The Cup of Life". Leila Cobo from Billboard described it as a "high-octane party track". Throughout the song, Martin carries a "soccer-heavy" message with fully positive lyrics, including: "The cup of life, this is the one / Now is the time, don't ever stop" and "Nothing can hold you back if you really want it".
Critical reception
"La Copa de la Vida" has been met with universal acclaim from music critics. Larry Flick from Billboard wrote, "Martin is put to good use on the official song of the World Cup." He also complimented Martin's "relentless energy over a salsa-spiced dance beat", describing the song as "a nifty musical souvenir from the sporting event", that gave him "another chance to court mainstream pop audiences", reasoning that "he's among the hotter heartthrobs in Latin music". Also from Billboard, Leila Cobo named it "the most emblematic and best-known World Cup anthem in modern history", saying "it's the song that set in motion the serious competition to vie for a World Cup song". She questioned, "is there really anyone in the world who hasn't shouted 'Un, dos, tres / Allez, allez, allez at a party?" In another article, she labeled it "a brassy, Latin/global blockbuster" and described its chorus as "the most soaring, anthemic World Cup chorus ever". Additionally, she considered it "[a] mega-hit" in a 2006 article. Also from the same magazine, Kat Bein gave the track a positive review, saying that the "whistle-heavy, horn-driven hit is a must for any soccer celebration. It's more than just an official FIFA anthem, it's a classic Martin single".
Nicole Acevedo from NBC News described the track as a "world-famous mega-hit". An author of E! wrote that there was not a minute in the whole year "that the song was not played", and emphasized that "it was obviously one of the big must-do hits at parties". Luis Paez-Pumar from The Fader praised "La Copa de la Vida" for being the only song that "has mixed a soccer-heavy message with such a fun song that hits uplifting notes without being corny". Peter Vincent from The Sydney Morning Herald named the track "[a] huge bold anthem", and OneFootball's Lewis Ambrose described its chorus as "highly memorable". BuzzFeed's Jessica Lima complimented the song's "unique and catchy sound", writing: "Since the worldwide debut of 'Copa de la Vida', no other World Cup anthem has been able to compare to the energy of this song." Moses Eckman from WatchMojo gave the track a positive review, saying it is "immediate in its mission to get you up, out of your seat and dancing, serving as the perfect anthem for the 1998 World Cup games in France". Interviews Ernesto Macias complimented the track, calling it "an infectious anthem with a hint of Brazilian beats".
Liz Calvario from Entertainment Tonight praised the song, labeling it "a sizzling summer jam". Scott Roxborough from The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "This is the song that set the musical template for World Cup anthems to come. [...] Martin got the world shimmying and shaking to 'The Cup of Life'." Writing for The Overtake, Ben Sledge gave "La Copa de la Vida" a positive review for its "catchy chorus" and "great samba style", saying it "creates a party atmosphere ripe for any World Cup". An author of BeSoccer praised Martin's "powerful vocals and spirited lyrics" in whole song that "captivated people, helping everyone sail with the fun and jubilation that the world cup brings". In his review for Pitchfork, Corban Goble wrote that if World Cup anthems someday would be "given their own textbook", "La Copa de la Vida" would be "the standard-bearer for the whole genre". He continued to admire the track for having "everything you look for in a World Cup song", and described its chorus as "giant" and "soaring". He also celebrated its lyrics "that starts with the word 'Ole!' and builds from there". Writing for O, The Oprah Magazine, Amanda Mitchell ranked the track as Martin's fourth best song on her 2019 list, and in 2020, Luca Mastinu from Optimagazine listed it as one of Martin's five greatest hits. He also acclaimed its chorus, which "still haunts us".
Accolades
"La Copa de la Vida" won the award for Pop Song of the Year at the 1999 Lo Nuestro Awards, and Song of the Year at the 1999 El Premio Awards. It was also acknowledged as an award-winning song at the 1999 BMI Latin Awards, and was nominated for Latin dance maxi-single of the year at the 1999 Latin Billboard Music Awards. Billboard ranked "The Cup of Life" as the 44th greatest song of 1998. It has been ranked as the best World Cup anthem of all time by multiple publications, including The Atlantic, Dallas Observer, and The Fader.
Commercial performance
Internationally, the track hit the charts in more than 60 countries, and topped the charts of 30, making it one of the most successful World Cup songs. It is also known as one of Martin's signature songs. In Australia, "The Cup of Life" spent six weeks at number one. It was the best-selling song of 1998 in Australia, and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of over 70,000 copies in the country. It spent four weeks at number one in Germany, where it was certified gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI), denoting shipments of over 250,000 copies. The song also peaked within the top five in Austria, and peaked at number 29 in the United Kingdom.
"La Copa de la Vida" spent six weeks at number one in France, where it became Martin's second number-one hit, and was certified platinum by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP), denoting shipments of over 500,000 copies in the country. The song also spent six weeks at number one in Sweden, where it was certified double platinum by the Grammofonleverantörernas förening (GLF), denoting shipments of over 60,000 copies. Additionally, the song topped the Ultratop Wallonia chart of Belgium as well as Switzerland's Swiss Hitparade chart, and was also a number one hit in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Italy, Nicaragua, Panama, Spain, and Venezuela. It also reached the top 10 in Honduras, Guatemala, the Netherlands, and Norway.
In the United States, "La Copa de la Vida" debuted at number 20 on Billboards Hot Latin Tracks chart on March 28, 1998, becoming Martin's 15th entry and his 11th top 20 release on the chart. It subsequently peaked at number two on the chart on May 2, 1998, being held off the top spot by "No Sé Olvidar" (1997) by Alejandro Fernández, while giving Martin his eighth top 10 track. The song also reached numbers two and three on the US Latin Pop Songs and Tropical/Salsa charts, respectively. On the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, "The Cup of Life" debuted at number 90 on the chart issue dated June 27, 1998, becoming Martin's second entry after "María". The following week, the former climbed to number 62, and originally peaked at number 60 in its fourth week on the Hot 100. However, almost one year later and after the success of "Livin' la Vida Loca", "The Cup of Life" re-entered the chart at number 95 on June 12, 1999, and reached number 45 on the chart issue dated August 7, 1999. "The Cup of Life" has since become Martin's longest-charting hit on the Hot 100, spending 34 weeks on the chart.
The song also reached number 31 on US Hot 100 Airplay, number 18 on US Pop Songs, number 40 on US Adult Pop Songs, and number 27 on US Rhythmic Top 40. On the US Hot Dance Maxi-Singles Sales chart, the song peaked at number four, and spent 61 weeks on the chart, becoming Martin's first top 10 and his longest-charting hit to date. In January 2010, almost 12 years after the song's release, Billboard introduced a US Latin Digital Song Sales chart, and "La Copa de la Vida" debuted at number 40 on April 17, 2010, before reaching a peak of number 20 in June. It also re-entered the chart in 2012, 2014, 2015, and 2022, and although the song was released years before the digital era, it has sold over 141,000 digital copies in the US, as of January 2011. Its physical sales stand at 228,000 copies sold in the US.
Music videos
The accompanying music videos were filmed at a sold-out concert in Puerto Rico, and directed by American director Wayne Isham, who had also directed the video for Martin's previous single "Vuelve". The video for "The Cup of Life" aired in April 1998, and throughout it, Martin is seen wearing a black T-shirt, performing the song energetically in front of the concert audience. Also, there was a similar visual for "La Copa de la Vida", as well as another version of the Spanish version, which consists mainly of the specified performance, but starts with Martin kicking a soccer ball to the screen while being filmed. This visual is also interspersed by added scenes of the audience singing and dancing to the song, as well as shots of different soccer players playing during the FIFA World Cup, which in turn are projected onto a wall while Martin sometimes poses before it.
All three music videos are available on the singer's YouTube channel. Cristal Mesa from mitú ranked "La Copa de la Vida" as Martin's eighth best music video on her 2018 list. Also, an author of Cultura Colectiva listed "The Cup of Life" among the "13 Videos to Appreciate Ricky Martin's Talent and Sickening Good Looks".
Live performances
Martin gave his first live performance of "La Copa de la Vida" for Hey Hey It's Saturday on June 4, 1998. On July 12, 1998, he performed it as the official anthem at the 1998 FIFA World Cup Final in France, in front of more than a billion TV viewers around the world. Fabian Holt describes it as a "global moment for Latin pop" in his book Genre in popular music. Although Latin music was not important to the Recording Academy or the mainstream music industry at the time, Tommy Mottola, then-chief of Columbia Records, was certain about Martin's stardom and pushed hard to have him on the Grammy Awards ceremony. During an interview with Billboard, Mottola told the magazine about it: "There was tremendous resistance from the Grammys. They did not want an 'unknown' to perform, yet we he had already sold 10 million copies of Vuelve worldwide. To me, that was absolutely UNACCEPTABLE."
Finally, on February 24, 1999, cavorting with a 15-piece band alongside and a large number of dancers and percussionists, Martin performed a bilingual version of "La Copa de La Vida" at the 41st Annual Grammy Awards, which was greeted with a massive standing ovation and met with acclaim from music critics. Rosie O'Donnell, who hosted the show, said: "I never knew of him before tonight. But I’m enjoying him soooooo much." Billboards Marjua Estevez described the performance as "the most memorable Latin performance at a Grammy Awards show", and the publication ranked it as the 54th Greatest Award Show Performance of All Time on their 2017 list. The performance was additionally placed on a 2017 unranked list of "Top 20 Best Grammy Performances of All Time" by Gold Derby, and on a 2019 list of "The Most Unforgettable Grammys Performances of All Time" by InStyle. In 2022, Rolling Stone ranked it as the 15th Greatest Grammy Performance of All Time, as the only Latin performance on the list. The magazine praised Martin's "enough energy and sex and showmanship" that "melt the room" and labeled the performance "a huge moment for the history of Latin pop in the USA", naming it "easily the biggest star-making moment in Grammy history". They added that "nobody ever forgot his name after this". Crystal Larsen from the Recording Academy described the rendition as colorful, and Frank Tortorici from MTV described it as electrifying. J. Freedom du Lac from The Sacramento Bee called it "magical". NPR staff labeled it "the most memorable part of" the ceremony and described it as "electric". Martin was also nominated for Best Host or Performer of a Variety, Musical or Comedy Special at the 1999 OFTA Television Awards.
Besides the 1999 Grammy Awards, Martin performed the song at many live shows, including the MTV Asia Awards, the 1998 Festivalbar, and the halftime show at the Dallas Cowboys-New England Patriots football game at the Estadio Azteca in Mexico City. On May 29, 1999, he performed "Livin' la Vida Loca" and "The Cup of Life" on Bingolotto TV Show. On January 20, 2001, during the first inauguration of George W. Bush, Martin performed "The Cup of Life" and danced with him. His rendition was ranked as one of the "10 Best Inauguration Performances of All Time" by USA Today and one of "The Best Inauguration Performances Throughout History" by Grazia, both in 2021. In the same year, it was placed on an unranked list of "Great Presidential Inauguration Musical Performances" by ABC News Radio. Martin's view of Bush changed over the Iraq War, as expressed in his declaration to BBC News that he will "always condemn war and those who promulgate it". He also stuck up his middle finger while singing the president's name in his 2003 song "Asignatura Pendiente" at a concert.
"La Copa de la Vida" was included on the set lists for Martin's the Vuelve World Tour, the Livin' la Vida Loca Tour, the One Night Only with Ricky Martin tour, the Black and White Tour, the Música + Alma + Sexo World Tour, the Ricky Martin Live tour, the Live in Mexico tour, the One World Tour, the All In residency, the Ricky Martin en Concierto, the Movimiento Tour, and the Enrique Iglesias and Ricky Martin Live in Concert tour. He performed it live at Latin Recording Academy Person of the Year gala in 2006 as part of a potpourri where he was honored with the accolade. Martin also performed the track along with his other hits during the 48th, 55th, and 61st editions of the Viña del Mar International Song Festival in 2007, 2014, and 2020, respectively. On February 11, 2011, he performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, and on February 12, 2015, he performed "Adiós", "Livin' la Vida Loca", and "The Cup of Life" on The Today Show. He also performed "Livin' la Vida Loca", "She Bangs", "Adrenalina", and "La Copa de la Vida" on season two of The Voice of Italy in 2014. In the last one, Martin was joined by Cristina Scuccia. On May 13, 2015, he performed "Mr. Put It Down", "Livin' la Vida Loca", "She Bangs", and "The Cup of Life" alongside Clark Beckham, Nick Fradiani, Quentin Alexander, Qaasim Middleton, and Rayvon Owen on the fourteenth season's finale of American Idol. He performed the song along with his other hits during the "Hillary Clinton: She's With Us" concert at the Greek Theatre on June 6, 2016.
Cover versions and appearances in media
"La Copa de la Vida" was included on the set list for Sandy & Junior's Eu Acho que Pirei Tour, which began in April 1998. The song has been covered by several contestants on various music talent shows. Former Menudo member Carlito Olivero performed a medley of "La Copa de la Vida" and "María" on season three of The X Factor in 2013. In 2014, the Axis of Awesome performed "The Cup of Life" on season one of The Full Brazilian. Alondra Santos delivered a performance of "La Copa de la Vida" for the second semi-final of season 10 of America's Got Talent in 2015. Her rendition received favorable responses from the judges, and Lincee Ray from Entertainment Weekly gave it a positive review, saying: "Alondra works the stage like a pro. She sings to the camera, calls out to the audience, and even dances with her horn section." "The Cup of Life" has been used four times in Dancing with the Stars; Melissa and Tony danced to it on season 8 in 2009, Maria and Derek on season 14 in 2012, Team Vida on season 18 in 2014, and Skai and Nelly on season 29 in 2020.
The 2000 album La Vida Mickey features re-made versions of Latin/pop songs with the voices of the Disney characters in the background singing along. It includes the track "Mickey's Cup of Life" by Marco Marinangeli, which is a cover version of "The Cup of Life". La Sonora Dinamita recorded their own version of "La Copa de la Vida" for their 2019 album, which was also titled La Copa de la Vida. The album was released for digital download and streaming by Discos Aries, LLC on August 8, 2019.
Legacy and influence
Martin is regarded by the media as the "King of World Cup", and "La Copa de la Vida" is considered as the "Best World Cup Anthem of All-Time" by multiple sources. Although the World Cup anthems only represented the culture of the host country until the 1994 FIFA World Cup, Martin broke the "tradition" and "all schemes" in 1998, with "La Copa de la Vida", which was played all over the world. He was the first international and Latin pop artist to appropriate the theme of a World Cup, making the song "fashionable" that continues to be heard in every World Cup. According to The Hollywood Reporter, "La Copa de la Vida" became a "musical template" for World Cup anthems, and Martin's Latin and dance crossover style has been much copied in the anthems, as well as soccer chant "Ole! Ole! Ole!" in the lyrics. As believed by Esquire, the song "inaugurated this musical subgenre" of Latin. Joy Bhattacharjya from The Economic Times wrote about "La Copa de la Vida" that it was the first World Cup anthem to have a video just "as ubiquitous as the song", going on to write: "Since then, official songs have an important part to play in every World Cup." In 2018, Diego Urdaneta from Vice credited the song as "one of those that laid the first stones so that J Balvin and Bad Bunnys of today can be at the top of the pyramid", labeling it "a milestone for Latin music". Following the announcement of "Hayya Hayya (Better Together)" by Trinidad Cardona, Davido, and Aisha as the 2022 FIFA World Cup's official anthem, users on the social media remembered "La Copa de la Vida" along with Shakira's Waka Waka (This Time for Africa) (2010) as the iconic World Cup anthems they missed.
Martin's performance of "The Cup of Life" at the Grammys not only changed the course of his career, but also altered how people regard Latin music in America. It has been known as a game-changer for Latin music worldwide, that effectively ushered in the "Latin explosion". Then-United Talent Agency head Rob Prinz described the rendition as "the single biggest game changing moment for any artist in the history of the Grammys". According to Billboard, it has been cited as the beginning of the "Latin Pop invasion", which powerfully affected the US mainstream. CNN's Harmeet Kaur wrote that the rendition "marked a breakthrough for Latin music", while Jesús Triviño Alarcón from Tidal Magazine stated, "that single performance opened up the mainstream market for the Latinx legends", mentioning the names of Marc Anthony, Shakira, and Jennifer Lopez.
Formats and track listings
Australian CD 1
"The Cup of Life" – 4:28
"The Cup of Life" (Remix – Radio Edit) – 4:37
"La Copa de la Vida" (Remix – Spanglish Radio Edit) – 4:37
"La Copa de la Vida" – 4:28
"María" (Jason Nevins Remix) – 3:45
Australian CD 2
"María" (Radio Edit) – 4:31
"La Copa de la Vida/The Cup of Life" (Spanglish Radio Edit) – 4:37
"María" (Album Version) – 4:23
"María" (Perc A Pella Mix) – 5:07
"La Copa de la Vida" (Spanish) – 4:37
European CD 1
"The Cup of Life" – 4:28
"The Cup of Life" (Remix – Radio Edit) – 4:37
European CD 2
"La Copa De La Vida (La Cancion Oficial De La Copa Mundial, Francia '98)" (Album Version) – 4:28
"La Copa De La Vida (La Cancion Oficial De La Copa Mundial, Francia '98)" (Spanish Remix – Radio Edit) – 4:37
European CD maxi-single 1
"The Cup of Life" – 4:28
"The Cup of Life" (Remix – Long Version) – 8:39
"La Copa de la Vida (Spanglish Remix – Radio Edit) – 4:37
"La Copa de la Vida (Album Version) – 4:28
European CD maxi-single 2
"La Copa de la Vida" (Album Version) – 4:28
"La Copa de la Vida" (Spanish Remix – Long Version) – 8:39
"La Copa de la Vida" (Spanglish Version – Radio Edit) – 4:37
"The Cup of Life" – 4:28
European 12-inch single
"La Copa De La Vida (La Cancion Oficial De La Copa Mundial, Francia '98)" (Spanish Remix – Long Version) – 8:39
"La Copa De La Vida (La Cancion Oficial De La Copa Mundial, Francia '98)" (Album Version) – 4:28
"La Copa De La Vida (La Cancion Oficial De La Copa Mundial, Francia '98)" (The Cup Of Life Remix - Long Version) – 8:39
"La Copa De La Vida (La Cancion Oficial De La Copa Mundial, Francia '98)" (Spanglish Remix – Long Version) – 8:39
Japanese CD maxi-single
"The Cup of Life" (English Radio Edit) – 4:37
"The Cup of Life" (Spanglish Remix) – 8:39
"The Cup of Life" (Spanish Remix) – 8:40
"The Dub Of Life" (Mix) – 7:46
UK CD maxi-single 1
"The Cup of Life" (English Radio Edit) – 4:37
"The Cup of Life" (Spanglish Radio Edit) – 4:37
"The Cup of Life" (Original English Version) – 4:31
"The Cup of Life" (Extended English Version) – 8:39
"The Cup of Life" (Extended Spanglish Version) – 8:39
UK CD maxi-single 2
"The Cup of Life" (English Radio Edit) – 4:37
"The Cup of Life" (The Dub of Life Mix) – 7:44
"María" (Jason Nevins Remix) – 3:45
"María" (Spanglish Radio Edit) – 4:31
US CD single
"The Cup of Life" (English Radio Edit) – 4:37
"María" (Jason Nevins Remix) – 3:45
US CD maxi-single
"The Cup of Life" (English Radio Edit) – 4:37
"The Cup of Life" (Spanish Radio Edit) – 4:37
"The Cup of Life" (Spanglish Radio Edit) – 4:37
"The Cup of Life" (The Dub of Life Mix) – 7:44
"María" (Spanglish Radio Edit) – 4:31
"María" (Jason Nevins Remix) – 3:45
US 12-inch single
"The Cup of Life" (English Long Version) – 8:39
"The Cup of Life" (Spanglish Long Version) – 8:38
"María" (Jason Nevins Remix) – 3:45
"The Cup of Life" (The Dub of Life Mix) – 7:44
Credits and personnel
Credits are adapted from Tidal and the US maxi-CD single liner notes.
Studio locations
Mixed at Crescent Moon Studios (Miami, Florida) and New River Studios (London, United Kingdom)
Remixed at Crescent Moon Studios
Edited at Ochoa Recording Studios (San Juan, Puerto Rico)
Personnel
Ricky Martin vocal, associated performer
Luis Gómez Escolar composer, lyricist
Desmond Child composer, producer, lyricist
Robi Rosa composer, producer, lyricist, background vocal, recording engineer
David Campbell arranger
Jeff Shannon assistant engineer
Jorge M. Jaramillo assistant engineer
Juan Rosario assistant engineer
Jules Condar assistant engineer, recording engineer
Kieran Murray assistant engineer
Rafa Sardina assistant engineer
Robert Valdez assistant engineer
Scott Kieklak assistant engineer
Teresa Cassin assistant engineer
Paul Gordon assistant engineer
Bill Smith assistant engineer
Luis Villanueva assistant engineer
Alberto Pino assistant engineer
Dave Dominguez assistant engineer
Francisco "Panchoî" assistant engineer
Tomaselli assistant engineer
Gene Lo assistant engineer
Iris Salazar assistant engineer
Julia Waters background vocal
Phil Perry background vocal
Ricky Nelson background vocal
John West background vocal
Darryl Phinnessee background vocal
Josie Aiello background vocal
Oren Waters background vocal
Carmen Twillie background vocal
Stefanie Spruill background vocal
James Gilstrap background vocal
Kristle Murden background vocal
Marlena Jeter background vocal
Bunny Hill background vocal
GB Dorsey background vocal
Jackeline Simley background vocal
Katrina Harper background vocal
Martonette Jenkins background vocal
Maxine Jeter background vocal
Phillip Ingram background vocal
Reggie Hamilton bass
Curt Bisquera drums
Michael Landau electric guitar
Leonardo Herrera mixing engineer
Bobby Rothstein mixing engineer
Charles Dye mixing engineer, recording engineer
Chris Brooke mixing engineer
Jun Murakawa mixing engineer
Mike Aarvold mixing engineer
Mike Ainsworth mixing engineer
Luis Quiñe mixing engineer
Travis Smith mixing engineer
Chris Carroll mixing engineer
Todd Keller mixing engineer
K.C. Porter piano
Randy Waldman piano
John Beasley piano
Esteban Villanueva project coordintor, recording engineer
Iris Aponte project coordintor
Sarah Wykes project coordintor
Steve Churchyard recording engineer
John Lowson recording engineer
Ted Stein recording engineer
Robert Fernandez recording engineer
Brian Jenkins recording engineer
Doc Wiley recording engineer
Benny Faccone recording engineer
Carlos Nieto recording engineer
Danny Vicari recording engineer
Femio Hernandez recording engineer
Héctor Iván Rosa recording engineer
Jeff Poe recording engineer
Jesus "Chuy" Flores recording engineer
John Karpowich recording engineer
Karl Cameron recording engineer
Keith Rose recording engineer
Luis Fernando Soria recording engineer
Matt Ross Hyde recording engineer
Peter McCabe recording engineer
Rik Pekkonen recording engineer
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications
Release history
See also
List of European number-one hits of 1998
List of number-one hits of 1998 (Germany)
List of number-one hits of 1998 (Italy)
List of number-one singles and albums in Sweden
List of number-one singles in Australia during the 1990s
List of number-one singles of 1998 (France)
List of number-one singles of 1998 (Spain)
List of number-one singles of the 1990s (Switzerland)
Ultratop 40 number-one hits of 1998
List of FIFA World Cup songs and anthems
References
1998 FIFA World Cup
1998 singles
1998 songs
Columbia Records singles
European Hot 100 Singles number-one singles
FIFA World Cup official songs and anthems
Music videos directed by Wayne Isham
Number-one singles in Australia
Number-one singles in Germany
Number-one singles in Italy
Number-one singles in Spain
Number-one singles in Sweden
Number-one singles in Switzerland
Ricky Martin songs
SNEP Top Singles number-one singles
Song recordings produced by Desmond Child
Songs written by Desmond Child
Songs written by Draco Rosa
Songs written by Luis Gómez Escolar
Spanglish songs
Spanish-language songs
Ultratop 50 Singles (Wallonia) number-one singles
Samba songs
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5320017
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toorak%20College%2C%20Mount%20Eliza
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Toorak College, Mount Eliza
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Toorak College is an independent, inter-denominational, boarding and day school for girls in grades 5–12 and for boys and girls from pre-school through grade four. The school is located on the Mornington Peninsula, above Port Phillip Bay in Mount Eliza, a town approximately forty kilometres south of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
In 2005, the college was serving the needs of approximately 925 students from Kindergarten through the 12th grade, including 70 boarders for grades 7 through 12. Toorak's co-educational ELC and junior school (years K–6) is an IB World School, and offers the IB Primary Years Programme (PYP).
Toorak College is affiliated with the Association of Heads of Independent Schools of Australia (AHISA), the Junior School Heads Association of Australia (JSHAA), the Alliance of Girls' Schools Australasia (AGSA), the Association of Independent Schools of Victoria (AISV), the Australian Boarding Schools Association (ABSA), and is a founding member of Girls Sport Victoria (GSV).
History
Toorak College takes its name from the township of Toorak, where it opened as a boys' school on Wednesday, 21 January 1874. At first, classes were held in the brick hall of St John's Presbyterian Church on Jackson Street, Toorak, but the school soon moved into specially erected buildings on nearby Douglas Street. The founding principal in 1854 was John Stevens Miller, a Scot who had been involved in several schools since his arrival in Victoria.
His successor, John Thomas Craig, was also a Scot and consequently the school maintained a nominal association with the Presbyterian church for some years. During his years at Toorak College (1877–1895), Craig built the school into one of the largest privately owned schools in Melbourne. After the prosperity of the 1880s, the economic difficulties of the next decade reduced enrolments dramatically. Craig, whose health had never been strong, leased his school to Margaret Oliver Tripp.
Tripp had many educational interests and considerable teaching experience. Assisted by two of her sisters, she took over Toorak College on 4 February 1895. In 1897, she changed Toorak College from a boys' school to a school for girls.
Toorak College was a very small school when its next principal, Ellen Blundell Pye, arrived late in 1899. She encouraged the playing of a range of sports such as tennis, basketball, athletics, cricket and rowing. Slowly, the number of pupils increased and a school spirit developed, expressed in the "Games Song" written during this period. The original building and the Red House, built by Pye to house junior boarders, still stand on Douglas Street as part of Glamorgan School, now the Toorak campus of Geelong Grammar School.
Ill health forced Ellen Pye to retire at the end of 1907, and the three Hamilton sisters came from Alexandra College, Hamilton, to take her place. They remained for nearly thirty years. Isabella and Robina ("Beanie") were co-principals and Barbara was in charge of the boarding house. Although new buildings were erected, the site at Douglas Street was no longer adequate. In 1919, the school moved to Mayfield Avenue off Glenferrie Road, DOIST Malvern. A severe influenza epidemic delayed the opening of classes that year until 10 March.
The parents and "old girls" of the school came to its rescue late in 1926, as it was proposed to close Toorak College. Many felt that the loss of the college and the influence of the Hamiltons would be detrimental to the education of girls. After speech night, in 1926, a committee of parents was established for the purpose of continuing Toorak College as a private company. The school was moved into temporary premises known as "The Towers", on Lansell Road, Toorak, while a new home was found for it.
Late in 1928, the school moved for the third time, this time to its present site in Mount Eliza. For the next fifteen years, during which the Hamiltons retired and the country suffered another economic depression and then a war, enrolments were very low and the school continued only because of the support of its pupils, past and present.One sign of a recovery in Toorak College's fortunes was when Mrs Wardle (headmistress 1943–1958) established junior classes. These were held in places as far apart as the "Long Walk" (new year nine block), the "Elephant", and the "Dolls House", until 1957 when, due to the gifts of Sir Reginald Ansett and Sir Norman Carson, two benefactors of the school, a separate junior school was built on Charles Street, and named Wardle House.
By the time Wardle retired in 1958, the composition of the pupils at the school had begun to change dramatically from the country boarding school as visualised by the Hamiltons. The growth of the Mornington Peninsula as a residential zone created a demand for education for day girls, and the years Lillian Bush spent as headmistress (1961–1966) saw great developments in facilities at the school. Wardle House gained a hall and an extra classroom; the Norman Carson Library was in full use; the Mary Herring Hall was built and the science block planned.
Dorothea Cerutty led the school during the decade 1967–1976. Under her leadership, Toorak College experienced a period of considerable growth. It gained audio-visual facilities, and a swimming pool, new boarding house and the chapel were opened. In 1981, the school council undertook to have a history of the school written and in November 1987, The Echoes Fade Not: a history of Toorak College, was launched. Cerutty house, the most successful house in the school, was named after her.
A new years seven and eight classroom block was completed in 1983 on the site formerly occupied by the memorial block, and the new year 10 block and the refurbishing of the "Long Walk" classrooms as homes for year nine students were completed in 1984.
In 2005, the college was serving the needs of approximately 925 students from Kindergarten through the 12th grade, including 70 boarders for grades 7 through 12.
Leadership
The school operates via a well established "prefect system", with year 12 girls being elected into the prefect body. This group consists of 20 girls, each representing specific aspects of school life. The most prestigious student roles at Toorak College are that of head girl and deputy head girl. The student and staff bodies elect two eligible girls at the end of their 11th year. The two elected girls then become the leaders of the prefect body and the school as a whole. They are responsible for representing the voice of their peers, liaising with college staff and the executive, as well as planning and organising school events. It is the duty of the head and deputy head girls to chair the student representative council and other college leadership groups, as well as to represent the school at events such as gala evenings, balls, fundraising dinners, open days and student forums. The head girl and deputy head girl address the school each assembly and become valued members of the college's "official party" at formal events.
Other college prefect roles include those of house captains (one student for each of the six houses); sports prefect; instrumental and choral prefects; arts prefect; community liaison; dance prefect; drama prefect; literary prefect; head and deputy head of Ansett Joan Hall (boarding house); debating and public speaking prefect and Bardon House prefect. This body plays an integral part in the organisation of student life at the college and is responsible for structuring student events, competitions, fundraisers, presentations and forums.
House system
Toorak College's house system began in 1928, when the school moved to Mount Eliza. Pupils were allotted to Douglas, Mayfield or Hamilton: the first two named after earlier addresses of the school and Hamilton after the then principal. In 1948, a further house, Tripp, for day girls was founded, but as day student numbers grew, a second house, Pye, was introduced for them in 1955. The original three houses remained for boarders until 1962 when boarders and day girls were integrated in each of the houses. In 1984, another house was added, Cerutty, to honour Dorothea Cerutty, who led the school during the decade 1967–1976.
Wardle House (years prep-six) offers three houses: Gold; Blue and Red. Students represent their house in sports including athletics, swimming and cross country.
Upon entering year seven, students become a member of one of the six houses, Cerutty, Douglas, Hamilton, Mayfield, Pye or Tripp. The house system incorporates every student from years 7 to 12, with year level captains voted in by fellow house members at the beginning of each school year.
Each house is led by three-year 12 leaders: a house captain and two supporting deputy captains. It is the responsibility of the house captain to liaise with house staff and ensure that every house member feels valued and is secure in her house life at Toorak College.
Each house is represented by two colours.
Cerutty – blue and white
Douglas – red and gold
Hamilton – blue and gold
Mayfield – red and blue
Pye – green and gold
Tripp – red and white
These colours are used to distinguish house members at house events and competitions, with students dressing in costumes representing their house colours, including face paint for large sporting events.
The six houses compete in a wide range of extra-curricular activities. Whole house competitions include house singing and house cross country, while members can also compete in diving, athletics, swimming, drama, variety, debating, football (Australian rules), soccer, small group singing (madrigals) and instrumental groups. Days are allocated throughout the school year for whole school house events, held on campus or (in the case of cross country and athletics) at local sporting stadiums.
The house system has an awards and merits system which worked to reward both individual and collective efforts. Girls who are extensively involved with all aspects of house life during their first three years at Toorak College are awarded "half house colours". These can be re-awarded for continued involvement throughout years 10 and 11. A limited number of students are awarded the Whole House Colours Award at a ceremony in their final year. This award is very prestigious and an achievement which is an indication of the students' extensive involvement dedication, passion, house spirit and consideration. Senior School Speech Night provides occasion for the announcement of the prestigious Aggregate Cup, which is awarded to the house with the most accumulated points at the end of the school year. Cups are also awarded at Speech Night for all individual events mentioned above.
Sport
Toorak College is a member of Girls Sport Victoria (GSV).
GSV premierships
Toorak College has won the following GSV premierships.
Badminton (4) – 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014
Cricket – 2001
Soccer – 2009
Softball – 2002
Triathlon, Mini – 2015
Volleyball (6) – 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2007, 2009
School grounds
Toorak College's grounds cover 11.5 hectares, sloping down towards Port Philip Bay. School buildings provide students with multi-purpose recreational buildings as well as curricular-specific centres.
There is a senior student centre (Bardon House) for girls completing their VCE in years 11 and 12. This facility provides girls with an interactive lecture theatre, equipped with computer networking and desks for 134 students; three adjoining "breakout rooms" for year 11 and 12 classes of 6–12 students; a silent study room, equipped with individual computer networked alcoves for exam preparation and general senior study, accessible print and copy facilities and also a large student common room. The common room includes a student lounge, a kitchen, breakfast bar, stereo system and television, as well as multiple computer network banks to support the school's extensive notebook computer program. Bardon House houses all year 11 and 12 lockers, as well as the head of VCE and deputy head of VCE staff offices.
Adjoining Bardon House is the "TC Cafe" which operates as a canteen used by the whole school community.
The college also provides arts students with a purpose built visual arts centre, including specialist resources for graphics, photography, painting and drawing, multimedia, catering, textiles and ceramics.
All school buildings include:
School chapel
Senior school hall (Formerly Mary Herring Hall, new hall currently under construction in 2023)
Junior school hall (MacLean Hall)
Boarding house (Joan Ansett Hall) for 90 students, international and local
Dining room
Printing department
Six bed health centre
School psychology and counselling department (Connected to health centre)
College store (Uniform Shop)
Hamilton Building (Teachers offices, year 10 common room and consecutive classrooms)
Bardon House (Lecture theatres, study/breakout rooms and year 11–12 common rooms)
Swift Science and Technology Centre
Visual Arts Centre
Marjorie Williams Centre (Sports building)
Junior school consecutive classrooms (ELC–6th grade)
Junior and Senior school reception
Memorial Block (Year 7–8s consecutive classrooms)
Norman Carson Library (Senior School)
Denise Hargreaves Library (Junior School)
Music and Drama Department
Diving and Swimming Pools
Jean Robinson Oval
TC Cafe
The majority of administrative and teaching staff offices are in the original school building (The Hamilton Building, established 1928). The college has two libraries. The senior school library (the Norman Carson Library) contains an audio visual centre capable of transmitting audio and video images throughout the school. The junior school library (the Denise Hargreaves Library) was extended in 1994.
The library is also home to the Toorak College Old Girls' Association Archives Centre which houses the Elizabeth Beischer memorabilia collection.
The junior school has three outside play areas as well as purpose-built foundation years areas.
There is a sport and performing arts complex (the Marjorie Williams Centre) which includes a gymnasium (basketball court), dance studio, drama rooms including a theatre for performance, two squash courts and two weight-training rooms.
The school features an aquatic centre complete with a 25-metre swimming pool and competition standard diving pool (including one- and three- meter towers). College grounds also include three large playing fields (including the Jean Robinson Oval), five tennis courts and a netball/basketball court.
Alumni
Alumnae of Toorak College are commonly referred to as "Old Girls", and may elect to join the schools alumni association, the Toorak College Old Girls Association (TCOGA). The TCOGA was founded on 15 June 1908, as a way of keeping past students in touch with one another. In 1918, its name was changed to "The Old Girls Association of Toorak College", and featured a membership of 389. Today there are approximately 3,000 members, and the association aims to support the college by providing such things as funds for the archives centre, scholarships, student prizes, the year 12 leavers' cocktail party and year seven luncheon. The TCOGA also supports a golf and tennis team which compete against other old collegian associations.
Some notable former students of Toorak College:
Architecture
Arthur Anderson – architect
Aviation
Freda Thompson – pioneering aviator, fifth woman in Australia to attain a commercial pilot's license
Clergy
Sir Francis William Rolland – clergyman and educator
Entertainment, media and the arts
Dame Zara Bate DBE – fashion designer and wife of former prime minister, Harold Holt (also attended Ruyton Girls' School)
Jean Kittson – Australian performer, writer and comedian best known for her role as the news commentator on the ABC TV comedy program The Big Gig in the early 1990s
Brooke Satchwell – Australian actress from the TV show Neighbours
Lara Jean Marshall – actress and recording artist best known for her co-star role on The Saddle Club
Marion Sinclair – wrote the popular nursery rhyme "Kookaburra (sits on the old gum tree)"
Joanna Murray-Smith – novelist, screenwriter and playwright
Medicine and science
Vera Scantlebury Brown – pioneering medical practitioner
Gwynneth Buchanan – zoologist
Thomas Stephen Hart – scientist
Dame Mary Ranken Lyle Herring – physician and community worker
Athletes
Jane Robinson
Jess Hosking
Sarah Hosking
See also
List of schools in Victoria, Australia
References
External links
Toorak College Website
Toorak College, 1874-1958 : The Survival of a Girls' Private School in Victorian Society by Jeffrey Travers Robinson
Boarding schools in Victoria (state)
Private secondary schools in Victoria (state)
Girls' schools in Victoria (state)
Educational institutions established in 1874
Junior School Heads Association of Australia Member Schools
International Baccalaureate schools in Australia
1874 establishments in Australia
Alliance of Girls' Schools Australasia
Buildings and structures in the Shire of Mornington Peninsula
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5320110
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tvrtko%20II%20of%20Bosnia
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Tvrtko II of Bosnia
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Stephen Tvrtko II (; died in November 1443), also known as Tvrtko Tvrtković (), was a member of the House of Kotromanić who reigned as King of Bosnia from 1404 to 1409 and again from 1420 to his death.
Tvrtko II was the son of King Tvrtko I. His reigns took place during a very turbulent part of Bosnian history. He was first installed as a puppet king by the kingdom's leading noblemen, Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić and Sandalj Hranić Kosača, to replace his increasingly independent uncle Ostoja. Five years later, he lost the support of the nobility and thus the crown as well. He was hardly politically active during the second reign of Ostoja, but managed to depose and succeed Ostoja's son Stephen. Tvrtko's second reign was marked by repeated Turkish raids, which forced him to accept the Ottoman suzerainty, and the struggle for power with Radivoj, another son of Ostoja. Tvrtko was married twice, but died childless. He was succeeded by his chosen heir, Radivoj's brother Thomas.
Background
Tvrtko II was the son of Tvrtko I, the first King of Bosnia. The identity of his mother, and thus the legitimacy of his birth, is disputed. The uncertainty also stems from the complex religious situation in medieval Bosnia, where it was often hard to discern between legitimate and illegitimate offspring. The 16th-century Ragusan historian Mavro Orbini, writing of Tuartco Scuro (Tvrtko the Plain), claimed that he was born to Tvrtko I's concubine, a Bosnian noblewoman named Vukosava, and this view was taken for granted by subsequent writers. In the 19th century, Vjekoslav Klaić argued that Tvrtko II's mother was his father's wife, Dorothea of Bulgaria. Klaić cited as evidence Tvrtko I's charter of 1382, in which the King mentioned Queen Dorothea and an unnamed son to the government of the Republic of Ragusa. If Tvrtko II is the son his father mentioned in this charter, his birth would have had to have taken place between 1375 (Tvrtko I and Dorothea having married in December 1374) and the date the charter was issued.
King Tvrtko I died unexpectedly in March 1391, shortly after Queen Dorothea. The Council of the Kingdom, composed of the country's most prominent noblemen, elected his elderly relative, Dabiša, as his successor, rather than the deceased King's son, who was too young at the time. Upon Dabiša's death in 1395, the noblemen elected his widow, Helen. Three years later, they ousted her in favour of Ostoja. Ostoja's exact relationship with the preceding kings and Tvrtko II has been a matter of dispute, with many historians assuming that he was an illegitimate son of Tvrtko I. Dominik Mandić, however, showed that both Dabiša and Ostoja described Tvrtko I in charters as their brother. No records of Tvrtko II's life during this period survive.
First reign
King Ostoja alienated the nobility by attempting to assert his independence from them. In March 1404, he fell out with his most powerful vassals, Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić and Sandalj Hranić Kosača. At the end of April or the beginning of May, a stanak in Mile was convoked in which the nobility deposed Ostoja, who fled to the court of the Hungarian king, Sigismund of Luxembourg. A new stanak was held to elect Ostoja's successor at the end of May. Ragusan authorities proposed Hrvoje or, alternatively, the exiled nobleman Pavle Radišić as the next king. Unexpectedly, the stanak concluded with the election of Tvrtko II, who had been completely ignored in the previous royal elections. It is not known who advocated his accession, but he must have owed it to Hrvoje and Sandalj. The choice was likely helped by Tvrtko II's parentage, as well as the expectance that he would not hinder the nobility's autonomy.
In June, Tvrtko's supporters defeated a Hungarian army and thus prevented Ostoja from reclaiming the crown, but the chief royal residence of Bobovac and the Usoran town of Srebrenik were captured and restored to Ostoja. All major Bosnian noble families remained loyal to Tvrtko, while Ostoja functioned as Sigismund's puppet whose territory included little more than Bobovac. The fortress, however, housed the crown, which Tvrtko was not able to reach.
Much like they intended, Tvrtko II's first reign was marked by an absolute domination of Sandalj and Hrvoje over the entire kingdom. Tvrtko authorized Hrvoje to settle disputes and issue orders in his name, and for a while, as a puppet king, he had his court in Hrvoje's land near the river Sana. The King probably had no choice but to grant to Hrvoje Bosnia's most lucrative mining town, Srebrenica, in 1405, after which it never returned to royal domain. Sandalj, on the other hand, seized the opportunity to take over the land that belonged to Ostoja's favourites, the Sanković family, thus making the Kosačas the greatest landowners in the southern part of the kingdom. When Hrvoje induced him to support King Ladislaus of Naples' claim to the Hungarian throne, Tvrtko became even more of a thorn in Sigismund's side. The struggle between Ostoja and Tvrtko II for the Bosnian crown thus represents a phase of a much broader civil war between the supporters of Sigismund and Ladislaus.
Following a few minor disputes with the maritime republics of Venice and Ragusa over Konavli and Pomorje, Tvrtko gained recognition as legitimate king from both states. By 1406, Ostoja was losing what little support he had left in Bosnia, with the nobility now unanimously favouring Tvrtko, but the former king's decision to remain in the country continued to trouble Tvrtko. Ragusans described the beginning of Tvrtko II's reign as more tumultuous than anything "since the Flood", but he soon succeeded in uniting the country by bringing together his feuding vassals.
Downfall
Hungarian attacks on Bosnia took place annually, making Tvrtko's life "a constant hassle". The conflict culminated in September 1408, when Sigismund achieved a decisive victory over Tvrtko's troops: 170 minor noblemen were captured and killed in Dobor – tossed over the city walls. Tvrtko is said to have been captured as well, but this does not appear to be true, as he demanded the customary tribute from the Ragusans in February 1409. The hostilities continued until the end of November, with Tvrtko retreating southwards with his noblemen and resisting Hungarian attacks, which enabled Ostoja to reestablish control over Central Bosnia.
By January 1409, the news of King Ladislaus' intention to sell his rights to Dalmatia to Venice had reached Hrvoje, who had been promised the land as governor in Ladislaus' name. Hrvoje no longer had reason to support Ladislaus against Sigismund and made peace with the latter, followed by most Bosnian noblemen. Tvrtko and Sandalj remained in Ladislaus' camp, which led to a civil war. Ostoja seized the opportunity to try to reclaim the throne, but Sigismund too intended to have himself crowned King of Bosnia "in the solemn manner of Tvrtko I". Sigismund's claim to Bosnia, derived from his agreement with the Rusag in 1394, was recognized by Hrvoje, while Sandalj crossed over to Ostoja.
Tvrtko remained on the throne until mid-1409, when Ostoja prevailed. Sigismund's claim became untenable, but Bosnians acknowledged his overlordship over Ostoja; only Tvrtko refused to submit to the King of Hungary. He appears to have evaded capture by Hungarian troops by fleeing to the mountains of northern Zachlumia. In December Ragusan officials wrote letters to him and his wife (of whom nothing is known) in response to his request of Saint Demetrius income; at the time he still resided in Bosnia. After that Tvrtko faded into obscurity and had no part in Bosnian affairs for several years. He is known to have lived in 1414 near the Republic of Ragusa, on lands belonging to Pavle Radenović, the brother of Ostoja's wife Kujava. Another possibility is that he sought shelter with the Ottoman Turks.
In early 1413, Hrvoje angered Sigismund by plundering Sandalj's lands. Their relationship deteriorated to the point when Hrvoje found it necessary to turn to the Turks for help. First Turkish troops brought terror to Bosnia in May 1414; in August they also brought the deposed monarch, Tvrtko, and set him up as anti-king. His alliance with the Turks may be due to their mutual hostility towards Sigismund. Pavle Radenović immediately declared for Tvrtko, but no other major nobleman appears to have followed his example – not even Hrvoje. Ragusa tried to maintain cordial relations with both men, calling Tvrtko king out of fear of the Turks but addressing Ostoja as the "rightful king". In the following skirmishes the Turks replaced Sigismund as the greatest external influence in the country, but proved to have no intention to actually restore Tvrtko on the throne. Pavle's support was not enough to achieve this goal.
With Turkish raids against Bosnia and at times against his own regions of Croatia and Dalmatia continuing, Sigismund decided to take action and mobilize his army. While Tvrtko hoped for a Turkish victory, Ostoja expected that a Hungarian triumph would rid him of Turkish raiders and secure his position against both his rival and his ambitious magnates. The Battle of Doboj in August 1415 saw the disastrous defeat of Sigismund's army. Contrary to expectations, however, the Turks recognized Ostoja as legitimate king. Tvrtko lost his ground, while the united Bosnians for the first time shifted their allegiance from Hungary to the Ottomans. After Pavle Radenović was assassinated in retribution for his support of Tvrtko, the latter again disappeared from spotlight. Ostoja's position became even stronger when he made peace with Pavle's sons and with Hrvoje's death the following year.
Second reign
Ostoja died in September 1418. Despite expectations that Tvrtko would take over, Ostoja's son Stephen was elected king. When the Turks broke into the kingdom in early 1420, Tvrtko once again accompanied them and installed himself as anti-king. Sandalj immediately declared for him. Fearing the Ottomans, Sandalj's example was soon followed by other noblemen. In June Tvrtko convoked a stanak, and Ragusa recognized him as king. He had support of almost all nobility in Visoko, including voivod Vukmir, mayor Dragiša, knez Juraj Vojsalić, knez Pribić, knez Radič Radojević, knez Batić Mirković, knez Juraj Dragičević, knez Petar Klešić, voivod Ivko, and voivod Pavao Jurjević. By the end of the year Tvrtko had completely ousted Stephen, who continued to advance his claim until the summer of 1421. He appears to have died soon after. The internal troubles forced the Ottomans to withdraw their troops from Bosnia, which enabled Tvrtko to strengthen his hold on the kingdom and for its economy to recover. Tvrtko's second accession had to be legitimized with a new coronation, which took place during a stanak in August 1421. After the formal investiture he finally confirmed his predecessors' charters and privileges granted to Ragusan merchants.
Tvrtko's second reign was marked by his quick resolution to restore royal authority and the king's pre-eminence among Bosnia's feudal rulers. With Hrvoje and Pavle gone, and Sandalj preoccupied by conflict with Pavle's sons, Tvrtko was able to significantly expand the royal domain. The convenient death of King Stephen also somewhat neutralized the threat posed by his intriguing mother, Queen Kujava. The Ottomans found little time to interfere with Tvrtko's government in the following five years, giving him time to strengthen the kingdom's economy, with mines reaching the height of their productivity and the number of foreign merchants considerably increasing. In 1422 Tvrtko signed a beneficial trade treaty with the Republic of Venice in December 1422, and discussed a range of plans for joint military action against Sigismund in Dalmatia. He was obliged, however to renounce the Bosnian claim to Dalmatian cities under Venetian rule. His attempts to find a suitable Catholic bride from the Venetian Malatesta family through the mediation of Peter of Pag, Archbishop of Split, were promising, but never materialized.
Tvrtko's association with Venice bothered not only Ragusa, but also the Turks; the former resented losing their monopoly on trade, while the latter's poor relationship with Venice was the result of territorial dispute over Albania and Zeta. The Turks proceeded to raid Bosnia in the spring of 1424, just enough to make it clear to Tvrtko that close relations with Venice would not be tolerated. Tvrtko understood that Venice would not be able to provide him with help against the Turks, and thus slowly dismantled their alliance.
Although the cooling of Tvrtko's relations with Venice suited Ragusa, another incident guaranteed that the city-state and the King would not be on friendly terms for some more time. In 1424, a kinsman of Tvrtko named Vuk Banić unsuccessfully attempted to usurp the throne with the help of Tvrtko's aunt, Queen Kujava, who wished to avenge her son's deposition. Ragusa had a long-standing tradition of granting political asylum to members of ruling families, and did not fail to accommodate Vuk when he sought sanctuary. The same year, while the Turks were raiding the neighbouring Despotate of Serbia, Tvrtko decided to reclaim Srebrenica, which had been seized by Sigismund in 1411 and granted to his ally, the Serbian ruler Stefan Lazarević. The local Ragusan merchants assisted the Serbs, and the project failed; Stefan's victorious troops went on to plunder Tvrtko's realm when the Turks retreated from their land.
Hungarian alliance
In 1425, Tvrtko realized that he needed a strong ally in the event of further Turkish attacks. Aware that he could not count on Venice, he decided to improve relations with Hungary, which resulted in a treaty the same or the following year. The Ottomans responded with severe attacks that forced Tvrtko to accept their suzerainty and to agree to paying an annual tribute. The Turks departed in 1426, and he became even more desperate to form an alliance with Hungary. Tvrtko's unfavourable position enabled Sigismund to demand the recognition of the latter's father-in-law, Hermann II of Celje, as heir presumptive to the childless king. Hermann was the son of Tvrtko's aunt Catherine, but was first and foremost a Hungarian count whose kingship was very undesirable to Bosnian nobility. Vuk Banić again presented himself as pretender, and Tvrtko realized that the tide was turning against him. He decided to push the alliance with Hungarian even further, not only recognizing Hermann as his heir presumptive in the fall of 1427, but also negotiating a Hungarian marriage. The chosen bride was Dorothy Garai, daughter of the Ban of Usora. Sandalj and the Zlatonosović family voiced their opposition by shunning the wedding festivities in 1428. Tvrtko eventually reconciled with Sandalj, but took action against the Zlatonosovićs and confiscated their land.
Vuk never posed as much threat to Tvrtko as would Radivoj, the elder illegitimate son of the long-deceased Ostoja. In 1432, Stefan Lazarević's successor Đurađ, Sandalj and the Ottomans helped Radivoj lay claim to the throne and take control of much of the country. Tvrtko's only noteworthy support came from Hrvoje's nephew and successor, Juraj Vojsalić, and he thus managed to retain only the central and northwestern Bosnia. Tvrtko retreated to Visoko, but soon found that Sandalj had become too ill to support Radivoj's cause. Đurađ Branković, satisfied with annexing the lands Tvrtko had confiscated from the Zlatonosović family, also lost interest in Radivoj. The Ottomans, however, pursued Radivoj's claim and took possession of Bobovac in his name in 1434.
After years of pleading for their help, Tvrtko finally saw Hungarians march into Bosnia in mid-1434. They recovered for him Jajce, Hodidjed, Bočac and the Komotin Castle, but he lost it all as soon as they retreated. In fact, he himself appears to have left with the troops on their way back to Hungary, as he is known to have resided at the court in Buda in 1435. Radivoj ceased being a threat when he lost the Ottoman support that year, while Sandalj's death presented Tvrtko with a new and more vital rebellious vassal in the form of Sandalj's nephew and successor, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača.
Later life
Radivoj styled himself as King of Bosnia for the remainder of Tvrtko II's reign. He was nominally supported by the Turks and by Stjepan Vukčić Kosača; they could have easily deposed Tvrtko in his favour if they wished, but it appears that their only goal was to weaken and divide Bosnia for their future benefit. While Stjepan was trying to expand his territory at the expense of Zeta in 1443, Tvrtko took advantage of his absence and the Ottoman concern with the Crusade of Varna to attack his land, but Stjepan returned in time to defend it.
Tvrtko died childless in November 1443, having expressed wish to be succeeded by his politically inactive and until then rather obscure cousin Thomas, Radivoj's younger brother and likewise an illegitimate son of Ostoja. Hermann II of Celje had died in 1435, and his heirs made no attempt to enforce the 1427 succession agreement. Given that the succession went smoothly, it can be assumed that Tvrtko actively worked on securing Thomas's accession, probably in order to ensure that his patrimony would not pass to the detested Radivoj.
Tvrtko II maintained himself on the Bosnian throne longer than any of the monarchs who followed Tvrtko I. He also did more to restore royal dignity and centralize the state than any other, leaving a strong mark on Bosnia's politics, economy and culture.
Personal life
Stephen Tvrtko II was married during his first reign; his wife was mentioned by the Ragusans in 1409 as "the Queen, wife of King Tvrtko of Bosnia", but her name was not recorded. During his second reign, he considered it very important to marry a Catholic noblewoman and entertained the idea of choosing a bride from the Italian House of Malatesta. The collapse of his alliance with Venice meant that the plan was never realized.
Tvrtko eventually married the Hungarian noblewoman Dorothy Garai, but not before assuring the papacy of his commitment to the Roman Catholic Church. The wedding was held in Milodraž between 23 and 31 July 1428, and the marriage lasted until her death in September 1438. The sources do not mention that the couple had any children, but archaeological excavations in the royal chapel in Bobovac during the second half of the 20th century confirmed the existence of a child's tomb located between the tombs of the royal couple, indicating that they might have had a child who died in infancy or early childhood.
Tvrtko was a Roman Catholic, but only because it suited him to be one. He appreciated the Franciscans for their socio-political engagements in Bosnia, but no more than high-ranking officials of the "heretical" Bosnian Church. The head of the Bosnian Church was always favoured by Tvrtko, and exerted significant influence on the matters of state, serving as Tvrtko's adviser even in 1428, while Tvrtko was trying to present himself as a good Catholic.
Family tree
References
Bibliography
Bosnian monarchs
15th-century monarchs in Europe
Year of birth unknown
1443 deaths
Kotromanić dynasty
Roman Catholic monarchs
15th-century Bosnian people
Dethroned monarchs
Burials in Royal Chapel on Bobovac
Kings of Bosnia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography%20of%20Ladakh
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Geography of Ladakh
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Ladakh is an administrative territory of India that has been under its control since 1947. The geographical region of Ladakh union territory is the highest altitude plateau region in India (much of it being over 3,000 m), incorporating parts of the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges and the upper Indus River and valley.
Political geography
Historic Ladakh consists of a number of distinct areas (mainly under Indian rule), including the fairly populous main Indus valley, the more remote Zanskar (in the south) and Nubra valleys (to the north over Khardung La in the Ladakh mountain range, a high motorable pass at ), the almost deserted Aksai Chin (under Chinese rule) and the predominantly Shi'ite Muslim Kargil and Suru valley areas in the west (Kargil being the second most important town in Ladakh). Historically populated by the Ladakhi people, continued immigration and preferential treatment to Kashmiris by the J&K government have led to demographic changes in the Ladakh region.
The Baltistan and Skardu area, under Pakistani rule and entirely Muslim, used to be included in what is geographically referred to as Ladakh. Before partition, Baltistan was one of the districts of Ladakh. Skardo was the winter capital of Ladakh while Leh was the summer capital. People of Baltistan and Ladakh speak very similar languages closely related to Tibetan.
Naked barley, normal barley and wheat are the staple crops all over Ladakh, along with mustard (for oil), lentils and other pulses, and vegetables. The extreme limit of cultivation is at Korzok near the Tso Moriri lake, at 4560 m, said to be among the highest fields in the world.
Mountain ranges & plateau
The mountain ranges in this region were formed over a period of 45 million years by the folding of the Indian Plate into the stationary landmass of Asia. Himalayas were formed from the base material of the Indian plate.
Mountain ranges are (from north to south, then east to west):
Karakoram range
Passes
Karakoram Pass
Marsimik La
Hotsprings
Hot Springs, Chang Chenmo Valley on LAC
Gogra Hot Springs, Changlung Valley also in Chang Chenmo Valley on LAC.
Jianan Pass – a border pass in the Kugrang Valley tributary of Changchenmo is sometimes called "Hot Springs" .
Pangong Range, runs from Chushul along southern shore of Panggong Lake on India-China LAC.
Passes
Rezang La
Lakes
Pangong Tso
Spanggur Tso
Ladakh range
Panamik hot springs, near Sasoma enroute Siachen.
Passes
Yarab Tso lake in Nubra Valley.
Yaya Tso on "Chumathang-Chushul Road".
Mirpal Tso on "Chumathang-Chushul Road".
Koyul Ridge, from Dungti-Fukche-Koyul Ridge to Demchok on right bank of Indus along Chushul-Dungti-Fukche-Demchok highway (CDFD road).
Zanskar range
List of mountain peaks of Ladakh
Plateaus are (north to south):
Aksai Chin
Depsang plains (Karakoram Plains), north of Karakoram range.
Daulat Beg Oldie
Depsang Bulge
Lingzi Thang Plains, southeast of Depsang plains & north of Kongka La.
Tso Tang
Soda Plains, east of Depsang plains & north of Lingzi Thang Plains.
Changthang plateau
Chumathang hot springs on "Upshi-Nyoma Road".
Puga hot springs east of Tso Kar lake on ""Meroo-Tso Kar-Mahe road"".
Lakes
Tso Kar
Startsapuk Tso,
Kyagar Tso,
Ryul lake.
Ladakh range
The Ladakh Range has no major peaks; its average height is a little less than 6000 metres, and few of its passes are less than 5000 m. Within Ladakh it forms the northern boundary wall of the Indus valley, though when the river enters present-day Indian-controlled Ladakh at Demchok, some 250 km south-east of Leh, it is actually flowing along the foot of the northern flank of these granite mountains, which it crosses by a great gorge close to its confluence with the Hanle River.
The Pangong Range runs parallel to the Ladakh range for some 100 km northwest from Chushul, and extends to the south along the southern shore of the Panggong Lake. It is divided from the main Ladakh range by the Tangtse River. Its highest range is 6700 m, and the northern slopes are heavily glaciated.
A third branch called the Kailash Range issues south from the Pangong Range and continues till Mount Kailas in Ngari (in Tibet). It forms the eastern watershed of the Indus River south of Mount Sajum.
Zanskar range
The Zanskar Range consists of layers of sediment from the ocean floor, and the Ladakh Range of granite was born of the immense heat generated by the friction between the two plates. In Ladakh, the suture zone between the continental masses runs a little to the south of the Indus Valley. The drift continues and is the cause of the frequent earthquakes in the Himalayan region. Crossing the Himalayas by the dip of the Zoji-la, the crest-line of the range remains at a relatively modest level, the highest peaks near the pass being little more than 5000–5500 m above sea level. South-east of Zoji-la the scale increases, reaching a climax in the mighty massif of Nun-Kun, with two summits over 7000 m.
Rivers valleys
The enormous mass of the Himalayas creates a rain shadow, denying entry to the moisture-laden clouds of the Indian monsoon. Ladakh is thus a high altitude desert. The main source of water is the winter snowfall on the mountains. The regions on the north flank of the Himalayas—Dras, the Suru valley and Zanskar—experience heavy snowfall and remain virtually cut off from the rest of the country for several months in the year. Summers are short, although long enough to grow crops. The proportion of oxygen is less than in many other places at a comparable altitude because of lack of vegetation. There is little moisture to temper the effects of rarefied air. Suru and Zanskar valleys form a great trough at the foot of the northern, heavily glaciated flank of the Himalayas, while opposite rise the mountains of the Zanskar range.
Karakash River: originates in China-held and India-claimed area of Depsang Plains of Aksai Chin. Flows entirely in China-held area.
Indus River: All of India-held Ladakh lies in the basin of Indus River. Indus River is the backbone of Ladakh. All the major places historically and currently such as Shey, Leh, Basgo, and Tingmosgang are situated close to the river. Many places along the course have witnessed the Sino-Indian border dispute. Major tributes of Indus are as follows (from east to west):
Charding Nullah: in Demchok sector, runs from Charding La in south to its confluence with Indus near Demchok village at the base of pyramid shaped Demchok Karpo (also "Demchok Lhari Karpo") peak in Demchok sector) in north. Demchok Hot Spring is near the confluence. Demchok is reachable via 3 routes: Chushul-Dungti-Fukche-Demchok National Highway (CDFD road) through the Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary along the southern bank of the Indus river, Chismule-Koyul-Umling La-Demchok Road (CKUD Road) 86 km long world's highest motorable road (a title earlier accorded to Khardung La at 17,600 ft) from Chismule in Koyul Lungpa river valley to Demchok via the Umling La pass (world's highest motorable pass at ) connecting Demchok to Koyul & Hanle, Hanle-Fukche-Koyul-Demchok Road (HFKD Road) via Hanle (also see IAO - Indian Astronomical Observatory) & Fukche ALG airstrip.
Chibra Stream: in Demchok sector, flows south to north to confluence with Indus River near Lagankhel on south bank.
Koyul Lungpa River: runs from Chang La in south to northwest past Koyul to its confluence with Indus near Fukche ALG on south bank.
Chushul Eastern Stream: flows west to east from Chushul heights to confluence with Indus River at Loma village near Hanle on west bank.
Hanle River: originates near the Imis La pass (5,290m or 17,355 ft high saddle, south of Ukdungle Indian Military base, Zarsar & Tradole peak) on the India-Tibet border and joins the Indus river near Nowi and Loma north of Hanle River close to the town of Nyoma.
Kharnak River: from Pang & Kharnak to Sangtha & Kharna, northeastern flank of Zanskar range.
Shyok River: It originates near Karakoram Pass north of Daulat Beg Oldie (DBO). It then collects 5 important tributaries from DBO to its confluence with Changchenmo, each of which originates from ridges & peaks of Karakoram range in the China-held disputed Aksai Chin area along the LAC and confluence with Shyok in the India-held area. From north to south, first tributary is Chip Chap River (inverted C-shaped route from east of Tianwendian in Aksai Chin to DBO, Chapo, Gapshan camp, Saser La, ancient Sultan Chusku caravan camp & Colonel Chewang Rinchen Bridge on DSDBO Road), second tributary of Shyok is Burtsa Nala (its tributaries are Depsang Nala with confluence at Burtsa Patrol Base, Raki Nala with confluence at India-held Y-junction, Jeong Nala with confluence at Burtsa Yogma, Murgo Nala or Murgo Chu with confluence at Murgo, itself confluences with Shyok River at Sultan Chusku camp & Colonel Chewang Rinchen Bridge or CCR Bridge), third tributary of Shyok is Jeong Nala (also called Jiwan Nala or Nacho Chu & Xidagou, itself a tributary of Burtsa Nala), fourth tributary of Shyok is Galwan River, and the fifth tributary of Shyok is Chang Chenmo River (its tributary Kugrang River flows within India-held area and confluences at India-held Hot Springs or Kyam & Kayam, and Changlung River tributary of Kugrang River flows within China-held Indian-claim area and confluences at India-held Gogra pasture). Further downstream, the Shyok River confluences with Chushul Stream at Shyok village, then with Nubra River near Diskit, and finally falls into the Indus River in Chorbat Valley in Pakistan held area. At Saser La (on Sasoma–Saser La Road), Shyok River's flow splits into a weaker NW-SE flowing stream which flows parallel to and north of the main flow of Shyok & Murgo Ridge, this weaker stream from Saser La to Murgo is called the Murgo Nala. Shyok River and Murgo Nala flowing NW-SE parallel to each other on the west side of "DSDBO Road" meet the N-S flowing Burtsa Nala at Murgo & "CCR Bridge" respectively along the DSDBO Road. Flow along the "DSDBO Road", downstream of "CCR Bridge" is called the Shyok River, its northern upstream flow from India's Burtsa Patrol Base is called the Burtsa Nala and its N-S flowing tributary above Burtsa Patrol Base is called Depsang Nala. The Burtsa Nala originates in and flows E-W within the China-held India-claimed D-shaped Depsang Bulge (Burtsa Bulge) collecting several small streams within the bulge (the entire Depsang Bulge lies immediate east of "DSDBO Road" and within the Depsang Bulge India controls the area till Y-junction), from the Indian Military Camp at Y-junction it flows NW-SW to Burtsa Patrol Base where it confluences with Depsang Nala and turns south flowing along "DSDBO Road" via Burtsa Yogma (confluence with Jiwan Nala) & Murgo (confluence with Murgo Nala) to its confluence with Shyok River at CCR Bridge. From Y-junction confluence, Reki Nala flows from North and provide access to China-held part of Aksai Chin and a decond stream flowing south from Y-junction provides access to the origin of Jiwan Nala via a pass. The region comprising the valley of Shyok and Nubra Rivers is known as Nubra. The Karakoram Range in Ladakh is not as mighty as in Baltistan. The massifs to the north and east of the Nubra-Siachen valley include the Apsarasas group (highest point 7245 m), the Rimo group (highest point 7385 m) and the Teram Kangri group (highest point 7464 m), together with Mamostong Kangri (7526 m) and Singhi Kangri (7202 m.) North of the Karakoram lie the Kun Lun Mountains. Thus, between Leh and eastern Central Asia, there is a triple barrier: the Ladakh Range, the Karakoram range, and the Kun Lun. Nevertheless, a major trade route was established between Leh and Yarkand. Shyok River's tributaries are:
Chip Chap River: Originates in Karakoram range by collecting streams north & east of Tianwendian in China-held part of Aksai Chin. Joins Shyok river near Darbuk–Shyok–DBO Road (DS-DBO Road/DSDBO Road). Its tributaries are:
Lungnak Lungpa Stream: flows northeast to southwest and joins north bank of Chip Chap River near LAC.
DBO Stream or Chapo Chu: stream passing by Daulat Beg Oldi (DBO) joins Chip Chap River in the Indian controlled area of Depsang Plains.
Galwan River: originates near Samzungling campsite on eastern side of Karakoram range in China-held disputed territory and flows west to join the Shyok River in India-held area 102 km south of DBO. Galwan River valley is location of bloody 2020–2021 China–India skirmishes.
Chang Chenmo River: originates near Lanak La in China-held India-claimed area of Aksai Chin. Its tributary Kugrang River is held by India, while Kugrang's tributary to east of Kugran the Changlung river is held by China & claimed by India. The Gogra, held by India, is a pasture & confluence of Kugrang & Changlung Rivers. Hot Springs (also called Kyam or Kayam) is confluence of Kugrang with Chang Chenmo River. Gogra in Kugran Valley thus forms a key link, connecting the Kugrang valley, Changlung valley and Chang Chenmo.
Kugrang River flows from northwest to southeast within territory held by India, receiving the Changlung River tributary at Gogra and then continuing further south to fall into Chang Chenmo River near Hot Springs.
Changlung River, flows from north to southwest in China-held disputed territory, then ends into Kugrang River near the Gogra pasture held by India.
Durbuk Stream: flows east to west from Tangtse to confluence with Shyok River near Shyok village. Upstream at Tangtse, two following streams join to form the Durbuk Stream. These streams originate at Pangong Tso and western side of Chushul Heights respectively.
Pangong Stream: flows east to west from Pangong Tso, via Muglib, to Tangtse where it joins another stream from western side of Chushul heights and forms Durbuk Stream.
Chushul Western Stream: flows east to west from Chushul heights to confluence with Pangong Stream at Tangtse to forms Durbuk Stream.
Nubra River: runs from Siachen Glacier near Siachen Base Camp, via Panamik & Sasoma (starting point of Sasoma–Saser La Road to DBO in Depsang Plains), to its confluence with Shyok River near Diskit. Although, geographically the area between Diskit to Chalunka is not in Nubra River Valley as it is part of Shyok River itself, culturally it is considered part of the Nubra River Valley as they follow Buddhism. Chalunka to Turtuk (also see Battle of Turtuk) in India and beyond to Khaplu in PoK is called Chorbat Valley which is inhabited by the Balti-speaking Shia Muslims.
Chorbat Valley: from Chalunka (west of Diskit) to Khaplu in PoK is inhabited by Balti-speaking Shia Muslims.
Zanskar River: 3 main tributaries are the Markha north of Padum, Stod (Doda) west of Padum, and the Lungnak (Tsarap Lingti) east of Padum. Zanskar suffers heavy snowfall, and the Pensi La which connects Stod River valley with Suru River valley opens only in June and is blocked again in mid-October. The entire valley is virtually treeless.
Markha River: tributary of Zanskar River flows Hankar in east to Chilling in west and joins Zanskar River few kilometer south of Nimoo near Chilling & Skyu on Nimmu–Padum–Darcha road (NPDR). Marka River forms the western side of northern boundary of Zanskar range.
Stod River: (Doda River): west of Padum, Stod originates from Drang-drung glacier of Pensi La and flows northwest to southeast through a broad open valley towards confluence with Lungnak River just east of Padum.
Lungnak River: flows east to west from Ladakh-Himachal-Tibet tri-junction to Padum. Its main tributaries are Tsarap River & Lingti River.
Lingti River: Lingti River and another tributary (name ?) confluence with Lungnak River just north of Bara-lacha-la, after which Lungnak River flows past Phugtal Monastery.
Kurgiak Cho (Kargyak River): descends from Shingo-la near Himachal-Ladakh-J&K tri-junction, flows south to northeast to confluences with Lungnak River near Gombo Rangjun (Gonbo Rangjon).
Tsarap River: Lies north of Lungnak River & Kargyak River, west of "Leh-Manali Highway", and east and north of Padum. It flows east to west till Tsarap River is Lungnak River's one of the main tributaries.
Aryan Valley near Batalik: smaller Valley in India on LOC as part of Indus River where Indus enters Pakistan-held area. It has 5 villages & their hamlets in India, i.e. Dah, Hanu & Chulichan in Leh district, and Garkon and Darchik in Kargil district.
Suru River: Pensi La (4400 metres) near Rangdum Monastery connects the Suru Valley in north with Stod River valley and Padum in Zanskar Valley in south. The Suru River originates from area northwest of Padum and flow past Sankoo southwest to northeast to Kargil, after receiving the combined waters of the Dras and Shingo Rivers a short distance north of Kargil it confluences with the Indus at Marol in Baltistan in PoK. Saru River forms the western boundary of the Zanskar range. Although Rangdum Monastery & Zulidok villages, bith northeast of Pensi La, are in Suru River Valley, culturally they are considered part of Zanskar Valley (Stod Valley). Suru Valley is also the destination of the nomadic Bakarwal herdsmen who trek up every summer from the Jammu region.
Sankoo Stream: flows east to west from Itchu via Sangroh to join Suru River at Sankoo.
Dras River: a downstream tributary of Suru River which confluences at Kaksar (Kakshar, west of Kargil town) in India near LAC.
Shingo River: tributary of Dras River. Originates and flows through PoK Gilgit-Baltistan and enters Kargil district in India where it joins the Dras River.
Gallery
See also
Geography of Himalayas
Geography of Tibet
Geology of the Himalaya
Indus-Yarlung suture zone
List of districts of Ladakh
Siachen Glacier
Tourism in Ladakh
Notes
References
External links
Picture galleries: Monasteries, mountains and people
Plateaus of India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Ambae%20language
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East Ambae language
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East Ambae (also known as Omba, Oba, Aoba, Walurigi, Lolovoli, Northeast Aoba, and Northeast Ambae) is an Oceanic language spoken on Ambae, Vanuatu. The data in this article will concern itself with the Lolovoli dialect of the North-East Ambae language.
Phonology
North-East Ambae distinguishes 5 vowels and 16 consonants, shown in the tables below.
Morphosyntax
Pronominals
In Ambae there are four different pronominal forms, one set of free forms, independent pronouns and three sets of bound forms, subject proclitics, object enclitics and possessive suffixes. All sets of pronominals distinguish between singular, dual and plural and between inclusive and exclusive in the first person. Independent pronouns are preceded by the personal article when the head of a noun phrase.
Independent pronouns
Subject proclitics
The subject proclitic is the first part of a verb phrase and can attach to an aspect, mood, negative particle or verb head. Dual forms cliticise to the marker ru. In Lolovoli, no= is applied when cliticised in 1st person exclusive singular.
Object enclitics
Object enclitics occur when attached to the predicate head or last adverb in a verb phrase. These only occur in singular forms and all 3rd person forms.
Possessive suffixes
Possessive suffixes are attached to the head noun in a direct possessive construction, or a relational classifier in an indirect possessive construction.
Demonstratives
In East Ambae, demonstratives are a part of the subclass of nominals. They can function pronominally as an independent pronoun at the head of a noun phrase, or they can modify the head noun in a noun phrase.
There are two forms which distinguish a proximal location from a distal location. The form ngaha ‘this’ refers to a proximal location, while ngihie ‘that’ refers to a distal location. While generally considered a conservative Oceanic language, in this way, East Ambae differs from many Oceanic languages, and the reconstructed Proto-Oceanic in that it only has two forms to represent locations. Most Oceanic languages, for example, Futuna-Aniwa, the Oceanic language also spoken on Vanuatu, have three forms, representing a near distance, a medium distance, and a far distance. East Ambae also differs from Proto-Oceanic by not only using demonstratives at the end of the noun phrase.
Ngihie also has a plural form, ngire, which is homophonous with the third person plural independent pronoun.
The form ngaha can also have a temporal meaning of ‘now’. This is shown in the example below.
The form ngihie can also function as an emphatic demonstrative, acting to modify an entire proposition.
Whether being used as the head of the noun phrase, or to modify the noun, the demonstratives take on the same form(s), ngaha and ngihie. This is typologically similar to other Oceanic languages, who often do not have different forms, either in the stem or in the inflection based on whether the demonstrative is acting as a noun or a modifier.
Demonstratives as the head noun
Demonstratives, either in the form of the basic demonstratives ngaha ‘this’ (3) or ngihie ‘that’, or by a demonstrative derived from one of the members of the class of directionals prefixed with the demonstrative formative gi- or ngi- (5), can act as the head noun in a noun phrase, as shown in the examples given below.
Demonstratives as a modifier
Demonstratives, either in the form of the basic demonstratives ngaha ‘this’ (6) or ngihie ‘that’ (7), or by a demonstrative derived from one of the members of the class of directionals prefixed with the demonstrative formative gi- or ngi- (8), can act to modify the head noun of a noun phrase.
When being used to modify the head noun, the order of noun and demonstratives in East Ambae is noun-demonstrative, which also occurs in all other languages in Vanuatu. This feature is common in almost all Oceanic languages.
Similarly to the reconstructed Proto-Oceanic, common nouns and independent pronouns can be modified by a demonstrative, while proper nouns and temporals cannot.
Demonstrative ge
Additionally, the form ge can be used to indicate the location of an object. This form is generally used when someone has asked for the location of an object, and is accompanied by either pointing to the object in question, indication with the eyes, or tilting the head.
Presentative ia
The presentative ia is used when presenting an object to the addressee. Ia is a borrowing from Bislama, an official language of Vanuatu, from the English ‘here’. *Ia is the reconstructed form for ‘here’ in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian. Ia can still be found in many Malayo-Polynesian languages, such as Lamaholot, Tongan, Samoan, Maori and Hawaiian. An example of this presentative ia is given below.
Demonstratives in spatial deixis
Apart from the two forms ngaha and ngihie, all members of the subclass of absolute location nouns, as in directionals (vano ‘go along, over there’, hage ‘go up, up there’, and hivo ‘go down, down there’) and the small set of absolute location nouns, aulu 'up high, on top' vine 'down low' atagu 'behind, at the back' amue 'in front, at the front' aute 'up in the bush' alau 'down by the sea' varea 'outside' and vagahao 'far away', can form demonstratives to be used for spatial reference. When prefixed with the demonstrative formative prefix (DEM), gi-/ngi-, absolute location nouns, but not place names, can form demonstratives. There is no difference between these two forms, gi- and ngi-, and the choice between the two is arbitrary. Demonstratives formed from directional and absolute location nouns can have either a referential or modifying function.
Additionally, the suffixes -mai and -atu can be added to directionals. The suffix -mai is used to denote the object being closer to the speaker, while the suffix -atu is used to denote the object being closer to the addressee. Only the suffix -mai can be added to directionals that have formed demonstratives.
In example 10, where the prefix ngi- has been added to form a demonstrative, and the suffix -mai has been added, the demonstrative indicates that the object is closer to the speaker, while in example 11, where the demonstrative is unmarked and thus has no suffix, the meaning is that the object is farther away.
The suffix -atu cannot be added to demonstratives, thus example 12 is not grammatical.
Reduplication of demonstratives
Reduplication is a common process in East Ambae, and demonstratives are able to be reduplicated. When directionals that have formed demonstratives are reduplicated, the purpose is to either indicate a greater distance away (as in the case of forms without the -mai suffix), shown in example 13, or a considerably closer distance to the speaker (in the case of forms with the -mai suffix), shown in example 14.
Negation
In North-East Ambae negative construction formation differs depending on firstly, whether the unit is verbal or nonverbal, and then based on what clause structure is being employed. Instances of verbal negation are obligatorily a double negative construction, using preverbal and postverbal particles. Nonverbal structures are formed with a different particle, the placement of which varies depending on the other components in the structure.
Verbal negation
Constructions of verbal negation in East Ambae are formed through a bipartite process, as there must be two specific negative particles present. The preverbal particle is ‘hi’, and the postverbal particle is ‘tea’. This is demonstrated in the example below. In these clauses, the subject marker is attached to the preverbal particle as a clitic. The subject proclitic attaches to the preverbal negative particles ‘hi’ (1) or to the irrealis particle ‘ni’ (2). Irrealis mood is how a speaker marks something as not known to have happened to them, as they are forming the utterance.
The word order of a negative verbal phrase is Verb Phrase → Subject = ni (hi) HEAD tea.
Neither the realis mood or telic aspect particles can be used within a negative verbal clause.
Verbal negative clauses in the past tense are formed by using an unmarked subject marker. Clauses with an unmarked subject marker express present or past reference to time, or instead, are indicative of the habitual aspect. Example 3 shows how the pronoun ‘ga’ combined with the negative preverbal particle ‘hi’ forms the past tense negative displayed in the sentence.
Nonverbal negation
In nonverbal clauses, negative mood is expressed by the negative particle ‘hate’. ‘Hate’ can doubly function as a negative predicate that can only take a complement clause as its argument. There is no grammatical means to mark TAM (Tense, Aspect, Mood) in nonverbal clauses, therefore, tense may only be understood from the semantic context of the clause. Below is an example of a nonverbal negative clause.
Negative clause structure
Negative existential clauses
To form a negative existential clause, the negative particle ‘hate’ is placed after the Noun Phrase. In order to investigate negative clause structure, it is important to contrast the formation process of affirmative clause structure. Minimally, a positive existential clause, contains a single constituent of the Noun Phrase, and this is a predicate. When this single Noun Phrase form is formed, the predication that follows is that referent in that Noun Phrase exists. In the corresponding negative existential clauses, what is predicated is that that referent of the subject Noun Phrase does not exist. It is worth noting that there are no existential verbs in East Ambae, and that all existential clauses are subsequently nonverbal.
Formation of the negative existential clause involves the Noun Phrase becoming the subject and the negative particle becoming the predicate. This is shown in the example below.
In positive existential clauses, modification of the head noun or a fronted topic must be present to construct these clauses. In contrast, for negative existential clauses, there is no clause initial topic slot and the subject Noun Phrase can be solely constituted by the head noun. This construction is demonstrated in the below example.
Negative possessive clauses
Formation of a negative possessive clause necessitates that the negative particle ‘hate’ is after the relevant noun phrase. This form is very similar to that of the negative existential clause. Modification of the head noun has no bearing on the positioning of the topic clause, which remains in the initial position.
Negative equational clauses
Formation of all negative equational clauses necessitates that the negative particle be placed between the subject and predicate noun phrases. This is demonstrated here:
In these examples, the negative particle 'hate' occurs before the subject noun phrases 'he/she is' and 'that child' respectively. There are two subtypes of equational clauses: classificatory and identificational. Classificatory clauses depict the class membership of an entity, example 7 is a negative classificatory equational clause as it posits the subject 's/he' in the class of bad swimmers. Identificational clauses are similar to classificatory ones but they also assert the identity of the object. Example 8 is an identificational negative equational clause, as it asserts the object's (my friend) identity (that child).
Negative equational clauses can have a subject noun phrase that is ellipsed within the clause. For example.
In the example, the subject noun phrase ‘a house’ is omitted in the clause.
If a speaker needs to indicate that an entity is pointedly not a member of a certain class, then the negative particle ‘hate’ can be used as a predicate and takes a complement clause headed by ‘vo’ (say). The English literal translation of ‘vo’ is “it is not that..” This alternate negative structure can also be used in some verbal clauses to express the same emphasis again. Below is an example of this alternative formation.
Negative prepositional clauses
In the negative prepositional clause formation, the negative marker is placed before the prepositional phrase predicate and occurs after the subject noun phrase. For example:
Negative prepositional clauses are capable of a degree of ambiguity. This is due to negative prepositional clauses commonly having the same structure as existential clauses with prepositional phrase adjuncts. In the below example, it can be seen that the unmodified noun (tangaloi) can be placed as the subject noun phrase in an existential clause.
Negative Complement-taking Predicate (CTP) ‘hate’
A construction employed to signal that the event predicated in the complement clause does/did/will not happen is formed with the negative particle ‘hate’ preceding the particle ‘vo’. With ‘vo’ “introducing” the ‘hate’ particle.
This form alters the semantic layer of the negative clause form, conveying an additional pragmatic layer. It has an implication that the speaker would have expected the predication of the complement clause to be truthful, when it is not. The pragmatic layer in this construction is not found in other simple negative forms. ‘Hate’ then functions as a predicate that can take a complement of verbal or nonverbal clause, take a complement clause as its argument or act as the predicate to express that something does not exist through the noun phrase in a nonverbal existential clause. ‘Hate’ cannot be employed in a verb phrase that has been imbued with subject or aspect/mood, despite functioning as a predicate.
Example 13 is a verbal clause representing a predicate which will not happen, for instance: the speaker is not going to give the subject 'it' to the object/addressee 'you'. Example 14 is a nonverbal clause, also representing a predicate that does/did/will not happen.
Across the world's languages it is generally rare for there to be a negative predicate that can take a complement clause as its argument, but this is not uncommon amongst the Oceanic language family.
Possession
East Ambae has four different possessive constructions, these are the distinctions between direct and indirect possession, and simplex and complex possession (Hyslop, 2001, p. 165).
If the possessor is marked on the possessed noun, this is a direct possessive construction, whereas if the possessor is marked on a relational classifier rather than the possessee, this is an indirect possessive construction. Additionally, a simplex construction, where the possessor is pronominal, a possessive suffix occurs on the possessee or the relevant classifier, while a complex construction is one in which the possessor is represented by a nominal (Hyslop, 2001, p. 166).
The table below illustrates the four different possessive constructions.
According to Hyslop (2001, p. 167), while it is a morphosyntactic difference between direct and indirect possessive constructions, it is a semantically motivated distinction. In a direct possessive construction, nouns that function as the possessee can be said to be inalienably possessed, which refers to a permanent and inherent connection between the possessor and possessee that is indissoluble. Indirect possessive construction refers to alienable possession, a relationship between two referents of a less permanent and inherent type than inalienable possession, of an item that is to be 'possessed' in the conventional sense (Hyslop, 2001, p. 176).
Inalienable possession
There are two distinct categories in East Ambae that nominals taking part in inalienable possession can belong to, these being those reflecting an intimate relationship to the possessor, and part-whole and positional relation expressions (Hyslop, 2001, p. 168). Those that reflect an intimate relationship to the possessor, the 'self' can be divided into four sub-categories: kin relations, body parts and associated body products, natural behaviour and personal attributes, and intimate personal property (Hyslop, 2001, p. 169). These sub categories are explored below.
The 'self'
Kin
A direct possessive construction is used in all expressions of relationships between kin (Hyslop, 2001, p. 169).
Body parts and products
Any body part of a person or animal is referred to using the direct possessive construction (Hyslop, 2001, p. 170).
In addition, any bodily features or fluids/secretions (such as tattoos and a person or animal's odour) that could be considered part of, or an extension of the body are inalienably possessed (Hyslop, 2001, p. 170).
Behaviour and personal attributes
Natural behaviours, physical attributes, emotions, and mental processes (such as sleep, age, anger, and thought) enter into a direct possessive construction as personal attributes such as these are seen as an inalienable aspect of the concept of the self (Hyslop, 2001, p. 171).
Intimate personal property
This class of objects can be possessed or 'owned' in the traditional sense, however, in the East Ambae culture, these objects are so closely associated with a person's existence that they are considered inalienable objects, and when referred to, it is using the direct possessive construction. These objects that are considered 'intimate' include things such as a person's pillow, as well as a person's clothes, which are seen as an extension of the body. This can also be said for an animal's cave or bird's nest (Hyslop, 2001, p. 172 & 173).
Part-whole and positional relations
Part-whole relations
Part-whole relationships are expressed in a direct possessive construction as it is used to describe parts of objects and plants that are divisible into recognised parts in the same way as body part relations are expressed. The part is the 'possessed' head noun and the whole is the 'possessor' (Hyslop, 2001, p. 174).
This relationship is also used to refer to pieces of a whole. This is done by using the anticausativeised form of a verb, describing the way the object was divided, such as vise 'split', or kore 'break' (as seen in the examples below), and by taking the construct suffix, the form is marked as being a nominal (Hyslop, 2001, p. 175).
Positional relations
Positional relations are a small subclass of bound relational location nouns and function as the possessee noun in a direct possessive construct, used to define the position of one object in relation to another, such as ulu- 'above' and mawiri- 'left, as shown below (Hyslop, 2001, p. 175).
Alienable possession
Four different relational classifiers are used to express indirect possession, the use of a particular relational classifier is dependent on the possessive relationship between the possessed object and the possessor, rather than any characteristic of the possessee (Hyslop, 2001, p. 176).
The four relational classifiers are:
ga- 'food possession'
me- 'drink possession'
bula- 'natural or valued object possession'
no- 'general possession'
Relational classifier ga-
This classifier indicates that the referent of the possessee noun is a food item. This can be used for any edible item including food that has already been eaten, food that has been prepared and ready to eat, unprepared or uncooked food, and so on. Usually, the ga- relational classifier is used only to refer to food that is ready to be eaten, so an animal yet to be slaughtered or plant yet to be harvested would be referred to using the bula- classifier (Hyslop, 2001, p. 177).
Only one relation expressed by ga- does not relate to food possession, and that is illness, despite perhaps expecting it to be categorised inalienably as a body part or product one can never describe one's illness using a direct possessive construct (Hyslop, 2001, p. 177).
Relational classifier me-
This classifier indicates that the referent of the possessee noun is something for the possessor to drink, this can be the possession drinkable items such as ti 'tea' or wai 'water', as well as some plants classified as drinkable rather than edible, such as tovu 'sugarcane' and lamani 'lemon' and medicine, whether it is in liquid or tablet form as even then you swallow it with water (Hyslop, 2001, p. 178).
Relational classifier bula-
The bula- classifier mainly refers to the relationship between 'natural entities' and their possessor, such as the ownership of crops and animals (Hyslop, 2001, p. 178).
This category has been broadened to include some items introduced by Europeans that could be said to have some lifelike characteristics (Hyslop, 2001, p. 179). An example of these items are listed below.
redio 'radio'
taragi 'car, automobile'
hanwaj 'watch'
tep 'tape recorder'
Another category includes items of adornment as they are not inalienably possessed as clothing is (Hyslop, 2001, p. 179). Examples include:
iaring 'earrings'
lala 'bracelet'
Relational classifier no-
The no- classifier is considered a general classifier, or the default category, for a range of possessive relationships that are not related to any of the other categories of possessive relationships previously mentioned (Hyslop, 2001, p. 180) Possessive relationships included in this category are: traditional ownership of objects, activities such as work, the possessor's relationship with people who are not kin, and natural behaviours and mental processes that are not part of a direct possessive construction (Hyslop, 2001, p. 180).
Abbreviations
1NSG:first person, non-singular
2NSG:second person, non-singular
3NSG:third person, non-singular
DIR:deictic specifying direction towards addressee/past-future deictic centre
CONST:construct suffix
S:subject proclitic
O:object enclitic
FOOD:food possession
DRINK:drink possession
Source:
Footnotes
References
Dougherty, Janet W. D. (1983). West Futuna-Aniwa: An Introduction to a Polynesian Outlier Language. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Terry., Crowley, (2013). The Oceanic Languages. Taylor and Francis. . OCLC 831119322.
External links
Database of audio recordings in Ambae East - basic Catholic prayers
Penama languages
Languages of Vanuatu
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship%20in%20China
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Censorship in China
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Censorship in the People's Republic of China is mandated by the PRC's ruling party, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). It is one of the strictest censorship regimes in the world. The government censors content for mainly political reasons, such as curtailing political opposition, and censoring events unfavorable to the CCP, such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, pro-democracy movements in China, the Uyghur genocide, human rights in Tibet, Falun Gong, pro-democracy protests in Hong Kong, and aspects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Since Xi Jinping became the general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (de facto paramount leader) in 2012, censorship has been "significantly stepped up".
The government has censorship over all media capable of reaching a wide audience. This includes television, print media, radio, film, theater, text messaging, instant messaging, video games, literature, and the internet. The Chinese government asserts that it has the legal right to control the Internet's content within their territory and that their censorship rules do not infringe on their citizens' right to free speech. Government officials have access to uncensored information via an internal document system.
, the World Press Freedom Index ranks China as the country with the second least press freedom in the world after North Korea. In August 2012, the OpenNet Initiative classified Internet censorship in China as "pervasive" in the political and conflict/security areas and "substantial" in the social and Internet tools areas, the two most extensive classifications of the five they use. Freedom House ranks the Chinese press as "not free", the worst possible ranking, saying that "state control over the news media in China is achieved through a complex combination of party monitoring of news content, legal restrictions on journalists, and financial incentives for self-censorship," and an increasing practice of "cyber-disappearance" of material written by or about activist bloggers.
Other views suggest that Chinese businesses such as Baidu, Tencent and Alibaba, some of the world's largest internet enterprises, have benefited from the way China blocked international rivals from the domestic market.
Background
In the Republican China period, the earliest known instance of Chinese censorship was in 1941 when the second volume of the book "Inside Asia", by John Gunther, was banned by the Nationalist government.
Following the 1942-1943 American dollar bond scandal, Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek blocked newspapers from publishing the corruption allegations against finance minister H.H. Kung, also one of Chiang's relatives through marriage.
The People's Republic of China adopted the "Economic Reform" policy in 1978, which transformed China's economic structure from a planned economy to a market economy. To stimulate the economy, the Chinese government relaxed its control on media, which promoted media commercialization, profits, and growth. The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests were a turning point for Chinese censorship, especially after they were forcibly suppressed on 4 June 1989 following a declaration of martial law and People's Liberation Army troops being deployed, and the Chinese government was condemned internationally. Following the protests and subsequent massacre, news censorship was strengthened because government officials considered that free media had promoted the "turmoil" and represented a potential threat to the regime. After 1995, the Chinese government expanded internet access because it thought that a developed internet would have a positive effect on economic growth; it simultaneously adopted strategic censorship to control information.
The CCP Propaganda Department (中共中央宣传部; CCPPD) is the main official institution responsible for censorship work. Other departments, for example the State Council Information Office and the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (formerly known as the Ministry of Culture until 2018), assist with censorship work. In 2013, CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping upgraded the Internet censorship department and established the Cyberspace Administration of China (中央网络安全和信息化委员会办公室; CAC), an independent network regulation agency.
The Chinese government censors the domestic internet community and foreign websites differently. For the domestic internet community, the propaganda department governs what type of content should be banned or deleted on the internet, and the system of social media or website conduct self-censorship which automatically filters all sensitive content. Censors review the posts on social media, and the users must register by their real name. For foreign websites, the "Great Firewall" prevents Chinese citizens from accessing particular websites with sensitive content by blocking the IP address of these websites. Meanwhile, some foreign websites are not blocked, but the government extends the loading time for these websites. By 2020, an estimated 12 million to 20 million Chinese internet users were using Virtual Private Networks (VPN) to bypass the internet blockade. In accordance with "Implementation Rules for Provisional Regulations of the Administration of International Networking of Computer Information in the People's Republic of China" (), the Chinese government does not support Internet users who use VPN to bypass Internet censorship and visit blocked websites within the Chinese mainland. In principle, it is forbidden for Internet users to use a VPN, but if they only do so without selling VPNs or making profits, the government will not investigate.
Goals
Most broadly, the purpose of the censorship apparatus is to maintain the stability of the status quo system of governance under the CCP. This includes political censorship as well as censorship of content deemed obscene and harmful to public morality, although the latter justification can be used as a means to censor political topics as well. The more specific reasoning and logic of censorship is not publicized by the state, however; scholars outside of China generally tend to take two overarching views of its purpose: first, censorship primarily targets unauthorized criticisms of the party-state; and/or second, censorship primarily targets expression of sentiment that is conducive to organization of collective action (whether or not it is critical of the party-state).
In 2013, Gary King, Jennifer Pan, and Margaret E. Roberts published research based on large-scale sampling of posts on a variety of Chinese social media, arguing that the primary motive for censorship is to quash potential for collective action, and not prevent criticism of the government per se. Through regular, automated sampling of extant posts, the authors were able to analyze which were deleted over time. While drawing only from Internet-based sources, King et al. argued their data demonstrated that "despite widespread censorship of social media, we find that when the Chinese people write scathing criticisms of their government and its leaders, the probability that their post will be censored does not increase. Instead, we find that the purpose of the censorship program is to reduce the probability of collective action by clipping social ties whenever any collective movements are in evidence or expected."
Further experiments conducted by King et al. (2014) demonstrated and recreated mechanisms of censorship of social media. The authors created social media accounts to publish text online, tracking what was and was not deleted, and additionally obtained social media censorship software used by private corporations to comply with government regulations. King et el. again argued their work offered "rigorous support for the recent hypothesis that criticisms of the state, its leaders, and their policies are published, whereas posts about real-world events with collective action potential are censored."
In 2019, however, Dimitar Gueorguiev and Edmund Malesky published an analysis of the data gathered in King, Pan & Roberts (2013), arguing that the sample included critical posts garnered through state-led consultation campaigns, wherein the Chinese government specifically solicited public comment on certain proposals, laws and regulations. Gueorguiev and Malesky subsequently concluded that controlling for such condoned criticism, the "strong" thesis of King, Pan & Roberts (2013)—that collective action potential is the primary trigger of censorship, and not a criticism of the government—failed to stand. Rather, while collective action may be a strong, or the strongest, condition for censorship, general criticism is also a major target as well.
In 2017, Bei Qin, David Strömberg, and Yanhui Wu published an article titled "Why Does China Allow Freer Social Media? Protests versus Surveillance and Propaganda." This article, based on King, Pan, and Roberts' argument, explores the Chinese government's censorship goals by analyzing data from Chinese social media site Sina Weibo. Qin et al. also point out that the Chinese government can monitor and predict upcoming collective action events, and can ask local governments to intervene and prevent violent conflicts. Qin et al. state that "Governments can use these methods to track and analyze online activities, to gauge public opinion, and to contain threats before they spread." Qin et al. also note that the central government limits its censorship to encourage people to express their opinions about the government's performance and public policies. Therefore, the government can receive feedback from the internet, which helps officials to get to know local issues and improve their work. Also, this article discusses some posts on Weibo that have accused local officials of corruption, which means some corruption cases can be predicted on social media, and the central government can supervise the local officials on the internet.
Chinese scholars Liu Liming and Sheng Qiwen state that censorship helps to protect national information security as well as prevent in the disclosure and infringement of any important national or personal information. Song Minlei points out that censorship is conducive to the maintenance of China's "ideological security." Internet censorship, Song writes, can protect the mainstream ideology, such as the core socialist value system, prevent the spread of harmful information abroad, and maintain national political stability.
Mechanisms
Party and state bodies
Multiple organs of both the CCP and the Chinese state exercise various degrees of responsibility for censorship.
The Publicity Department of the CCP plays a major role in censorship. It issues editorial guidelines for media nationwide, delineating topics that cannot be covered or must be covered in a certain way. In 2013, The Beijing News, a CCP-run newspaper, noted that the Publicity Department employed over 2 million 'public sentiment analysts' () across the country, who monitor comments on particular topics on the Chinese Internet and compile reports for relevant government or Party bodies if discussion crosses certain thresholds, which in turn decide if and how to respond. Additionally, the Cyberspace Administration of China, another Party body, monitors and censors Internet-based media and speech, and issues guidelines to online platforms outlining priorities for controlling discourse.
In 2018, a number of agencies underwent a reorganization designed to strengthen CCP control of media. Most of the duties of the General Administration of Press and Publication (previously the State Administration for Press Publishing Radio Film & Television), which licensed and censored all content publishers within China, including in print, audio, and online formats, were taken over by the new National Radio and Television Administration under the authority of the State Council. Film and press work was transferred directly to the Publicity Department in the form of the State Film Administration and State Administration of Press and Publication.
Private enterprises
Media outlets usually employ their own monitors to ensure political content does not cross Party lines. For example, WeChat, a popular messaging and social media platform run by Tencent, uses semi-automated methods to monitor content sent between accounts, including images, checking for politically sensitive material, and will block said material from reaching the intended recipient, even if the sending account is non-Chinese. Other companies may contract censorship out to independent firms.
Sina Weibo, the dominant microblogging platform in China, has an internal censorship department that issues its own directives in line with government authority requirements and employs its own censors to monitor content. The Committee to Protect Journalists has published documents it said are from the Weibo censorship department between 2011 and 2014 that detailed the methodology: "... Sina's computer system scans each post using an algorithm designed to identify politically unacceptable content... [p]osts are flagged by the algorithm and forwarded to the department's employees, who decide their fate based on the instructions listed in the censorship logs." This method is consistent with those documented by King, Pan & Roberts (2014) for other websites. Weibo has been reprimanded and forced to limit certain website functions by Chinese authorities as a consequence for failure to adequately censor content.
Subject matter and agenda
Censorship in the PRC encompasses a wide range of subject matter. The motivations behind such censorship are varied; while some are stated outright by the Chinese government itself, others are surmised by observers both inside and outside of the country.
Historical
The Chinese government regulates the creation and distribution of materials regarding Chinese history. Particular emphasis is placed on combatting "historical nihilism". The CCP's historical research body, the Central Committee Party History Research Office, has defined historical nihilism as that which "seek[s] to distort the history of modern China's revolution, the CCP and the armed forces under the guise of reevaluating existing narratives", and thus countering such nihilism is "a form of political combat, crucial to the CCP leadership and the security of socialism". In practice, the term is often applied to any narratives that challenge official views of historical events. Under Xi Jinping, the government began to censor digitized archival documents that contradict official depictions of history.
One example of this is the censorship of historical writings about the Cultural Revolution. Although the Chinese government now officially denounces the Cultural Revolution, it does not allow Chinese citizens to present detailed histories of the suffering and brutality that ordinary people sustained.
Questioning folk-historical stories, such as those of the Five Heroes of Mount Langya, can be a criminal offense.
In 2021, the Cyberspace Administration of China launched a hotline for the reporting of "historical nihilists" and "illegal" comments about Chinese history. Netizens face jail time and other punishments if they are found to have posted content critical of China's leadership, policies and history.
Political
Censorship in China is seen as a tool to maintain the rule of the CCP. The Council on Foreign Relations says that unwelcome views may be censored by authorities who exploit the vagueness in laws concerning publication of state secrets. Major media outlets receive guidance from the Chinese Department of Propaganda on what content is politically acceptable. The PRC bans certain content regarding independence movements in Tibet and Taiwan, the religious movement Falun Gong, democracy, the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, Maoism, corruption, police brutality, anarchism, gossip, disparity of wealth, and food safety scandals.
In the lead-up to the Beijing Olympics, the government allegedly issued guidelines to the local media for reporting during the Games: political issues not directly related to the games were to be downplayed and topics such as the Pro-Tibetan independence and East Turkestan independence movement as well as food safety issues such as "cancer-causing mineral water" were not to be reported on. However, the government claims that such a list does not exist. As the 2008 Chinese milk scandal broke out in September, the Chinese government also denied speculation from media outlets that their desire for perfect games contributed towards the allegedly delayed recall of contaminated infant formula. This caused deaths and kidney damage in infants. On 13 February 2009, Li Dongdong, a deputy chief of the General Administration of Press and Publication, announced the introduction of a series of rules and regulations to strengthen oversight and administration of news professionals and reporting activities. The regulations would include a "full database of people who engage in unhealthy professional conduct" who would be excluded from engaging in news reporting and editing work. Although the controls were ostensibly to "resolutely halt fake news", it was criticized by Li Datong, editor at the China Youth Daily who was dismissed for criticizing state censorship. Li Datong said, "There really is a problem with fake reporting and reporters, but there are already plenty of ways to deal with that." Reuters said that although CCP's Propaganda Department micro-manages what newspapers and other media do and do not report, the government remains concerned about unrest amid the economic slowdown and the 20th anniversary of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre.
In January 2011, Boxun revealed that the Politburo member responsible for the Propaganda Department, Li Changchun, issued instructions for the Chinese media to downplay social tensions on issues such as land prices, political reform and major disasters or incidents, and to ensure reporting does not show the CCP negatively. The CCP warned that the media must "ensure that the party and government do not become the targets or focus of criticism", and any mention of political reforms must reflect the government in a favourable light.
In April 2007, in the Jishan Article Case, three officials in Jishan County (Nan Huirong, Xue Zhijing and Yang Qinyu) in Shanxi Province criticized County CCP Secretary Li Runshan in a writing circulated to local government departments. They were arrested ten days later and subsequently appeared in handcuffs at a "public warning meeting" attended by more than five hundred local officials.
Moral
The Chinese government censors content it considers contrary to Chinese moral and cultural norms, or anything that the state finds to be contrary to the official state beliefs. Content censored on moral grounds has included pornography in China, particularly extreme pornography; violence in films; "low-culture" and morally "problematic" performances, such as hip-hop or those featuring visibly tattooed artists and LGBTQ content on television.
Pornography has been illegal since the founding of the People's Republic in 1949 and is a major target of censorship, but it is still commonly accessible within the country. Chinese media have reported on censors specifically hired by provincial authorities to screen movies confiscated from unlicensed dealers for pornographic content.
Censorship bodies generally treat LGBT content as immoral, and regularly censor non-pornographic depictions of such content in mass media. Positive depictions of same-sex relationships in movies and television have been taken off the air by censors, and according to Human Rights Watch, negative depictions of LGBTQ people are "common and pervasive" as of 2015. Global controversy erupted in 2018 when Mango TV edited out Ireland's Eurovision song because it depicted two men holding hands and dancing together. An LGBT flag waved during an earlier performance by Switzerland that year was also blurred out. The European Broadcasting Union subsequently terminated its relationship with Mango TV's parent company, Hunan Broadcasting System, preventing any further airing of the Eurovision Song Contest in China. Censors had also cut Albania's 2018 performance because of the lead singer's tattoos.
In 2021 the National Radio and TV Administration added a ban on "sissy men and other abnormal esthetics" to its rules using the offensive term niang pao.
Cultural
China has historically sought to use censorship to protect the country's culture. During the Cultural Revolution of the 1970s, foreign literature and art forms, religious works and symbols, and even artifacts of ancient Chinese culture were deemed "reactionary" and became targets for destruction by Red Guards.
Although much greater cultural freedom exists in China today, continuing crackdowns on banning foreign cartoons from Chinese prime time TV, and limits on screening for foreign films could be seen as a continuation of cultural-minded censorship. The foreign TV shows and films on internet also become the target of censorship. In July 2017, Bilibili, one of the most popular video sites in China, removed most of American & British TV shows, and all foreign categories like "American drama" to comply with regulations.
In order to limit outside influence on Chinese society, authorities began to restrict the publishing of children's books written by foreign authors in China from early 2017, reducing the number of these kind of books from thousands to hundreds a year.
Male actor's earrings and ponytails have been blurred due to the perception that they are rebellious and countercultural.
Religious
The Constitution of China guarantees freedom of religion for citizens, as it does the freedom of speech. In practice, however, there are strict regulations on religious practice and speech. Five state religions are officially recognized: Buddhism, Catholicism, Daoism, Islam, and Protestantism; faiths outside of these are illegal, although some are tolerated to varying degrees. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, for instance, is permitted to maintain a small number of places of worship for expatriates, but is forbidden from preaching or proselytizing to Chinese citizens, as are all foreigners. Foreigners caught proselytizing have been arrested and expelled from the country.
The Falun Gong is subject to suppression in China, and virtually all religious texts, publications, and websites relating to the group have been banned, along with information on the imprisonment or torture of followers.
Christian Bibles are allowed to be printed in China but only in limited numbers and through a single press. Their sale is also restricted to officially sanctioned churches, with online sales restricted since at least April 2018. The Chinese government has fined churches for possession of unauthorized editions of the Bible. Other Christian literature is also restricted; in January 2016, five people were arrested for simply "buying and selling officially forbidden Christian devotionals". They were sentenced to 3–7 years in jail.
In 1989, China banned a book titled《性风俗》Xing Fengsu ("Sexual Customs") which insulted Islam and placed its authors under arrest after protests in Lanzhou and Beijing by Chinese Hui Muslims, during which the Chinese police provided protection to the Hui Muslim protesters, and the Chinese government organized public burnings of the book. The Chinese government assisted them and gave into their demands because Hui do not have a separatist movement, unlike the Uyghurs. A collection of brain teasers published in Sichuan in 1993 caused similar effects, and the three editors of the book were sentenced to 2–5 years. Hui Muslim protesters who violently rioted by vandalizing property during the protests against the book were let off by the Chinese government and went unpunished while Uyghur protesters were imprisoned.
In 2007, anticipating the coming "Year of the Pig" in the Chinese calendar, depictions of pigs were banned from CCTV "to avoid conflicts with ethnic minorities". This is believed to refer to China's population of 20 million Muslims (to whom pigs are considered "unclean").
In response to the 2015 Charlie Hebdo shooting, Chinese state-run media attacked Charlie Hebdo for publishing cartoons insulting Muhammad, with the state-run Xinhua News Agency advocating limiting freedom of speech, while CCP-owned tabloid Global Times said the attack was "payback" for what it characterized as Western colonialism, accusing Charlie Hebdo of trying to incite a clash of civilizations.
Economic
In recent years, censorship in China has been accused of being used not only for political protectionism but also for economic protectionism. Similarly, China has been accused of using a double standard in attacking Google for "obscene" content that is also present on Chinese competitor Baidu. The 2D version of the blockbuster film Avatar was also pulled from screens in the country; reportedly for taking in too much money and seizing market share from domestic films. Furthermore, the official ban on most foreign films hardly affect Chinese citizens; such films can easily be acquired in copyright-infringing formats, allowing Chinese to view such films to be financially accessible while keeping their money within the domestic economy.
In February 2007, the website of the French organization Observatoire International des Crises was banned in the PRC after it posted an article on the risks of trading with China. "How do you assess an investment opportunity if no reliable information about social tension, corruption or local trade unions is available? This case of censorship, affecting a very specialised site with solely French-language content, shows the [Chinese] government attaches as much importance to the censorship of economic data as political content," the organization was quoted as saying. In 2016, after a series of policy mishaps in the backdrop of severe economic downturn in the country, regulators, censors and government officials have increased censorship. Officials, regulators and censors acting to stem the flow of money abroad by creating an environment of "zhengnengliang" (positive energy), have warned to commentators whose remarks or projections on the economy contradict optimistic official statements.
Discussions of poverty in the country have been increasingly censored.
Geographic
Private surveying and publication of geographic data (such as a map) without a permit is illegal in China, and geographic coordinates are obfuscated by a government-mandated coordinate system.
Health
At the end of December 2019, Hong Kong media began to report several cases of unidentified pneumonia in Wuhan, China. At the same time, Chinese mainland media had no reports related to new unidentified pneumonia.
In late December, social media networks were under official pressure to censor contents that related to the early warning of the virus. At the end of December, the Chinese livestreaming platform YY (YY 直播) started to censor content that contained specific keywords, for example, "Unknown Wuhan Pneumonia (不明武汉肺炎)" and "SARS outbreak in Wuhan (爆发SARS疫情)."
On 30 December, Li Wenliang released a message in a WeChat group, saying that "seven cases of SARS were diagnosed in the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market and isolated in the emergency department of our hospital." An hour later, Li Wenliang announced in the WeChat group that "the latest news is that coronavirus infection has been confirmed and virus typing is in progress." On 3 January 2020, he was warned and admonished by Zhongnan Road Street police station of Wuchang District. Li Wenliang died of COVID-19 on 7 February, which caused a sensation in Chinese society. China's government began to restrict information about the epidemic beginning in early January, before the existence of a novel coronavirus had been confirmed. On WeChat, the mention of Li Wenliang was blocked starting on 9 February. At the same time, topics related to criticism of the government's policies on dealing with the pandemic were being censored.
Scholars Lotus Ruan, Jeffrey Knockel, and Masashi Crete-Nishihata point out that since the outbreak, government officials have restricted the dissemination of information about the virus in order to reduce public fear. They also state that "on the other hand, censoring keywords critical of central leadership and government actors may be an effort to avoid embarrassment and maintain a positive image of the government." Historian Jeremy Brown said, "the initial cover-up of the virus in December and January in Wuhan allowed it to spread and fueled a global pandemic instead of containing it locally."
Media, communication and education controls
Newspapers
Language is a sensitive matter in the PRC. But in the same way, false or unreal praise and devotion must be subjected to careful scrutiny in China. Since the 1960s, there are several articles in newspapers that have been criticized and censored consequently.
On the twentieth anniversary of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, Chinese media came under tremendous pressure from authorities. Ming Pao reported on the CCP Propaganda Department's "hitherto unimaginable extent" of pressure to screen out any related content. The journal reported two incidents in 2008 which caused official concern, but which could not be proven to be deliberate challenges: Beijing News published an image of an injured person being taken to the hospital on 4 June and Southern Metropolis Daily reported on unusual weather in Guangdong province with the headline of "4 storms in June," which both journals insisted were due to carelessness. Some newspapers have therefore instructed their editors to refrain from using the numbers '6' and '4' in their reports during this sensitive period. Furthermore, the numbers cannot be used in the headlines lest the Publicity Department disapprove.
30 journalists and 74 netizens were reportedly imprisoned in China as of September 2014; China had "44 journalists in prison, more than any other country."
The CCP also often employs teams of writers () to write articles under pseudonyms for the People's Daily, the official newspaper of the CCP, as well as other journals. These writing teams are most often employed by the Central Propaganda Department, the Central Organization Department, and the Political and Legislative Affairs Committee. The main purpose of these writing groups is to spread the opinions and political thoughts of the CCP without these ideas being perceived as propaganda. Writing teams consistently use the same pseudonyms to write about specific topics that they specialize in. For example, Ke Jiaoping is the pseudonym for a writing group that publishes articles about technological education and He Zhenhua is the pseudonym for a writing group that publishes articles opposing separatism.
The CCP punished foreign journalists by failing to renew their credentials when foreign journalists criticized its policies. On 19 February 2020, China announced the revoking of the press credentials of three Wall Street Journal reporters based in Beijing. The government of China accused The Wall Street Journal of failing to apologize for publishing articles criticizing China's handling of the COVID-19 pandemic and failing to "investigate and deal with those responsible".
Television
Foreign and Hong Kong news broadcasts in mainland China from ViuTV. CNN International, BBC World Service, and Bloomberg Television are occasionally censored by being "blacked out" during controversial segments. It is reported that CNN has made an arrangement that allowed their signal to pass through a Chinese-controlled satellite. Chinese authorities have been able to censor CNN segments at any time in this way. CNN's broadcasts are not widely available throughout China, but rather only in certain diplomatic compounds, hotels, and apartment blocks.
Numerous content which have been blacked out has included references to the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, the Dalai Lama, the death of Zhao Ziyang, the 2008 Tibetan unrest, the 2008 Chinese milk scandal and negative developments about the Beijing Olympics. Due to the anti-censorship stance taken in the South Park episode "Band in China," as well as the appearance of the Dalai Lama and Winnie-the-Pooh, South Park was entirely banned in the PRC following the episode's broadcast.
During the Summer Olympics in Beijing all Chinese TV stations were ordered to delay live broadcasts by 10 seconds, a policy that was designed to give censors time to react in case free-Tibet demonstrators or others staged political protests.
In January 2009, during a television report of the inauguration of U.S. President Barack Obama, the state-run China Central Television abruptly cut away from its coverage of Obama's address when he spoke of how "earlier generations faced down fascism and communism." Foreign animation is also banned from prime-time viewing hours (5 pm to 8 pm) to protect domestic animation production.
In September 2020, China's Ministry of Culture and Tourism announced it was "strengthening the content review and onsite supervision" of television media, such as talk shows and period dramas, that explore cultural, historical, and political themes. In 2019, it had already begun censoring popular historical Chinese dramas for not promoting socialist values, such as Story of Yanxi Palace.
Film
China has a large diversity of different foreign films broadcast through the media and sold in markets. China has no motion picture rating system, and films must therefore be deemed suitable by Chinese censors for all audiences to be allowed to screen.
For foreign-made films, this sometimes means controversial footage must be cut before such films can play in Chinese cinemas. Examples include the removal of a reference to the Cold War in Casino Royale, and the omission of footage containing Chow Yun-fat that "vilifies and humiliates the Chinese" in Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End. Prior to the 2008 Summer Olympics, the PRC administration announced that "wronged spirits and violent ghosts, monsters, demons, and other inhuman portrayals" were banned from audio visual content.
Access to the 12,000 movie screens in China is a powerful incentive for film makers, especially those producing material such as Kung Fu Panda 3 to consult and cooperate with Chinese censors. Taking a Chinese partner, as was done in the case of Kung Fu Panda 3, can bypass the quota. Despite this, almost all internationally released foreign films are freely available in Chinese- and English-language versions through the counterfeit trade in DVDs.
All audio visual works dealing with "serious topics" such as the Cultural Revolution must be registered before distribution on the mainland. For example, The Departed was not given permission to screen because it suggested that the government intends to use nuclear weapons on Taiwan. Films with sexually explicit themes have also been banned, including Farewell My Concubine, Brokeback Mountain and Memoirs of a Geisha. Warner Brothers never submitted The Dark Knight for censors, citing "cultural sensitivities in some elements of the film" due to the appearance by a Hong Kong singer whose sexually explicit photographs leaked onto the internet. Films by PRC nationals cannot be submitted to foreign film festivals without government approval.
On 16 December 2012, the film V for Vendetta was aired unedited on CCTV-6, which raised hopes that China is loosening censorship. However, in August 2014 government officials caused the shutdown of the Beijing Independent Film Festival, an annual event for independent Chinese filmmakers to showcases their latest works. It was understood by the organizers the government was concerned the festival would be used as a forum to criticize the government.
Hollywood producers generally seek to comply with the Chinese government's censorship requirements in a bid to access the country's restricted and lucrative cinema market, with the second-largest box office in the world as of 2016. This includes prioritizing sympathetic portrayals of Chinese characters in movies, such as changing the villains in Red Dawn from Chinese to North Koreans.
Literature
China's state-run General Administration of Press and Publication (新闻出版总署) screens all Chinese literature that is intended to be sold on the open market. The GAPP has the legal authority to screen, censor, and ban any print, electronic, or Internet publication in China. Because all publishers in China are required to be licensed by the GAPP, that agency also has the power to deny people the right to publish, and completely shut down any publisher who fails to follow its dictates. Resultingly, the ratio of official-to-unlicensed books is said to be 40:60. According to a report in ZonaEuropa, there are more than 4,000 underground publishing factories around China. In 2008 there was one instance of burning of religious and politically incorrect books by local library officials. The banning of unapproved literature or books that have since fallen out of favor with the CCP continues, though critics claim this spotlight on individual titles only helps fuel book sales.
Publishing in Hong Kong was uncensored prior to the passage of the Hong Kong national security law. Publishers such as New Century Press had freely published books about Chinese officials and forbidden episodes of Chinese history. Banned material including imported material such as that published by Mirror Books of New York City were sold in bookshops such as "People's Commune bookstore" patronized by shoppers from the mainland.
Music
The album Chinese Democracy by American rock band Guns N' Roses is banned in China, reportedly due to supposed criticism in its title track of the government and a reference to the currently persecuted Falun Gong spiritual movement. The government said through a state controlled newspaper that it "turns its spear point on China". Also banned is the track "Communist China" by British rock group Japan.
The album X by Australian pop singer Kylie Minogue was released as a 10-track edition of the album by EMI Records. The album got three tracks banned due to strict censorship in the People's Republic of China. The tracks that were omitted were "Nu-di-ty", "Speakerphone" and "Like a Drug".
China has historically issued bans to music acts who proclaim support of Tibetan independence or otherwise interact with the Dalai Lama, such as Oasis—which had concerts cancelled after lead singer Noel Gallagher had performed in a concert to benefit the movement, Maroon 5—which had concerts cancelled after a band member made a Twitter post celebrating his 80th birthday, and Lady Gaga—who became the subject of a ban issued by the CCP Propaganda Department after having posted an online video of her meeting with him.
Internet
China's internet censorship is regarded by many as the most pervasive and sophisticated in the world. The system for blocking sites and articles is referred to as "The Great Firewall of China". According to a Harvard study conducted in 2002, at least 18,000 websites were blocked from within the country, and the number is believed to have been growing constantly. A more recent large-scale study published in 2021 revealed more than 311,000 domain names blocked. Of which 41,000 are blocked by accident. Banned sites include YouTube (from March 2009), Facebook (from July 2009), Google services (including Search, Google+, Maps, Docs, Drive, Sites, and Picasa), Twitter, Instagram, Dropbox, Foursquare, and Flickr. Google was planning to launch a censored version of its search engine in China, blocking information about human rights, democracy, religion, and peaceful protest, but it was terminated. Certain search engine terms are blocked as well.
Reporters have also suggested that China's internet censorship of foreign websites may also be a means of forcing mainland Chinese users to rely on China's own e-commerce industry, thus self-insulating their economy. In 2011, although China-based users of many Google services such as Google+ did not always find the services entirely blocked, they were nonetheless throttled so that users could be expected to become frustrated with the frequent timeouts and switch to the faster, more reliable services of Chinese competitors. According to BBC, local Chinese businesses such as Baidu, Tencent, and Alibaba, some of the world's largest internet enterprises, benefited from the way China has blocked international rivals from the market, assisting domestic companies.
More recently, under current CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping, there has been a big push to improve information technology and use the improved technology as a means to further promote propaganda and the CCP agenda. This initiative has been successful, and by the end of 2015, almost 700 million Chinese citizens had internet access. However, with this improvement in technological access, there is now much more efficient communication regarding current events and government issues through social media, resulting in broader discussions amongst Chinese netizens on government policies and affairs; the government has implemented rules and preventative measures to counter the spread of negative public opinion regarding the CCP and governmental affairs. For example, Article 246. Section 1 in Criminal Law states that unlawful posts that are shared over 500 times or seen over 5000 times will result in the poster being charged with up to 3 years in prison.
A study by American researchers of 13.2 billion Weibo blog posts over the period 2009-2013 found that many sensitive topics were discussed, including on ethnic conflict, political scandals, and protests.
The regulation of public opinion was tightened after the National Propaganda and Ideology Work Conference in August 2013. At the conference, General Secretary Xi Jinping underscored the importance of "ideological work" in strengthening and uniting China; more specifically, he strongly emphasized the need to suppress controversies, "mistaken viewpoints", and rumors on every public platform. Shortly after this conference, a nationwide Internet Cleaning-up Campaign (净网行动) was implemented, during which there was a widespread deletion of blogs containing views deviating from those of the Party. That same month in 2013, the government also made a concerted attack against "Big V's" (verified social media celebrities with large public influence) who had a history of online activism and rumor-mongering.
Yang Qiuyu, Zhou Lubao, and Qin Huo Huo are three "Big V's" that were arrested between 21 and 23 August 2013 on charges of rumormongering and slander. In that same month, Chinese-American investor Charles Xue (Xue Manzi), one of the most popular liberal social commentators on Chinese social media, was also arrested. Three weeks after his arrest, he appeared on CCTV-1 (a Chinese TV channel), confessing that he "irresponsibly posted rumors about political and social issues online," and commending the new internet regulations passed under General Secretary Xi Jinping's administration. These arrests served as an example to the rest of the "Big V's" as well as other Chinese internet users to be careful of what they expressed online; in fact, even five months after these arrests in August, there was a noticeable decrease in the number of posts and discussions from prominent online figures. On popular microblogging site Weibo, opinion leaders decreased their posts by around 40% from the previous year. By 2015, instances of censored posts from popular Weibo accounts included messages that were only mildly critical of the government – for example, the blocking of sarcastic comments in the wake of a widely viewed documentary about urban air pollution in China entitled, Under the Dome ().
From 2017 onwards, Chinese censors began removing all images of the character Winnie the Pooh in response to the spread of memes comparing General Secretary Xi Jinping to the plump bear, as well as other characters from the works of A.A. Milne, later leading to the film Christopher Robin being denied release in China.
The Chinese government also employs people as "black PRs" to remove information from the Internet and criticize those who speak negatively about the government. Network operators are obligated by the Cyberspace Administration to assist the government in monitoring and removing "illegal information" online. Moreover, the Cybersecurity Law that went into effect on 1 June 2017 forces internet providers to identify internet users, facilitating control and monitoring of public expression online.
The State Council has the right to cut off network access or shut down internet access in response to incidents it deems a risk to national security. For example, in response to the 2009 riots in Xinjiang, the Chinese government restricted internet access in the region and shut down the social media platforms Twitter and Fanfou. In May 2022, outspoken market strategist Hong Hao's social media accounts in China (Weibo & WeChat) were suspended due to series of negative commentaries regarding the country's two-year slump on COVID-19 lockdowns and political tensions.
Text messaging
According to Reporters without Borders, China has over 2,800 surveillance centers devoted to text messaging. As of early 2010, cell phone users in Shanghai and Beijing risk having their text messaging service cut off if they are found to have sent "illegal or unhealthy" content.
In 2003, during the severe-acute-respiratory-syndrome (SARS) outbreak, a dozen Chinese people were reportedly arrested for sending text messages about SARS. Skype reported that it was required to filter messages passing through its service for words like "Falun Gong" and "Dalai Lama" before being allowed to operate in China.
During protests over a proposed chemical plant in Xiamen during the summer of 2007, text messaging was blocked to prevent the rallying of more protesters.
Video games
In 2004, the Ministry of Culture set up a committee to screen imported online video games before they entered the Chinese market. It was stated that games with any of the following violations would be banned from importation:
Violating basic principles of the Constitution
Threatening national unity, sovereignty, and territorial integrity
Divulging state secrets
Threatening state security
Damaging the nation's glory
Disturbing social order
Infringing on others' legitimate rights
The State General Administration of Press and Publication and anti-porn and illegal publication offices have also played a role in screening games.
Examples of banned games have included:
Hearts of Iron (for "distorting history and damaging China's sovereignty and territorial integrity")
I.G.I.-2: Covert Strike (for "intentionally blackening China and the Chinese army's image")
Command & Conquer: Generals – Zero Hour (for "smearing the image of China and the Chinese army")
Battlefield 4 (for "smearing the image of China and endangering national security")
The historic ban of major video game consoles in the country was lifted in 2014 as part of the establishment of the Shanghai Free-Trade Zone. Consoles had been banned under a rule enacted in 2000 to combat the perceived corrupting influence of video games on young people.
In addition, chat in Chinese video games is subject to similar or even wider restrictions as elsewhere on the Chinese Internet. For example, the chat in the English-language version of Genshin Impact censors not only swear words but also words such as Taiwan, Tibet, Hong Kong, Falun Gong, Stalin, Hitler and Putin. A study of about 200 Chinese games found out that over 180,000 words have been subject to blacklisting. Extending outside of purely political wordage, innocuous terms such as "enemies" and "words" were also being censored.
Education and science
Censorship is part of knowledge production and education since 1949 and organized and sustained within universities, academies, and schools. In authoritarian countries, censorship is not "from afar", but censorship gains power precisely when members of these organizations respect the political red lines and politically sensitive topics. Censorship and self-censorship are closely related in politically controlled organizations like universities and schools in China. Educational institutions within China have been accused of whitewashing PRC history by downplaying or avoiding mention of controversial historical events such as the Great Leap Forward, Cultural Revolution, and the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.
In 2005, customs officials in China seized a shipment of textbooks intended for a Japanese school because maps in the books depicted mainland China and Taiwan using different colors, implying Taiwan was an independent state.
In a January 2006 issue of Freezing Point, a weekly supplement to the China Youth Daily, Zhongshan University professor Yuan Weishi published an article entitled "Modernization and History Textbooks" in which he criticized several middle school textbooks used in mainland China. In particular, he felt that depictions in the books of the Second Opium War avoided mention of Chinese diplomatic failures leading up to the war and that depictions of the Boxer Rebellion glossed over atrocities committed by the Boxer rebels. As a result of Yuan's article, Freezing Point was temporarily shut down and its editors were fired.
New Threads, a website for reporting academic misconduct in China such as plagiarism or fabrication of data, is banned in China.
A new standard world history textbook introduced in Shanghai high schools in 2006 supposedly omits several wars; it mentions Mao Zedong, founder of the PRC, only once.
In a FRONTLINE segment, four students from Peking University are seemingly unable to identify the context of the infamous Tank Man photo from the 1989 unrest sparked by Peking University students, though possibly, the students were feigning ignorance so as not to upset the party official who was monitoring the interview with clipboard in hand. The segment implied that the subject is not addressed in Chinese schools.
On 4 June 2007, a person was able to place a small ad in a newspaper in southwest China to commemorate the anniversary of the Tiananmen Square protests reading "Paying tribute to the strong(-willed) mothers of 4 June victims". The accepting clerk claimed that she was ignorant of the event and believed that 4 June was the date of a mining disaster.
Censorship makes researching certain topics more difficult, risky, or outright illegal. A confidential internal directive widely circulated within the CCP, Concerning the Situation in the Ideological Sphere (關於當前意識形態領域情況的通報), prohibiting discussion of seven topics, was issued in May 2013. Included on the list of prohibited topics were: constitutional democracy, universal values of human rights, conceptions of media independence and civil society, pro-market neo-liberalism, and "nihilist" criticisms of past errors of the party.
In the late 2010s, a number of incidents in which Chinese authorities requested that Western publishers of academic journals, such as Cambridge University Press, carry out censorship of their articles or risk them being not disseminated in China, became public. Themes that were common elements of this censorship included: Cultural Revolution, Falun Gong, Mao Zedong, Tibet, Tiananmen, and Taiwan.
During the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China, investigations into the origins of the virus were censored.
Historical trends
In 1955, the Chinese state issued State Council Instructions on How to Deal with Antirevolutionary, Obscene, and Preposterous Books, Magazines, and Pictures, which sought to regulate the media market through a combination of both mass political mobilization and state administrative action. The Instructions resulted from multi-sided negotiations involving the state and new culture intellectuals.The document provided a range of approaches for various types of media, including banning, "clearing" (which referred to ceasing further publication), or preserving. Pursuant to the Instructions, books and journals that were "extremely antirevolutionary," as well as pictures of sex acts were banned. With regard to action stories, martial arts stories dealing with "outlandish" themes were to cease publication but materials of "good knights-errant" should be preserved.
Cultural Revolution
The goal of the Cultural Revolution was to get rid of the "four olds" ("old customs", "old culture", "old habits", and "old ideas"). If newspapers touched on sensitive topics like these, the journalists were subject to arrests and sometimes violence. Libraries in which there were books containing "offensive literature" would often be burned down. Television was regulated by the government and its goal was to encourage the efforts of chairman Mao Zedong and the CCP. Radio was the same way, and played songs such as, "The Great Cultural Revolution is Indeed Good".
Under Xi Jinping
Xi Jinping has personally consolidated power and control within the state and party to an extent far greater than his predecessors Hu and Jiang. Accordingly, the intensity and range of censorship in China has increased under his rule. Xi has overseen the increased coordination and consolidation and of censorship authorities, raising their efficiency, and under his leadership censorship practices have tightened.
In April 2021 Chinese authorities censored a tribute that former Premier Wen Jiabao had written for his mother in the small paper Macau Herald. Under Xi dissent has been stifled and censorship has been expanded. Later in August, all mentions of Zhao Wei, a billionaire film director and actress, were scrubbed from Chinese platforms without explanation.
According to James Palmer, writing for Foreign Policy in 2023, "[i]n the 2010s, China placed a lot of data online as it attempted to hold local governments more accountable, but it is now being pulled because the data has turned out to be inadvertently revelatory. The use of procurement notices and population data by Western analysts to identify the scale of the atrocities in Xinjiang helped spur the online cleanup."
In September 2023, a law was proposed before the National People's Congress that would criminalize comments, clothing, or symbols that "harm the feelings" of China.
Responses from society
Self-censorship
Various individuals and organizations both in and outside of China sometimes voluntarily self-censor information that they share publicly by avoiding topics that are believed to be politically sensitive or controversial. These individuals and organizations often self-censor to avoid inviting unwanted attention or repercussions from the Chinese government. For example, in 2017 journalism professor Luwei Rose Luqiu conducted several anonymous interviews with well-known political satirists residing in China to demonstrate how censorship has increased since the creation of the State Internet Information Office in 2011. Interviewees described how, since 2011, they became increasingly cautious of the content they posted online and on social media in fear of repercussions from authorities. Most of the interviewees personally experienced being contacted by the National Security Police to "drink tea" (unofficial and casual conversation in plain clothes and in public), or be summoned, detained, and possibly disappeared. Luqiu argues that the changing policies of the Chinese government about what is considered unacceptable to share and discuss on the internet has made the practice of self-censorship more necessary for individuals such as political satirists who want to avoid such consequences as being banned from online platforms or being contacted by the police. These perspectives on self-censorship by the interviewees are a part of internet censorship in China, which the Chinese government describes as regulations meant to prevent "subversion of state power," "undermining of national unity," and infringing upon national honor and interests.
Hong Kong
The introduction of the national-security law in Hong Kong on 30 June 2020, which was implemented during a wave of protests that escalated in 2019, led many, especially activists, journalists, and others already subject to police scrutiny to practice self-censorship. A newspaper article by The Wall Street Journal reported on a restaurant that had been warned by the police that it had violated the national-security law by displaying posters and messages supporting the protesters. As a result, the restaurant closed for in-person dining and only allowed staff inside to operate takeout services while some other restaurants and businesses preemptively removed supportive posters and notes to protect themselves. A newspaper article by Reuters also reported that a book publisher hastily made revisions to remove words and passages that were may have been problematic in light of the new law. The article also mentioned that other publishing houses and writers within the city halted sensitive projects while printers, distributors, and bookstores rejected controversial books.
Although independent from the mainland's legal system and hence censorship laws, some Hong Kong media have been accused of practicing self-censorship in order to exchange for permission to expand their media business into the mainland market and for greater journalistic access in the mainland too.
At the launch of a joint report published by the Hong Kong Journalists Association (HKJA) and "ARTICLE 19" in July 2001, the Chairman of the HKJA said: "More and more newspapers self-censor themselves because they are controlled by either a businessman with close ties to Beijing, or part of a large enterprise, which has financial interests over the border." For example, Robert Kuok, who has business interests all over Asia, has been criticized over the departures of several China desk staff in rapid succession since he acquired the South China Morning Post, namely the editorial pages editor Danny Gittings, Beijing correspondent Jasper Becker, and China pages editor Willy Lam. Lam, in particular departed after his reporting had been publicly criticized by Robert Kuok.
After the implementation of the Hong Kong national security law in July 2020, media, publishers, and libraries began censoring content perceived as promoting Hong Kong independence, as well as works by prominent democratic activists. International media outlets like The New York Times also withdrew some of its staff from the city in anticipation of greater censorship in Hong Kong.
International businesses and education
International companies and organizations have also self-censored sensitive topics to maintain and avoid negatively affecting business and professional relationships within China. For example, in 2020, various American politicians accused the Hollywood film industry of self-censoring movies to appease the Chinese government and its audiences and gain access to its market. An article in the magazine The Hollywood Reporter commented on an extensive 94-page report by PEN America showing how major Hollywood studios and directors increasingly made decisions on elements like cast, plot, dialogue, and more to avoid antagonizing Chinese officials. The article criticizes these decisions as being made in the interest of profit making, as "American movies earned $2.6 billion [USD] in China in 2019, with Disney's Avengers: Endgame pulling in $614 million [USD] there alone."
International corporations such as Google, Facebook, Microsoft, Apple, Myspace, Shutterstock, and Yahoo! have voluntarily censored content for Chinese markets in order to be allowed to do business in the country. In October 2008, Canadian research group Citizen Lab released a new report saying TOM's Chinese-language Skype software filtered sensitive words and then logged these, with users' information to a file on computer servers which were insecure. In September 2007, activists in China had already warned about the possibility that TOM's versions have or will have more trojan horse capability. Skype president Josh Silverman said it was "common knowledge" that Tom Online had "established procedures to meet local laws and regulations ... to monitor and block instant messages containing certain words deemed offensive by the Chinese authorities."
Ivy League schools such as Harvard University and Princeton University have also been accused of this behavior, as the national-security law in Hong Kong reportedly prompted the schools to use code words and warning labels for sensitive courses related to China to protect the schools and their students. An article in Forbes described these decisions as being sparked by schools like Harvard and Princeton getting funding from current and former students from China.
2021 Xinjiang cotton controversy
In March 2021, apparel brands H&M, Nike, Adidas, and other large companies were criticized and boycotted in China by celebrities, social media platforms, and government media for expressing concern about the use of Uyghur forced labour in producing cotton. As a result, these companies reportedly had contracts terminated and ties cut by Chinese celebrities while Chinese e-commerce companies like Alibaba and JD.com removed products from sale on its platforms. A Xinjiang government spokesman, Xu Guixiang, directly criticized H&M over its statement on Xinjiang cotton for allegedly politicizing the company's economic behavior. In response to the backlash from Chinese consumers, media, and government officials, H&M published a statement on its website that stated it was "working together with our colleagues in China to do everything we can to manage the current challenges and find a way forward." Journalists noted that H&M's messaging reverted to careful self-censorship following these events. An article by Elizabeth Paton in The New York Times commented on this statement saying that it did not explicitly reference cotton, Xinjiang, or forced labour and that company executives during an earnings conference call similarly avoided such references and "did not comment on the impact of the controversy on sales, except to state that around 20 stores in China were currently closed." Xu Guixiang, the Xinjiang spokesman, along with other Chinese media outlets, celebrities, and businesses have rejected the allegations from the companies and spoken in defense of their cotton industry in Xinjiang while simultaneously accusing Western companies of aiming to destabilize China through accusations of genocide in Xinjiang.
Marketing
Publishers and other media in the Western world have sometimes used the "Banned in China" label to market cultural works, with the hope that censored products are seen as more valuable or attractive. The label was also used by Penguin Books to sell Mo Yan's novel The Garlic Ballads, which had been pulled from bookshelves because of its themes (anti-government riots) being published so close to a period of actual riots. However, the book was allowed to be sold in China in a few years. Political scientist Richard Curt Kraus criticized Penguin for falsely portraying Mo Yan as a dissident in order to increase his marketability, as well as the underlying assumption that if the United States bans some work, that it must be genuinely obscene, but that if the Chinese government does the same, it is acting on purely political grounds.
On the Internet, people use proxy websites that allow anonymous access to otherwise restricted websites, services, and information. Falun Gong and others have been working in the field of anti-censorship software development.
Circumventing censorship
Chinese citizens frequently use many techniques to circumvent Internet censorship in order to discuss social and political current events on online platforms and gain access to web pages blocked by the Great Firewall of China.
Public relay servers such as virtual private networks (VPNs) and The Onion Router nodes (Tor nodes) are widely used by Chinese netizens in order to visit blocked web pages. Typically, Internet Service Providers can view an internet user's traffic and data; however, virtual private networks connect internet users to a server through an encrypted connection. This prevents Internet Service Providers from being able to access the internet users' IP addresses, data, activity, and physical location. As a result, the internet user can access blocked websites through this external server. VPNs are so widely used by Chinese netizens that many journalists, both within Party-sanctioned media outlets and private media outlets, are instructed by their editors and supervisors to use VPNs in order to access international news.
Chinese netizens also use the method of "tunneling" to access blocked webpages. Tunneling is when information is transmitted using a different communications protocol than the usual. One example of tunneling is if internet user "A" in China emailed internet user "B" in America asking for the contents of a blocked webpage. Internet user "B" could then respond with an email containing the contents of that blocked webpage, allowing internet user "A" to access the censored information. This method can be generalized by Web-page-by-mail services; for example, if an internet user emails [email protected] with the URL of a CNN webpage, that internet user will receive an email containing the contents of that specific Webpage.
Mirrored web pages are another way to circumvent Internet censorship by the Great Firewall of China. A web page can be mirrored simply by recreating that page under a different URL. Because of the large scope of the Internet, it becomes near impossible for internet filters to identify and block all of the different mirrors of blocked webpages under their various non-specific URLs, increasing public access to censored information.
Netizens also have methods to express their opinions online without being censored by the government. The primary method is in the form of code words, metaphors, or plays on words. For example, the phrase "Grass Mud Horse" (Cao Ni Ma) is commonly used by netizens as a pun on a homophonous profanity; this phrase has been broadly used to signify a subversive means of broaching topics not permitted by the government, and it has been used by netizens advocating for greater freedom of speech. The rise of online satire and code words used to mock or criticize the government or sociopolitical issues has formed a subculture on the Chinese Internet called "egao" (""), which translates literally into "evil doings" in Chinese. These code words and phrases allow netizens to discuss topics ranging from government corruption to health and environment scandals to everyday society and culture. Through this subculture, Chinese netizens can broach sensitive issues on social media with less risk of government censorship.
Besides Internet censorship, Chinese citizens have devised methods to circumvent censorship of print media as well. As news organizations in China try to move away from the reputation of simply being mouthpieces for CCP propaganda, they face a difficult challenge of having to report the news objectively while remaining on good terms with the government. Journalists do their best to resist government censorship by maintaining a relatively neutral balance of positive and negative tones in articles, reporting on officials who have already been officially removed from their positions, disparaging the CCP as an entity instead of targeting individual officials, and focusing blame on lower-ranking officials. News organizations encourage their journalists to report on more sensitive yet risky articles by promising journalists compensation even if their articles get cut by government officials before publication. Editors also try to ensure job security by continuing to employ a journalist under another position even when told by the CCP to fire that journalist for disobeying Party protocol.
See also
Li Haoshi controversy
2013 Southern Weekly incident
Human rights in China
Mass media in China
Internal media of the Chinese Communist Party
Overseas censorship of Chinese issues
Propaganda in China
Radio jamming in China
References
External links
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haditha%20massacre
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Haditha massacre
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The Haditha massacre (also called the Haditha killings or the Haditha incident) was a series of killings on November 19, 2005, in which a group of United States Marines killed 24 unarmed Iraqi civilians. The killings occurred in Haditha, a city in Iraq's western province of Al Anbar. Among the dead were men, women, elderly people and children as young as 1, who were shot multiple times at close range while unarmed. The ensuing massacre took place after an improvised explosive device exploded near a convoy, killing a lance corporal and severely injuring two other marines. The immediate reaction was to seize 5 men in a nearby taxi and execute them on the street.
An initial Marine Corps communique reported that 15 civilians were killed by the bomb's blast and eight insurgents were subsequently killed when the Marines returned fire against those attacking the convoy. However, other evidence uncovered by the media contradicted the Marines' account. A Time magazine reporter's questions prompted the United States military to open an investigation into the incident. The investigation found evidence that "supports accusations that U.S. Marines deliberately shot civilians", according to an anonymous Pentagon official. Three officers were officially reprimanded for failing to properly initially report and investigate the killings. On December 21, 2006, eight Marines from 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines were charged in connection with the incident.
By June 17, 2008, six defendants had their cases dropped and a seventh was found not guilty. The exception was former Staff Sergeant, now-Private Frank Wuterich. On October 3, 2007, the Article 32 hearing investigating officer recommended that charges of murder be dropped and Wuterich be tried for negligent homicide in the deaths of two women and five children. Further charges of assault and manslaughter were ultimately dropped; Wuterich was convicted of a single count of negligent dereliction of duty on January 24, 2012. Wuterich received a rank reduction and pay cut but avoided jail time. Iraqis expressed disbelief and voiced outrage after the six-year U.S. military prosecution ended with none of the Marines sentenced to incarceration. A lawyer for the victims stated "this is an assault on humanity" before adding that he, as well as the Government of Iraq, might bring the case to international courts.
Events
Background
Since the 2003 invasion of Iraq, U.S. military forces had been stationed in and around Haditha to control the Haditha Dam, a major hydroelectric installation. The area had seen several clashes between U.S. forces and insurgent groups since the beginning of the Iraq War, with many fatalities on both sides.
A contemporary Time magazine poll reported that 85% of Iraq's Sunnis opposed Coalition forces, as compared to 65% of Iraqis overall. Conditions in Haditha itself were known to have been deteriorating under militant rule, and attacks on U.S. troops as well as killings of suspected informants were common.
Roadside bombing
On November 19, 2005, an improvised explosive device (IED), composed of 155 mm artillery shells and explosive-filled propane tanks, was placed along their route some time before 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines (3/1) arrived in Haditha. The IED targeted a squad from 3/1 K Company, 3rd Platoon, which was on a resupply convoy. Lance Corporal Miguel Terrazas was killed instantly at 7:15 a.m. Terrazas was driving the Humvee when it was hit by the bomb. Lance Corporal James Crossan was in the passenger seat and was thrown out of the vehicle and trapped under the rear passenger tire. The Humvee was bisected by the explosion. Private First Class Salvador Guzman was in the back of the vehicle conducting security for the convoy and was thrown from the Humvee. Both Crossan and Guzman were taken to a landing zone to be evacuated for medical attention. Crossan was medically discharged from the USMC due to the wounds he received that day. Guzman returned to active duty after healing and went on a 2nd deployment with 3/1 to Iraq in April 2007.
Killings and immediate aftermath
Five Iraqi men, a taxi driver and four teenagers, were ordered out of their car and shot dead in the street, principally by Staff Sgt. Frank Wuterich. After their deaths, Lt. William T. Kallop, according to his statements to investigators, arrived on the scene. Kallop and others reported taking small-arms fire, which they attributed to a nearby house. Kallop gave the order "to take the house". Nineteen of those killed were in three adjacent houses which U.S. Marines entered, employing grenades and small arms. According to Kallop,
The Marines cleared it the way they had been trained to clear it, which is frags first. ... It was clear just by the looks of the room that frags went in and then the house was prepped and sprayed like with a machine gun and then they went in. And by the looks of it, they just ... they went in, cleared the room, everybody was down.
On November 20, 2005, a Marine press release from Camp Blue Diamond in Ramadi reported the deaths of a U.S. Marine and 15 civilians. It said the civilians' deaths resulted from a roadside bomb and Iraqi insurgents. The initial U.S. military statement read:
A US marine and 15 civilians were killed yesterday from the blast of a roadside bomb in Haditha. Immediately following the bombing, gunmen attacked the convoy with small arms fire. Iraqi army soldiers and Marines returned fire, killing eight insurgents and wounding another.BBC News "Haditha: Massacre and cover-up? "
Eman Waleed, a nine-year-old child who witnessed the incident, described the U.S. Marines entering their house. She said:
I couldn't see their faces very well - only their guns sticking in to the doorway. I watched them shoot my grandfather, first in the chest and then in the head. Then they killed my granny.
The director of the local hospital in Haditha, Dr Wahid, said that the 24 bodies were brought in two American humvees to the hospital around midnight on November 19. While the Marines claim that the victims had been killed by shrapnel from the roadside bomb and that the men were saboteurs, Dr Wahid said that there were "no organs slashed by shrapnel in any of the bodies". He further claimed that it appeared that "the victims were shot in the head and chest from close range."
Soon after the killings, the mayor of Haditha, Emad Jawad Hamza, led an angry delegation of elders to the Haditha Dam Marine base reportedly complaining to the base captain.
The Marine Corps paid $38,000 total to the families of 15 of the dead civilians.
Evidence about the killings
Video shot by the co-founder of the Hammurabi Human Rights Organization, Taher Thabet, which instigated Tim McGirk's original Time magazine article, and cellphone photos reportedly taken by one of the Marines the day after the killings have been put forth as evidence that the killings were methodical and without resistance. The video shot by Thabet showed the bodies of the women and children with gunshot wounds, bullet holes in the interior walls of the house, and bloodstains on the floor. Insufficient evidence has come to light to account for insurgents hiding in the houses that first came under attack.
McGirk's first article online stated that the Hammurabi Human Rights Group "coordinated with Human Rights Watch". A correction was issued when no official links could be confirmed. McGirk, who was based in Jerusalem, declined to testify at the hearings.
Legal proceedings
The intentional killing of noncombatants is prohibited by modern laws of war derived from the UN Charter, the Hague Conventions and the Geneva Conventions, and constitutes a war crime. The Marines and officers were subject to possible courts martial under American military law, the Uniform Code of Military Justice.
Attorney Gary Myers, who worked on the case, was the first lawyer in American history to use DNA evidence in a military trial dating back to the trial stemming from the My Lai massacre.
James Mattis' actions
In his memoir Call Sign Chaos, then I Marine Expeditionary Force commander James N. Mattis explains his experience and actions in relation to the Haditha massacre. He claims to have read "more than nine thousand pages" of investigative material. He concluded that "several have made tragic mistakes, but others had lost their discipline", which is why he recommended courts-martial for some Marines but not for others. The battalion commander was not aware of the details on the same day of the incident, and the killings were brought to light by a Time magazine reporter. Mattis relieved the battalion commander because the lack of reporting and the number of civilian deaths "should have alerted him that something very out of the ordinary ... had occurred." He then recommended letters of reprimand for the division commander and two colonels, stating, "[b]y their actions or inactions, they demonstrated lack of due diligence." This action forced the senior officers to leave active service.
Investigations
Upon being told of questions by reporters concerning the Haditha killings, Lt. Gen. Peter W. Chiarelli instructed his public affairs office to brief them with the results of the military investigation. It was then he learned there had been no investigation. On February 14, 2006, Chiarelli ordered a preliminary investigation, after video evidence which conflicted with the initial U.S. report, was released. On March 9, a criminal investigation was launched, led by the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, to determine if the troops deliberately targeted Iraqi civilians.
On March 19, 2006, U.S. military officials confirmed that, contrary to the initial report, U.S. Marines, not Iraqi insurgents, killed 15 civilians.
Several official investigations began. The first, under United States Army Maj. Gen. Eldon Bargewell, examined how the incident was reported through the chain of command. A second investigation, headed by the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, examined the criminal aspects of the incident. A third investigation was launched by the Iraqi government. The conduct of Staff Sergeant Frank Wuterich, the squad leader, came under scrutiny.
On June 2, 2006, news outlets reported that 24 Iraqis had been killed, none as a result of the bomb explosion. This news anticipated the results of the U.S. military investigation, which found that the 24 unarmed Iraqis—including children as young as two years old and women—were killed by 12 members of K Company in the 3rd Battalion, 1st Marine Regiment, 1st Marine Division.
The Times published the result of the first investigation, under U.S. Army Maj. Gen. Eldon Bargewell, including eyewitness interviews. It noted that the "official investigation has already resulted in the removal of Lieutenant Colonel Jeffrey Chessani, the commanding officer, and Captain Luke McConnell and 10-years-veteran Captain James Kimber (born 1973), two company commanders, from their duties. Bargewell's investigation found:
Statements made by the chain of command during interviews for this investigation, taken as a whole, suggest that Iraqi civilian lives are not as important as U.S. lives, their deaths are just the cost of doing business, and that the Marines need to get "the job done" no matter what it takes. These comments had the potential to desensitize the Marines to concern for the Iraqi populace and portray them all as the enemy even if they are noncombatants.
On June 1, 2006, the Associated Press reported that the Iraqi government decided to launch its own probe into the alleged killing of 24 unarmed Iraqi civilians by U.S. Marines in the previous year. Adnan al-Kazimi, an adviser to Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, said the decision was made during a Cabinet meeting. The probe was to be carried out by a special committee made up of the Justice and Human Rights ministries, along with security officials.
The U.S. Marines investigation avoided public pronouncements about the killings, but on June 17, 2006, the New York Times reported that "Investigators have also concluded that most of the victims in three houses died from well-aimed rifle shots, not shrapnel or random fire, according to military officials familiar with the initial findings." Many of those killed had wounds from close-range fire, and their death certificates record "well-aimed shots to the head and chest" as the cause of death.
Charges leveled
On December 21, 2006, the U.S. military charged eight Marines in connection with the Haditha incident. Four of the eight, Frank Wuterich, Sanick P. Dela Cruz, James Donahue and Stephen Tatum, were accused of unpremeditated murder. Tatum was further charged with negligent homicide and assault, while Dela Cruz was also charged with making a false statement. Squad leader Frank Wuterich was charged with 12 counts of unpremeditated murder against individuals and one count of the murder of six people "while engaged in an act inherently dangerous to others". The battalion commander, Jeffrey Chessani, was charged with one count of violating a lawful order and two counts of dereliction of duty. First Lieutenant Andrew Grayson was charged with obstruction of justice, dereliction of duty, and making a false statement, while Captain Randy Stone and Captain Lucas McConnell were charged with dereliction of duty. Stone also faced an additional count of violating a lawful order. All charges against Stone were later dropped.
Grayson was acquitted on all counts.
Pre-trial hearings
Testimony in an Article 32 investigation for Capt. Randy W. Stone, equivalent to a civilian grand jury proceeding, began on May 8, 2007.
At the hearing, Marine Lt. William Kallop, the platoon commander who ordered Marines to "clear" four houses, testified that the rules of engagement were followed and that no mistakes had been made. He stated that a Marine on the scene had reported seeing a suspected insurgent in the vicinity. Kallop also believed that small arms fire was being directed from the first house attacked by the Marines.
On May 9, Sergeant Sanick De la Cruz, who received immunity in return for testimony, testified that he watched Staff Sergeant Frank Wuterich shoot five Iraqis who were attempting to surrender. Cruz further testified that both he and Wuterich fired into the bodies of the five after they were dead, and that he had urinated on one of the dead Iraqis.
No weapons were found in the white taxi.
The US military attempted to subpoena material from a 60 Minutes interview with Staff Sergeant Wuterich, specifically material where Wuterich admitted to ordering his men to "shoot first and ask questions later." The interview includes Wuterich insisting he perceived a threat from house 1, but saw no gun fire from that house and that he saw no insurgent enter that house. He suggests he saw the dead family in house 1 and proceeded to assault house 2 based on a guess that the gunman may have entered that house. The Marines knocked on the door of house 2 and when someone came to answer they fired through the door killing what they saw to be an unarmed man. They then assaulted the house and killed the family inside. Wuterich later said he believed there was probably no threat to begin with.
The Article 32 investigation recommended Capt. Randy W. Stone's criminal charge be dismissed, but that he face a new lesser charge that would be handled administratively for failing to investigate the incident properly.
The charges against Stone were dropped on August 9.
Lt. Col. Jeffrey Chessani was recommended to face court-martial for having "failed to thoroughly and accurately report and investigate a combat action that clearly needed scrutiny." On June 17, 2008 Military Judge Colonel Steven Folsom dismissed all charges against Lt Colonel Jeffrey Chessani on the grounds that General James Mattis, who approved the filing of charges against Chessani, was improperly influenced by an investigator probing the incident. The ruling was without prejudice, which allows the prosecution to refile.
Lt. Col. Paul Ware, the Investigating Officer for several of the enlisted Marines, recommended on July 11, 2007, that LCpl. Justin Sharratt be cleared of these charges. Ware stated, "[t]he government version is unsupported by independent evidence... To believe the government version of facts is to disregard clear and convincing evidence to the contrary." The charges against Sharratt were dropped on August 9.
Article 32 hearings for LCpl. Stephen Tatum began July 16, and for SSgt. Frank Wuterich began in August. The investigating officer recommended charges be dropped against Tatum.
Charges dropped
On April 17, 2007, the Marine Corps dropped all charges against Sgt. Sanick P. De la Cruz in exchange for his testimony. Seven other Marines involved in the incident were also granted immunity.
On August 9, 2007, all charges against Lance Cpl. Justin Sharratt, Lance Cpl. James Donahue, and Capt. Randy Stone were dropped. On October 19, Lance Cpl. Justin Sharratt's commanding officer decided the charges should be lowered to involuntary manslaughter, reckless endangerment and aggravated assault.
On September 18, 2007, all charges against Captain Lucas McConnell were dropped in exchange for immunity and his cooperation with the investigation.
On March 28, 2008, all charges against LCpl. Stephen Tatum were dropped.
On June 17, 2008, all charges against Lt. Col. Jeffrey Chessani were dismissed by the military judge citing unlawful command influence. The Marine Corps appealed that ruling in 2008. On March 17, 2009, a military appeals court upheld the dismissal of the war crimes charges against Chessani. Facing an administrative Board of Inquiry, it also found no misconduct and recommended that Chessani be allowed to retire without loss of rank.
On June 5, 2008, 1st Lt. Andrew Grayson was acquitted of all charges stemming from the Haditha incident. He had been charged with deleting photos of the deceased Iraqis in order to obstruct the investigation. He had also been charged with failing to notify the Marine Corps administrative chain of command of his legal status when his term of service was expired and he was discharged from the Marine Corps.
Trial of Wuterich
The court martial of Wuterich, the only defendant to stand trial for the Haditha killings, took place in January 2012. During the trial, Sgt. Sanick Dela Cruz testified that he, Dela Cruz, urinated on the skull of one of the dead Iraqis. He also testified, after describing how Wuterich shot the passengers of the car himself from close range, "Sergeant Wuterich approached me and told me if anyone asks, the Iraqis were running away from the car and the Iraqi army shot them". In a plea deal, Wuterich pleaded guilty to dereliction of duty, while charges of assault and manslaughter were dropped. He was convicted of a single count of negligent dereliction of duty on January 24, 2012, receiving a rank reduction and pay cut but avoiding jail time.
Separation ordered for witnesses
In mid April 2012, The Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus informed the Commandant of the Marine Corps that he had reviewed the Haditha Incident and ordered Sgt Mendoza and Sgt Dela Cruz separated after they had testified in the trial of SSgt Wuterich. The Navy secretary said in the letter that his review of Dela Cruz and Mendoza's cases "revealed troubling information about their conduct". He cited false statements Dela Cruz made about the circumstances surrounding the deaths of five men found next to a white car at the scene. Mabus said Mendoza also lied and withheld information, without citing specifics. "Such conduct is wholly inconsistent with the core values of the Department of the Navy," Mabus said in the letter to Commandant Gen. Jim Amos. "You are directed to immediately initiate administrative processing for Sgt. Dela Cruz and Sgt. Mendoza for administrative separation in the best interest of the service." During Wuterich's trial, Mendoza and Dela Cruz acknowledged on the witness stand that they had lied to investigators to protect the squad. They told jurors that later they decided it was time to tell the truth. Both Marines were allowed to submit rebuttals to the separation proceeding. Both Marines were separated.
Reaction
According to former Democratic advisor Sidney Blumenthal in a Salon Magazine article,
The coverup at Haditha reportedly began instantly. However, an Iraqi journalism student shot a video the day after of the bloodstained and bullet-riddled houses where the massacre had occurred. That video made its way to an Iraqi human rights group and finally to Tim McGirk, a correspondent from Time magazine. When Time made its first queries, the Marine spokesman, Capt. Jeffrey S. Pool, who had issued the first statement on Haditha as an action against terrorists months earlier, told reporters that they were falling for al-Qaida propaganda. 'I cannot believe you're buying any of this,' he wrote in an e-mail. Nonetheless, word reached Lt. Gen. Peter W. Chiarelli, the second-highest-ranking U.S. military officer in Iraq, that there had been no investigation and he ordered one immediately.
According to the Los Angeles Times, military and congressional sources distinguished between two squads: the original Marine squad involved in the explosion and shootings, and a Marine intelligence squad that took photos shortly after the shootings. According to LA Times sources, no investigation occurred until after a March 2006 Time magazine story alleging a massacre, even though the intelligence squad's photos were inconsistent with the Marine squad's report of a firefight. According to the Time story, military officials blamed the delay of the investigation on the Marine squad's efforts to cover up the events:
...Military officials say they believe the delay in beginning the investigation was a result of the squad's initial efforts to cover up what happened."
However, both military and congressional sources said that the "intelligence team" that took photos after the firefight did not appear to participate in any improper action:
...Military and congressional sources said there was no indication that the members of the intelligence team did anything improper or delayed reporting their findings."
The same LA Times story quoted Republican Representative John Kline of Minnesota as follows:
There is no question that the Marines involved, those doing the shooting, they were busy in lying about it and covering it up—there is no question about it. But I am confident, as soon as the command learned there might be some truth to this, they started to pursue it vigorously. I don't have any reason now to think there was any foot dragging.
In June 2006, Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki condemned the killings and called for a swift investigation, saying: "The crime and misery of Haditha ... is a terrible crime where women and children were eliminated."
John Dickerson and Dahlia Lithwick of Slate suggested that the Iraqis should be able to put the Marines on trial:
Let's let the Iraqis put the Americans alleged to have committed these crimes on trial. The United States wants to encourage the fledgling Iraqi institution of democracy, right? That's why we wanted Saddam tried in Iraq, and through the Iraqi judicial system--both to build up its legitimacy and to give Iraqis the sense of ownership that comes with having control over the legal process. Why, then, shouldn't we also turn over our own soldiers who were involved in either the Haditha massacre or any of the other possible massacres for trial under the Iraqi justice system?
Comments by Representative Murtha
On May 17, 2006, Democratic Representative John Murtha of Pennsylvania, a retired Marine colonel and critic of the war, stated at a news conference that an internal investigation had confirmed the story.
He was quoted as saying:
There was no firefight, there was no IED (improvised explosive device) that killed these innocent people. Our troops overreacted because of the pressure on them, and they killed innocent civilians in cold blood.
On August 2, 2006, Marine Corps Staff Sergeant Frank D. Wuterich, who led the accused squad, filed suit for libel and invasion of privacy. The filing alleged that Murtha "tarnished the Marine's reputation by telling news organizations in May that the Marine unit cracked after a roadside bomb killed one of its members and that the troops 'killed innocent civilians in cold blood'. Murtha also said repeatedly that the incident was 'covered up'." Wuterich was charged with nine counts of manslaughter in 2008, and Wuterich's lawsuit against Murtha was dismissed in 2009, as the court had determined Murtha was immune, having made his comments as a lawmaker.
On September 25, 2008, former Lance Cpl. Justin Sharratt, one of the Marines that had criminal charges that had been subsequently dropped, filed a slander suit against Rep. Murtha. The lawsuit stated that "Sharratt, in being labeled repeatedly by Murtha as a 'cold-blooded murderer', and by Murtha outrageously claiming that the Haditha incident was comparable to the infamous (My Lai) massacre of Vietnam, has suffered permanent, irreversible damage to his reputation."
In 2011, Sharratt's lawsuit was dismissed by the 3rd Circuit Court of Appeals. Sharratt killed himself at his home in Pennsylvania on August 3, 2022. He was 37.
Comparisons with My Lai massacre and other incidents
Many news reports compared the Haditha Killings to the 1968 My Lai massacre during the Vietnam War, with some commentators describing it as "Bush's My Lai", or "Iraq's My Lai". Very often, the killings have been described as part of a wider pattern of human rights abuses committed by American forces in Iraq. As a Spiegel reporter notes in an interview with Michael Sallah, who won a Pulitzer Prize for his investigation of atrocities committed by the Tiger Force unit in Vietnam, "you would have difficulties finding a single newspaper in Germany, or elsewhere in Europe, that does not deal with My Lai, Abu Ghraib, and Haditha in the same commentary." It was suggested that the Haditha killings might, like the My Lai Massacre, have resulted in further reduction of American public support for the conflict. Some rejected that comparison, however, including prominent journalist Christopher Hitchens who stated in a June 5, 2006 essay that:
...all the glib talk about My Lai is so much propaganda and hot air. In Vietnam, the rules of engagement were such as to make an atrocity – the slaughter of the My Lai villagers took almost a day rather than a white-hot few minutes – overwhelmingly probable. The ghastliness was only stopped by a brave officer who prepared his chopper-gunner to fire. In those days there were no precision-guided missiles, but there were "free-fire zones", and "body counts", and other virtual incitements to psycho officers such as Capt. Medina and Lt. Calley. As a consequence, a training film about My Lai – "if anything like this happens, you have really, truly screwed up" – has been in use for U. S. soldiers for some time.
The most frequent parallel drawn between the killing of 504 Vietnamese villagers at My Lai and the two dozen Iraqis killed in Haditha is the military instinct to cover-up and whitewash civilian deaths. Martin Shaw pointed out on the analysis website OpenDemocracy, that of the 22 officers put on trial for the My Lai massacre, all were acquitted except for Lieutenant William Calley, who served only three and a half years of his life sentence. Professor Shaw observed that "in the few cases in which soldiers have been accused over atrocities in Iraq and Afghanistan, convictions have been few and far between."
Comparisons have also been made to the case of Ilario Pantano, who was initially charged with premeditated murder in Iraq but this was dropped after it was determined there was no credible evidence or testimony. Pantano himself has spoken out in defense of the "Haditha Marines", objecting to what he called a "rush to judgement".
The killings have also been compared to killings in Afghanistan, particularly the 2007 Shinwar shooting.
Allegations of investigative failures
Family, friends, defense lawyers and right-wing radio host Michael Savage strongly criticized the Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS) for its role in the case. They highlighted the string of immunities that were granted as a sign of NCIS bungling. In mid-December 2011, 400 pages of classified notes from top-secret interviews with US soldiers about the 2005 killing of 24 civilians in Haditha were discovered in a dump on the outskirts of Baghdad. The Washington Post published NCIS photographs of the aftermath of the notorious incident.
Iraqi people
Iraqis expressed disbelief and voiced outrage after the six-year US military prosecution ended with none of the Marines sentenced to jail. The Iraqi government said that the ruling did "not fit the crime" and that it plans legal action on behalf of families of victims killed. Survivor Awis Fahmi Hussein commented.
I was expecting that the American judiciary would sentence this person to life in prison and that he would appear and confess in front of the whole world that he committed this crime, so that America could show itself as democratic and fair.
Youssef Ayid, who lost four brothers in the Haditha raid, said, "We are sad to see the criminals escape justice". "This is an assault on humanity" said Khalid Salman, a Haditha councillor and lawyer for the victims. He also said the sentence did not "mean the end" of his legal efforts.
"There are orphans, widows and old people who are still suffering and hurting from that terrible massacre. ...If we find no way, we will go to the international courts.".
Film
Battle for Haditha is a 2007 drama film directed by British director Nick Broomfield based on the incident. House Two is a 2018 documentary directed by Michael Epstein that investigates the Iraq War's worst war crime cases more than ten years later.
See also
2004 Fallujah ambush
Battle of Haditha
Human rights in post-invasion Iraq
Ilario Pantano
Incidents
Tal Afar checkpoint shooting
Ishaqi incident
Mahmudiyah rape and killings
Mukaradeeb wedding party massacre
FOB Ramrod kill team in War in Afghanistan
Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse
Kandahar massacre
Notes
References
External links
(video) Iraqis Voice Outrage as Haditha Massacre Trial Ends in No Jail Time for Accused U.S. Marines, Democracy Now!, January 26, 2012
What happened at Haditha? BBC December 26, 2006
The Massacre of Haditha - A Document Archive
The Haditha Massacre, One Year Later
Rules of Engagement - November 2006, Vanity Fair "Lieutenant testifies about Haditha deaths. Officer stands by call not to investigate." Steve Liewer, Union-Tribune, May 9, 2007. Describes the charges and the first day of Article 32 hearings of the Haditha trial.
Atrocity and War, Truthout, May 2, 2010. Discusses the impact of war upon the warrior.
Rules of Engagement: What really happened at Haditha, Frontline PBS television'', February 19, 2008
Iraq War
Iraq–United States relations
Battles of the Iraq War in 2005
Massacres in 2005
Massacres in Iraq
War crimes in Iraq
Civilian casualties in the Iraq War
Massacres committed by the United States military
United States Marine Corps in the Iraq War
Occupation of Iraq
November 2005 events in Iraq
Events that led to courts-martial
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign%20relations%20of%20Macau
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Foreign relations of Macau
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Under the Basic Law, Macau's diplomatic relations and defence are the responsibility of the central government of China. Except diplomatic relations and defence, nonetheless, Macau has retained considerable autonomy in all aspects, including economic and commercial relations, customs control.
As a separate customs territory, Macau plays an active role in international organizations and conferences such as World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Asia/Pacific Group on Money Laundering (APG), etc in its own right under the name of Macau, China.
As of January 27, 2020, according to Directorate of Identification Services Official webpage, there are 144 countries or regions that implement visa-free policies for residents holding Macau passports.
Macau office
The Macau government has maintained Macau Economic and Trade Representative Offices in Portugal, Belgium and
Switzerland etc.
Macao Economic and Cultural Representative Office/Macao Government Tourism Office (Overseas)
The Macao Economic and Trade Representative Office is a government department of Macao. It is responsible for promoting the work of representing the interests of all parties in Macao. It is a representative department and enjoys administrative autonomy.
The office is responsible for assisting the Chief Executive in the work of economic and trade relations and cooperation between Macao and local and related institutions:
Strive to make the relationship between Macau and the local area closer;
Committed to showing Macau to the locals in the economic and trade field;
Ensure to safeguard Macao's local interests and promote certain economic relations between Macao and the local area;
Follow up the local decision-making process involving Macau's interests in all aspects;
Collect, process and provide to the Chief Executive all information about community institutions that is meaningful to Macau;
Follow up the management of trade agreements and conventions between the local and Macau;
Follow up the development of cooperation between Macao and the local area in accordance with the provisions of the existing agreements, and participate in the formulation and preparation of projects related to these agreements;
In accordance with the general guidelines set by the Chief Executive for him, to ensure that the local area and its institutions safeguard other interests of Macao, including the interests of tourism.
In countries or territories where no MOETO is present, diplomatic missions of China have the duty to represent Macau's interests. Visa applications at these missions are, nevertheless, sent to and processed by the Immigration Department of Macau.
International agreements
According to the Basic Law, Macao may individually sign bilateral agreements with relevant countries and regions in appropriate fields such as economy, trade, finance, shipping, communications, tourism, culture, science and technology, and sports, in the name of "Macao, China".
Negotiation
By the end of 2018, Macau has negotiated civil aviation agreements with 46 countries and regions including the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom. Macau negotiates judicial assistance agreements with 11 countries and regions including Portugal and East Timor.
Macau negotiates investment protection agreements with three countries and regions including Portugal and the Netherlands.
Macau negotiates tax information exchange or double taxation agreements with 42 countries including the United Kingdom and Japan.
Bilateral Investment Treaty
Consumer Protection Agreement
Mutual Legal Assistance Agreement
Tax Information Exchange Agreement
Agreement on avoiding double taxation and preventing tax evasion
Civil Aviation Agreement
According to the Chief Executive’s policy address, in order to protect the interests of investors in Macau. In the future, the SAR government will actively strive to sign taxation agreements with countries along the One Belt One Road and Portuguese-speaking countries.
Trade Agreement
｜European Economic Community Agreement for trade and cooperation between the European Economic Community and Macao (June 1992)
(CEPA) (June 2003)
(October 2017)
International organizations
Note
Macau participates in 19 intergovernmental international organizations with countries as participating units.
Macau participates in 30 intergovernmental international organizations that do not use countries as their participating units.
Macao participates in the online meeting of the United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs in 2021
Overseas visits made by senior officials
The Chief Executive of Macao & other senior officials often make a duty visit to foreign countries. These visits usually aim to advance Macao's economic and trade relations with the foreign countries. During these visits, the Chief Executive will meet with political and business leaders. Usually, the head of state or head of government of the foreign countries will receive the Chief Executive. For example, during his tenure former Chief Executive Edmund Ho met with Prime Minister of Portugal Socrates, President of France Chirac, German Chancellor Schroeder, Prince Philip, President of the European Commission Barroso, President of Brazil Lula, Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Hsien Loong, Prime Minister of Thailand Surayud Chulanon, Prime Minister of Malaysia Abdullah Ahmed Badawi, Vice President of Myanmar Myint Swe, etc.
Foreign officials visit Macau
Protocol Division Government Secretariat
Plan and prepare official activities for the Chief Executive's visits to Macau and abroad;
Coordinating the reception activities of delegations at ministerial level or above at home and abroad and persons designated by the Chief Executive to visit Macau;
Responsible for the management of non-foreign policy affairs of foreign consulates in Macao and officially recognized institutions, and related contacts;
Assist in handling diplomatic representative certificates and consular officer certificates;
Provide assistance in international cooperation and exchange activities between various departments of the government and international organizations;
Coordinate the reception, meeting, banquet and signing ceremony of the Chief Executive in Macau;
Coordinate large-scale activities of the government designated by the Chief Executive.
Foreign officials
The heads of state and government of the Czech Republic, Mongolia, Estonia, Vietnam, Cambodia and dozens of ministers from more than a dozen countries, such as the Russian Minister of Education, respectively visited Macau. According to statistics, in 2011, the Macau government received a total of 40 times delegations from Mainland China, more than 100 times consular and consular delegations, and 63 times foreign government delegations.
Abroad representation in Macau
History
From 1557 to 1999, the United States, Brazil, and other countries opened consulates in Macau, which were later closed. South Korea had a consulate general in Macau from July 28, 1984, to July 1, 2001, which was later closed and the South Korean consulate in Hong Kong was also responsible for Macao-related affairs.
The following countries and region’s Consulates and Representative Office in Macau
Europe
Asia
(Liaison Office)
(Taipei Office)
Africa
America
Multilateral organisations in Macau
United Nations University
Typhoon Committee
Chamber of Commerce
(Chamber of Commerce)
(German Macau Business Association)
(French Macau Chamber of Commerce)
(Chamber of Commerce)
(Chamber of Commerce)
(Chamber of Commerce)
(Macao Brazil Sao Paulo Business Association)
(Macau Canada Business Association)
(Japan Chamber of Commerce)
(Korea Chamber of Commerce)
(Australian Chamber of Commerce Macau)
(American Chamber of Commerce in Macau)
Bilateral relations
Macau relations with Lusophone countries
Given the language, culture and intimate relationships, Macau has been communicating with the Portuguese-speaking countries through various channels for a long time. This can be reflected in the International Commercial Conference for Portuguese-speaking countries, which is held in Macau annually. Macau Trade and Investment Promotion Institute (IPIM) has a lot of co-operation protocols with the relevant organizations and commercial associations in Brazil and Mozambique. The organizations include the Portuguese Commercial Association in Macau, Portuguese Business Centre in Asia, Forum dos Empresarios de Lingua Portuguesa, Câmara de Comércio e Industria Luso-Chinesa, Portuguese Business Association and Portuguese Trade Commission.
In order to strengthen the economic co-operation and development between Chinese- and Portuguese-speaking countries and improve the international status of Macau SAR, the first "Economic Co-operation Forum between China and Portuguese-speaking Countries" was held by the Central Government of the People's Republic of China with the Macau SAR Government being the event coordinator. It is mainly for the economic co-operation and development of both sides and is non-political. The "Economic Co-operation Forum between Chinese and Portuguese-speaking Countries" will be held every three years and the first was in Macau in October 2003.
Forum for Economic & Trade Cooperation between China and Lusophone Countries
Founded in 1999, the Macau SAR government was determined, with the great supports from the Central Government, to host the "Forum for Economic and Trade Cooperation between China and Portuguese-speaking Countries" in October 2003. Serving as a platform between China and Portuguese-speaking countries, Macau takes it as an important mission to enhance the friendship and cooperation between the two parties.
Lusofonia Games 2006
The Association of the Portuguese Speaking Olympic Committees (ACOLOP) was established on 8 June 2004 in Lisbon with the aim to reinforce unity and cooperation of its members, which was already approved by the National Olympic Committees (NOCs).
Macau was honored and proud to host the 1st Lusofonia Games (7–15 October 2006) in the capacity as a founding member. The Lusofonia Games are a good opportunity to show the historical relations between Macau and Lusophone countries. They not only reinforce friendship between the other member countries, but strengthen Macau's developing sport tourism industry.
National Olympic Committee's (NOC's) Participants:
Macao ASEAN International Chamber of Commerce
The purpose of the Macau ASEAN International Chamber of Commerce is to safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of members in accordance with the laws, regulations and policies of Macau and with reference to international practices; Give full play to the role of Macau as an international platform, unite entrepreneurs from , , , and , and promote extensive cooperation and exchanges between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, Hong Kong, Macau and ASEAN countries in the fields of economy, culture, sports, education, economy, trade, science and technology. The Chamber of Commerce also cooperated with ten ASEAN countries, including , , , , , , , , and 's consulates in Hong Kong and Macau to set up exhibition areas with different themes.
Macau relations with EU
Macau-EU relations are based on a Trade and Co-operation Agreement concluded on 14 December 1992, which came into effect on 1 January 1993. This agreement covers trade and industrial, scientific and technical co-operation. A Joint Committee meets annually to oversee the operation of the Agreement and devises ways of developing trade and co-operation. The agreement remained in force as usual after 20 December 1999.
The Commission's 1998 Communication "Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China" stated that EU policy was to support Macau's high degree of autonomy. This policy stems naturally from the EU's strong economic links and historical ties with Macau.
On 12 November 1999 the Commission adopted a Communication to the Council and the European Parliament, entitled "The EU and Macau: Beyond 2000". In this communication the EU considers that the respect for the principles set out in the basic law of Macau and the full implementation of the concept "one country, two systems" guarantee the specific social, economic and cultural identity of Macau. The Commission committed itself to monitor the situation in the territory by issuing annual reports.
The Macau SAR has an Economic and Trade Office (METO) accredited to the European Union, which ensures a regular dialogue between the EU and Macau on areas under the new SAR's responsibility, such as trade, economic relations and co-operation.
On 15 March 2001 the Council of the European Union adopted a new visa regulation and the EU granted visa-free access to Macau SAR passport-holders as from 10 April 2001.
An EC-Macau re-admission agreement was finalized and initialled on the occasion of the 9th EC-Macau Joint Committee in Brussels, Belgium on 18 October 2002. It was signed on 13 October 2003 in Luxembourg by Commissioner Chris Patten and the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs Franco Frattini on behalf of the EC, and by Florinda Chan, Secretary for Administration and Justice, on behalf of Macau. The EU-Macau Cooperation in the Legal Field Project was inaugurated on 3 December 2002, featuring a series of seminars and training programmes to be executed for a period of 48 months for judges, procurators, government lawyers and other legal practitioners of the Macau SAR.
Given its status as a separate customs territory as stated in the basic law, Macau continues to be treated by the EU as a separate entity for trade policy purposes. The EU was Macau's third largest trading partner and absorbed about 23% of its total exports, while 12% of Macau's imports came from the EU in 2003 (Macau trade statistics). Total bilateral trade between the EU and Macau reached €1 billion in 2002. Macau's trade surplus with the EU was €382 million (Eurostat). The EU was the third biggest investor in Macau after Hong Kong and the People's Republic of China with 25 firms investing in the SAR in 2001. Total investment stock amounted to over €400 million. Macau's membership in the World Trade Organization and liberal economic system offer favourable conditions for EU investments.
Macau relations with US
In recognition of Macau's high degree of autonomy, the United States continues to treat Macau as a special area distinct from the People's Republic of China.
The U.S. government supports Macau's autonomy by strengthening bilateral ties through the promotion of bilateral trade and investment, law enforcement cooperation, academic and cultural links, and high-level dialogue and visits.
After the September 11 attacks, Macau officials pledged full cooperation with U.S. and global efforts against terrorism. Macau's legislature passed an anti-terrorism law in April 2002 that includes provisions that are consistent with the requirements of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373.
Macau's clothes and textiles continued to enter the United States under quotas separate from those of China. Under the terms of a September 2000 bilateral Memorandum of Understanding, Macau and the US government cooperate in enforcing textile quotas and preventing illegal trans-shipment. The US continued periodic visits by U.S. Customs Textile Production Verification Teams to ensure compliance with Macau bilateral textile commitments.
The protection of intellectual property rights remains a priority issue on the U.S.-Macau bilateral economic agenda. Macau progress since 1999 in strengthening IPR laws, tightening controls over DVD and VCD manufacturing, and stepping up street-level IPR enforcement resulted in Macau being removed from USTR's Special 301 list in 2002. Macau's new customs service worked with U.S. industry associations and maintained high tempo operations to combat piracy.
U.S. investment in Macau, while small in the past, is expected to increase in coming years as the result of the 2002 awarding of two gaming concessions to consortia with U.S. interests. Though trade with Macau represents a small portion of U.S. trade, the United States was Macau's second largest trading partner after the People's Republic of China. U.S. exports to and imports from Macau in 2002 were US$79 million and US$1.2 billion, respectively. After the Macau government ended the 40-year-old gaming monopoly of the Sociedade de Turismo e Diversões de Macau (STDM) in February 2002, the government awarded concessions to three consortia, including two with significant U.S. investment. The restructuring of the gaming industry remains the centerpiece of Macau - efforts to improve its international reputation and become a Las Vegas-like gaming, convention, and family-oriented holiday destination. The possible new investment of US$1.5-2.5 billion in the medium term will increase jobs and income and dramatically raise the U.S. business profile in Macau.
Specialized diplomacy
Medical Diplomacy
On June 12, 2020, the Chinese medical expert group assisting Sudan successfully completed its mission to aid Africa and returned to China by plane. They ended their 30-day work in Algeria and Sudan. Among them, the China International Emergency Medical Team (Macau) sent five members to join the Chinese government expert group to successfully complete the first foreign aid international emergency medical practice since the team was formed last year.
Sister cities
Concelho de Macau
Brussels, Belgium (friendship agreement)
Đà Nẵng, Vietnam (friendship agreement)
Lisbon, Portugal
Luanda, Angola (friendship agreement)
Porto, Portugal
Praia, Cape Verde
São Paulo, Brazil
Seoul, South Korea
Kolkata, India
Concelho das Ilhas
Coimbra, Portugal
Linköping, Sweden
See also
Foreign relations of China
Foreign relations of Hong Kong
Consular missions in Macau
China–Portugal relations
Visa policy of Macau
References
External links
External relations of Macau
1.os Jogos da Lusofonia, Macau 2006
Government of Macau
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean%20honorifics
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Korean honorifics
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The Korean language has a system of honorifics that recognizes and reflects the hierarchical social status of participants with respect to the subject and/or the object and/or the audience. Speakers use honorifics to indicate their social relationship with the addressee and/or subject of the conversation, concerning their age, social status, gender, degree of intimacy, and speech act situation.
One basic rule of Korean honorifics is ‘making oneself lower’; the speaker can use honorific forms and also use humble forms to make themselves lower.
The honorific system is reflected in honorific particles, verbs with special honorific forms or honorific markers and special honorific forms of nouns that includes terms of address.
Honorific particles in an honorific sentence
The Korean language can index deference or respect toward a sentence referent in subject or dative position through the application of lexical choices such as honorific particles.
There is no honorific expression for inanimate '에(-e)'. The honorific version of '에게(-ege)' is '께(-kke)'.
For example, while -선생님- (-seonsaengnim-) ‘teacher’ is neutral and -선생님이- (-seonsaengnimi-) denotes the role of the noun as the subject of the sentence, -선생님께서- (-seonsaengnimkkeseo-) still means ‘teacher’, but it indicates that the sentence in which it occurs is an honorific sentence and the speaker is treating the subject, -선생님- (-seonsaengnim-), courteously.
Honorific pronouns and nouns
In the Korean language, the honorific form of first person pronouns are humble forms, which speakers use to refer to themselves with humble pronouns and humble verb forms to make themself lower.
Korean second person pronouns do not appear in honorific conversation and professional titles and kinship terms are used instead, a phenomenon known as pronoun avoidance. The most common terms of address are kinship terms, which are divided into plain and honorific levels.
The honorific suffix -님 (-nim) is affixed to many kinship terms to make them honorific. Thus, someone may address his own grandmother as 할머니 (halmeoni) but refer to someone else's grandmother as 할머님 (halmeonim).
Unlike the Japanese language, which allows a title to be used alone for addressing people when an honorific expression is required (e.g., 先生 (sensei) teacher, 社長 (shacho) company president, 教授 (kyojyu) professor), Korean does not allow lone titles for addressing people. It is impolite to address someone as 사장 (sajang) president, 교수 (gyosu) professor, etc. without a suffix such as the honorific suffix -님 (-nim) except when addressing social equals or those lower in status.
Addressee honorification
'상대 높임법 (Addressee Honorification)' refers to the way the speaker uses honorifics towards the listener. '상대 높임법 (Addressee Honorification)' is the most developed honorification in Korean Language which is mainly realized by the closing expression, which is then largely divided into formal and informal forms, and categorised into 6 stages according to the degree of honorific.
Formal forms include:
the '하십시오 체 (hasipsio form)' which is extremely polite form,
the '하오 체 (hao form)' which is moderately addressee-raising,
the 하게 체 (hage form)' which is moderately addressee-lowering
and the '해라 체 (haera form)' which is extremely low form.
Informal forms include the '해요 체 (haeyo form)' which is informal addressee-raising and the '해 체 (hae form)' which is informal addressee-lowering.
For example, you can write the following sentence differently by using different closing expressions.
"Read this book."
"이 책을 읽으십시오. (I chaegeul ilgeusipsio.)" : It uses '하십시오 체 (hasipsio form)'.
"이 책을 읽으시오. (I chaegeul ilgeusio.)" : It uses '하오 체 (hao form)'.
"이 책을 읽게. (I chaegeul ilgge.)" : It uses '하게 체 (hage form)'.
"이 책을 읽어라. (I chaegeul ilgeora.)" : It uses '해라 체 (haera form)'.
"이 책을 읽어요. (I chaegeul ilgeoyo.)" : It uses '해요 체 (haeyo form)'.
"이 책을 읽어. (I chaegeul ilgeo.)" : It uses '해 체 (hae form)'.
One must use honorific sentence endings (습니다 and/or 에요/요) in a formal situation or when addressing acquaintances or strangers, regardless of their age or social status (except pre-adolescent children). The following are honorific endings for the four major types of sentences:
Declarative: 습니다
Interrogative: 십니까
Prepositive: 습시다
Imperative: 시요, 십시오
However, one does not need to use honorific endings when speaking to close friends or family members, making honorifics optional. In this situation, consider the addressee - some like to be addressed with respect while others prefer friendliness.
Declarative: 어/아
Interrogative: 어/아
Prepositive: 어/아
Imperative: 어/아
The setting, ages, occupations, and other factors contribute to the relations between speaker, addressee, and the referent within this system. Traditionally the Korean honorifics were based on hierarchical relation in society, such as rank in occupations, but this has changed over time to develop into a system based on politeness and closeness. Hierarchical based honorific ending are forgone with relationships such as one between older and younger sibling in which the younger sibling uses the “어/아” endings in place of 어요/아요” without change in respect, instead, exhibiting closeness in the relationship. Furthermore, the use of “chondae-n mal” (high formal speech) towards someone who is perceived as close could be rude and insensitive, whereas, the use of “pan mal” towards one who is a stranger or distant in social relation would be rude.
Honorific verbs
When the subject of the conversation is older or has higher seniority than the speaker, the Korean honorific system primarily index the subject by adding the honorific suffix -시 (-si) or -으시 (-eusi) into the stem verb.
Thus, 가다 (gada, "to go") becomes 가시다 (gasida). A few verbs have suppletive honorific forms:
A few verbs have suppletive humble forms, used when the speaker is referring to themself in polite situations. These include 드리다 (deurida) and 올리다 (ollida) for 주다 (juda, "give"). 드리다 (deurida) is substituted for 주다 (juda) when the latter is used as an auxiliary verb, while 올리다 (ollida, literally "raise up") is used for 주다 (juda) in the sense of "offer".
Honorific forms of address
Pronouns in Korean have their own set of polite equivalents (e.g., 저 (jeo) is the humble form of 나 (na, "I") and 저희 (jeohui) is the humble form of 우리 (uri, "we")). However, Korean language allows for coherent syntax without pronouns, effectively making Korean a so-called pro-drop language; thus, Koreans avoid using the second-person singular pronoun, especially when using honorific forms. Third-person pronouns are occasionally avoided as well, mainly to maintain a sense of politeness. Although honorific form of 너 (neo, singular "you") is 당신 (dangsin, literally, "friend" or "dear"), that term is used only as a form of address in a few specific social contexts, such as between people who are married to each other, or in an ironic sense between strangers. Other words are usually substituted where possible (e.g., the person's name, a kinship term, a professional title, the plural 여러분 yeoreobun, or no word at all, relying on context to supply meaning instead).
Spacing spelling convention
The National Institute of Korean Language classifies nim/ssi/gun/yang as dependent nouns that follow a proper noun, and they prescribe that a space should appear between a noun and its dependent noun. (e.g. Jaebeom nim 재범 님) This is not to be confused with the affix -nim used with common nouns, since affixes are written without spaces. (e.g. seonsaengnim 선생님)
-A / -ya
Korean has the vocative case markers which grammatically identify a person (animal, object etc.) being addressed so that they eliminate possible grammatical ambiguities. -a or -ya (Hangul: 아, 야) is a casual title used at the end of names. It is not gender exclusive. If a name ends in a consonant -a is used (e.g. Jinyoung-a 진영아), while -ya is used if the name ends in a vowel (e.g. Yeji-ya 예지야). -a / -ya is used only between close friends and people who are familiar with each other, and its use between strangers or distant acquaintances would be considered extremely rude. -ya / -a is only used hierarchically horizontally or downwards: an adult or parent may use it for young children, and those with equal social standing may use it with each other, but a young individual will not use -a or -ya towards one who is older than oneself or holds a higher status than oneself.
Middle Korean had three classes of the vocative case but practically only -아 / -야 is remaining in everyday life. -여 / -이여 is only used in literature and archaic expressions, and -하 has completely disappeared. See Korean vocative case for more information.
Ssi
Ssi (씨, 氏) is the most commonly used honorific used amongst people of approximately equal speech level. It is attached after the full name, such as 'Lee Seokmin ssi'' (이석민 씨), or simply after the first name, ''Seokmin ssi'' (석민 씨) if the speaker is more familiar with someone. Appending ssi to the surname, for instance ''Park ssi'' (박 씨) can be quite rude, as it indicates the speaker considers himself to be of a higher social status than the person he is speaking to.
Nim, -nim
Nim (Hangul: 님) (by itself after a proper noun) is the highest form of honorifics and above ssi. Nim will follow addressees' names on letters/emails and postal packages. It is often roughly translated as "Mr." or "Ms./Mrs.". -nim (as an affix) is used as a commonplace honorific for guests, customers, clients, and unfamiliar individuals. -nim is also used towards someone who is revered and admired for having a significant amount of skill, intellect, knowledge, etc. and is used for people who are of a higher rank than oneself. Examples include family members (eomeonim 어머님 & abeonim 아버님), teachers (seonsaengnim 선생님), clergy (e.g. pastors – moksanim 목사님), and gods (haneunim 하느님 / hananim 하나님).
Seonbae/hubae
Seonbae (선배, 先輩) is used to address senior colleagues or mentor figures relating to oneself (e.g. older students in school, older/more experienced athletes, mentors, senior colleagues in academia, business, work, etc.). As with English titles such as Doctor, seonbae can be used either by itself or as a title. Hubae (후배, 後輩) is used to refer to juniors. Usually, people in senior and junior relationships call each other '선배님 (Seonbaenim)' (e.g. Chaeryeong seonbaenim 채령 선배님) and '후배님(Hubaenim)' at the first meeting.
Gun/yang
Gun (군, 君) is used moderately in formal occasions (such as weddings), for young, unmarried males. gun is also used to address young boys by an adult. yang (양, 孃) is the female equivalent of gun and is used to address young girls. Both are used in a similar fashion to ssi, following either the whole name or the first name in solitude.
For example, if the boy's name is '김유겸 (Kim Yugyeom)', it is used as '김유겸 군 (Kim Yugyeom-gun) 유겸 군 (Yugyeom-gun)'. And if the girl's name is '임나연 (Im Nayeon)', she can be called as '임나연 양 (Im Nayeon-yang)' or '나연 양 (Nayeon-yang)'.
Less common forms of address
Gwiha (귀하, 貴下) can be seen commonly in formal letters, often used by a company to a client.
Gakha (각하, 閣下) is used only in extremely formal occasions, usually when addressing presidents, high officials, or bishops and archbishops. Somewhat avoided nowadays due to its connotations to Imperial Japan.
Hapha (합하, 閤下) was used to address the father of the king who was not a king (Daewongun), or the oldest son of the crown prince.
Jeoha (저하, 邸下) was only used when addressing the crown prince.
Jeonha (전하, 殿下) was only used when addressing kings, now mostly used to address cardinals.
Pyeha (폐하, 陛下) was used only when addressing emperors.
Seongha (성하, 聖下) is used when addressing popes, patriarchates or the Dalai Lama; the equivalent of the English word "His Holiness" or "His Beatitude".
Nari (나리) or alternatively, naeuri (나으리), was used by commoners in the Joseon Dynasty to refer to people of higher status but below daegam (대감, 大監), English equivalent of "His Excellency". The honorific is of native Korean origin.
Relative honorifics
When speaking to someone about another person, you must calculate the relative difference in position between the person you are referring to and the person you are speaking to. This is known as apjonbeop 압존법(壓尊法) or “relative honorifics”.
'압존법 (Relative honorifics)' is usually used in the home or relationship between teacher and student. For example, "할아버지, 아버지가 아직 안 왔습니다. (Harabeoji, abeojiga ajik an watseumnida.)" means "Grandfather, father hasn't come yet." Both grandfather and father are in higher position than the speaker, but grandfather is much higher than father. In this special case, Korean do not use honorific expression on father to admire grandfather.
Therefore, in this sentence, "아버지가 (abeojiga)" is used rather than "아버지께서 (abeojikkeseo)" and "왔습니다(watseumnida)" rather than "오셨습니다 (osyeotseumnida)".
For example, one must change the post positional particle and verb if the person you are speaking to is a higher position (age, title, etc.) than the person you are referring to. "부장님, 이 과장님께서는 지금 자리에 안 계십니다 (bujangnim, I gwajangnimkkeseoneun jigeum jarie an gyesimnida)" This means, "General Manager, Manager Lee is not at his desk now", with the bolded parts elevating the manager higher than the general manager, even though they both are in a higher position than you. The general manager would be offended by the fact that you elevated the manager above him.
However, '압존법(Relative honorifics)' in the workplace is far from Korean traditional language etiquette. In front of the superior, lowering another superior who is in a lower position may apply in private relationships, such as between family members and between teacher and student.
But it is awkward to use it at the workplace.
Therefore, the above sentence can be modified according to workplace etiquette as follows.
"부장님, 이 과장님은 지금 자리에 안 계십니다. (Bujangnim, I gwajangnimeun jigeum jarie an gyesimnida.)"
Humble Speech
Korean also has humble speech, usually denoted with the inclusion of the affix -오- [-o-].
Humble Suffix
The humble suffix has the effect of lowering the status of the speaker against the addressee, thereby increasing the degree of respect shown by the former toward the latter. The humble suffix, is rare nowadays in Standard Seoul dialect, however, it is employed in religious services as well as historical literary or entertainment media.
The humble suffix appears in four different allomorphs:
1. 오 (o) / (으)오 (euo):
2. 사오 (sao)
3. 옵 (op) / (으)옵 (euop):
4. 사옵 (saop)
Difference between humble and honorific suffix
The honorific suffix -시/(으)시 and the humble suffix, both employed to express the speaker's respect, are different from one another in that the
honorific suffix directs the speaker's respect to the subject of a sentence, whereas the humble suffix directs it to the addressee. And of course the
respect shown by the humble suffix is the result of degradation of the speaker's status against the addressee(s), examples:
선생님이 오셔 [seongnimi osyeo] - The teacher is coming - context student taking to other student in casual informal style while giving respect to teacher by employing honorific affix 셔 [시 + 어]
아이가 가옵니다 [aiga gaomnida] - The child is going - context a servant speaking to master in formal polite style while humbling himself with affix -옵- [op] showing no deference to the subject [아이-child]
할머님이 오시옵니다 [halmeonimi osiomnida] - Grandmother/Old-Lady is coming - context a child speaking to an elder or someone in high authority in formal polite style while humbling himself with affix -옵- [op] while also showing deference to the subject [할머님-old lady] by employing the honorific affix -시- [si].
Use in modern speech
The humble affix is still used at certain times for example in "but/even-though" statements as is -오나. For instance the President Yoon Suk-yeol in 2022 was asked a question:
정말 외람되오나 [jeongmal oeramdoeona] - It is very impudent of me but [can I ask you]
See also
Korean speech levels
Other languages
T–V distinction (politeness differences more generally)
Chinese honorifics
Chinese titles
Japanese honorifics
References
Further reading
Sohn, Ho-min (2006). Korean Language in Culture and Society. University of Hawai‘i Press: KLEAR Textbooks.
Honorifics by country
Honorifics
Honorifics by language
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9pertoire%20International%20de%20Litt%C3%A9rature%20Musicale
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Répertoire International de Littérature Musicale
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Répertoire International de Littérature Musicale (International Repertory of Music Literature; Internationales Repertorium der Musikliteratur), commonly known by its acronym RILM, is a nonprofit organization that offers digital collections and advanced tools for locating research on all topics related to music. Its mission is "to make this knowledge accessible to research and performance communities worldwide….to include the music scholarship of all countries, in all languages, and across all disciplinary and cultural boundaries, thereby fostering research in the arts, humanities, sciences, and social sciences." Central to RILM's work and mission is the international bibliography of scholarship relating to all facets of music research.
History
RILM was founded in 1966 by the American musicologist Barry S. Brook (1918–1997) under the joint sponsorship of the International Musicological Society (IMS) and the International Association of Music Libraries, Archives and Documentation Centres (IAML). In 2007 the International Council for Traditional Music (ICTM) joined as a third sponsoring organization.
During 1967 and 1968, RILM developed its first set of computer programs for the automated processing and sorting of bibliographic records and author/subject indexes. They ran first on the mainframe IBM computer IBM System/360 at the computing center of The City University of New York. The S/360 was delivered by IBM in 1964 and it was at that time the most advanced computing machine. The original IBM S/360 software was later migrated to IBM System/370 and used in the production of RILM Abstracts for twenty years, from 1969 to 1988. RILM's development of procedures for computerized data processing was immediately adopted by Répertoire International de Littérature d’Art (RILA), founded upon RILM's model, which started publishing abstracts in 1975.
In 1979 RILM entered an agreement with Lockheed Research Laboratory in Palo Alto, a division of Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Inc., for the distribution of its data through the telephone lines. Later on, this agreement was transferred to DIALOG Information Retrieval Services. Although available online already before the advent of the Internet, until the end of the twentieth century the primary medium for distribution for its bibliographic records were printed volumes.
From 1993 onward RILM was no longer available on DIALOG Information Retrieval Service, but in 1989 the National Information Service Corporation (NISC) in Baltimore released RILM Abstracts of Music Literature on CD-ROM. During the 1990s RILM Abstracts became available online through NISC Muse (1993–2010), OCLC First Search (1994–2010), Ovid/SilverPlatter (2002–2010), and Cambridge Scientific Abstracts/ProQuest (2002–2010) platforms. RILM databases are available through EBSCO Information Services; RILM's platform, Egret, offers RILM Music Encyclopedias and MGG Online.
RILM's first editorial office was located at the Queens College, City University of New York (1967–68). The Graduate Center, CUNY has provided an institutional context for RILM's International Center since 1968.
Organization
RILM has a staff of over 40 employees: editors, technology experts, and administrators. It is governed and guided by a board of directors and an advisory committee, the Commission Mixte International, which consists of appointed members of the International Musicological Society (IMS), the International Association of Music Libraries, Archives and Documentation Centres (IAML), and the International Council for Traditional Music (ICTM). Barry Brook's second report, published in the March 1968 issue of Notes, details the deliberations of the Commission Mixte as it worked to establish the procedures and functioning of RILM.
Online publications
RILM Abstracts of Music Literature
RILM Abstracts of Music Literature covers significant international scholarship in both printed and digital media, and in any language. Published since August 1967, it consists of citations of articles, single-author books and collections of essays, bibliographies, catalogues, master's theses and doctoral dissertations, Festschriften, films, videos, technical drawings of instruments, facsimile editions, iconographies, commentaries included with critical editions of music, ethnographic recordings, conference proceedings, reviews, web resources as well as over 3500 periodicals that dovetail with the coverage of Répertoire International de la Presse Musicale. It differs from other music periodical indexes through its coverage of books, abstracts, indexing, and broad international yet selective coverage. Each entry provides the title in the original language, an English translation of the title, full bibliographic data, and an abstract with a detailed index, all of which help to convey the "aboutness" of the record (amplified online by the relevance-based order of display in the individual record. Many of the non-English entries also include an abstract in the language of the publication.
Following the UNESCO model, RILM Abstracts was conceived as a cooperative of national committees responsible for contributing bibliographic citations and abstracts for the publications issued in their respective countries to the International Office in New York. Today committees contribute about 15,000 records annually, which are edited, indexed, and added to the online database. Another 35,000 records per year are produced by editors at the International Office. Bibliographic information and abstracts—as well as journals that have not yet been covered by RILM—can also be submitted directly to the International Center in New York.
RILM Abstracts of Music Literature was the first abstracted bibliography in the humanities and designated by the American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS) as the pilot project for the development of a computerized, bibliographical system in the humanities to serve as a model for the more than 30 constituent scholarly societies of the ACLS. At the time when RILM Abstracts was published only in print, its subject thesaurus and name equivalencies, which led users to the preferred terms, were translated into seventeen languages and alphabetically integrated with the subject index. This practice allowed users to find the desired English-language term or the spelling of a personal name by initiating the search from the language most familiar to them. Gradually RILM Abstracts expanded its multilingual environment and the database now includes, besides standard English-language abstracts, also abstracts in the language of publication and in other languages whenever available. In the mid-2000s RILM Abstracts began to expand its coverage of Asian publications, with music scholarship published in Chinese periodicals. Concurrently, all elements of bibliographic records for publications issued in non-roman writing systems were offered bilingual.
RILM Abstracts of Music Literature appeared from 1967 to 1983 in triannual printed volumes with indexes corresponding to annual volumes as well as cumulative indexes corresponding to five-year periods; from 1984 to 1999 in annual volumes with corresponding indexes; and since 2000 it is available exclusively online through EBSCOhost.
RILM Abstracts of Music Literature with Full Text
In July 2016 RILM Abstracts of Music Literature expanded with the addition of music periodicals in full-text. RILM Abstracts of Music Literature with Full Text (RAFT) offers access to 250 music periodicals from many countries. Coverage also includes reviews as well as obituaries, editorials, correspondence, advertisements, and news, published from the early twentieth century to the present. In addition to metadata, abstracts, and indexing, RAFT offers searching and browsing tools for each full-text issue, cover to cover. The database is updated monthly. Details of each title's current coverage can be found in the title list at rilm.org/fulltext. New titles are added over time.
RILM Music Encyclopedias
In December 2015, RILM launched RILM Music Encyclopedias (RME) with 41 titles. Librarian Laurie Sampsel asserts that "cross searching the full text of so many titles yields results impossible (or highly unlikely) to find using the print versions of these encyclopaedias." Stephen Henry mentions RME's "ability to provide access to some excellent European resources that might not otherwise be available to libraries with less than comprehensive collections."
RME’s titles stem from different periods and countries: The earliest, Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Dictionnaire de musique, was published in 1775. There is also the first edition of "The Grove," in an edition published by Theodore Presser in 1895. The largest amount of titles date from 2000 onward. Among them are Ken Bloom's Broadway, Lol Henderson and Lee Stacey's Encyclopedia of Music in the 20th Century, Peter Matzke et al., Das Gothic- und Dark Wave-Lexikon, and Richard Kostelanetz's Dictionary of the Avant-Gardes. The comprehensive Handwörterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie, conceived between 1972 bis 2006, is also included. RME holds important titles for ethnomusicologists, among them The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music and Eileen Southern's Biographical Dictionary of Afro-American and African Musicians, which is the first single comprehensive volume of its kind. The collection expands annually with additions of four titles in average. One of the titles, Komponisten der Gegenwart (KDG), is being regularly updated with new articles or additions to existing articles.Hanns-Werner Heister, "Paper is Patient: The Loose-Leaf Lexicon Komponisten der Gegenwart and the Digital Future," Fontes Artis Musicae 63, no. 3 (2016): 209.
Index to Printed Music
On 1 July 2018, RILM assumed ownership of IPM. Previously, it was owned by the James Adrian Music Company, which was founded in 2000 by George R. Hill.
The Index to Printed Music (IPM) is the only digital finding aid for searching specific musical works contained in printed collections, sets, and series. It indexes individual pieces of music printed in the complete works of composers, in anthologies containing pieces from disparate historical periods, and in other scholarly editions. It provides a granular level of detail about each piece, including performing forces, language, multiple clefs or figured bass, and more. IPM includes the complete contents of Collected Editions, Historical Series & Sets & Monuments of Music: A Bibliography, by George R. Hill and Norris L. Stephens (Berkeley: Fallen Leaf Press, 1997), which, in turn, was based upon Anna H. Heyer's Historical Sets, Collected Editions, and Monuments of Music: A Guide to Their Contents (American Library Association, 1957–1980).
Since 2019 IPM offers new features, among them biographical facts identifying composers, editors, and lyricists; hyperlinks to open-access editions; music incipits for works that are otherwise difficult to distinguish from each other; easy toggling between collections and the individual works contained therein; and expanded search filters to enable refined searching by place and date of publication, document type, genre, and language of text.
Bibliolore
RILM hosts the blog Bibliolore whose posts have direct relationships to content found in RILM Abstracts of Music Literature and its enhancement, RILM Abstracts of Music Literature with Full Text, as well as RILM Music Encyclopedias, MGG Online, and Index to Printed Music. New posts appear every week, many of which celebrate round birthdays of musical figures and anniversaries. Since its inception in 2009, Bibliolore has published over 1500 posts and has been viewed over 600,000 times.
Print publications
Between 1967 and 1999, RILM published RILM Abstracts of Music Literature in print, first quarterly and later annually. The 1999 volume, the last print volume, is the largest, with 19,619 records.
Since 1972, RILM has also published print volumes in the RILM Retrospectives series. These topical bibliographies commenced with the first edition of Barry S. Brook's Thematic Catalogues in Music: An Annotated Bibliography (Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1972). Recent volumes published in the series include Speaking of Music: Music Conferences 1835–1966 (2004), an annotated bibliography of 5948 papers on musical topics presented at 447 conferences. While building on the previous efforts, the volume stays true to Brook's original vision while expanding upon it as well: it covers more than 130 years of conference proceedings and has a worldwide scope, though Western Europe remains in focus. The subsequent volume, Liber Amicorum: Festschriften for Music Scholars and Nonmusicians, 1840–1966, is an annotated bibliography catalogue of 574 Festschriften, totaling 118 pages and 715 entries. The next part of the volume (totaling 355 pages and 3881 entries) documents all of the articles pertaining to music found in the listed Festschriften, preceded by an introductory history of Festschriften. All volumes are principally devoted to research materials published before RILM issued its first volume in 1967.
The RILM Perspectives series of conference proceedings explores topics related to the organization's global mission. The inaugural volume, Music’s Intellectual History: Founders, Followers & Fads of 2009, edited by Zdravko Blažeković and Barbara Dobbs Mackenzie, is based on papers presented at the conference on music historiography, held at The Graduate Center, CUNY, 16–19 March 2005.
RILM has issued two editions of its comprehensive style guide, How to Write About Music: The RILM Manual of Style. The second edition introduces material not included in the 2005 publication as well as revisions based on suggestions from readers. The manual differs significantly from the generalized style guides such as MLA or APA by explicating the matters of gender-neutral language, dead language, and punctuation (from the serial comma to the em dash) through the lens of music. The manual is specifically suited for students.
RILM's platform Egret
RILM has developed a stand-alone platform with the most advanced search and browse capabilities to host and distribute music reference works, beginning with the authoritative German-language music encyclopedia Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart (MGG). Egret facilitates automatic translation of content to over 100 languages via Google Translate integration, user accounts where annotations and notes can be created, saved, and shared, cross references linking related content throughout MGG Online, links to related content in RILM Abstracts of Music Literature and others, as well as an interface compatible with mobile and tablet devices. The search function is hailed as a powerful but easy-to-use tool, with different options available for limiting search results. Specific search results can be easily located in a preview section. MGG Online is based on the second edition of Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, but it includes continuous updates, revisions, and additions. Egret allows the user to access earlier versions of revised articles. In February 2020 RILM Music Encyclopedias was launched on Egret.
References
Bibliography
Bayne, Pauline Shaw, A Guide to Library Research in Music (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2008).
Blažeković, Zdravko, RILM Abstracts of Music Literature in its Global Environment: The Past and Vision for the Future (Lecture, 2014).
Brook, Barry S., "Music Literature and Modern Communication: Revolutionary Potentials of the ACLS/CUNY/RILM project", College Music Symposium 40 (2000) 31–41.
Brook, Barry S., "Music Literature and Modern Communication: Some Revolutionary Potentials of the RILM Project", Acta Musicologica 42, nos. 3–4 (1970): 205–17; also published in Journal of the Indian Musicological Society 2, no. 1 (1971): 9–19.
Brook, Barry S., "Musikliteratur und moderne Kommunikation: Zum Projekt RILM", Beiträge zur Musikwissenschaft 13, no. 1 (1971): 18–20.
Brook, Barry S., "Some New Paths for Music Bibliography", Computers in Humanistic Research: Readings and Perspectives (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1967), 204–211.
Brook, Barry S., "The Road to RILM", in Modern Music Librarianship: In Honor of Ruth Watanabe, ed. Alfred Mann (Stuyvesant, Pendragon Press; Kassel: Bärenreiter Verlag, 1989), 85–94.
Cleveland, Susannah and Joe C. Clark, eds., Careers in Music Librarianship III: Reality and Reinvention (Milwaukee: A-R Editions, 2014).
Gottlieb, Jane, Music Library and Research Skills, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017).
Green, Alan, "Keeping up with the Times: Evaluating Currency of Indexing, Language Coverage and Subject Area Coverage in the Three Music Periodical Index Databases," Music Reference Services Quarterly 8, no. 1 (January 2001): 53–68.
Green, Alan, "The RILM Project: Charting the Seas of Modern Musicological Literature," College Music Symposium 40 (January 2000): 42–54.
Jenkins, Martin D., "A Descriptive Study of Subject Indexing and Abstracting in International Index to Music Periodicals, RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, and The Music Index Online", Notes: Quarterly Journal of the Music Library Association 57, no. 4 (2001): 834–863.
Mackenzie, Barbara Dobbs, "RILM at 40: A View from the Bridge," Fontes Artis Musicae 54, no. 4 (2007): 421–439.
Mackenzie, Barbara Dobbs, "RILM as a Starting Point for Research," Ictus: Periódico Do Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Música Da UFBA 9, no. 2 (2008): 48–58.
Mackenzie, Barbara Dobbs, "Répertoire International de Littérature Musicale (RILM): Immutable Mission amidst Continual Change," in Music, Libraries, and the Academy: Essays in Honor of Lenore Coral (Middleton, WI: A-R Editions, 2007), 129–142.
Schiødt, Nanna, "RILM: Répertoire International de Littérature Musicale", Dansk musiktidsskrift 45, no. 4 (1970): 168–173.
Schuursma, Ann May Briegleb, "Summary Report of activities IAML Project Group on Classification and Indexing", Fontes Artis Musicae 37, no. 1 (Jan–Mar 1990): 46–48.
Spivacke, Harold, "A New Journal of Abstracts for Musicologists", Computers and the Humanities'' 2, no. 3 (1968): 120–124.
External links
RILM Music Encyclopedias (list of included sources)
Bibliolore: The RILM Blog
State Institute for Music Research
Arts databases
Music publications
Music literature
Music libraries
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%20George%27s%20Fields
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King George's Fields
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A King George's Field is a public open space in the United Kingdom dedicated to the memory of King George V (1865–1936).
In 1936, after the king's death, Sir Percy Vincent, the then-Lord Mayor of London, formed a committee to determine a memorial that was not solely based on the idea of a statue. They arrived the same year at the concept of funding and erecting a single statue in London and setting up the King George's Fields Foundation with the aim:
To promote and to assist in the establishment throughout the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland of playing fields for the use and enjoyment of the people.
Each of the playing fields would:
Be styled 'King George's Field' and to be distinguished by heraldic panels or other appropriate tablet medallion or inscription commemorative of His Late Majesty and of a design approved by the Administrative Council.
Money was raised locally to buy the land, with a grant made by the foundation. After purchase the land was passed to the National Playing Fields Association, (now known as Fields in Trust) to "preserve and safeguard the land for the public benefit". Land was still being acquired for the purpose during the 1950s and early 1960s.
When the King George's Fields Foundation was dissolved in 1965 there were 471 King George Playing Fields, all over the UK. They are now legally protected by Fields in Trust and managed locally by either the council or a board of local trustees.
There are covenants and conditions that ensure that the public will continue to benefit from these open play areas.
History of the King George's Fields Foundation
Introduction
On 30 January 1936 upon the death of King George V, the then Lord Mayor of the City of London set up a committee to consider what form a national memorial to the King should take. In March 1936, the committee decided that there should be a statue in London and a philanthropic scheme of specific character that would benefit the whole country and be associated with King George V's name. As a result, in the November of that year, the King George's Fields Foundation was constituted by Trust Deed to give effect to the scheme. The urbanisation of the twentieth century in Great Britain was bringing home to many public-spirited people the fact that lack of open spaces must restrict the rising generation physically.
The aim of the Foundation was "to promote and to assist in the establishment throughout the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland of playing fields for the use and enjoyment of the people every such playing field to be styled 'King George’s Field' and to be distinguished by heraldic panels or other appropriate tablet medallion or inscription commemorative of His Late Majesty and of a design approved by the Administrative Council."
The trust deed defined a 'Playing Field' as "any open space used for the purpose of outdoor games, sports and pastimes."
The project was to be a flexible one, focusing on urban areas, but not exclusively so, and carried out in each locality according to its requirements. It would enlist local interest and support, gratefully accepting gifts in the form of monies or land. Each field would have a distinctive uniform tablet as an appropriate visible commemoration of George V.
This was considered to be as the King would have wished, particularly in the service rendered to youth through providing for them an environment and opportunity for open air exercise, for the benefit of individual well-being and the general welfare of the nation.
The National Memorial Fund and 'Grant-in-aid Policy'
The purpose of the Foundation was to secure a living memorial by way of playing fields to the late sovereign, and that these open spaces be directly associated with that memory by being named 'King George's Fields'.
Playing fields were to be acquired, planned, equipped, maintained and safeguarded for recreational purposes in towns and villages throughout Great Britain and Northern Ireland. However, the cost required to acquire, construct and equip such fields for public use would prove too costly for the King George's Fields Foundation (KGFF) alone. To determine the best ways and means in which to remember George V, and to put in motion the necessary machinery to raise the required funds, a national appeal was set up. £557,436 was raised in the period just before the Second World War.
The Foundation found at the outset that half a million pounds was not enough to meet the costs of acquiring fields and maintaining them for all the places in the country where they were needed. The National Memorial Fund Committee had concluded that the maximum results might best be achieved by 'distributing the funds by way of grants-in-aid towards the capital costs of as many fields as possible', the balance of the capital required for each scheme to be raised by the local authorities or local bodies of Trustees managing and accepting responsibility for their maintenance as King George's Fields.
The plan of action came in the form of what was to be called Grant-in-Aid Policy set up on 1 March 1937. However, this would be possible only through the support of members and donors, and local authorities' commitment and co-operation.
To avoid duplication of effort and minimise administrative costs, the Foundation consulted the National Playing Fields Association (NPFA) and its affiliated county organisations. The NPFA would act, as administrator, to look at and consider proposals in order to allocate grants.
The amount of grant to be given rested with the Foundation. Among the factors taken into account by the Grants Committee were the population, number and size of existing playing fields, and local economic conditions. No size or standard of field, or particular facilities, were prescribed. Some very large schemes emerged; the largest King George's Field in Enfield, London, covers approximately , providing many pitches for a variety of games. The smallest King George's Field at less than 1/4 acre is in the City of London, where the most urgent need was to keep children off the roads.
Certain conditions had to be observed. The Foundation, very much aware of the concept of a National Memorial, required security of tenure over the land and its dedication for permanent preservation as a 'King George's Field'. Funds were not made available for schemes that might disappear after a few years. The land had to be developed in some suitable way for playing on; ornamental gardens and parks, for example, were not accepted.
Additionally, each scheme was to have an entrance to the field designed to provide a sufficiently dignified setting for the heraldic panels that distinguish a field as a 'King George's Field'. While no particular style was adopted by the Foundation, it discouraged ornate or expensive entrance gates, and recommended the use of local materials.
The impact of the King George’s Fields Foundation
Between the opening of the grants policy on 1 March 1937 and the outbreak of war in September, 1939, the Foundation approved 462 schemes out of a possible 1,800 preliminary applications. Approximately £400,000 of funds had been allocated as grants to various schemes in towns and villages the length and breadth of the country. However, during the seven years that war raged in Europe, construction work on playing fields was all but at a standstill. After 1945, with changed circumstances and social political issues in need of urgent prioritisation – for example, health, education and housing – many of the original approved schemes were abandoned, though in a number of cases alternative schemes were approved and grant-aided. All schemes were eventually completed in the 1960s.
It took some time before all the "King George’s Fields" were completed in every detail. Table 1 shows the final list of the approved schemes under their respective countries. Table 2 summarises land ownership.
Notes:
Statistics for England include the Channel Islands.
19 fields are included, which were financed entirely by local bodies, without grant aid from the Foundation. The schemes were recognised as 'King George's Fields' and provided with heraldic panels.
The Foundation was not authorised to spend any funds outside the UK but accorded the style "King George's Field" and issued Heraldic Panels to sites in Barbados, the Falkland Islands, Malta, Nigeria and Yemen (then Aden).
The dissolution of the King George’s Fields Foundation
The 1960s brought about further change. Almost thirty years had passed since the Foundation came into being and the time had now come to hand over responsibility to the National Playing Fields Association, (now known as Fields in Trust) of which Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was President until succeeded by his grandson Prince William, Duke of Cambridge in 2013. The Foundation was never intended to continue to exist with its own trustees. The NPFA assumed total responsibility as the trustee of the charity, as agreed through a Scheme of the Charity Commissioners on 1 December 1965. Residual funds in the sum of £41,251 were transferred to the NPFA, which was then charged with the responsibility of paying £12,200 of allocated but unspent funds for certain purposes in connection with the approved 'King George's Fields'.
Under the Commissioners' Scheme, responsibilities of the National Playing Fields Association as trustees of the charity were extended to include the "preservation" in addition to "establishment" of the King George's Fields. This means that any plans by a local trustee require the consent of the NPFA, which has the duty of preserving the King George's Fields.
The NPFA was also given powers to use the remainder of the funds available for repairs or renewal of items of a capital nature including the replacement of heraldic panels.
Conclusion
The King George's Fields were set up in memory of King George V and provided and protected valuable open spaces and facilities, still of great value, for children and young people in particular. They are, in most cases, established on charitable trust and protected ‘in perpetuity’.
The Foundation's aim in 1936 was to make its funds stretch as far as possible. The total capital value of the 471 'King George's Fields' in 1936 amounted to approximately £4,000,000, measured by total expenditure on acquisition and development of land, undertaken by the local bodies concerned, with the aid of the grants made to them by the Foundation.
Importance of memorial entrances and maintenance of heraldic panels
Introduction
As every 'King George's Field' (KGF) forms part of a national memorial to King George V, it was a condition that the land is legally dedicated as such, and that the terms of its tenure should ensure its preservation for public recreation. It was also a condition that for every scheme the foundation's architect should approve the design of the entrance on which the heraldic panels were to be displayed. The governing factor with regard to the design of the entrance was ‘appropriateness’ – simple designs of character and materials suited to the neighbourhood. The local bodies were encouraged to employ an architect of their own choice, but, where desired, the foundation's architect gave the necessary guidance.
On 3 November 1936, the King George's Fields Foundation (KGFF) was constituted as a charitable trust to give effect to the scheme. The objects of the trust were "to promote and to assist in the establishment of playing fields for the use and enjoyment of the people throughout the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". All the playing fields were to be styled and called 'King George's Field' and were to be distinguished by heraldic panels of a specific nature.
These heraldic panels were issued as a gift by the foundation to all approved schemes, and became the official emblems of the national memorial.
Although there was no set recommendation on the design of memorial entrances as a suitable tribute, it was agreed that every field should bear a unique insignia associated with George V.
Designs to be approved by the Foundation
The arrangements between the Foundation and the National Playing Fields Association (NPFA) were as follows:
Playing fields were to be acquired locally, planned, equipped, maintained and safeguarded for recreational purposes with the help of a Grant-in-aid Policy set up on 1 March 1937.
All schemes, or proposals for schemes, were submitted in the first instance to the Foundation. Those that became eligible to become a 'King George's Field' were remitted for inspection and report. The Foundation's final approval of each scheme for official recognition as a 'King George's Field' carried with it the provision of heraldic panels, and the grant to be given.
Approval by the NPFAs, as trustee of the Foundation, is still sought for any schemes or proposals for King George's Fields.
The Foundation, in pursuance of its national memorial purpose, had to prescribe certain conditions as to the design of the entrance. Highly ornate and expensive entrances were not encouraged. For many schemes designs were adopted by the local bodies to meet the Foundation's minimum requirements. In this instance, local conditions and local materials were taken into consideration as an essential part of the design.
The width, material and size of entrances were governed by the size of the particular field, and by the size of community most likely to use it. It was suggested that wherever possible the actual gates should be set back from the boundary line of the field next to the road so as to provide a clear space outside for children leaving the field. In cases where a field was unfenced no actual gates would be necessary but piers bearing the heraldic panels might be placed as pylons to mark the most important point of entry.
Consideration also had to be taken into account regarding the type of stone used for the pillars. Particular attention was given to using quality local materials. For instance, stone piers in Bath would have been treated quite differently from those of Derbyshire or Cornwall. In counties where buildings and walls were predominantly built of stone, the piers would be built of the local stone. Where a field had a stone wall enclosing it, it might well be that piers would be unnecessary and that a simple raising of the wall would provide an appropriate setting for the heraldic panels. Brick piers were built of a narrow brick, not machine-pressed brick, and excessive or elaborate mouldings were avoided.
The most suitable field entrance for many villages was a wicket or field gate of English oak properly framed and pinned, hung to oak posts with hinges wrought by the local blacksmith. Where iron gates were more suitable over-elaboration was to be avoided. Designs had to be simple, made of wrought iron, and of such a type as could easily be opened and closed by children. Consideration too had to be given that the gates were strong enough to withstand rough and constant usage. The memorial panels were to be set on the upper portion of each gate pier.
The heraldic panels
Heraldic panels were made of either stone or bronze and, in some cases, brass. These panels were, and still must be, displayed at the main entrance to the field; the Lion panel to be fixed on the left of the entrance and the Unicorn panel on the right, except Scotland, where the opposite is compulsory. Where the piers of the entrance are of brick or stone, the panels were of stone high by broad. Where wooden posts form the gate-supports, smaller plaques in bronze were issued – 11¼ins high by 8¼ins broad.
The panels feature a design by George Kruger Gray. In the case of England, Wales and Northern Ireland, the panel on the left is the Lion, holding a Royal Shield, with the words 'George V' underneath, and below them 'A.D. 1910–1936'; and on the right is the Unicorn holding a similar shield with the words 'King George's Field' underneath. In the case of Scotland, the relative positions of the Lion and the Unicorn are reversed, and the Scottish arms take prior place in the Shield and the Unicorn wears a crown. The wording below is identical.
These panels are essential to the heritage of the Foundation. Subject to the Deed of Dedication, the fields are, in most cases, established on charitable trust and protected in ‘perpetuity’. The NPFA gives initial guidance and the necessary information on the specific design.
References
External links
Final Report of the King George's Fields Foundation, 1965
KGVF's List, 2010
Sports venues in the United Kingdom
Monuments and memorials in the United Kingdom
Social history of the United Kingdom
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5321956
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th/6th%20Battalion%2C%20Royal%20Victoria%20Regiment
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5th/6th Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment
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The 5th/6th Battalion ("5/6 RVR") is one of two battalions of the Royal Victoria Regiment, and is an infantry battalion of the Australian Army. The battalion traces its lineage back to many units that existed prior to Federation, as well as units that fought during World War I and World War II and the battalion carries the battle honours of these units as a mark of respect. Today 5/6 RVR is part of the 4th Brigade, 2nd Division and is based at various depots around Melbourne, Victoria. Recently, members from the battalion have been involved in deployments to the Middle East, East Timor, the Solomon Islands and Malaysia as part of Rifle Company Butterworth.
Unit history
5th/6th Battalion, The Royal Victoria Regiment is derived from earlier Australian battalions which had drawn members from the Melbourne metropolitan area. The history of this Battalion and the events leading up to their linking and the formation of the subsequent 5th/6th Battalion, The Royal Victoria Regiment is detailed below.
The Regiment
In the late 1950s, it was determined to consolidate all Army state infantry regiments into one regiment per state. With this move, several regimental histories were ended and a new chapter in the history of Victorian volunteer military forces begun. The Royal Victoria Regiment was formed on 1 July 1960. It inherits and embodies the traditions of the infantry in Victoria from the earliest units formed since 1854.
A number of previously existing Melbourne metropolitan units and Victorian regional units now make up the 5th/6th Battalion, The Royal Victoria Regiment. The regional units' traditions and histories are entrusted to 8th/7th Battalion, The Royal Victoria Regiment, which is the sister unit of 5/6 RVR. Many of the 1st AIF and the 2nd AIF units were raised directly from the skeleton of militia units on the declaration of war. For this reason, The Royal Victoria Regiment can claim more battle honours than any other regiment or unit in the Australian Defence Force.
Three Victorian battalions (5th, 6th and 58th/32nd) have been merged, split and renamed several times from 1948 through to 2003. A fourth battalion was briefly formed in the early 1970s. This constant flux and turmoil has disrupted the clarity of the battalion's heritage. The various regimental families however, sustain the unit's past and a benefit of this consolidation is the breadth of its affiliations.
With World War Two over the 2nd AIF was de-mobilised more rapidly than the similar forces of any other participating nation. It was not long however, before the fear of communism prompted the expansion of Australian Forces. In 1960, the National Service scheme ceased, resulting in an immediate reduction in strength. A substantial structural change was also about to occur, for on 30 June 1960, all battalions and their members were absorbed into the new-style pentropic 1st Battalion, The Royal Victoria Regiment (RVR).
The Korean War, coupled with a perceived threat of communism to the security of the country and surrounding regions, led to the adoption of National Service. This scheme required participants to complete three months of full-time training, followed by three years service as members of Citizens Military Force (CMF) units.
5th Battalion – The Victorian Scottish Regiment
The 5th Battalion, The Victorian Scottish Regiment (VSR) had existed prior to World War Two and was re-established on 1 April 1948, as part of the Citizen Military Forces (CMF). Just as many of the members of the pre-war VSR had helped to raise the AIF, many ex-members of the 2nd AIF returned to the colours to again raise the 5th Battalion. Battalion Headquarters was established at Hawthorn and the Companies were located at Kew, Surrey Hills, Armadale and Dandenong.
The first Commanding Officer of the new battalion was Lieutenant Colonel G.R Warfe, DSO, MC, ED. The battalion quickly undertook a variety of training and duties, providing a guard of honour on the occasion of the presentation of the Field Marshal's Baton to Sir Thomas Blamey Australia's first and as at the time of writing only active Field Marshal (the Duke of Edinburgh is also listed as a Field Marshal in the Australian Army).
The battalion colours were also recovered with great pomp and ceremony, from the Scots' Church in Melbourne. In addition, Scottish Dress was quickly approved and the VSR was soon dressed distinctively. In 1898, the VSR had originally worn a modified Gordon tartan, with the gold lines replaced by red. This was replaced by the Gordon tartan in 1930 with the approval of an alliance with the Gordon Highlanders. The battalion motto was the same as that prior to World War One: "Nemo Me Impune Lacessit". These same words are engraved at the entrance of Edinburgh Castle. Loosely translated this means "no one hurts me and gets away it with it". The battalion march was "Cock of the North", and the unit colour was gold.
The introduction of National Service in 1951 led to 5th Battalion VSR growing to be over full-strength, allowing the unit to conduct ambitious peacetime training successfully. The battalion was represented in the Coronation Contingent sent to London in 1953. In 1954 the battalion provided the Government House Ceremonial Guards during the visit of Queen Elizabeth II. In the same year, the battalion also provided troops to line the streets, with their colours, for the opening of Parliament in Canberra. The battalion was presented with new Queen's and Regimental Colours on the 12 May 1957, which are now laid up in The Scots' Church, Melbourne.
6th Battalion – The Royal Melbourne Regiment
In May, 1948, the 6th Battalion was re-formed. 6th Battalion, The Royal Melbourne Regiment (RMR) had existed prior to the Second World War and again ex-soldiers of the 2nd AIF returned to the colours, members now of the CMF. The battalion recovered its colours, adopting the motto of "Semper Paratus" or "Always Ready". The Battalion March was "Waltzing Matilda" and the unit colour was Khaki.
The battalion was established in the same Victoria Street Training Depot that they had occupied prior to the war. Today, this depot still stands near Queen Victoria Market on the corner of Therry & Victoria Streets in Melbourne. Companies were also established at Preston and Carlton. The 6th Battalion gained an influx of members due to the effects of National Service and participated in many of the major ceremonial events that the 5th Battalion VSR was involved in. The size of the unit allowed large scale and advanced training, although when the scheme ceased, the unit suffered a reduction in size. The battalion also gained a significant honour, being granted the Freedom of Entry to the City of Melbourne, on 10 March 1960. 6th Battalion's Colours are laid up in St Paul's Cathedral Melbourne.
58th/32nd Infantry Battalion – The City of Essendon Regiment
A third CMF Infantry Battalion was raised in the Melbourne area in 1948, being based predominantly in the Western and North-Western suburbs. Initially encompassing Footscray, and known as The West Melbourne Regiment, then sometime later as The Melbourne Rifles, the battalion eventually expanded to be 58th Battalion, The City of Essendon Regiment in 1955.
The battalion established its headquarters at Pascoe Vale Road Moonee Ponds and had companies at Footscray and Brunswick. It gained many new members through National Service, but lost many when the scheme ceased. This battalion was also absorbed into 1 RVR, when the pentropic organisation was adopted in 1960. Unlike the 5th and the 6th battalions the 58th Battalion has not since reappeared in the Australian Army's Order of Battle, yet strong links are still maintained by the 58th/32nd Battalion Association. The current Moonee Ponds Depot is still the location for their annual ANZAC day service. The 58th Battalion Colours were laid up on the 10 May 1970 located at the Essendon Town Hall. The 32nd Battalion Colours were laid up in August 1970, and are at St John's Anglican Church in Footscray.
1960–1965 – The Pentropic experiment
A re-assessment of optimal fighting strengths and structure resulted in the Australian Army adopting a Pentropic arrangement for its battalions in 1960. All of the Victorian CMF Infantry units were affected by this and two units were created to replace the five older ones. 1 RVR comprised most metropolitan sub-units whilst 2 RVR was built from a mixture of city and metropolitan units.
The pentropic arrangement comprised five rifle companies, a support company, an administration company and a command element. For 1 RVR the break up of the Sub-units was as follows:
A Company (The Merri Coy);
B Company (The Scottish Coy);
C Company (The Melbourne Coy) from the 6th Battalion;
D Company (The Essendon Coy);
E Company (The Footscray Coy) from the 58th/32nd Battalion; and
Support Company was established from the 5th Battalion.
The term Royal Victoria Regiment had been adopted at the outset of the formation of the new unit, to reflect the connection of the unit with the State from which it was raised. This was an effort to uphold the traditions and maintain the ties to the local communities. At the same time, a new badge was adopted, which is still retained by current units. The regiment celebrated its birthday on 1 July 1960 as a result of this union.
1965–1982 – A period of expansion
The pentropic arrangement was found to be generally unsuitable for use within the Australian Army and by 1965, alternatives had been studied and selected. On the 3 May 1965 both 1 RVR and 2 RVR were again split to form the following five units:
1st Battalion, The Royal Victoria Regiment (Melbourne Area),
2nd Battalion, The Royal Victoria Regiment (Country Areas),
5th Battalion, The Royal Victoria Regiment (Melbourne Area),
6th Battalion, The Royal Victoria Regiment (Melbourne Area), and
1st Independent Rifle Company (Mildura).
When National service ended in 1960 CMF units were again eroded, as they became completely voluntary units. However, National Service was again introduced in 1965, offering six years voluntary service in the CMF or two years full-time service, subject to being balloted by birth date, enabling all of the metropolitan units to remain at good manning levels. This scheme was abolished in 1973, however, and the Government commissioned a review into the training and organisation of the CMF. One result from this was that the CMF became known as the Australian Army Reserve or as it is more widely known: The Army Reserve.
1 RVR:
The creation of 1 RVR essentially replaced 58th Battalion as the third metropolitan battalion. As with its predecessor, it was concentrated in the western and north-western parts of Melbourne. In 1975, 1 RVR absorbed both the 5 & 6 RVR due to all units being well below strength. This caused disruption to many members and was due at least in part to the fallout from the Australian involvement in Vietnam and the generally uninterested public view of the military following that unpopular conflict. With changes to its conditions of service, the number of people in the Army Reserve began to drop significantly. On the 14 November 1987, 1 RVR was absorbed into 5/6 RVR. The colours of 1 RVR were laid up on 25 April 1988 and remain at the Essendon Town Hall.
5 RVR:
5th Battalion was again manned effectively and in its distinctive dress. However, in 1966, a directive was issued that only one company in a Battalion was allowed to wear the traditional Scottish dress, a move that was not popular. The battalion received its new colours on 19 October 1969 at Royal Melbourne Showgrounds by His Excellency the Governor General of Victoria, Major General Sir Rohan Delacombe, KCMG, KBE, CB, DSO, KStJ. The Vietnam War saw the general community lose enthusiasm for the military, and the strength of all of the Battalions fell accordingly. The end of the involvement in Vietnam, and the end of National Service, severely affected the 5th Battalion. By 1975 the situation precipitated the amalgamation of all of the Victorian Battalions. 5 RVR's Colours were laid up once more although it would not be long before they would represent another unit.
6 RVR:
The 6th Battalion once again took over its old stamping grounds with the end of the pentropic arrangements. As with 2 RVR and 5 RVR, 6 RVR was presented with new colours on 19 October 1969 at the Royal Melbourne Showgrounds. Due to community disinterest of Defence issues and the abolition of National Service, 6 RVR was amalgamated with the 5 RVR into 1 RVR in 1975. 6 RVR's Colours were laid up.
3 RVR:
In 1973, in an era of declined interest in the Army Reserve, the four Victoria State infantry battalions and the independent rifle company were formed into one battalion for a major exercise and named 3 RVR. LTCOL Barry Ingram AM RFD ED was Commanding Officer. An unprecedented amount of resources were deployed to support 3RVR during its brief existence. This even included support from the RAAF.
The 1980s
5/6 RVR
On 17 August 1982 a new Melbourne battalion was created: 5th/6th Battalion, The Royal Victoria Regiment. 5/6 RVR adopted the traditions of both The Victorian Scottish Regiment and the Royal Melbourne Regiment and recovered both sets of Colours to reflect this. The battalion also maintained its previous allegiances with The Gordon Highlanders and their extended affiliates, The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers and 6th Battalion, The Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment. The amalgamation also involved combining some aspects of both units. The unit lanyard went from being just one colour to being a twisted braid of gold and khaki. The unit adopted "Our Director" as the battalion march, however, this was then changed to a combination of "Cock O' the North" and "Waltzing Matilda" incorporating the original marches of the 5th and 6th Battalions respectively. A Pipes and Drums was raised, and this is now the Regimental Band.
On 14 November 1987 1 RVR was absorbed into 5/6 RVR thus ending any connection with the pentropic organisation of the 1960s era. The Dibb Report of the mid-1980s saw the 5th/6th Battalion and the 4th Brigade given the task of Vital Asset Protection of the Tindal Air Force Base in the Northern Territory as its primary role. 5/6 RVR participated in two large multinational Kangaroo exercises in 1989 in support of this objective and also sent smaller elements to the region on other exercises.
In 1988, a decision was made to reintroduce Colour Patches for the first time since the end of the Second World War. The original 5th Battalion patch (as worn the day the 5th Battalion, 1st AIF, raised in Melbourne later to land at ANZAC Cove on the 25 April 1915) was adopted for the 5/6 RVR. This patch of a black rectangle on top of a red rectangle is worn on the puggaree of the slouch hat.
The 1990s
A change of Federal Government in 1995 led to a review of which impacted directly on the 4th Brigade in general and 5/6 RVR in particular. The brigade was to be "revitalized" and recruitment was stepped up to try (unsuccessfully) to increase the size of the battalion. At the same time more Regular Army Staff (including temporarily, a full-time Battalion Commander Lieutenant Colonel Mick Godfrey) were posted to try to increase the readiness and training tempo of the unit.
Training was well resourced and tested by independent observers in a readiness test at the Cultana training area in 1999, in which 5/6 RVR performed extremely well. The battalion also supplied a company group to rotate through the Butterworth Airbase, Malaysia, in Nov 1999 – Jan 2000. The company group was drawn primarily from 5/6 RVR with additional attachments coming from other units of 4th Brigade of the 2nd Division.
In 1999/2000 the escalating crisis in East Timor saw Australian troops leading a multinational 'intervention' force (INTERFET). Many Reservists initially served to "backfill" Australian Regular Army (ARA) positions when they were deployed to Timor with the 6th Battalion, The Royal Australian Regiment. As Australia's commitment to maintain a battalion was ongoing, a Rifle Company was raised from Reservists throughout Australia to serve with 5th/7th Battalion, The Royal Australian Regiment (RAR). This first tour of duty was from November 2002 until May 2003. Soldiers from both RVR battalions along with their NSW counterparts provided the majority of Reservists on Full Time Service. Timor was the first time since the mobilisation of the Militia (AMF) in the Papua New Guinea campaign of World War II that 'Citizen Soldiers' saw active service. At the conclusion of this deployment, many were to elect to remain in the Australian Regular Army whilst most returned home to Reserve Service.
The new millennium
2000–2003
In the year 2000 up to 200 5/6 RVR soldiers served with the ADF contingent in support of the Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games (SOCOG) under "Operation Gold". Known as the Operational Search Company their duties included conducting area searches, building searches and manning vehicle checkpoints. Whilst full-time leadership and increased readiness had their benefits, increased time requirements for individual training for recruit and promotion courses contributed to a decline in Unit strength over the 2001/2002 period. The role of the Army Reserve was changing and so was 5/6 RVR in response to those changes. A dedicated staff of Reservists and full-time members continued to work to provide the expertise and staffing required to train and develop young and upcoming 5/6 RVR soldiers.
In early 2003, the Reserve Response Force (RRF) concept was being rolled out to 4th Brigade. 5/6 RVR was chosen to lead the first Reserve based 4th Brigade RRF. The RRF role was then devolved to unit level and 5/6 RVR continued to strengthen its role through Bravo Company, the largest Company, which was chosen to lead the battalion's RRF elements.
The Sesquicentenary – 150th anniversary
In 2004 5/6 RVR celebrated its Sesquicentenary – or 150th anniversary. A "Sesquicentenary Committee" was formed chaired by the Commanding Officer, LT COL Mark Richards. The committee was functionally led by Battalion 2IC MAJ Terry Kanellos and included current and past members of the battalion and networked extensively with the help of MAJ GEN James Barry, MAJ GEN Greg Garde and the then Regimental Colonel, COL Paul Riley. A number of activities and functions were planned throughout the year involving all ranks.
The year began with a series of Unit History presentations given throughout the battalion by Company personnel. Working with the support of Battalion Associations, the committee planned and conducted the following activities:
An All Ranks Reception at Government House hosted by his Excellency, Mr John Landy AO, Governor of Victoria on 17 September 2004;
A Freedom of the City of Melbourne march on 16 October 2004;
Gala Ball – The Atrium Room Flemington Racecourse on 16 October 2004;
An Employer Function – Hosted and sponsored by Mr & Mrs Dick and Jeanne Pratt at their Raheen Residence in Kew, Victoria on 25 November 2004; and
An End of Year Battalion Christmas Party at the Telstra Dome on 11 December 2004.
The year also saw an increasing focus on the Battalion's role in 4 Brigade's Reserve Response Force (RRF), with an emphasis on training and individual preparedness. Urban tactical training and joint exercises held with The Victoria Police were performed to strengthen the battalion's ability to work with civil emergency services and giving commanders valuable experiences. The success of the year being measured by attendances of over 300 guests at the Gala Ball in October and similar numbers at the end of year function at the Telstra Dome.
2005 – New CO takes 5/6 RVR to Canungra
2005 built on the gains of the previous year and a new Commanding Officer LT COL Neil Grimes marched in. The importance of individual preparedness was re-emphasised as Army Individual Readiness Notice (AIRN) criteria were applied to each member and it prepared for its annual field exercise (AFX) at Canungra in Queensland. A year for record Recruiting numbers, the benefits of one of the largest intakes of recruits in recent years also came to realisation, with all companies having new members join their ranks. 2005 also 5/6 RVR exercised its freedom of entry to the City of Boroondara on Sunday 17 October 2005.
2006 – Operation Acolyte
In 2006, the battalion made a significant contribution to the conduct of the Commonwealth Games held in Melbourne during February and March on Operation Acolyte. Over 100 personnel drawn from throughout the battalion participated in the 10-week operation including searches of the Melbourne Cricket Ground, the Commonwealth Games Village in Parkville and the Melbourne Sports and Aquatic Centre. Members acted in both a military and civilian capacity with selected members being directly employed by the Melbourne 2006 organisation. Military members manned checkpoints and staffed a vehicle screening facility known as the Logistics Screening Zone where deliveries to locked down venues were electronically screened prior to entry.
Hardened & Networked Army
The Hardened & Networked Army (HNA) proposal was Army's response to the need to fight on a more complex and lethal battlefield. It would provide increased combat weight and generate greater organisational depth in Army and a greater focus on combined arms battlegroups and combat teams rather than infantry battalion and company groups. The result of HNA would be increased options for Government in terms of both the combat weight of the force that can be deployed and the duration that forces can be sustained on operations. Implementation of HNA started in 2006 and the force structure changes were due to be complete by the end of 2015.
Following HNA, a new structure emerged known as the High Readiness Reserve or HRR Combat Team. 4 BDE HRR was formed from a number of Units but predominantly manned and commanded by 5/6 RVR. The HRR Combat Team successfully participated in the Talisman Sabre series of major exercises with regular battalions and also contributed significantly to the East Timor deployment known as TLTG-4 in 2012.
A new role for the Army Reserve emerged in late 2006 with Army raising 2 new ARA infantry battalions. The structure of infantry battalions also changed and 5/6 RVR merged Delta Company at Simpson Barracks with Bravo Company Surrey Hills. Delta Company became known as 6 Platoon B Company, proud company members celebrated their last function together as Delta Company in December 2006. In August 2007, the battalion lost the old Delta Company depot at Simpson Barracks, and now all Bravo Company members parade at Surrey Hills.
Solomon Islands
In recent years, the 5th/6th Battalion has continued its tradition of overseas service by providing troops for Operation Anode as part of the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI), contributing to the first and probably last Solomon Island deployments: Op Citadel, Op Anode Rotation 13 in 2007, Rotation 15 in 2008, Rotation 18 in 2009 and Rotation 30 in 2013.
Current structure
Today 5/6 RVR is organised as a standard light infantry battalion, with its respective sub-units situated throughout metropolitan Melbourne. In 2013, the 2nd/10th Field Regiment, based at 8 Chapel Street, St Kilda East, was downsized to a single battery and incorporated into the battalion's structure. In 2018, the battery was removed from the battalion to form part of the newly raised 9th Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery.
Current unit locations are:
Battalion Headquarters (BHQ) – 202 Burwood Road, Hawthorn
Alpha Company – 65 Princess Highway, Dandenong
Bravo Company – 12 Robinson Road, Surrey Hills
Charlie Company – 67 Royal Avenue, Sandringham
Delta Company – 127 Pascoe Vale Road, Moonee Ponds
During the Army Reserve training year (typically from mid February to early December), members of 5/6 RVR attend their respective depots every Tuesday night from 7:00 to 10:00. Battalion Headquarters is also open 8:00am to 4:00pm on weekdays. The battalion conducts a training weekend once a month, at a variety of locations, such as Simpson Barracks, Puckapunyal and RAAF Williams.
Battle honours
The traditions, customs and experiences of infantry soldiers based in Melbourne are enshrined within the battalion and the various associations. As a tribute to previous units, 5/6 RVR holds the most battle honours and historically carries the following battle honours emblazoned on its colours:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Regimental Colour
! Queens Colour
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| South Africa (1899–1902)
| Bardia 1941
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| Pozieres
| Capture of Tobruk
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| Ypres 1917
| El Alamein
|-
| Amiens
| Greece 1941
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| Mont St Quentin
| South West Pacific 1942–45
|-
| Somme 1916, 1918
| Bobdubi II
|-
| Bullecourt
| Lae-Nadzab
|-
| Polygon Wood
| Finisterres
|-
| Albert 1918
| Hari River
|-
| Hindenburg Line
| Borneo
|-
| Landing at ANZAC
|
|}
Pipes and Drums
Formed in 1899 as part of The Victorian Scottish Regiment, the 5/6 RVR Pipes and Drums is today the band for all battalions of the Royal Victoria Regiment. It is supported by the RVR Pipes and Drums Association, an incorporated body.
Alliances
– once The Gordon Highlanders – then Highlanders (Seaforth, Gordons and Camerons) – now Royal Regiment of Scotland
– The Royal Regiment of Canada
– The Toronto Scottish Regiment – via Gordon Alliance
– 48th Highlanders of Canada – via Gordon Alliance
– Cape Town Highlanders Regiment – via Gordon Alliance
– Lake Superior Scottish Regiment
– Mercian Regiment
– The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers - via Royal Melbourne Regiment
See also
Australian Army
Australian Army Reserve
List of Australian Army Regiments
Royal Victoria Regiment
London Scottish Regiment
8th/7th Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment
Notes
References
External links
Official website of 4 Brigade
5/6RVR Pipes and Drums
Military units and formations of the Australian Army
Royal Victoria Regiment
Scottish regiments
Military units and formations established in 1982
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5322109
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hog%20Hoggidy%20Hog
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Hog Hoggidy Hog
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Hog Hoggidy Hog was a band from Cape Town, South Africa. The band blended a mixture of punk, ska and many other influences, including traditional African music to create an original sound, sometimes referred to as Porkrock. The band was active within the South African music scene from 1995 to 2015. They toured the European circuit from 2005 until 2015. They were one of the longest standing live acts in South Africa and are often regarded as the best band that ever came out from South Africa for their intensely original music. They are credited as being the frontrunners and founders of the SA punk scene and are sometimes also referred to as the godfathers of punk in SA, regularly cited as being the first punks in SA to have mohawks and dreadlocks. They have also had a profound impact on South African alternative music influencing bands from The Rudimentals to Fokofpolisiekar.
History
Formation and early years (1995–97)
The original line-up of Hog Hoggidy Hog was George Bacon on vocals, Sean Snout on Bass, Peter Porker on Drums and Amos Keeto on guitar. Bacon and Snout both played in thrash/hardcore/ska/punk band, Leviathan (which eventually set the blueprint for much of what became the Hog Hoggidy Hog sound). Keeto played in surf/thrash band, Cerebral Frenzy and Porker was the drummer for death metal band, Decimated. Bacon, Keeto and Porker all attended the same college together. Keeto and Bacon had also known each other previously from the beach in the Cape Town surf scene and they all knew each other from the relatively small Cape Town underground music scene. So when all of their respective bands broke up around the same time, they decided to form Hog Hoggidy Hog. It wasn't always an obvious choice of band members. Apparently Poker wanted to, "...start a band that sings about death and Satan" and Skeeto wasn't really a big fan of ska or punk. The band admits to thinking that nothing serious would ever come of Hog Hoggidy Hog, but they went ahead and made it official on 24 June 1995. Because they all had quite different influences, the band didn't actually decide on a genre and their intention was to borrow from any and all genres and see what came of it. After only a few months together, the band played their first show at The Purple Turtle opening up for The Springbok Nude Girls. Right up until ten minutes before they went on stage, they were still undecided on a name for the band. Bacon and Skeeto wanted to call the band The Dingleberries, whereas Snout and Porker wanted to call it Hog Hoggidy Hog. Evidently it was Snout that made the final call, Bacon and Keeto weren't happy, but as they hardly expected the band to last, they didn't think too much of it. It is unclear exactly where the name Hog Hoggidy Hog originated. The band like to make fun of this question in interviews and generally give a different answer every time it's asked.
The sound of the band in the beginning was relatively eclectic, but it was already in this early stage that the Hogs experimented with traditional African sounds such as the Cape Goema inspired song, Nkosi Concertina. The band was well received from the beginning, but didn't really think that they were going anywhere and very nearly called it a day. It was around this time that Porker had negotiated a record deal with Way Cool Records. Way Cool was an independent label started by an old punk rocker turned advertising executive, Hennie La Grange. He started the label with the sole purpose of recording the Hogs, but later went on to sign, among others, Fungy gone West, Pothole and 7th Breed. Porker, however, left the band to emigrate to England shortly before the first album could be recorded. The Hogs got in old Leviathan drummer, Robin 'Porkchop' Stehlik to take over. At this stage the band was now 3 quarters of the old Leviathan members and while still keeping to the plan of borrowing from various genres, the Hogs started going more in the direction of punk and ska. The punk scene at the time was Hog Hoggidy Hog and a group of about 4 or 5 friends, but the band started holding 'punk nights' at Arties Underground, where the scene started to grow and eventually a few more bands appeared too such as Fungy gone West and Diminished Return (The original incarnation of 3 Chord Theory).
Fishpaste & Vibe and drug addiction (1997–99)
It was around this time that Hog Hoggidy Hog recorded the album, 'Fishpaste & Vibe'. The first single, 'The Popstar Explosion' was released as a cassette in 1996 and the original pressing was completely sold out on the first day of release. Popstar explosion was the first local punk song ever to be played on national radio and the popularity of the band and the scene as a whole increased even more. In late 1996 Hog Hoggidy Hog did their first tour to Johannesburg and released the 'Timebomb' EP cassette. Stehlik left the band at the end of 1996 before the full-length album was released and although he was only part of the writing process for two songs, his influence on the band stuck. David Myburgh (Later Miss David Mybergie) drummer for future label buddies, Pothole, filled in on drums 'temporarily' until the band could find a suitable replacement. 'Fishpaste & Vibe' was eventually released in 1997. This was the first SA punk album to be released on CD and the 2nd single, 'Jim' reached the top ten on the national rock charts. 'Fishpaste & Vibe' was a relative success and everything seemed to be going right for the band. However, by late 1997, although Myburgh was still filling in at shows, the band still hadn't found a permanent drummer. By 1998 the Hogs had lost the momentum from 'Fishpaste & Vibe'. They were in the writing process for the next album, but the newer material tended to be more experimental (sources say that this was mostly due to the band's excessive drug and alcohol abuse at the time) and most of it never ever made it out of the practice room. Bacon says of this time period, "I was fairly convinced that I would be dead by the age of 25". The band was eventually dropped from the label as well as kicked out of their practice studio. Myburgh was also fired from Pothole for his excessive substance abuse, but on the bright side this enabled him to become a permanent member of Hog Hoggidy Hog as Miss David Mybergie. In late 1998 Bacon and Keeto moved in together. It was at this point that the band started pulling themselves back together and a period of renewed inspiration followed and the band started focusing on the music once again. It was during this period that tracks such as Time 4 Love, Just a Lie and John & Philippp's song were written.
Porkrock sound, touring, and "Naked" (1999–2003)
1999 was seen as a turning point for the Hogs. It was the year that Lee Lips first joined the band and the first introduction of horns to the Porkrock sound. The Time 4 Love single was recorded for a music video shortly after Lips joined. The single was extremely well received and placed in the top 5 of the national rock charts. Their new national popularity lead to the band getting out of Cape Town more and their first solo tour to Gauteng. This was when Hogs first met up with the two other main pioneers of the SA scene, Leek & The Bouncing Uptones from Pretoria and Fuzigish from Joburg. In late 1999 the band was invited to play at their first major mainstream festival at the 3 Passes Festival in Wolseley, Western Cape. The Hogs were supposed to play at 18:00 on the Friday night, however, dummer Mybergie had got arrested on the way to the festival for possession of illegal substances. The band eventually managed to get him out, but only in time to play the 22:00 headline slot. Mybergie claimed at the time, "This shows you, crime does pay." In 2000 The band recorded the single Just a Lie for the Croakroom Records compilation. Croakroom was an independent label from Joburg and the compilation featured international bands such as Nofx, Millencolin and New Found Glory alongside South African bands such as Hog Hoggidy Hog, Fuzigish, Leek & the Bouncing Uptones, Pet Flyz (Pretoria), Humphrey the Teacup (Joburg), Crossingpoint (Durban) and The Vendetta Cartel (Joburg). A lot of the friendships and bonds made in these early days set the foundations for the infrastructure of the SA scene on a national level and paved the way for a touring circuit to be used much more frequently. In late 2000 the Hogs went into the studio to record a new album. By this stage the band already had a reputation as a formidable live act and apparently had wanted to recreate that on the album. Lips recalls, "We wanted to capture the live energy so we did everything exactly like we would have at a live show, right down to the two cases of beer and a bottle each of tequila and whiskey. Although it was a lot of fun, in the end it just sounded like a drunken mess."
During the recording of the album, Lips also announced that he would be emigrating to Scotland to follow the girl of his dreams. This was when the song, Bye Lips was written. A young 17-year-old Ross McDonald was brought in to replace Lips, but the band found that the trombone sound wasn't cutting through the punk rock quite like the trumpet did. This was when the band decided to get a two piece horn section and played a few shows with Andrew Chicken of Fungy gone West, then Jody Engelbrecht of Rudimentals and finally Miles McDonald (McDonald's older brother) alongside McDonald. Meanwhile, in Scotland, Lips and his girlfriend broke up and he decided to return to Cape Town. This was just in time for the Hogs to release the album, Driving Over Miss Davie in 2001. Although the band claim that the album is "a drunken mess", it was still really well received with two of the singles reaching the top 5 of the national rock charts and most of the band's defining songs are said to have been on this album. Hog Hoggidy Hog also did their first nationwide SA tour and were by then well known throughout the country as one of the pioneers of the scene. The July 2001 edition of Cosmopolitan (magazine) SA featured a naked picture of the Hogs. Following which the band kept being asked to take their clothes off on stage. In late 2001 the Hogs played a small intimate show at the Bio Cafe at CityVarsity in Cape Town. The show was said to have been poorly organised and the sound for the opening bands was apparently very bad. It was at this point that the Hogs, evidently wanting to take the focus off the poor sound, decided to walk out onto stage completely naked. The band then encouraged the audience to get naked too, by the end of the set the entire venue was full of naked to semi-naked people. It is a little known fact that the Hog song, Naked was first performed on this night and because it didn't have a title at the time, they just ended up calling it the Naked song. The Hogs' penchant for excess and debauchery was renowned, but Mybergie's alcohol and Crack cocaine addictions started affecting the band a little too much. The band admits to having to secretly drug Mybergie with sleeping pills while on tour in order to keep him under control. Eventually Mybergie was replaced by Mike Horne in 2003. Snout recalls, "When Davie was still in the band it was probably the closest we ever were as a band. Having to fire him was one of the hardest decisions we've ever had to make, but it was obvious that we couldn't carry on the way things were going." With Horne now on Drums, the Hogs went into the studio again to record Naked (the song) with renowned producer, Theo Crous. This was released on the Naked EP along with all the music videos off Driving Over Miss Davie and a couple of live tracks. The band was extremely happy with how the song turned out and continued to work with Crous for their next full-length album.
Oink! and European tour (2004–08)
The recording of the Oink! album was another turning point for the band. Although, the music itself hadn't changed much, finally having a professional recording saw the band being accepted a lot more into the mainstream. In an interview for MCA Bacon once said, "We never wanted it, we certainly didn't ask for it and you never really feel comfortable with it. I mean, we spent most of the last decade fighting against the mainstream and now all of a sudden that's supposed to be cool?" The song Great Escape was apparently written about the conflicts the band felt at this time. Oink! Became a quintessential album in, not just the SA punk scene, but for SA music as a whole with a generation of musicians and bands over wide range of differing backgrounds and genres siting this album as having influenced them in some way or another. However, the landscape of SA broadcasting had changed quite dramatically since the previous release so ironically, this was the first time Hog Hoggidy Hog released an album without any singles that would make the national radio charts. In response to the political changes in national broadcasting, the popularity of campus stations went through a boom phase and because songs from Hog Hoggidy Hog's Oink! were being played extensively on campus radios across the country, the band benefited from it too. In 2005 they toured Europe for the first time. The tour was documented on the, Hog Hoggidy Hog Tourope 2005 documentary released in 2006. It's in this documentary that George Bacon can be seen wearing a cast on his foot after breaking some bones kicking over a monitor in frustration at a poorly organised festival in Paarl, Western Cape. By this stage the band had played headlining slots at every major festival in the country. Earlier in 2005, Lee Thompson and Ross McDonald co-produced the debut album of another up and coming Cape Town ska band called Captain Stu. In 2007, they went back to Europe again. The tour must have been quite excessive because trombonist, Ross McDonald, upon landing at Cape Town airport, was taken directly to rehab for alcohol and substance abuse. South Africa had by then reached the radar of international acts wanting to tour somewhere slightly different. Hog Hoggidy Hog got to play with, and also, in conjunction with Punk Safari, helped to organize the SA shows for bands such as Lagwagon, Nofx, Mad Caddies, Frenzal Rhomb and more. The band then go to working on their next studio album. However, Mike Horne announced he would be leaving the band. Horne still continued on to recording on the album, but was in the meantime replaced by Sean DV. Lips recalls his first meeting DV, "We were at a festival and George pointed out the person he was considering to replace Mike on drums. I looked around and there was DV, lying facedown, passed out in the dirt. From that moment, I knew he was our man!". Whilst working on the new album, the band received some tragic news. On 1 December 2008, Ex-drummer and still close friend, Miss Davie Mybergie had died. He was apparently stabbed outside of a 7 Eleven in his home suburb of Southfield while buying cigarettes, but the rest of the details remain unclear. Although there were witnesses who identified the killer, he still remains at large. Although Mybergie hadn't been in the band for a few years, the band is said to have remained in contact with him and were deeply affected by his death. Singer George Bacon gave the eulogy at his funeral.
Method to the Madness, and recognition (2009–14)
The Hogs released the album Method to the Madness in 2009 and dedicated it to the memory of ex-drummer, Mybergie. The album saw the sound of the Hogs taking a much heavier and less commercial musical direction. Although the album was less 'radio friendly' than their previous offerings, various singles including Carry On, Out of Control and Sherry Anne did extremely well on the campus radio charts and received heavy rotation on campus and independent radio stations across the country. The album Method to the Madness was nominated for a SAMA (South African Music Awards) in 2010. In 2010 Hog Hoggidy Hog also released the music video for the single Sherry Anne. The video spent a number of weeks at number 1 on the popular MK (channel) music video charts in South Africa and was nominated for an MK Award also in 2010. The Sherry Anne video was also play-listed on MTV Brasil. In 2011 Method to the Madness was also released in Europe on an independent label, Southern Pulse. The Hogs followed this up with another European tour in 2011 hitting the festival circuit in Slovenia sharing the stage with bands like Nofx, Bad Religion, Strung Out, The Toasters, The Real McKenzies, The Bouncing Souls, Total Chaos, Talco and more. The Hogs toured Europe once again in 2012 and have had well-received shows in Germany, Austria, Slovenia, England, Switzerland, Czech Republic and Netherlands. According to the band's Facebook page, they are currently working on a new album and hope to support that up with a South African as well as a European tour.
Bacon's death and twentieth anniversary (2015–present)
Following the death of lead singer George Bacon in May 2015, the band's future is currently unclear.
George Bacon was found dead in his car the morning after a Hogs reunion gig. The gig was the first show of a new South African tour
Members
Present members
Amos Keeto — guitar
Sean Snout — bass guitar
Lee Lips — trumpet
Ross McDonald — trombone
Sean Devey — drums
Past members
Peter Porker — drums
Robin Stehlik — drums
Miss David Mybergie — drums
Mike Horne — drums
George Bacon — vocals
Discography
Studio albums
Fishpaste & Vibe (1997)
Driving Over Miss Davie (2001)
Oink! (2005)
Method to the Madness (2009)
Extended plays
The Popstar Explosion (1996)
Timebomb (1996)
The Happy Medium (2000)
Naked (2003)
Videography
"Hogmosh" (1996)
(1999)
(2001)
(2001)
"Just a Lie" (2001)
Tourope 2005 (2006)
(2009)
References
External links
South African punk rock groups
Third-wave ska groups
Musical groups established in 1995
1995 establishments in South Africa
Musical groups from Cape Town
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto%20Landell%20de%20Moura
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Roberto Landell de Moura
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Father Roberto Landell de Moura (January 21, 1861 – June 30, 1928), commonly known as Roberto Landell, was a Brazilian Roman Catholic priest and inventor. He is best known for his work developing long-distance audio transmissions, using a variety of technologies, including an improved megaphone device, photophone (using light beams) and radio signals.
It was reported in June 1899 that he had successfully transmitted audio over a distance of 7 kilometers (4.3 miles), which was followed by a second, public, demonstration on June 3, 1900. A lack of technical details makes it uncertain which sending technology was being used, however, if radio signals were employed, then these would be the earliest reported audio transmissions by radio. Landell received patents in Brazil and the United States during the first decade of the 1900s.
He had many technical and financial difficulties to develop his research, he worked most of the time alone and found a lot of resistance and disbelief on the part of authorities and the population, which prevented his recognition in life from being broader, but in certain spheres his stature scientific research was duly appreciated and it is known that he rejected opportunities to publicize its inventions. Thus, the popular idea that was formed around him as a persecuted, wronged and suffered scientist facing an insensitive and obscurantist world, is a partial truth. His biography still has many gaps and only part of his scientific legacy has been studied, with a lot of autograph documentation still to be explored. In any case, in Brazil he has already received a series of official honors and recognitions. He is honorary citizen of city of São Paulo, patron of Science, Technology and Innovation in the municipality of Porto Alegre, patron of Brazilian radio amateurs, and in 2012, by presidential decree, his name was inscribed in the Tancredo Neves Pantheon of the Fatherland and Freedom .
Early life
Robert Landell de Moura was born in Porto Alegre, Brazil in 1862. His father was Ignacio de Moura, and he had five brothers: João, Edmundo and Ricardo (all apothecaries), Dr. Ignacio Landell, a physician, and Pedro Landell de Moura, a São Paulo merchant. He was ordained to the Catholic priesthood in 1886 in Rome, and also conducted studies in the physical sciences.
Experimental work
Landell began experiments in wireless communication in Campinas and São Paulo in the period 1893–1894. A biographical review recounted that he "...invented his apparatus in Porto Alegre, and as soon as he arrived in São Paulo in 1896, he began with preliminary experiments, to achieve his object — to transmit human voice to a distance of 8, 10 or 12 kilometers, without using any wires". (The three listed distances referred to the transmission ranges for his megaphone, optical photophone, and radio devices respectively.)
Initial development
A report reprinted in the June 14, 1899 Jornal do Commercio stated that Landell had successfully conducted spoken-word wireless transmissions over distances exceeding 7 kilometers, "using the ether, telluric currents and electrified air" and employing an approach that was "entirely different from those of European inventions". The next month a notice in the July 16, 1899 Jornal do Commercio, dated the previous day, reported that "Father Landell de Moura will hold an experiment on wireless telephony tomorrow" and "various authorities, men of science and representatives of the press are invited to attend". However, there does not appear to be any additional information about this demonstration.
A year later, the June 10, 1900 issue of the Jornal do Commercio reported that on June 3 Landell made a public wireless telephony demonstration in the town of Alto de Sant Anna in the city of São Paulo, and the witnesses included P. C. P. Lupton, the British Consul, and his family. Shortly thereafter, the newspaper's June 16, 1900 issue printed the text of a letter Father Landell sent to Lupton prior to the demonstration, which noted that he would only be able to demonstrate five of his numerous inventions: the "Telauxiofono", "Caleofono", "Anematofono", "Teletiton" and "Edifono". In 1907 The Brazil of To-day provided English language descriptions of these devices:
Telauxiofono (also spelled "telauxiophono" and "telauxiophone") "is the last word of the telephone, not only because of the force and intelligibility with which it transmits the words, but also because with it telephoning at great distances becomes a practical and economical reality."
Caleofono (also spelled "caleophono", "kaleophono" and "kaleophone") "works also with wire, and presents the originality of not needing to ring the bell to call, to hear the articulated sounds, or that of the instrument."
Anematofono (also spelled "anematophono" and anematophone") and teletiton "are wireless telephones. The perfect operation of these apparatus, according to what their inventor says, reveals laws entirely new and is altogether most curious."
Edifono (also spelled "ediphono" and "ediphone") "is useful to purify and soften the phonographed voice of the parasitical vibrations, reproducing it just as the natural voice."
In his letter Landell also proposed that, with the support of British government, he could continue research to commercially develop his inventions, being compensated only for living expenses and the funds needed to continue his studies and scientific experiments. In addition, he offered to establish two facilities in England, dedicated to providing care for the sons and daughters of soldiers recently killed in the Second Boer War. However, the British government did not take him up on his offer.
In late 1900, a Rio de Janeiro newspaper carried an article about an English invention, Colonel George Edward Gouraud's "Gouraudphone" (rendered as Gouraudphono in Portuguese), which was a high-powered megaphone designed for long-distance communication. Contemporary accounts describe the Gouraudphone as a "talking foghorn": a sound amplifier that operated by "working a piston-valve in a cylinder and vibrating a current of air or gas, entering another cylinder and vibrating a large diaphragm which gives out an imitation of the original sounds. The intensity of the sound can be increased by having more than one piston and cylinder regulating air currents, so that the speech might be heard for several miles." Dr. José Rodrigues Botet took exception to this report, and the December 16, 1900 issue of the La Voz de España carried a letter from him insisting that it was actually Landell who deserved credit for developing the underlying technology used by the Gouraudphone. Botet's letter stated that over the years he had personally witnessed Landell, working alone, develop advanced wire and wireless telegraphy and telephony equipment, while never receiving the recognition he deserved as "Brazil's eminent son".
1901 Brazilian patent
Landell received his first patent, no. 3,279, from the Brazilian government on March 9, 1901. It covered a device for providing two-way "Phonetic transmission at a distance, with or without wire, through space, Earth and water". Two configurations were described: a full design, known as the "Tellogostomo", and a simpler version, called the "Telauxiophone":
Tellogostomo: The construction information stated that the full assembly was divided into four boxes. A telescope, compass, and level were attached to aid correct orientation of the communicating units. Also specified was a "compulsor", described as "an electric fan of great speed of rotation", which, because of the noise it made, had to be turned off when receiving. The design included a "photophore", or light source "of great intensity", and headphones were specified for use when receiving signals.
The patent specifications provide only limited information on how the device operated. It appears that the transmitting process employed a speaking tube that directed sounds into the device, causing vibrations which were strengthened by the airflow from the compulsor fan. The device would then act as a megaphone, amplifying the sound. The unit could also be used to operate a standard photophone, with the photophore's bright light modulated by the sonic vibrations, so that at the receiving site this flickering light beam could be converted back into sound.
The patent diagrams do not include any radio equipment, although the accompanying description mentions the potential of adding a "Branly tube" for receiving radio signals. (A Branly tube, more commonly known as a "coherer", was a simple form of radio signal detector, which was limited to on-off operations, so it could only be used to receive the dots-and-dashes of Morse code, and could not be used to receive audio radio transmissions).
Telauxiophone: The patent specified that many of the components used for transmissions through the air — including the telescope, compass, level, compulsor fan, photophore light source and acoustic tube — could be eliminated in a simpler version of the device
The names specified for transmissions made through water were Telhydrauliograph for telegraphic signalling, and Telhydrauliophone for telephonic usage.
1904 United States patents
In June 1901 Landell left Brazil and traveled to Italy, then to France, and arrived in the United States in August, even though he did not speak English. While there he applied for a U.S. patent for his wireless telephony work, a process that would take three years.
Landell apparently did not make any demonstrations while in the United States. However, he was interviewed for an article reviewing photophone technology, which was published in the October 12, 1902 New York Herald. This article quoted him as saying:
"I wish to show to the world," he told me, "that the Catholic Church is not the enemy of science or of human progress. Individuals in the Church may in this or that case have opposed the light, but they did it in blindness to Catholic truth. I have myself met with opposition from my fellow believers. In Brazil a superstitious mob, holding that I was in partnership with the devil, broke into my study and destroyed my apparatus. Nearly all my friends of education and intelligence, whether in or out of holy orders, looked upon my theories as contrary to science. I know what it is to feel like Galileo, and to cry, 'E pur si muove.' When everybody was against me I simply stood my ground and said, 'It is so, it can be no otherwise.' "
Father Landell explained that it was impossible for him to go into details concerning his theories and inventions so long as the patents were pending. But in a general way he was willing to explain that his system of wireless telephony depended upon a new principle of light which he had discovered.
"By virtue of this principle," he went on, "it is possible to transmit speech through a luminous axis without the intervention of silenium or of a microphone. Nay, even a receiver will not be necessary. All persons within the radius of reception will be able to hear the message with the aid merely of their natural organs."
"And what is the distance to which you can reach?"
"Practically infinite."
On October 4, 1901, Landell submitted an application to the U.S. patent office for a comprehensive patent, which included a number of additions and modifications to his Brazilian grant. A major addition was the inclusion of information about making audio transmissions using radio signals. Landell also was now asserting that "actinic rays" (ultraviolet and near-ultraviolet light) would increase transmission efficiencies.
A month later an examiner replied with review notes. In particular, the examiner was dubious whether actinic rays would actually enhance transmissions. The notes also included the statement: "Attention is called to the fact that the claims cover at least two separate and independent inventions, one in wireless telephony and the other the wireless telegraph system." Responding to this, Landell then divided his application into multiple requests.
Landell's response to the patent office included a summary of what he intended to patent:
"My invention consists of an apparatus that works without wires as conductors and has the property of concentrating, reinforcing electric and luminous sound waves, for the principal purposes of 1st) sending and receiving the natural voice through space by means of sound waves. 2nd) telephoning also through space by means of the principle of photophone, and 3rd) sending and receiving phonetic, graphic and harmonic signs, through space, water and the earth by means of electric waves. The apparatus takes different names according to the effect produced. In the first instance it is called 'The Esophone', in the second 'The Photophone', and in the third 'The Radiographone'. The working distance of the first is at least 4 or 5 miles; of the second from 5 to 7 miles and of the third from 10 to 15 miles. These potentialities of sending and receiving can be increased in the first case by augmenting the proportions of certain parts; in the second case by communicating greater intensity to the luminous focuses, and in the third case by using a more powerful Ruhmkorff coil... When the wind is contrary or the distances impede the effects of the Esophone, we can use the Photophone, and when tempests or distances do not favor the working of the Photophone, we can use the Radiographone."
Ultimately, Landell was issued three U.S. patents covering his work:
Patent no. 771,917, , issued October 11, 1904 for an application filed February 9, 1903 (serial no. 142,440). This was for a dual-use transmitter, capable of making audio transmissions by both the photophone method and via electro-magnetic radiation (radio waves). In the patent, Landell noted that: "It will be observed that the most important feature of my invention consists of the employment of a make-and-break transmitter worked by sonorous vibrations, causing transmitted electro-magnetic or light waves to correspond closely to the sound-waves by which they are produced."
Patent no. 775,337, , issued November 22, 1904 for an application filed October 4, 1901 (serial no. 77,576). This primarily describes a photophone configuration, for which "clear actinic light is absolutely necessary". It also included the "compulsor" fan described in the Brazilian patent.
Patent no. 775,846, , issued November 22, 1904 for an application filed January 16, 1902 (serial no. 89,976). This patent also primarily covered transmissions. It included a Crookes tube, whose "cathode-rays, like the actinic and the etheric waves, above described, apparently reinforce each other in their effects, and the result is that the telegraph is more effective when both are employed".
Reconstructions
In 1984, Porto Alegre's Fundação de Ciência e Tecnologia rebuilt the Wave Transmitter patented in 1904 in the United States. The tests were successful in transmitting over a wide frequency range and over distances of up to 50 meters. The technicians assume that at the time of the priest the distance could have been much greater, due to the absence of the electromagnetic interference that exists today. The device severely distorted the voice, making it often incomprehensible, but its effectiveness in transmitting sound was proven. The device was publicly demonstrated in 1984, and Almeida describes the event:
"The device was presented in public, for the first time, at the closing ceremonies of Semana da Pátria. On September 7, 1984, in front of the Monument to the Expeditionary, in the capital of Rio Grande do Sul, the governor of Rio Grande do Sul, Jair Soares, uttered, through the handset, two words that were clearly heard by hundreds of people: 'Porto Alegre'. unquestionably the functionality of Father Landell's invention ".
In 2004 Marco Aurélio Cardoso Moura, with technical support from Rolf Stephan and Alexandre Stephan, from Industrial Eletro
Mecânica Apex Ltda., Made another reconstruction, also functional and also with a very distorted sound, receiving better in the range of medium waves and in FM. For Ferrareto, "the existing evidence points, therefore, to the success of Landell de Moura in the transmission and reception of voice even though the quality did not allow the immediate practical application of the devices created by the Brazilian. The improvement of these in the national territory would depend on a significant contribution of resources based on an awareness of the strategic importance of such technology. Consciousness that did not exist in Brazil then ". The qualification and stabilization of the signal would depend on technological advances that would be made a little later, mainly through John Ambrose Fleming, Reginald Fessenden, Edwin Howard Armstrong and Lee De Forest.
Later life
Landell returned to Brazil after receiving the U.S. patents. An article in the March 11, 1905 Jornal do Commercio stated that his inventions "can reach easily from 30 to 50 kilometers and even at greater distances". In December 1905 he submitted a request to the São Paulo state legislature for funding to support experimentation, however, this was not approved. After this he apparently ended research into long-distance communication.
Later reports stated that he was working on ideas for a "Telephotorama", or "The Distance Vision". He also did photography research and reported effects similar to Kirlian photography. On January 21, 2011, Brazil issued a stamp commemorating the 150th anniversary of Landell's birth, which shows him using a device described in one of his 1904 United States patents.
See also
Edgar Roquette-Pinto
List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics
References
External links
"Inventário do Acervo Padre Roberto Landell de Moura: Série Produção Intelectual. Subsérie Estudos" (Collection of Landell papers). Instituto Histórico e Geográfico do Rio Grande do Sul. (ihgrgs.org.br)
Selected articles about Roberto Landell (landelldemoura.com.br)
1861 births
1928 deaths
People from Porto Alegre
Radio pioneers
Brazilian inventors
History of radio
Catholic clergy scientists
19th-century Brazilian Roman Catholic priests
20th-century Brazilian Roman Catholic priests
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20House%20characters
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List of House characters
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This page is a comprehensive list and description of the various characters who appear, from time to time, in the television series House. The list is divided episode-wise, as well as character-wise, and includes recurring characters, such as Rachel Taub, and Dominika, as well as characters who appear in only a few episodes, such as Juan Alvarez (House) and Steve McQueen (the rat).
Main characters
Senior doctors
Dr. Gregory House (Hugh Laurie) – Department Head: Diagnostic Medicine. Dr. Gregory House is a rebellious diagnostician with a double specialty in infectious disease and nephrology. Dr. House utterly lacks a bedside manner and prefers to avoid direct contact with his patients however possible. Due to an infarction in his right thigh, House lost a substantial portion of the muscle in his upper leg and must use a cane to assist with walking (although, where most would hold the cane in the hand opposite the injured leg, House holds the cane on the same side as his injury). As a result, House is also forced to deal with constant physical pain, which he manages through a dependency on the prescription pain medication Vicodin. Although his behavior can border on antisocial, misanthropic or sociopathic, House is viewed as a genius physician whose unconventional thinking and excellent instincts have afforded him a great deal of respect and an unusual level of tolerance from his colleagues and the medical world. House is eventually replaced by Chase after he fakes his death in the series finale, "Everybody Dies."
Dr. Lisa Cuddy (Lisa Edelstein) – Administration: Dean of Medicine, endocrinologist. Dr. Cuddy attended the University of Michigan for graduate studies, where she first met Gregory House. She has the distinction of being one of the few characters on the show (Dr. Wilson being the other) who can match wits with the silver-tongued Dr. House in conversation (and arguments) and be considered one of his "friends". She often is left to pick up the pieces of House's questionable medical practices. She is also one of the few people who can stand House's hostile manner, strange requests, and his many crude (sometimes nosy) habits. Although she frequently criticizes House's methods, she does trust his decisions to be in the best interest of his patients. Over the course of the show, it is seen that she is one of the few, if not only, people who would hire House at all, due to widespread disapproval of House's results-oriented methods and constant insubordination. A developing arc in season five indicates that she has (and may have always had) very strong feelings for House; in season five's "Saviors" she refuses to answer when asked if she is in love with House, dismissing it as "a ridiculous question." House has described her as a second rate doctor. In season seven, Cuddy and House start dating but she eventually breaks up with him when he starts using Vicodin again during her health scare. She leaves the hospital after House drives his car into her house and she is replaced by Dr. Foreman in the beginning of Season 8.
Dr. James Wilson (Robert Sean Leonard) – Department Head: Oncology. Dr. Wilson is House's best friend. Wilson is very popular and well-respected by both his colleagues and his patients, making his close friendship with the anti-social House especially puzzling to the other hospital employees. Wilson claims that his job and his "stupid, screwed up friendship" with House are the two most important things to him. He, along with Cuddy, usually finds himself aiding and abetting House's Vicodin addiction and his very eccentric methods. In Season 8, Wilson is diagnosed with cancer. Wilson is said to have 5 months to live. Wilson is one of the few people to know that House faked his death and, along with House, quits his job as a doctor.
Dr. Eric Foreman (Omar Epps) – Assistant Department Head: Diagnostic Medicine, neurologist; attended Johns Hopkins Medical School. Of all the members of House's staff, it is strongly implied that Foreman performed better than the other fellows academically throughout college and medical school. However, during the pilot, House tells Foreman that a major factor in his hiring was the fact that he was a former juvenile delinquent who once stole cars and had 'street smarts'. As a result, he frequently voices his disapproval of House's rebellious methods and bold decisions. Foreman resigned at the end of Season 3, feeling that the more time he spent with House, the more he became like him. Foreman then took a position as Head of Diagnostic Medicine at New York Mercy Hospital. During that time, he saved a patient's life by going against their protocols, something that House frequently does. Foreman is then told that while he may have saved the patient's life, he cannot be there if he cannot be trusted to obey his senior medical officers. Foreman is then fired. Although he applied at other medical facilities, no one would hire him because of the incident, attributing it to his past association with House. He later returned to Princeton-Plainsboro because Cuddy was the only person willing to hire him after his actions. At the beginning of season 6 he was made Department Head of Diagnostic Medicine after House briefly quit but was back to being a fellow when House got his medical license reinstated. He becomes the Dean of Medicine after the departure of Cuddy in the beginning of season 8.
Dr. Allison Cameron (Jennifer Morrison) – Department Head: Emergency Medicine, immunologist. Cameron was written as an eager and honest character and the most empathetic of the team. Her character history reveals an early marriage to a victim of thyroid cancer, whose subsequent death had a lasting impact on her. In the first season, she has a flirtatious relationship with House, but eventually embarks upon an on-again, off-again relationship affair with Robert Chase. Cameron resigned at the end of Season 3, but returned in Season 4 as a member of the Princeton-Plainsboro Emergency Room staff. She does eventually marry Chase, although she ends up divorcing him after he intentionally killed a patient who happened to be the genocidal dictator of a war-torn third world country, stating that Chase, like House, had no regard for the sanctity of life. But during a hospital lockdown in which they're stuck in an exam room together, Cameron admits to Chase that she still hadn't gotten past her first husband's death.
Dr. Robert Chase (Jesse Spencer) – Surgeon, intensive care specialist. Dr. Chase's demeanor appears to have been either influenced or enabled by House, as he has previously displayed a reputation for mocking patients behind their backs, receiving joy in watching House lay into others, finds House's antics more humorous than others do, and repeats House's mantra of "everybody lies" whenever a patient's full disclosure of any required medical history is called into question. Moreover, when suggesting treatments to diagnoses, Chase is arguably the most creative member of House's staff, often proposing unconventional treatments that had not previously been considered, but whose perceived effectiveness is generally agreed upon. Chase was fired by House at the end of Season 3, but he returned in Season 4 as a member of Princeton-Plainsboro's surgical staff. He is infamous for his intentional killing of President Dibala, an African dictator the team treated, which ended up destroying his marriage and causing him almost endless amounts of guilt despite him claiming it was the right thing to do, as Dibala would have massacred his Sitibi countrymen had he survived. Chase eventually replaces House as the Director of Diagnostic Medicine after House fakes his death in the series finale, "Everybody Dies."
Diagnostic team
Seasons 1–3
The original diagnostic team consisted of Dr. Cameron, Dr. Chase and Dr. Foreman. While both of their tenures had brief interruptions, Chase and Cameron still appeared semi-regularly on the show. They advise the newer fellows in the Diagnostic Department in seasons 4–5, or participate in cases directly when appropriate.
Dr. Allison Cameron (Jennifer Morrison)
Dr. Robert Chase (Jesse Spencer)
Dr. Eric Foreman (Omar Epps)
Seasons 4–5
Following the events of the season 3 finale, House began a long-running competition to select a new diagnostic team, progressively eliminating "contestants" from an original pool of 40 applicants. This story arc ran throughout the first half of season 4, from "The Right Stuff" through "Games". His final team consists of Dr. Foreman and the three successful "contestants": Dr. Taub, Dr. Kutner, and "Thirteen".
Dr. Eric Foreman (Omar Epps)
Dr. Lawrence Kutner (Kal Penn) was a sports medicine specialist. Out of all the fellows, Kutner was the most enthusiastic and the one most likely to go along with House in taking risks. In the season 5 episode "Simple Explanation", Kutner died by suicide. Actor Kal Penn needed to depart from the series to work in the Obama Administration, hence his character being written out of the show.
Dr. Chris Taub (Peter Jacobson) is a plastic surgeon who has proved adept at, like House, working around the "rules" that Cuddy imposes. Ironically, Cuddy suggested that Taub become a member of House's new diagnostic team because his knowledge and combative nature would be able to keep House focused. Though married, he had already cheated on his wife, and has made comments that suggest he would be willing to do so again. After he divorces his wife, he has two illegitimate children, one each with his ex-wife and a nurse at the hospital.
Dr. Remy "Thirteen" Hadley (Olivia Wilde) is an internist. Her nickname originates in the numbers that House assigned to each of his fellowship applications in "The Right Stuff", with hers being #13. She is noted for the many mysteries surrounding her character.
Season 6
Dr. Gregory House (Hugh Laurie) is a temporary consultant for the Department of Diagnostic Medicine while waiting to be reinstated. He later returns to the position of Head of Department in "Teamwork".
Dr. Eric Foreman (Omar Epps) is the temporary Head of Diagnostic Medicine between "Epic Fail" and "Known Unknowns".
Dr. Allison Cameron (Jennifer Morrison) returns temporarily to the diagnostic team between "The Tyrant" and "Teamwork".
Dr. Robert Chase (Jesse Spencer) returns to the diagnostic team in "The Tyrant".
Dr. Remy "Thirteen" Hadley (Olivia Wilde) is fired from the diagnostic team in "Epic Fail" and returns in "Teamwork".
Dr. Chris Taub (Peter Jacobson) quits the team in "Epic Fail" and returns in "Teamwork".
Season 7
Dr. Eric Foreman (Omar Epps)
Dr. Robert Chase (Jesse Spencer)
Dr. Chris Taub (Peter Jacobson)
Dr. Remy "Thirteen" Hadley (Olivia Wilde) (episode 1, episodes 18–23)
Martha M. Masters (Amber Tamblyn) (episodes 6–19)
Season 8
Dr. Chi Park (Charlyne Yi) (episodes 2–22)
Dr. Remy "Thirteen" Hadley (Olivia Wilde) (episode 3, 21–22)
Dr. Jessica Adams (Odette Annable) (episodes 3–22)
Dr. Robert Chase (Jesse Spencer) (episodes 5–20, 22)
Dr. Chris Taub (Peter Jacobson) (episodes 5–22)
Recurring characters
Edward Vogler
Edward Vogler (Chi McBride) is the billionaire owner of a pharmaceutical firm and, in a season 1 story arc, became the new chairman of the board of Princeton–Plainsboro Teaching Hospital (PPTH), a position he gained through a $100 million donation to the hospital. Vogler sought to reshape PPTH into a testing facility for his firm's new drugs and saw House's maverick ways and blatant disregard for rules and authority figures as a substantial legal and financial liability. When House refused to conform to Vogler's increasingly capricious demands (including an order for House to fire one of his fellows) and even publicly bashed Vogler's company at a press banquet, Vogler gave the board an ultimatum: fire House, or lose Vogler's grant. After losing Wilson from the board, and a last ditch and impassioned motion from Cuddy for the board members to put the hospital's independence ahead of Vogler's donation, the board voted to retain House, therefore losing Vogler and his $100 million.
Fox demanded a bad guy to be added to the show, a few months before House went on a Christmas hiatus. Shore opposed Fox's request, because he thought adding such a character would be a bad idea. Although Shore thought he managed to convince the producers not to add the character, during his vacation in Israel, he was informed that Jeff Zucker, the head of the Universal studio, had threatened to cut the season short by six episodes unless the character was added. To prevent this from happening, Shore created the character. McBride was hired to film five episodes. However, the producers decided not to extend the character's story arc. In a video, David Shore said: "Chi McBride is so larger than life. He’s literally just a physically imposing person, and we just wanted someone who could really clash with House, somebody who could be emotionally and physically and psychologically imposing as he is and could go head to head with him."
Stacy Warner
Stacy Warner (Sela Ward) was Dr. House's former live-in girlfriend (for five years), a Constitutional lawyer and Duke University graduate. Two years after their breakup, she married Mark Warner. She appears in 9 episodes during the run of season 2, taking a job at PPTH (after asking Cuddy to make sure it was okay with House) to be close to her husband during his recovery.
House and Stacy's relationship has been strained due to his relentless attempts to prove she still has feelings for him. Mark aided House's cause by driving a wedge between himself and his wife when he suspects a brewing affair. Mark was eventually proven correct, as Stacy fell for House all over again and they slept together. As Stacy prepared to leave her husband for House, he then rejected her (stating that he could not make her happy, because he could not change). She quit her job at the hospital and went back home to Short Hills with Mark. An enraged Wilson believed House broke her heart not out of guilt for Mark (which is not his modus), but as a last-ditch resort to ensure that House does not allow himself happiness. The aftermath of this botched affair left House in a stark depression. Stacy did not appear on the show again, until the series finale "Everybody Dies".
In the episode "Son of Coma Guy", when playing a questions game with a patient to make a diagnosis, House admitted that he had been in love once. He said they met when she shot him in a game of paintball, Doctors vs Lawyers. Presumably, House was talking about Stacy. When the patient asked if that was the only time he'd ever been in love, House avoided answering and changed the subject.
Stacy made her final appearance, her first in six seasons, in the series finale "Everybody Dies" as both a hallucination of House and an attendee of his funeral. Here, Stacy revealed that she had "never stopped loving" House.
Michael Tritter
Detective Michael Tritter (David Morse) is one of House's clinic patients. After House refuses to run tests at Tritter's request and insults him, Tritter trips House. House agrees to the tests and tells Tritter he has to check his temperature to rule out infection. House proceeds to use a rectal thermometer, and his supposed reason for using the rectal thermometer over a normal mouth thermometer is Tritter's chewing of nicotine gum, since oral readings can be affected by food and drink. House then leaves the room on a pretense with the thermometer still inserted in Tritter's rectum; House intentionally never returns and Tritter endures the rectal thermometer for two hours.
Afterwards, Tritter demands an apology from House for deliberately leaving the thermometer in him. House refuses, apparently spurred on by the patient's attitude, which is as bad as House's. Caught speeding and arrested for possession of allegedly unprescribed medication, House is thrown in jail overnight by Tritter, who searches his house the next week and finds a large amount of Vicodin. He also interviews House's staff looking for inconsistencies in their stories. He proceeds to tighten his vise grip on Wilson by freezing Wilson's bank account, towing his car, and revoking his drug prescription rights because he wants Wilson to testify against House in court.
After Tritter discovers that Wilson refuses to betray House, he turns on to House's assistants, freezing Foreman and Cameron's accounts, before talking to each one of them in turn. Foreman and Cameron refuse to testify in court about House, but when Tritter talks to Chase, he makes it appear to the hospital staff as though they had had a pleasant lunch together. Chase is concerned that this makes Foreman and Cameron think that Chase has told Tritter something, although he had refused to, his only stated reason being that he would lose his job.
Tritter finally succeeds in his goal when Wilson comes to him, requesting "thirty pieces of silver" in a symbolic statement of his decision to betray House, whom he has come to see as spiraling out of control. In the final days leading up to House's trial, House enters rehab. Tritter confronts him in rehab to see if he was really going through with it. When the charges against House were dropped at the trial, because Cuddy fabricated evidence that acquitted House, Tritter wished House good luck and said that he hoped he was wrong about him. Tritter did not appear on the show again.
Amber Volakis
Dr. Amber Volakis (Anne Dudek) is an interventional radiologist featured in the fourth and fifth seasons as House's main antagonist. In House's competition to hire a new team, she is #24. Volakis is willing to do anything to get the job, including acts of dishonesty. This is first seen when she apparently quits the competition and convinces a group of applicants to imitate her, rather than be humiliated by House; she returns moments later admitting it was a ruse to thin the herd. She is subsequently referred to as "Cutthroat Bitch" and "Bitch" by House throughout the season, and is even referred to as such on House's caller I.D. After the characters stop using this nickname, she is still almost always called by her first name, unlike the rest of the characters. She sometimes coerces Chase and Cameron, now reassigned to different departments of the hospital, into helping her. Her persistence and unorthodox approaches initially win her praise, but she is ultimately eliminated because House feels she cannot accept being wrong, something he says she would need to be able to accept on a regular basis if she were to work for him.
Amber returns in "Frozen", when House discovers that she is Wilson's new girlfriend, a fact Wilson had been trying to conceal from House. House and Amber quickly develop an adversarial relationship, bickering over "shared custody" of Wilson. In the two-part season 4 finale (episodes "House's Head" and "Wilson's Heart"), Amber is involved in a bus crash alongside House, who noticed symptoms of an unknown disease in her immediately before the crash. House later realizes that she is suffering from poisoning from her use of flu pills containing amantadine, along with the kidney failure caused by the crash. She dies in Wilson's arms due to multiple organ failure. Amber is absent from only two episodes in the fourth season.
Amber re-appears as House's hallucinated helper at the end of the episode "Saviors," and in the succeeding episode "House Divided," where House continues to see her. She is revealed to have become a part of his unconscious, now risen from his insomnia and his guilt over failing to foresee Kutner's suicide and over her death earlier. House first seeks to shut out his hallucinated friend with sleeping pills, but later engages proactively with her to figure out a case. A misdiagnosis is almost fatal to the patient; as is Chase's case of anaphylactic shock at the bachelor party House throws for him, when Chase licks a stripper unknowingly covered in strawberry flavored body butter, to which he is allergic. House imagines "Amber" may have been trying to murder Chase, he takes the sleeping pill at the end of the episode, but he finds he is still seeing her, and in the next episode "Under My Skin" it appears his hallucinations are due to his use of Vicodin and he must detox. In the season finale, after it is exposed that House hallucinated his detoxification, Amber re-appears.
Amber made her final appearance, her first in three seasons, in the series finale "Everybody Dies", as a hallucination of House and not able to participate in the team.
Critic Kelly Woo, from TV Squad, placed her on #3 on her list of "Seven new characters that worked" just below Losts Benjamin Linus and Desmond Hume.
Lucas Douglas
Lucas Douglas (Michael Weston) is a private investigator. He is hired by House in the fifth-season episode "Not Cancer" to spy on House's team and gain information about them. Among other things, he finds out about a secret bank account started up by Taub's wife of which Taub is unaware. Impressed by his thorough efforts, House decides to put Lucas "on retainer."
Next, in "Adverse Events", House uses Lucas to gain information about Cuddy's personal life. Lucas, though, had also begun to take a romantic interest in Cuddy. In "Lucky Thirteen", House uses him to spy on Wilson because he suspects he was lying about where he was one morning. Lucas finds out that he's dating a hooker and that he's doing drugs. House then figures out Wilson was trying to throw him off because he knew Lucas was following him. It is also revealed that Lucas got the keys to all of his fellows' houses. House also used him to dig up info about Foreman, but could not find anything interesting.
Michael Weston reprises the role of Lucas during season six in the episode "Known Unknowns". Lucas had begun dating Cuddy. In the season 6 finale, Cuddy breaks off her engagement with him and ends their relationship so that she can be with House.
Rachel Taub
Rachel Taub (Jennifer Crystal Foley) is Chris Taub's wife and has appeared in several episodes, mostly dealing with her husband's infidelity. She reveals to Chris that she is pregnant in the seventh season. In season eight, she wants to move across country with her new boyfriend and her and Taub's daughter, but Taub tries to stop them.
Sam Carr
Sam Carr (Cynthia Watros) is Wilson's first wife, whom he starts dating again in season six. They break up in season seven.
Dominika Petrova
Dominika Petrova (Karolina Wydra) and House get married so that she can be allowed to live in the U.S. Dominika first appeared in the season 7 episode "Fall from Grace", where in an effort to make Lisa Cuddy jealous, House announces that he will be marrying Dominika, in order for her to get her green card. Their marriage ceremony takes place in House's apartment, with James Wilson and Lisa Cuddy as witnesses. Although this ceremony causes Cuddy to break down, their ceremony is a success, prompting Dominika to reveal to House that she actually does like him, to which House replies that he doesn't sleep with married women.
Dominika is not seen for almost a season; however, she returns in season 8's "Man of the House", due to her upcoming marriage status interview. In order to successfully appear to be a married couple, House and Dominika spend more time together, learning information about each other's lives. Although they are successful, a slip-up involving Wilson results in their getting caught. However, they make a deal resulting in Dominika being legally obligated to live in House's apartment.
For the next four episodes, House and Dominika grow close and it appears that both of them share some level of romantic affection for one another. Dominika aids House in his efforts to find out more information about his favorite prostitute in "We Need the Eggs" and their relationship only grows stronger, leading House to throw away the letter informing her that she has been approved for U.S. citizenship. In the following episode, "Body & Soul", before Dominika discovers House's deception, she seduces House, revealing the magnitude of her feelings for him. After she learns of his deception, she leaves him, in tears.
Dominika makes her final appearances in the series finale, "Everybody Dies". Here, a hallucination of House reveals his desires regarding love. It is revealed through House's subconscious that it was his desire to enter a true romantic relationship with Dominika, although House never reveals his true feelings to her. She is last seen at House's funeral, delivering a eulogy.
Unsuccessful applicants for fellowship
Dr. Jeffrey Cole (a.k.a. Big Love, Black Mormon) (Edi Gathegi) is #18. A graduate of Brigham Young University, Cole is a practicing Mormon which draws the ire of Dr. House, who is atheist. Cole eventually punches House when House calls Joseph Smith a "horny fraud." This impresses House. Dr. Cole is also African-American, and a surrogate for House's racial epithets towards Dr. Foreman. Cole refused to drop out of the running when Amber deceitfully encouraged candidates to quit rather than be humiliated by Dr. House. Cameron believes Cole is a decent and principled man, and gives him advice on how to gain House's respect. In the episode "Guardian Angels" it is revealed that he is a single father, and does not know where his child's mother is. In the episode "You Don't Want To Know", Kutner mentions that he has babysat for Cole's son. He is nicknamed "Big Love" in reference to HBO's popular series about Utah polygamists. House fires him because he was willing to compromise with Cuddy instead of subverting her authority. His medical specialty is Medical Genetics.
Dr. Travis Brennan (a.k.a. Grumpy) (Andy Comeau) is an epidemiologist. He is #37. Brennan was invited back for the second round of cuts, and survived again when the females' team was eliminated for failing to properly supervise the patient, resulting in his death. He offered the final (though incorrect) diagnosis of eosinophilic pneumonia of this patient, and House authorized treatment. House nicknames him "Grumpy", and he tends to be gruff and straight to the point. It is revealed he worked with Doctors Without Borders for eight years, making his experience in third world countries provide him more awareness of exotic pathologies. He interviewed for this job to settle down to a life in New Jersey with his fiancée, though from his own testimony and the mirroring of a patient he would rather be back working in third world countries. He was forced to quit in the episode "Whatever It Takes" after House discovered that he was poisoning a patient in order to provoke studies into cures for polio. When House confronted him with this, he told Brennan he had no intention of firing him, but ordered him to quit instead. House gave him a few moments to leave and then had Foreman call the police.
Henry Dobson (a.k.a. Scooter/Ridiculously Old Fraud/Bosley) (Carmen Argenziano) was a former Medical School Admissions Officer. He is #26. Dobson refuses to perform even basic tests on patients, saying that, with his advanced age and the other applicants' inexperience, they have more to prove; however, he shows a very gifted medical mind. House pulls Dobson aside and reveals the truth: Dobson is not even a doctor, and never even graduated from medical school or learned to do medical procedures. Dobson admits that during the 30 years that he worked in the admissions office of Columbia University's medical school, he audited every one of its classes. House, impressed by his gall as well as his knowledge, allows him to stay on to compete for a job as an "assistant". Dobson argues age should not matter (jokingly claiming he is 21) and demonstrates he is as effective as any of the real doctors by finding a way to break into a patient's home to acquire key information and offering a diagnosis of cancer for a patient that House agreed with and scheduled surgery for. However, in "97 Seconds", House does reveal to the remaining team members that one of the remaining "applicants" is not even really a doctor, although they have yet to realize who this is. Ultimately he is dismissed when House finds that Dobson's thought processes are too similar to his own, illustrated when Dobson explains that "you don't need someone to tell you what you're already thinking" before House can explain the dismissal. Nicknamed "Scooter", "Ridiculously Old Fraud", and "Bosley", after the Charlie's Angels character in an episode where House was pretending to be Charlie and the other applicants the Angels.
Minor characters
Family members
John and Blythe House (R. Lee Ermey and Diane Baker) are House's parents. House's mother is notably the only person aside from Wilson, Cuddy and Stacy towards whom he appears to show genuine affection, and although it's implied that he does not keep in regular contact with his parents, he has been seen to phone his mother on Christmas. In episode 2.05 ("Daddy's Boy"), mother Blythe seems to be the standard military housewife, and House calls her a "human polygraph". The character's first name may be a reference to actress Blythe Danner, who played a similar character in The Great Santini. His father John is a retired Marine Corps aviator and is incessantly honest, a trait which House seems to be quite bitter about. According to House, his father is also obsessively punctual, to the point that if he was so much as "two minutes late for dinner, he didn't eat". House's father is hard on him for not dealing with his leg better, telling him "your problem is that you don't know how lucky you are." House's father was stationed in Egypt when House was young, and in Japan when House was a teenager. In episode twelve of season three ("One Day, One Room"), House reveals that his father abused him, making him sleep on the lawn and take ice baths. In episode 5.04, "Birthmarks", John House dies, and House reveals that he does not believe John was his biological father. At the funeral, House delivers a eulogy at his mother's request and he cannot restrain himself from pointing out his father's lack of compassion by referring to the fact that no officers of inferior rank (John House was a Colonel) attended his funeral, only superiors, meaning that he never inspired any respect in his subordinates. House removes skin from John's ear for DNA testing, which confirms his suspicion and seems in part to validate his disdain for his father. Despite the revelation, John's death seems to have moved House; later in the episode in a rare moment of vulnerability, House says to Wilson, "My dad's dead," as though the significance of the event were just sinking in. In "Brave Heart" House attempts to talk to his dead father after Wilson tells him to try it, despite having previously dismissed the idea as stupid. In the episode "Perils of Paranoia" it is revealed that House keeps his father's mameluke dress sword and presentation M1911 pistol in a closet at his apartment.
Dr. Rowan Chase (Patrick Bauchau) is Dr. Robert Chase's estranged Czech-Australian father and an acclaimed rheumatologist. He left his alcoholic wife and teenage son, and some unspecified time later, remarried. He is seen in one episode, 1.13 ("Cursed"). In episode 2.08 ("The Mistake"), the character was revealed to have died of lung cancer, without ever saying goodbye to his son, and in 2.22 ("Forever"), House concludes from the fact that Robert Chase worked at the neonatal department during his vacation to earn some extra money that he was left out of his father's will. Chase confirms this in later episodes.
Rodney Foreman (Charles S. Dutton) is Dr. Eric Foreman's religious father. He appears in "Euphoria, Part 2" and "House Training".
Alicia Foreman (Beverly Todd) is Dr. Foreman's mother, who suffers from Alzheimer's disease. She appears in "House Training". In "Moving the Chains", it is revealed that she has died.
Marcus Foreman (Orlando Jones) is Dr. Foreman's estranged older brother, who has led a life of petty crime. He is released from prison in "Moving the Chains", whereupon House immediately gives him a job as his assistant. Eric is infuriated by this move, for although Marcus claims to have changed, Eric has not forgiven his brother for his previous life. Marcus informs House of Mrs. Foreman's death and quits after House reveals this knowledge to Eric. However, the brothers' relationship seems to be somewhat repaired, as Eric offers to help Marcus in finding a new job and invites him to share his home.
Rachel Cuddy (Kayla and Rylie Colbert) is Lisa Cuddy's adopted daughter.
Arlene Cuddy (Candice Bergen) is Lisa Cuddy's mother. She appears in the episode "Family Practice".
Julia Cuddy (Paula Marshall) is Lisa Cuddy's sister.
Hospital workers and patients
Hospital Pharmacist (Marco Pelaez) is the hospital pharmacist seen in several early episodes. He was first seen in the episode "Occam's Razor" and was last seen in the episode "One Day, One Room".
Nurse Brenda Previn (Stephanie Venditto) is the Head Nurse seen in many earlier episodes. She was often snarky toward House and his team. She was first seen in the episode "Kids" and was last seen in the episode "Que Sera Sera".
Ali (Leighton Meester) is House's "teenage stalker", a seventeen-year-old whose father was treated by House for a cold during "Informed Consent". She then became obsessed with him, going as far as stalking him during work, and encouraging the two of them to have sex. House recognized her behavior as a symptom and had her treated. The theme would be repeated between Meester and Hugh Laurie (Dr. House) in the 2011 film The Oranges, when Laurie's character enters into an affair with Meester's character, the 20-something daughter of his best friend.
Steve McQueen (named after the Hollywood actor Steve McQueen) is House's pet rat, which he captured in Stacy's attic in episode 2.07 ("Hunting"). Originally supposed to be exterminating the rat, House granted him reprieve in order to diagnose his odd neck tilt. By the end of the episode House had determined the cause to be mycoplasmosis, aggravated by Stacy's smoking. House has used Steve McQueen for medical experimentation. In Episode 2.21 "Euphoria, Part 2", House uses Steve to do a walk through of the Cop's home and stated that if Steve begins showing symptoms, as House saw it on his webcam, that there was a '"good chance" that he would be hit with a "cane-shaped object", and subsequently dissected. Steve never showed symptoms, however, so House did not end up killing him. Since then, he has been seen in the background in House's apartment during various episodes. It was revealed on the official House website that Steve has since died.
Dr. Darryl Nolan (Andre Braugher) is a therapist who works at Mayfield Psychiatric Hospital. He was assigned as House's doctor through his recovery process. In "Broken", it is up to him to write the letter to the medical board to get House his license back. House threatens Nolan with civil disobedience, but Nolan found ways to get around House's nonsense. After "Freedom Master" leaps off of a parking garage due to House trying to prove Nolan wrong (he somehow survives but is seriously injured), House changes his ways and begins complying with his treatments. Nolan begins giving House therapy sessions and helps him on the road to recovery. House opens up to Nolan, who teaches him to be able to trust others and get close to somebody. When Nolan's father is dying, he calls House as a second consult, showing his trust in him. House also believes that Nolan has immersed himself so much in his work he has no friends and family and House is the closest he has to a friend. Although House is initially mean to him after confirming Nolan's father is fatally ill, House stays with him as his father dies giving Nolan some comfort which he later thanks House for. After House shows he has connected with Lydia, he agrees to write the letter to get House's job back. He returns in "Epic Fail". In a therapy session with House, he convinces him to try a new hobby with Wilson. After House is still getting pain in his leg despite his new cooking hobby, he recommends he returns to diagnostic medicine, because helping solve a case temporarily relieved his pain. In "Baggage", House quits therapy, saying that he took Dr. Nolan's advice for a year, and yet he still feels miserable. He blames Nolan for his loneliness and accuses him of being nothing more than a faith healer.
Juan "Alvie" Alvarez (Lin-Manuel Miranda) is a psychiatric patient who is House's roommate at rehab in "Broken". Alvie suffers from bipolar disorder, but refuses to take his medication. He suffers from manic episodes and wants to be a rapper. He supports House not taking his medication either. House stood by Alvie throughout his time in rehab, and enjoyed his company (though House never admitted it directly). In "Baggage", House moves out of Wilson's condo to discover that Alvie has been living in his old apartment and selling his belongings in order to buy paint for the walls, which he thought needed to be brighter. Alvie, who had no identification papers, was hiding from U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, which suspected he was an illegal immigrant, despite the fact he's Puerto Rican and thus a U.S. citizen. House helped by claiming to be his doctor and producing a "DNA test" that proved Alvie was related to his mother, who had proper documentation.
Nurse Regina (Tracy Vilar) is a nurse in the hospital's free clinic. Dr. Cuddy and nurse Regina have a rapport and the latter often mocks Cuddy about her interactions with House and the stresses that come with Cuddy's job.
Doctor Cheng (Keiko Agena) is a pediatrician who appears in the season seven episode, "Unplanned Parenthood". Impressed by her abilities, Taub attempts to have her hired as Thirteen's replacement. She also impresses House by helping him with Rachel using her pediatric skills, and he gives Taub the go ahead to hire her. However, worried that House is messing around with him, Taub delays hiring her, leading her to turn down the offer because his lack of backbone makes him look childish, and she hates working with children.
Notable Guest stars
Robin Tunney — Rebecca Adler (episode 1x01)
Elizabeth Mitchell — sister Mary Augustine (episode 1x05)
Dominic Purcell — Ed Snow (episode 1x07)
Kurt Fuller — Mark Adams (episode 1x08)
Harry Lennix — John Henry Gilles (episode 1x09)
Amanda Seyfried — Pam (episode 1х11)
Scott Foley – Hank Wiggen (episode 1x12)
Nestor Carbonell – Jeffrey Reilich (episode 1x13)
Carmen Electra — cameo (episode 1х21)
LL Cool J – Clarence (episode 2x01)
Ron Livingston – Dr. Sebastian Charles (episode 2x04)
Ryan Hurst — Sam McGinley (episode 2x08)
Cynthia Nixon - Anica Jovanovich (episode 2x09)
Michael O'Keefe – Fletcher Stone (episode 2x10)
Christopher Cousins – Doug (episode 2x12)
Michelle Trachtenberg – Melinda Bardach (episode 2x16)
MacKenzie Astin — Alan Alston (episode 2х17)
Elias Koteas — Jack Moriarty (episode 2х24)
Joel Grey — Ezra Powell (episode 3х03)
Alan Rosenberg — Bruce Steinerman (episode 3х08)
Tory Kittles — Derek Hoyt (episode 3х11)
Katheryn Winnick — Eve (episode 3х12)
Kurtwood Smith — Dr. Obyedkov (episode 3х15)
Tyson Ritter — cameo (episode 3х17)
Piper Perabo — Honey (episode 3х22)
Jeremy Renner - Jimmy Quidd (episode 4x09)
Fred Durst — barman (episode 4х16)
Felicia Day - Apple (episode 5x02)
Zeljko Ivanek – Jason (episode 5x09)
Wood Harris – Lt. Bowman (episode 5x09)
Evan Peters – Oliver (episode 5x09)
Evan Jones – Bill (episode 5x09)
Jay Karnes — Nick Greenwald (episode 5х17)
Meat Loaf — Eddie (episode 5х20)
Lin-Manuel Miranda - Juan Alvarez (episodes 6x01 and 6x21)
Jon Seda – Donny (episode 6x05)
Marcus Giamatti – Jeffrey Keener (episode 6x06)
Joshua Malina – Tucker (episode 6x09)
Ethan Embry – Mickey (episode 6x10)
Nick Chinlund – Eddie (episode 6x10)
Ray Abruzzo – Lorenzo Whibberly (episode 6x11)
Adam Rothenberg – Taylor (episode 6x14)
Dennis Boutsikaris – Arthie (episode 6x15)
David Strathairn – Nash (episode 6x16)
Sarah Wayne Callies – Julia (episode 6x18)
Zoe McLellan — Sidney Merrick (episode 6x20)
Matthew Lillard — Jack (episodes 7x09)
Sprague Grayden — Daisy (episodes 7x09)
David Costabile — Phil (episode 7x20)
Amy Landecker — Darrien McCurdy (episode 7x22)
Thom Barry — Dr. Sykes (episode 8x01)
Michael Massee — Frankie (episode 8x01)
Jude Ciccolella — Mendelson (episode 8x01)
Wentworth Miller — Benjamyn Bird (episode 8x03)
Michael Nouri — Thad Burton (episode 8x04)
Jeffrey Wright — Dr. Walter Cofield (episode 8x11)
Jake Weber — Joe Reese (episode 8x13)
José Zúñiga — Nate Weimann (episode 8x13)
Michael B. Jordan - (episode 8x14)
Patrick Stump — Micah (episode 8х17)
References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom%20of%20limitation%20of%20size
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Axiom of limitation of size
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In set theory, the axiom of limitation of size was proposed by John von Neumann in his 1925 axiom system for sets and classes. It formalizes the limitation of size principle, which avoids the paradoxes encountered in earlier formulations of set theory by recognizing that some classes are too big to be sets. Von Neumann realized that the paradoxes are caused by permitting these big classes to be members of a class. A class that is a member of a class is a set; a class that is not a set is a proper class. Every class is a subclass of V, the class of all sets. The axiom of limitation of size says that a class is a set if and only if it is smaller than V—that is, there is no function mapping it onto V. Usually, this axiom is stated in the equivalent form: A class is a proper class if and only if there is a function that maps it onto V.
Von Neumann's axiom implies the axioms of replacement, separation, union, and global choice. It is equivalent to the combination of replacement, union, and global choice in Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory (NBG) and Morse–Kelley set theory. Later expositions of class theories—such as those of Paul Bernays, Kurt Gödel, and John L. Kelley—use replacement, union, and a choice axiom equivalent to global choice rather than von Neumann's axiom. In 1930, Ernst Zermelo defined models of set theory satisfying the axiom of limitation of size.
Abraham Fraenkel and Azriel Lévy have stated that the axiom of limitation of size does not capture all of the "limitation of size doctrine" because it does not imply the power set axiom. Michael Hallett has argued that the limitation of size doctrine does not justify the power set axiom and that "von Neumann's explicit assumption [of the smallness of power-sets] seems preferable to Zermelo's, Fraenkel's, and Lévy's obscurely hidden implicit assumption of the smallness of power-sets."
Formal statement
The usual version of the axiom of limitation of size—a class is a proper class if and only if there is a function that maps it onto V—is expressed in the formal language of set theory as:
Gödel introduced the convention that uppercase variables range over all the classes, while lowercase variables range over all the sets. This convention allows us to write:
instead of
instead of
With Gödel's convention, the axiom of limitation of size can be written:
Implications of the axiom
Von Neumann proved that the axiom of limitation of size implies the axiom of replacement, which can be expressed as: If F is a function and A is a set, then F(A) is a set. This is proved by contradiction. Let F be a function and A be a set. Assume that F(A) is a proper class. Then there is a function G that maps F(A) onto V. Since the composite function G ∘ F maps A onto V, the axiom of limitation of size implies that A is a proper class, which contradicts A being a set. Therefore, F(A) is a set. Since the axiom of replacement implies the axiom of separation, the axiom of limitation of size implies the axiom of separation.
Von Neumann also proved that his axiom implies that V can be well-ordered. The proof starts by proving by contradiction that Ord, the class of all ordinals, is a proper class. Assume that Ord is a set. Since it is a transitive set that is strictly well-ordered by ∈, it is an ordinal. So Ord ∈ Ord, which contradicts Ord being strictly well-ordered by ∈. Therefore, Ord is a proper class. So von Neumann's axiom implies that there is a function F that maps Ord onto V. To define a well-ordering of V, let G be the subclass of F consisting of the ordered pairs (α, x) where α is the least β such that (β, x) ∈ F; that is, G = {(α, x) ∈ F: ∀β((β, x) ∈ F ⇒ α ≤ β)}. The function G is a one-to-one correspondence between a subset of Ord and V. Therefore, x < y if G−1(x) < G−1(y) defines a well-ordering of V. This well-ordering defines a global choice function: Let Inf(x) be the least element of a non-empty set x. Since Inf(x) ∈ x, this function chooses an element of x for every non-empty set x. Therefore, Inf(x) is a global choice function, so Von Neumann's axiom implies the axiom of global choice.
In 1968, Azriel Lévy proved that von Neumann's axiom implies the axiom of union. First, he proved without using the axiom of union that every set of ordinals has an upper bound. Then he used a function that maps Ord onto V to prove that if A is a set, then ∪A is a set.
The axioms of replacement, global choice, and union (with the other axioms of NBG) imply the axiom of limitation of size. Therefore, this axiom is equivalent to the combination of replacement, global choice, and union in NBG or Morse–Kelley set theory. These set theories only substituted the axiom of replacement and a form of the axiom of choice for the axiom of limitation of size because von Neumann's axiom system contains the axiom of union. Lévy's proof that this axiom is redundant came many years later.
The axioms of NBG with the axiom of global choice replaced by the usual axiom of choice do not imply the axiom of limitation of size. In 1964, William B. Easton used forcing to build a model of NBG with global choice replaced by the axiom of choice. In Easton's model, V cannot be linearly ordered, so it cannot be well-ordered. Therefore, the axiom of limitation of size fails in this model. Ord is an example of a proper class that cannot be mapped onto V because (as proved above) if there is a function mapping Ord onto V, then V can be well-ordered.
The axioms of NBG with the axiom of replacement replaced by the weaker axiom of separation do not imply the axiom of limitation of size. Define as the -th infinite initial ordinal, which is also the cardinal ; numbering starts at , so In 1939, Gödel pointed out that Lωω, a subset of the constructible universe, is a model of ZFC with replacement replaced by separation. To expand it into a model of NBG with replacement replaced by separation, let its classes be the sets of Lωω+1, which are the constructible subsets of Lωω. This model satisfies NBG's class existence axioms because restricting the set variables of these axioms to Lωω produces instances of the axiom of separation, which holds in L. It satisfies the axiom of global choice because there is a function belonging to Lωω+1 that maps ωω onto Lωω, which implies that Lωω is well-ordered. The axiom of limitation of size fails because the proper class {ωn : n ∈ ω} has cardinality , so it cannot be mapped onto Lωω, which has cardinality .
In a 1923 letter to Zermelo, von Neumann stated the first version of his axiom: A class is a proper class if and only if there is a one-to-one correspondence between it and V. The axiom of limitation of size implies von Neumann's 1923 axiom. Therefore, it also implies that all proper classes are equinumerous with V.
Zermelo's models and the axiom of limitation of size
In 1930, Zermelo published an article on models of set theory, in which he proved that some of his models satisfy the axiom of limitation of size. These models are built in ZFC by using the cumulative hierarchy Vα, which is defined by transfinite recursion:
V0 = ∅.
Vα+1 = Vα ∪ P(Vα). That is, the union of Vα and its power set.
For limit β: Vβ = ∪α < β Vα. That is, Vβ is the union of the preceding Vα.
Zermelo worked with models of the form Vκ where κ is a cardinal. The classes of the model are the subsets of Vκ, and the model's ∈-relation is the standard ∈-relation. The sets of the model are the classes X such that X ∈ Vκ. Zermelo identified cardinals κ such that Vκ satisfies:
Theorem 1. A class X is a set if and only if |X| < κ.
Theorem 2. |Vκ| = κ.
Since every class is a subset of Vκ, Theorem 2 implies that every class X has cardinality ≤ κ. Combining this with Theorem 1 proves: every proper class has cardinality κ. Hence, every proper class can be put into one-to-one correspondence with Vκ. This correspondence is a subset of Vκ, so it is a class of the model. Therefore, the axiom of limitation of size holds for the model Vκ.
The theorem stating that Vκ has a well-ordering can be proved directly. Since κ is an ordinal of cardinality κ and |Vκ| = κ, there is a one-to-one correspondence between κ and Vκ. This correspondence produces a well-ordering of Vκ. Von Neumann's proof is indirect. It uses the Burali-Forti paradox to prove by contradiction that the class of all ordinals is a proper class. Hence, the axiom of limitation of size implies that there is a function that maps the class of all ordinals onto the class of all sets. This function produces a well-ordering of Vκ.
The model Vω
To demonstrate that Theorems 1 and 2 hold for some Vκ, we first prove that if a set belongs to Vα then it belongs to all subsequent Vβ, or equivalently: Vα ⊆ Vβ for α ≤ β. This is proved by transfinite induction on β:
β = 0: V0 ⊆ V0.
For β+1: By inductive hypothesis, Vα ⊆ Vβ. Hence, Vα ⊆ Vβ ⊆ Vβ ∪ P(Vβ) = Vβ+1.
For limit β: If α < β, then Vα ⊆ ∪ξ < β Vξ = Vβ. If α = β, then Vα ⊆ Vβ.
Sets enter the cumulative hierarchy through the power set P(Vβ) at step β+1. The following definitions will be needed:
If x is a set, rank(x) is the least ordinal β such that x ∈ Vβ+1.
The supremum of a set of ordinals A, denoted by sup A, is the least ordinal β such that α ≤ β for all α ∈ A.
Zermelo's smallest model is Vω. Mathematical induction proves that Vn is finite for all n < ω:
|V0| = 0.
|Vn+1| = |Vn ∪ P(Vn)| ≤ |Vn| + 2 |Vn|, which is finite since Vn is finite by inductive hypothesis.
Proof of Theorem 1: A set X enters Vω through P(Vn) for some n < ω, so X ⊆ Vn. Since Vn is finite, X is finite. Conversely: If a class X is finite, let N = sup {rank(x): x ∈ X}. Since rank(x) ≤ N for all x ∈ X, we have X ⊆ VN+1, so X ∈ VN+2 ⊆ Vω. Therefore, X ∈ Vω.
Proof of Theorem 2: Vω is the union of countably infinitely many finite sets of increasing size. Hence, it has cardinality , which equals ω by von Neumann cardinal assignment.
The sets and classes of Vω satisfy all the axioms of NBG except the axiom of infinity.
The models Vκ where κ is a strongly inaccessible cardinal
Two properties of finiteness were used to prove Theorems 1 and 2 for Vω:
If λ is a finite cardinal, then 2λ is finite.
If A is a set of ordinals such that |A| is finite, and α is finite for all α ∈ A, then sup A is finite.
To find models satisfying the axiom of infinity, replace "finite" by "< κ" to produce the properties that define strongly inaccessible cardinals. A cardinal κ is strongly inaccessible if κ > ω and:
If λ is a cardinal such that λ < κ, then 2λ < κ.
If A is a set of ordinals such that |A| < κ, and α < κ for all α ∈ A, then sup A < κ.
These properties assert that κ cannot be reached from below. The first property says κ cannot be reached by power sets; the second says κ cannot be reached by the axiom of replacement. Just as the axiom of infinity is required to obtain ω, an axiom is needed to obtain strongly inaccessible cardinals. Zermelo postulated the existence of an unbounded sequence of strongly inaccessible cardinals.
If κ is a strongly inaccessible cardinal, then transfinite induction proves |Vα| < κ for all α < κ:
α = 0: |V0| = 0.
For α+1: |Vα+1| = |Vα ∪ P(Vα)| ≤ |Vα| + 2 |Vα| = 2 |Vα| < κ. Last inequality uses inductive hypothesis and κ being strongly inaccessible.
For limit α: |Vα| = |∪ξ < α Vξ| ≤ sup {|Vξ| : ξ < α} < κ. Last inequality uses inductive hypothesis and κ being strongly inaccessible.
Proof of Theorem 1: A set X enters Vκ through P(Vα) for some α < κ, so X ⊆ Vα. Since |Vα| < κ, we obtain |X| < κ. Conversely: If a class X has |X| < κ, let β = sup {rank(x): x ∈ X}. Because κ is strongly inaccessible, |X| < κ and rank(x) < κ for all x ∈ X imply β = sup {rank(x): x ∈ X} < κ. Since rank(x) ≤ β for all x ∈ X, we have X ⊆ Vβ+1, so X ∈ Vβ+2 ⊆ Vκ. Therefore, X ∈ Vκ.
Proof of Theorem 2: |Vκ| = |∪α < κ Vα| ≤ sup {|Vα| : α < κ}. Let β be this supremum. Since each ordinal in the supremum is less than κ, we have β ≤ κ. Assume β < κ. Then there is a cardinal λ such that β < λ < κ; for example, let λ = 2|β|. Since λ ⊆ Vλ and |Vλ| is in the supremum, we have λ ≤ |Vλ| ≤ β. This contradicts β < λ. Therefore, |Vκ| = β = κ.
The sets and classes of Vκ satisfy all the axioms of NBG.
Limitation of size doctrine
The limitation of size doctrine is a heuristic principle that is used to justify axioms of set theory. It avoids the set theoretical paradoxes by restricting the full (contradictory) comprehension axiom schema:
to instances "that do not give sets 'too much bigger' than the ones they use."
If "bigger" means "bigger in cardinal size," then most of the axioms can be justified: The axiom of separation produces a subset of x that is not bigger than x. The axiom of replacement produces an image set f(x) that is not bigger than x. The axiom of union produces a union whose size is not bigger than the size of the biggest set in the union times the number of sets in the union. The axiom of choice produces a choice set whose size is not bigger than the size of the given set of nonempty sets.
The limitation of size doctrine does not justify the axiom of infinity:
which uses the empty set and sets obtained from the empty set by iterating the ordinal successor operation. Since these sets are finite, any set satisfying this axiom, such as ω, is much bigger than these sets. Fraenkel and Lévy regard the empty set and the infinite set of natural numbers, whose existence is implied by the axioms of infinity and separation, as the starting point for generating sets.
Von Neumann's approach to limitation of size uses the axiom of limitation of size. As mentioned in , von Neumann's axiom implies the axioms of separation, replacement, union, and choice. Like Fraenkel and Lévy, von Neumann had to add the axiom of infinity to his system since it cannot be proved from his other axioms. The differences between von Neumann's approach to limitation of size and Fraenkel and Lévy's approach are:
Von Neumann's axiom puts limitation of size into an axiom system, making it possible to prove most set existence axioms. The limitation of size doctrine justifies axioms using informal arguments that are more open to disagreement than a proof.
Von Neumann assumed the power set axiom since it cannot be proved from his other axioms. Fraenkel and Lévy state that the limitation of size doctrine justifies the power set axiom.
There is disagreement on whether the limitation of size doctrine justifies the power set axiom. Michael Hallett has analyzed the arguments given by Fraenkel and Lévy. Some of their arguments measure size by criteria other than cardinal size—for example, Fraenkel introduces "comprehensiveness" and "extendability." Hallett points out what he considers to be flaws in their arguments.
Hallett then argues that results in set theory seem to imply that there is no link between the size of an infinite set and the size of its power set. This would imply that the limitation of size doctrine is incapable of justifying the power set axiom because it requires that the power set of x is not "too much bigger" than x. For the case where size is measured by cardinal size, Hallett mentions Paul Cohen's work. Starting with a model of ZFC and , Cohen built a model in which the cardinality of the power set of ω is if the cofinality of is not ω; otherwise, its cardinality is . Since the cardinality of the power set of ω has no bound, there is no link between the cardinal size of ω and the cardinal size of P(ω).
Hallett also discusses the case where size is measured by "comprehensiveness," which considers a collection "too big" if it is of "unbounded comprehension" or "unlimited extent." He points out that for an infinite set, we cannot be sure that we have all its subsets without going through the unlimited extent of the universe. He also quotes John L. Bell and Moshé Machover: "... the power set P(u) of a given [infinite] set u is proportional not only to the size of u but also to the 'richness' of the entire universe ..." After making these observations, Hallett states: "One is led to suspect that there is simply no link between the size (comprehensiveness) of an infinite a and the size of P(a)."
Hallett considers the limitation of size doctrine valuable for justifying most of the axioms of set theory. His arguments only indicate that it cannot justify the axioms of infinity and power set. He concludes that "von Neumann's explicit assumption [of the smallness of power-sets] seems preferable to Zermelo's, Fraenkel's, and Lévy's obscurely hidden implicit assumption of the smallness of power-sets."
History
Von Neumann developed the axiom of limitation of size as a new method of identifying sets. ZFC identifies sets via its set building axioms. However, as Abraham Fraenkel pointed out: "The rather arbitrary character of the processes which are chosen in the axioms of Z [ZFC] as the basis of the theory, is justified by the historical development of set-theory rather than by logical arguments."
The historical development of the ZFC axioms began in 1908 when Zermelo chose axioms to eliminate the paradoxes and to support his proof of the well-ordering theorem. In 1922, Abraham Fraenkel and Thoralf Skolem pointed out that Zermelo's axioms cannot prove the existence of the set {Z0, Z1, Z2, ...} where Z0 is the set of natural numbers, and Zn+1 is the power set of Zn. They also introduced the axiom of replacement, which guarantees the existence of this set. However, adding axioms as they are needed neither guarantees the existence of all reasonable sets nor clarifies the difference between sets that are safe to use and collections that lead to contradictions.
In a 1923 letter to Zermelo, von Neumann outlined an approach to set theory that identifies sets that are "too big" and might lead to contradictions. Von Neumann identified these sets using the criterion: "A set is 'too big' if and only if it is equivalent with the set of all things." He then restricted how these sets may be used: "... in order to avoid the paradoxes those [sets] which are 'too big' are declared to be impermissible as elements." By combining this restriction with his criterion, von Neumann obtained his first version of the axiom of limitation of size, which in the language of classes states: A class is a proper class if and only if it is equinumerous with V. By 1925, Von Neumann modified his axiom by changing "it is equinumerous with V" to "it can be mapped onto V", which produces the axiom of limitation of size. This modification allowed von Neumann to give a simple proof of the axiom of replacement. Von Neumann's axiom identifies sets as classes that cannot be mapped onto V. Von Neumann realized that, even with this axiom, his set theory does not fully characterize sets.
Gödel found von Neumann's axiom to be "of great interest":
"In particular I believe that his [von Neumann's] necessary and sufficient condition which a property must satisfy, in order to define a set, is of great interest, because it clarifies the relationship of axiomatic set theory to the paradoxes. That this condition really gets at the essence of things is seen from the fact that it implies the axiom of choice, which formerly stood quite apart from other existential principles. The inferences, bordering on the paradoxes, which are made possible by this way of looking at things, seem to me, not only very elegant, but also very interesting from the logical point of view. Moreover I believe that only by going farther in this direction, i.e., in the direction opposite to constructivism, will the basic problems of abstract set theory be solved."
Notes
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Axioms of set theory
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Saina Nehwal
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Saina Nehwal (; born 17 March 1990) is an Indian professional badminton player. A former world no. 1, she has won 24 international titles, which includes ten Superseries titles. Although she reached the world's 2nd in 2009, it was only in 2015 that she was able to attain the world no. 1 ranking, thereby becoming the only female player from India and thereafter the second Indian player – after Prakash Padukone – to achieve this feat. She has represented India three times in the Olympics, winning a bronze medal in her second appearance at London 2012.
Nehwal has achieved several milestones in badminton for India. She is the only Indian to have won at least one medal in every BWF major individual event, namely the Olympics, the BWF World Championships, and the BWF World Junior Championships. She is the first Indian badminton player to have won an Olympic medal, the first Indian to have reached the final of the BWF World Championships, and the first Indian to have won the BWF World Junior Championships. In 2006, Nehwal became the first Indian female and the youngest Asian to win a 4-star tournament. She is also the first Indian to win a Super Series title. In the 2014 Uber Cup, she captained the Indian team and remained undefeated, helping India to win a first-ever Uber Cup bronze medal. Nehwal also became the first Indian to win two singles gold medals (2010 and 2018) at the Commonwealth Games.
Considered one of India's most successful badminton players, Nehwal is credited for increasing the popularity of badminton in India. In 2016, she was conferred the Padma Bhushan – India's third highest civilian award. Previously, she had also received the nation's top two sporting honours, namely the Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award. Nehwal is a philanthropist and was ranked 18th on the list of most charitable athletes in 2015.
Early life
Saina Nehwal, the daughter of Harvir Singh Nehwal and Usha Rani Nehwal, was born in Hisar. She has only one sibling, an elder sister named Chandranshu Nehwal. Her father, who has a PhD in agricultural science, worked at Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University. She completed her first few years of schooling at Campus School CCS HAU, Hisar. She finished 12th grade from the St. Ann's College for Women, Hyderabad.
When her father was promoted and transferred from Haryana to Hyderabad, she took up badminton at the age of eight to express herself, as she did not know the local language well enough to socialise with other kids. Her parents played badminton for a number of years. Her mother, Usha Rani, was a state level badminton player in Haryana. Nehwal took up badminton to fulfill her mother's dream of becoming a national level badminton player, while her sister played volleyball. Her father, who was among the top players in the university circuit, used his provident fund to invest in good badminton training for her. After moving to Hyderabad in 1998, she was enrolled in a karate class by her parents, which she continued for a year and earned a brown belt.
She trained under Pullela Gopichand in his academy Gopichand Badminton Academy. In 2014, she parted with Gopichand and joined Prakash Padukone Badminton Academy in Bangalore and trained under U. Vimal Kumar under whose training she became World number one; she later in 2017 returned to train under Gopichand. In his book Dreams of a Billion: India and the Olympic Games’, Gopichand said that he felt miserable when she left him and went to train in Bangalore.
Career
2005–2007
In 2005, at the age of 15, Nehwal has won an Asian Satellite tournament in New Delhi, beating Aparna Popat in the final in straight games.
In 2006, Nehwal became the under-19 national champion and claimed her second Indian Asian Satellite tournament. In May, at age 16, she became the first Indian woman and the youngest player from Asia to win a 4-star tournament – the Philippines Open. Entering the tournament as the 86th seed, she went on to stun several top-seeded players including the then world number two Huaiwen Xu before defeating Julia Wong Pei Xian of Malaysia for the title.
A few months after she entered the International badminton circuit, Nehwal participated at the World Championships where she lost to Jiang Yanjiao of China. The same year Nehwal reached the final of 2006 BWF World Junior Championships where she lost a hard-fought match against top seed Chinese Wang Yihan. She also competed at the Doha Asian Games.
In 2007, at a very young age of 17, Nehwal went on to take part in the All England, where she challenged experienced Wang Chen in round 2, but went down in 3 games 21–17, 13–21, 16–21. She represented India at the Sudirman Cup in Scotland. At the 2007 BWF World Championships, she won her opening matches against Jeanine Cicognini of Switzerland and 13th seed Juliane Schenk of Germany, but lost the next round to French Pi Hongyan with score 13–21, 17–21. She was a finalist at the Indian International challenge in 2007 where she lost to Kanako Yonekura in 2 games.
2008
Two years after losing the final to Wang Yihan, she became the first Indian to win World Junior Championships by defeating ninth seeded Japanese Sayaka Sato 21–9, 21–18. She participated in the 2008 Beijing Olympics where she was unseeded. She began her fight with a win against Russian Ella Diehl (2–0) in round 1 and Ukrainian Larisa Griga (2–0) in second round. She became the first Indian woman to reach the quarter-finals when she upset reigning Asian Games champion number four seed Wang Chen of Hong Kong in a three-game thriller. In the quarter-finals Nehwal lost a 3-gamer to world number 16 Maria Kristin Yulianti. Nehwal was leading 11–3 in the decider but could not hold on against her opponent and lost the match by a 28–26, 14–21, 15–21 scoreline.
In September 2008, she won the Chinese Taipei Open 2008 beating Lyddia Cheah of Malaysia 21–8, 21–19. She was also a semifinalist at the China Masters Superseries after she beat reigning World Champion Zhu Lin in quarterfinals. Nehwal won the Commonwealth Youth Games by beating her compatriot N. Sikki Reddy in two games. Nehwal was named "The Most Promising Player" by the Badminton World Federation in 2008. She qualified for the season ending Superseries Finals which consists of most consistent players of the year. She defeated Pi Hongyan and Wong Mew Choo in early rounds. She lost to Tine Rasmussen in round 3. She entered semifinals but lost to Wang Chen with scores 21–15, 14–21, 16–21.
2009
In June, she became the first Indian to win a BWF Super Series title, the most prominent badminton series of the world by winning the Indonesia Open. She beat Chinese Wang Lin in the final 12–21, 21–18, 21–9. Nehwal on winning the tournament said, "I had been longing to win a super series tournament since my quarter final appearance at the Olympics". She is at par with the likes of Prakash Padukone and her mentor Pullela Gopichand who both won the all England championships which are of similar status to the super series.
In August, she reached to the quarterfinals of the World Championships, losing to the second seed Wang Lin. She qualified for the season ending Superseries Finals in December, where she lost the opening match to Wong Mew Choo (eventual champion) but won the next two group matches against Porntip Buranaprasertsuk and Canada's Charmaine Reid. She again reached the semifinals of this tournament but went down, this time to Germany's Juliane Schenk. She won India Grand Prix tournament later in the year, defeating compatriot Aditi Mutatkar in the final with scores 21–17, 21–13.
2010
Nehwal became the first Indian woman to reach the semi-finals of All England Open before losing to eventual champion Tine Rasmussen. Top seeded Nehwal reached the semifinals of Asian Championships, losing out to unseeded eventual champion Li Xuerui of China, settling for bronze medal. Her coach Pullela Gopichand advised her not put too much pressure on herself due to the overwhelming home crowd support.
Nehwal won the India Open Grand Prix Gold, beating Wong Mew Choo of Malaysia in the final and thus justifying her billing as top seed in the tournament. Nehwal, again seeded number 1, won the Singapore Open, by beating qualifier Tai Tzu-ying of Chinese Taipei in the final with the score of 21–18, 21–15 having defeated World Champion Lu Lan earlier in the semifinal. Nehwal reached a career high of world no. 3 in the women's singles badminton world rankings on 24 June 2010.
She defended her Indonesia Open title in three tough games against Sayaka Sato, 21–19, 13–21, 21–11. This was her third Super Series title and her third successive title following wins at Indian and Singapore Open Super Series. On 15 July 2010, with 64791.26 points, Nehwal reached a career high world ranking of number 2 only behind Wang Yihan of China. Second seed Nehwal, a tournament favourite, crashed out of the 2010 BWF World Championships in Paris after losing to 4th ranked Chinese Wang Shixian in straight sets 8–21, 14–21.
As on 27 September 2010, Nehwal dropped to number 7 ranking after giving a miss to China Masters and Japan Open due to her preparation for the 2010 Commonwealth Games.
Top seed Nehwal won the gold medal in the women's singles in the Commonwealth Games held in New Delhi. after beating Wong Mew Choo of Malaysia 19–21, 23–21, 21–13. After her win Nehwal said, "when I was a match-point down, it was like a shock. It was a big match and winning it means a lot to me. Even many years from now, those present here will always remember how Saina won the gold. It is a proud feeling". Nehwal confirmed her participation for the Hong Kong Open after a gap of more than five months since her win in the Indonesia Open in June 2010. On 12 December 2010, she defeated Wang Shixian 15–21, 21–16, 21–17 in the final of the Hong Kong Open to win her fourth career Super Series title.
2011
2nd seeded Nehwal beat Sung Ji-hyun of South Korea 21–13, 21–14 to win the Swiss Open title. Nehwal faltered after a good start as she lost to the then world number three Wang Xin of China in the finals to finish runner-up in the Malaysia Grand Prix Gold tournament. She was a part of Indian team in the Sudirman Cup mixed team who managed to reach the quarterfinals of this elite mixed team event for the first time ever, as India managed to beat Thailand 3–2, even when Nehwal lost her tie against Ratchanok Intanon. In the quarterfinals against China, Nehwal put up her best performance and beat the then world number two Wang Xin with 21–15, 21–11, but still the Chinese managed to move into the semi-finals with a 3–1 win over India.
In attempt to record a third straight win at the Indonesian Open, she reached the finals once more where she lost to Wang Yihan of China to finish as runner-up, on 26 June. Nehwal crashed out of the World Championship as she lost 15–21, 10–21 to Wang Xin. Nehwal, who reached the quarterfinals in the last two editions of the event, had to be content with yet another last-eight finish. During the season ending tournament 2011 BWF Super Series Masters Finals in Liuzhou in December, Nehwal won her all group matches against Bae Yeon-ju, Sayaka Sato and Wang Xin and once again reached the semifinals. She created history by becoming the first Indian singles player to reach the final after defeating World number 5 Tine Baun of Denmark scoring 21–17, 21–18 win. She lost the final 21–18, 13–21, 13–21 against the World No. 1 Wang Yihan in a contest lasting over an hour.
2012
Nehwal successfully defended her Swiss Open title by defeating Wang Shixian 21–19, 21–16 on 18 March, a day after she turned 22 years old. On 10 June, she defeated Thailand's Ratchanok Intanon 19–21, 21–15, 21–10, to lift the Thailand Open title. On 17 June, Nehwal won the third consecutive Indonesia Open by defeating Li Xuerui, a player who was on 30 match winning streak with most dominant performance in the season so far with scores 13–21, 22–20, 21–19.
At the London Olympics, Nehwal was seeded 4th in the draw. In the group stage she defeated Swiss Sabrina Jaquet (2–0) and Belgian Lianne Tan both in straight games. She reached the knockout phase where she defeated Dutch Yao Jie with scores 21–14, 21–16. She then faced Tine Baun, the number 5 seed whom she defeated with 21–15, 22–20 scoreline. She afterwards advanced to semifinals where she lost to top seed Wang Yihan in two straight games 13–21, 13–21. On 4 August, she won the bronze medal when Wang Xin retired from the bronze medal playoff with an injury after taking the first game.
On 21 October, she won the Denmark Open after defeating Germany's Juliane Schenk. Nehwal successfully entered the finals of French Open, but she lost against Minatsu Mitani in straight sets. She participated at the season ending Superseries Finals. In the group stage, she lost to Tine Baun (1–2), won against Juliane Schenk (2–0) & lost the 3rd match to Ratchanok Intanon (0–2). She reached the semifinals but lost a well contested match to Li Xuerui in 3 games, 20–22, 21–7, 13–21.
2013–2014
In 2013, Nehwal reached the semifinal of All England Open also but was defeated by 3-time World Junior Champion Ratchanok Intanon. She has yet another quarterfinal finish at the World Championships, after going down to Korean Bae Yeon-ju with score 21–23, 9–21. She qualified for the season ending Superseries Finals held at Kuala Lumpur where she lost to Minatsu Mitani and Li Xuerui, but won the last group match against Bae Yeon-ju in 3 games. However, she failed to progress to the semifinals.
On 26 January 2014, Nehwal defeated World Championship bronze medalist P.V. Sindhu 21–14, 21–17 to win the India Grand Prix Gold tournament. In the final of Australian Open on 29 June, Nehwal defeated Spain's Carolina Marín 21–18, 21–11 to win the title. She withdrew from 2014 Commonwealth Games due to fitness Issue and injury problems she carried during Australian Open. She lost in the quarterfinals of World Championships again, this time to Li Xuerui. She was the quarter-finalist at the Asian Games as well, where she lost to Wang Yihan. She became the first Indian player to win the China Open by beating Japan's Akane Yamaguchi 21–12, 22–20 in the final. She contested at the Superseries Finals and won all of her group matches against top seed Wang Shixian (2–0), Bae Yeon-ju (2–1) & Sung Ji-hyun (2–0). She reached the semifinals once more, but lost to eventual champion Tai Tzu-ying 21–11, 13–21, 9–21.
2015
Defending champion Nehwal won the Syed Modi International by defeating Carolina Marín in the final. She became the first Indian woman shuttler to reach the finals of the All England Open, but lost to Marín in the final. On 29 March, Nehwal won her maiden women's singles title at the India Open, by beating Ratchanok Intanon. This assured her of becoming World number 1 when the latest BWF rankings were released on 2 April. With this, she became the first Indian player to achieve this feat in Women's category.
At the World Championship held in Jakarta, Nehwal was seeded 2nd. She defeated Cheung Ngan Yi and Sayaka Takahashi in early rounds and reached the quarterfinals where she faced Chinese Wang Yihan. She was able to beat her in 3 games 21–15, 19–21, 21–19; thus assured herself of first ever medal at the World Championships. She beat home hope Lindaweni Fanetri in the semifinal and created history by becoming first ever player from India to contest World badminton championship finals. She settled for the silver after going down to Carolina Marín in final.
Defending champion Nehwal fought hard before going down to Li Xuerui in the final of the China Open. She took part at the Season Ending Championships where she lost against Tai Tzu-ying and Nozomi Okuhara but won against Carolina Marín, a player she struggled to beat in the whole year, in one of the group matches. However she failed to reach the knockout phase.
2016
Nehwal dealt with injuries in early 2016 but she eventually recovered. She reached the semifinals of the Asian Championships after defeating the third seed Wang Shixian but settled for bronze medal, after losing to Wang Yihan 16–21, 14–21. At the Australian Open, Nehwal went into the finals after beating Ratchanok Intanon in quarters and Wang Yihan in semifinals. She defeated China's Sun Yu in the final by 11–21, 21–14, 21–19.
Making her third appearance at the Olympics, Nehwal, the fifth seed, won her opening match against the unseeded Lohaynny Vicente in straight games. However, she lost her second match against the world no. 61 from Ukraine Marija Ulitina by 18–21, 19–21, thereby making an exit at the group stage. Her coach cited the week-old knee injury for her below par performance. She was appointed as a member of IOC Athletes' Commission in October. She was also chosen as an Integrity Ambassador in BWF's Campaign – "I am Badminton" in December to promote clean and fair play in the sport.
2017
Nehwal went on to win Malaysia Masters by defeating Pornpawee Chochuwong with score 22–20, 22–20. She couldn't do well much of the year due to injury; she was still recovering. She was seeded 12th in the World Championship at Glasgow. She ousted Sabrina Jaquet in round 1. She beat 2nd seed Sung Ji-hyun in round of 16 and reached quarterfinals for 7th straight time. She had to dug deep into her reservoir to eke out a 21–19, 18–21, 21–15 win over world no. 31 Kirsty Gilmour of Scotland in the quarterfinal. However, she lost the semifinal to eventual winner Nozomi Okuhara of Japan, thus won the bronze medal. She then won the 82nd national badminton championship by beating P. V. Sindhu in the final.
2018
Nehwal reached the finals of the Indonesia Masters. En route to the finals she beat 3 seeded players Chen Yufei, P. V. Sindhu and Ratchanok Intanon. However she finished second-best after losing the final to Tai Tzu-ying. She won her second gold in Commonwealth Games women's singles after beating P. V. Sindhu in the final and led the Indian team to another gold medal in the mixed team event. She then clinched a bronze in the Asian Championships which was her third medal in the tournament altogether, as she went down fighting to the defending champion Tai Tzu-ying. At the World Championships, Nehwal was seeded 10th. She outgunned Turkish Aliye Demirbağ and advanced to next round. She further ousted 4th seed Ratchanok Intanon and reached World Championships quarter-final for record 8th straight time. She lost tamely to Carolina Marín there, in an unexpectedly lop-sided clash.
Nehwal was unseeded at the Jakarta-Palembang Asian Games. She defeated Iran's Sorayya Aghaei in round of 32 and Indonesia's Fitriani in second round both in straight games. She then won the quarterfinal, after making a stunning comeback against 4th seeded Ratchanok Intanon, when she was 3–12 down in Game 1 but eventually won it in 2 games thus made it to the semifinals. She made history by winning the first medal for India in badminton after a long wait of 36 years. She lost to Tai Tzu-ying in the semifinal, winning a bronze medal. She achieved a rare feat by winning medals from the quintet of badminton tournaments – the Olympics, the World Championships, the Commonwealth Games, the Asian Championships and the Asian Games.
At the Denmark Open, Nehwal was unseeded. She defeated Hongkonger Cheung Ngan Yi scoring 20–22, 21–17, 24–22 in her favour. She then defeated 2 tough Japanese opponents in successive rounds; beating Akane Yamaguchi and Nozomi Okuhara. After an easy win against Indonesia's Gregoria Mariska Tunjung in semifinal, she met her arch-rival and the no.1 seed Tai Tzu-ying. In the past 16 meetings Tai had won 11 and Nehwal wanted to break that jinx but couldn't managed and went down by 13–21, 21–13, 6–21. Nehwal went into the finals of Syed Modi Badminton Super 300 tournament but lost to Han Yue of China.
2019
She won her first BWF Super 500 title, the Indonesia Masters, against Carolina Marín, after the latter retired from the court injured. Defending her national championship title in Guwahati, Assam, Nehwal refused to play her singles match citing poor playing surface, and went on to win the National Championship by defeating
top seed P. V. Sindhu 21–18, 21–15. This was her 4th National title. Her consistent record at the World Championships came to an end after she lost to Mia Blichfeldt in pre-quarterfinal in 3 hard fought games 21–15, 25–27, 12–21.
Achievements
Olympic Games
Women's singles
BWF World Championships
Women's singles
Commonwealth Games
Women's singles
Asian Games
Women's singles
Asian Championships
Women's singles
BWF World Junior Championships
Girls' singles
Commonwealth Youth Games
Girls' singles
BWF World Tour (1 title, 3 runners-up)
The BWF World Tour, which was announced on 19 March 2017 and implemented in 2018, is a series of elite badminton tournaments sanctioned by the Badminton World Federation (BWF). The BWF World Tour is divided into levels of World Tour Finals, Super 1000, Super 750, Super 500, Super 300 (part of the HSBC World Tour), and the BWF Tour Super 100.
Women's singles
BWF Superseries (10 titles, 5 runners-up)
The BWF Superseries, which was launched on 14 December 2006 and implemented in 2007, was a series of elite badminton tournaments, sanctioned by the Badminton World Federation (BWF). BWF Superseries levels were Superseries and Superseries Premier. A season of Superseries consisted of twelve tournaments around the world that had been introduced since 2011. Successful players were invited to the Superseries Finals, which were held at the end of each year.
Women's singles
BWF Superseries Finals tournament
BWF Superseries Premier tournament
BWF Superseries tournament
BWF Grand Prix (10 titles, 1 runner-up)
The BWF Grand Prix had two levels, the Grand Prix and Grand Prix Gold. It was a series of badminton tournaments sanctioned by the Badminton World Federation (BWF) and played between 2007 and 2017. The World Badminton Grand Prix was sanctioned by the International Badminton Federation from 1983 to 2006.
Women's singles
BWF Grand Prix Gold tournament
BWF & IBF Grand Prix tournament
BWF International Challenge/Series/Satellite (2 titles, 1 runner-up)
Women's singles
BWF International Challenge tournament
BWF International Series/Satellite tournament
National titles and runners-up
National Junior/Senior titles (13)
National Junior/Senior runners-up (1)
Performance timeline
Record against selected opponents
Record against Year-end Finals finalists, World Championships semi-finalists, and Olympic quarter-finalists. Accurate as of 22 September 2023.
Personal life
Nehwal and her family speak the Haryanvi language at home. She is a fan of Shah Rukh Khan and Mahesh Babu and Chris Gayle . She is in the process of opening a badminton academy in her native state of Haryana.
She married a badminton player, Parupalli Kashyap in a private ceremony on 14 December 2018.
Politics
Nehwal joined the Bharatiya Janata Party in Delhi on 29 January 2020 in the presence of party's national general secretary Arun Singh. Her sister Abu Chandranshu Nehwal also joined the party. She was quoted as saying "Narendra Modi is working hard for the country, and has always inspired me."
Accolades
Awards
Most Promising Player of the Year (2008) award by Badminton World Federation
Arjuna Award (2009)
Padma Shri (2010)
Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna (2009–2010)
Padma Bhushan (2016)
For the bronze medal at the 2012 London Olympics
cash award from the Haryana Government
cash award from the Rajasthan Government
cash award from the Andhra Pradesh Government
cash award from the Badminton Association of India
Honorary doctorate degree by Mangalayatan University
Honorary doctorate degree by SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Endorsements
In 2002, sports brand Yonex offered to sponsor Nehwal's kit. As her status and rankings improved, the number of sponsorships also increased. In 2004, Bharat Petroleum signed the rising star. She is one of the athletes supported by Olympic Gold Quest. She endorses Commune Builder, Edelweiss Group, Emami, Fortune Cooking Oil, Godrej No Marks, Herbalife Nutrition, Huawei Honor smartphone. Indian Overseas Bank, Iodex, NECC, Sahara Group, Star Sports, Top Ramen Noodles, Vaseline and Yonex.
Nehwal signed an endorsement deal worth Rs. 400 million with the popular sports management firm Rhiti Sports in 2012. However, she severed this deal in 2013 and signed up with KWAN entertainment and marketing solutions for an undisclosed sum. She has a dedicated sporting range with the multinational sports goods manufacturer Yonex, 4% of the profits of which goes to her.
In popular culture
Nehwal has been invited on popular Indian television shows as a guest including Satyamev Jayate, Comedy Nights with Kapil, The Kapil Sharma Show, Sam Jam.
Her autobiography, Playing to Win: My Life On and Off Court, was released in 2012.
Saina, a biopic based on her life, directed by Amol Gupte with actress Parineeti Chopra playing the title role, was released in 2021.
Legacy
Saina Nehwal Institute of Agricultural Technology, Training & Education at Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University is named after her.
See also
India national badminton team
References
External links
Saina Nehwal at BadmintonLink.com
Saina Nehwal first badminton academy at Gaur City at Sportskeeda
Saina Nehwal Profile and latest news at Sportskeeda
Interview with Saina Nehwal – "Your Call with Saina Nehwal" on NDTV
1990 births
Living people
Racket sportspeople from Haryana
Sportswomen from Haryana
Sportswomen from Hyderabad, India
People from Hisar (city)
21st-century Indian women
21st-century Indian people
Indian female badminton players
Indian national badminton champions
Badminton players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Badminton players at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Badminton players at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic badminton players for India
Olympic bronze medalists for India
Olympic medalists in badminton
Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Badminton players at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
Badminton players at the 2010 Commonwealth Games
Badminton players at the 2018 Commonwealth Games
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for India
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for India
Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for India
Commonwealth Games medallists in badminton
Badminton players at the 2006 Asian Games
Badminton players at the 2010 Asian Games
Badminton players at the 2014 Asian Games
Badminton players at the 2018 Asian Games
Asian Games bronze medalists for India
Asian Games medalists in badminton
Medalists at the 2014 Asian Games
Medalists at the 2018 Asian Games
World No. 1 badminton players
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in sports
Recipients of the Padma Shri in sports
Recipients of the Khel Ratna Award
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan schools alumni
Campus School, CCS HAU alumni
Recipients of the Arjuna Award
Medallists at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
Medallists at the 2010 Commonwealth Games
Medallists at the 2018 Commonwealth Games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%27Day
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B'Day
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B'Day is the second studio album by American singer Beyoncé. It was released on September 1, 2006, by Columbia Records, Music World Entertainment and Sony Urban Music.
Originally set to be released in 2004, B'Day was planned as a follow-up to Beyoncé's solo debut Dangerously in Love (2003); however, it was delayed to accommodate the recording of Destiny's Child's final studio album Destiny Fulfilled (2004) and Beyoncé's starring role in the 2006 film Dreamgirls. While on vacation after filming Dreamgirls, Beyoncé began contacting various producers and rented Sony Music Studios, completing the album within two weeks. Most of the lyrical content of the album was inspired by Beyoncé's role in the film, with its musical style ranging from 1970s–1980s funk influences and balladry to urban contemporary elements such as hip hop and R&B. Live instrumentation was employed in recording most of the tracks as part of Beyoncé's vision of creating a record using live instruments.
Upon its release, B'Day received generally favorable reviews from music critics, who directed most of the acclaim towards its sonic quality and Beyoncé's vocal performance. A commercial success, the album debuted atop the US Billboard 200, selling over 541,000 copies in its first week. Among numerous additional accolades, it won Best Contemporary R&B Album at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards (2007). B'Day Anthology Video Album, which featured 13 music videos to accompany the album's tracks, was released alongside the album's Deluxe Edition reissue in April 2007. B'Day has been certified quintuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and, as of 2013, has sold over eight million copies worldwide.
B'Day produced six singles. "Déjà Vu" peaked at number four on the US Billboard Hot 100, while "Ring the Alarm" became Beyoncé's highest-debuting single at the time but broke her string of top-ten singles after peaking at number 11. "Irreplaceable" became her fourth Billboard Hot 100 number-one, while "Beautiful Liar" peaked at number three; both singles achieved widespread international success. "Get Me Bodied" was released exclusively in the United States, while "Green Light" was released internationally; neither replicated the success of their predecessors. To further promote B'Day, Beyoncé embarked on her second solo concert tour The Beyoncé Experience (2007); a live album titled The Beyoncé Experience Live was also released.
Background and development
Between March 2002 and March 2003, Beyoncé had productive studio sessions while recording her debut solo studio album Dangerously in Love, recording up to 45 songs. After the release of Dangerously in Love in June 2003, Beyoncé had planned to produce a follow-up album using several of the leftover tracks. However, on January 7, 2004, a spokesperson for her record label Columbia Records announced that Beyoncé had put her plans on hold in order to concentrate on the recording of Destiny Fulfilled, the final studio album by Destiny's Child, and to sing "The Star-Spangled Banner" at the Super Bowl XXXVIII in Houston, Texas, which was a childhood dream of hers. Furthermore, she starred as Xania in the 2006 comedy-mystery film The Pink Panther, which was filmed in 2004. She also spent the following two years promoting Destiny Fulfilled and Destiny's Child's first greatest hits album #1's (2005), embarking on their final world tour Destiny Fulfilled... and Lovin' It; the group would disband in 2006.
Beyoncé originally recorded "Check on It" for The Pink Panther soundtrack; although its soundtrack inclusion was cancelled, it was released as the second single from #1's in December 2005 and became Beyoncé's third solo US Billboard Hot 100 number-one single, later appearing as a bonus track on the international editions of B'Day. In late 2005, Beyoncé decided to postpone the recording of her second studio album because she had landed the lead role in Dreamgirls, a film adaptation of the Tony Award-winning Broadway musical of the same name (1981). As she wanted to focus on one project at a time, Beyoncé decided to wait until the film was completed before returning to the recording studio. Beyoncé later told Billboard: "I'm not going to write for the album until I finish doing the movie."
Recording and production
While having a month-long vacation after filming Dreamgirls, Beyoncé went to the studio to start working on B'Day. She said: "[When filming ended] I had so many things bottled up, so many emotions, so many ideas", prompting her to begin working without telling her father and then-manager Mathew Knowles. Beyoncé kept the recording somewhat quiet, telling only her artists and repertoire executive Max Gousse, and the team of producers they contacted to collaborate with on the album. She began working with songwriters and producers Rich Harrison, Rodney Jerkins, Sean Garrett, Cameron Wallace, the Neptunes, Norwegian production duo Stargate, and American hip hop producer and rapper Swizz Beatz. Two female songwriters, who helped structure the album, were also a part of the team–Beyoncé's cousin Angela Beyincé, who had previously contributed to Dangerously in Love, and up-and-coming songwriter Makeba Riddick, who made her way onto the team after writing "Déjà Vu", the lead single off the album.
Beyoncé rented the Sony Music Studios in New York City, and was influenced by her now-husband Jay-Z's method of collaborating with multiple record producers; she used four recording studios simultaneously. She booked Harrison, Jerkins and Garrett, each with a room to work in. During the sessions, Beyoncé would move from studio to studio to check her producers' progress, later claiming this fostered "healthy competition" among producers. When Beyoncé conceived a potential song, she would tell the group who would deliberate, and after three hours the song would be created. While Beyoncé and the team brainstormed the lyrics, other collaborators such as the Neptunes, Jerkins and Swizz Beatz would simultaneously produce the tracks. They would sometimes spend up to 14 hours a day in the studios during the recording process. Beyoncé arranged, co-wrote and co-produced all of the songs on the album. Riddick, in an interview with MTV News, recounted her experience in the production:
[Beyoncé] had multiple producers in Sony Studios. She booked out the whole studio and she had the biggest and best producers in there. She would have us in one room, we would start collaborating with one producer, then she would go and start something else with another producer. We would bounce around to the different rooms and work with the different producers. It was definitely a factory type of process.
B'Day was completed within three weeks, ahead of the originally scheduled six weeks. Swizz Beatz co-produced four songs for the album, the most from a single producer in the team. Beyoncé recorded three songs a day, finishing recording within two weeks in April 2006. Aside from the Sony Music Studios, additional recording locations included Great Divide Studios in Aspen, Colorado, where "Freakum Dress" was recorded, and Los Angeles recording studios Lair Studios, where "Irreplaceable" was recorded, Henson Recording Studios, where bonus track "Check on It" was recorded, and Record Plant, where "Kitty Kat" and "Green Light were recorded and "Déjà Vu" was assisted. 25 songs were produced for the album; ten of the tracks were selected for the standard edition track listing, and were mastered in early July by Brian "Big Bass" Gardner at the Bernie Grundman Mastering in Los Angeles.
Music and lyrics
Many of the themes and musical styles of B'Day were inspired by Beyoncé's role in Dreamgirls. The plot of the film revolves around "The Dreams", a fictional 1960s group of three female singers who attempt success in the mainstream music industry with the help of their manager Curtis Taylor, Jr. (portrayed by Jamie Foxx). Beyoncé portrays Deena Jones, the lead singer of the group and the wife of Taylor, and is emotionally abused by him. Because of her role, Beyoncé was inspired to produce an album with an overriding theme of feminism and female empowerment. On the hidden track "Encore for the Fans", Beyoncé said: "Because I was so inspired by Deena, I wrote songs that were saying all the things I wish she would have said in the film." B'Day was influenced by a variety of American genres, and, like Dangerously in Love (2003), incorporated urban contemporary elements such as contemporary R&B and hip hop. Some songs showcase 1970s and 1980s styles, achieved through record sampling. "Suga Mama", which employs blues-guitar samples from Jake Wade and the Soul Searchers' "Searching for Soul", contains a 1970s funk and 1980s go-go-influenced melody. "Upgrade U" uses a sample from Betty Wright's 1968 song "Girls Can't Do What the Guys Do". "Resentment" used Curtis Mayfield's "Think" from the 1972 Super Fly soundtrack. "Déjà Vu" has 1970s influence, "Green Light" has a classic groove, and "Get Me Bodied" features twang, a musical style that originated from Texas.
Beyoncé crafted most songs on B'Day through live instrumentation and diverse techniques. This is evident on "Déjà Vu", which utilizes bass guitar, conga, hi-hat, horns and the 808 drum; it also features rap vocals by Jay-Z. In an interview with MTV, Beyoncé said: "When I recorded 'Déjà Vu' [...] I knew that even before I started working on my album, I wanted to add live instruments to all of my songs..." Lyrically, the song details a woman being constantly reminded of a past lover, shown in the lines: "Is it because I'm missing you that I'm having déjà vu?" "Get Me Bodied" is a moderate R&B and bounce track, which displays influences of dance-pop, dancehall, and funk. Lyrically, it speaks about a female protagonist going out and dressing up suitably to leave a lasting impression and get what she's looking for. The third track "Suga Mama" is a moderate R&B and soul track displaying influences of the 1960s, as well as 1970s funk and rock, also containing limited elements of the 1980s go-go, while more closely resembling live music than Beyoncé's previous recordings. Lyrically, it features the female protagonist offering up the keys to her house and car, and her credit card just to keep her love interest and his "good loving" at home, presumably so that he can listen to her collection of old soul records. Those interpretations are shown in the lines: "It's so good to the point that I'll do anything just to keep you home ... Tell me what you want me to buy, my accountant's waiting on the phone ..." The protagonist also sees the man as a sexual object, asking him to sit on her lap and "take it off while I watch you perform".
"Upgrade U", which features Jay-Z, speaks about a woman offering luxuries to a man in order to upgrade his lifestyle and reputation, similar to the concept of "Suga Mama". Musically, it's a hip hop track with influences of pop, soul and R&B. The album's fifth track and second single "Ring the Alarm", which is an R&B song incorporating elements of punk rock, is noted for the use of a siren in its melody and "shows a harder edge to Beyoncé's sound". Lyrically, it features Beyoncé as the female protagonist impersonating a threatened woman involved in a love triangle and is unwilling to allow another woman to profit from all the efforts she put on to make her lover a better man. "Kitty Kat" is a hip hop-influenced smooth R&B track speaking about the female protagonist who feels that her love interest has underestimated her. "Freakum Dress" features a crescendo using a two-note riff and galloping beats. The song "advises women who have partners with straying eyes to put on sexy dresses and grind on other guys in the club to regain their affections." Meanwhile, the use of the "uh-huh huh huh" vocals and brassy stabs in the R&B-funk break-up song "Green Light" is a direct echo to Beyoncé's single "Crazy in Love" (2003), according to Peter Robinson of The Guardian. "Irreplaceable" is a midtempo ballad with pop and R&B influences, and speaks of a breakdown of a woman's relationship with a man after she discovers his infidelity. The standard edition's closing track "Resentment" is a soul and soft rock ballad about a gritty, agitated goodbye, which adds a "different kind of overwrought drama".
"Beautiful Liar", the opening track of the Deluxe Edition reissue of B'Day, is an R&B-pop duet with Shakira. Lyrically, it speaks about two women who chose not to end a friendship because of a man who had cheated both of them; its main theme is female independence. "Welcome to Hollywood" is Beyoncé's solo version of Jay-Z's song "Hollywood", on which she was featured. It's a disco-influenced R&B track which lyrically details tiredness celebrities sometimes feel. "Flaws and All" is an R&B and trip hop track on which Beyoncé shows appreciation for her love interest, who sees through all of her flaws and loves her unconditionally. "Still in Love (Kissing You)", which was later replaced by "If", is a cover of Des'ree's pop ballad "Kissing You". "If" is a ballad on which a female protagonist expresses disappointment with her love interest's mistreatment of her. "World Wide Woman" is an uptempo R&B track on which Beyoncé calls herself "a world wide woman", a play on term World Wide Web. The Deluxe Edition also includes "Listen", which previously appeared in Dreamgirls and its accompanying soundtrack. A soul-R&B ballad, it was declared a song on which Deena Jones is exclaiming: "You don't know who I am, and I know I do" by its co-writer Anne Preven.
Title and packaging
B'Day was titled as a reference to Beyoncé's birthday. The album's cover artwork was revealed on July 18, 2006, and features Beyoncé looking into the distance, wearing a golden low-cut dress and small golden hoop earrings, with a dark eye liner and her hair piled high on her head. The cover artwork for the Deluxe Edition is the same as the cover artwork used for single "Déjà Vu" and B'Day Anthology Video Album, and features Beyoncé with a 1960s-inspired hairstyle and similar makeup as on the standard edition cover artwork, wearing a white and black top and golden hoop earrings. The booklet of the Deluxe Edition is highly similar to the standard edition one, also featuring some new images. Images for both covers and booklets were photographed by Max Vadukul.
Release and promotion
In collaboration with Sony Urban Music and Music World Entertainment, B'Day was internationally released by Columbia Records on September 4, 2006, Beyoncé's 25th birthday, and in the United States the following day. Exclusively at Walmart, B'Day was packaged with a bonus DVD titled BET Presents Beyoncé (2006), which featured BET and performance highlights, and music videos from her solo career. To promote B'Day, Beyoncé appeared on various television and award shows from mid-2006 until mid-2007. She performed the album's lead single "Déjà Vu" with Jay-Z at the BET Awards 2006 at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles on June 27, 2006. At the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards on August 31, she performed "Ring the Alarm" wearing a flowing trench coat, a corset and hotpants; the performance referenced Janet Jackson's "Rhythm Nation" routine. On September 5, Beyoncé made an appearance on Total Request Live. In an episode of The Ellen DeGeneres Show which aired the same day, Beyoncé performed "Déjà Vu" and "Irreplaceable". She performed "Déjà Vu" at the Fashion Rocks on September 8, and, along with "Crazy in Love", "Green Light", "Ring the Alarm" and "Irreplaceable", during an episode of Good Morning America which aired the same day. She also performed "Déjà Vu" on The Tyra Banks Show on September 15. Promoting B'Day in the United Kingdom, Beyoncé performed "Irreplaceable", "Ring the Alarm" and "Crazy in Love" on Popworld on October 27. Beyoncé opened the 2006 World Music Awards on November 15 with the performance of "Déjà Vu" and "Ring the Alarm", performing "Irreplaceable" later during the show. She performed "Irreplaceable" at the American Music Awards of 2006 on November 21, and, along with "Listen", on Today on December 4.
Seven months after the release of B'Day, an expanded double-disc reissue, subtitled Deluxe Edition, was released in the US on April 3, 2007. In addition to the original track listing, the Deluxe Edition featured five new songs, including "Beautiful Liar", a duet with Colombian singer Shakira. "Amor Gitano", a Spanish-language flamenco-pop duet with Mexican singer Alejandro Fernández, served as a soundtrack for Telemundo's telenovela
El Zorro, and was included in the Deluxe Edition bonus disc alongside Spanish re-recordings of "Listen" ("Oye"), "Irreplaceable" ("Irreemplazable") and "Beautiful Liar" ("Bello Embustero"). The idea of recording songs in a foreign language emanated from her experience when Destiny's Child performed "Quisiera Ser" with Alejandro Sanz at the 44th Annual Grammy Awards (2002). Beyoncé worked with producer Rudy Pérez for the recordings in order to retain the same feeling of the English versions of the songs into the Spanish translation. The bonus disc was later released as the standalone extended play (EP) Irreemplazable.
B'Day Anthology Video Album was released simultaneously with the Deluxe Edition and featured 13 music videos, including the director's cut of the performance version of "Listen" and the extended mix of "Get Me Bodied". Most of the videos were accompaniments for the uptempo songs on B'Day; which featured retro stylization, use of color and black hair styles, as Beyoncé thought it would create a resemblance between herself and the character she played in Dreamgirls, Deena Jones. The shooting of the videos was completed in two weeks; they were directed by Jake Nava, Anthony Mandler, Melina Matsoukas, Cliff Watts, Ray Kay, Sophie Muller, Diane Martel and Beyoncé herself. Initially, the DVD was available exclusively at Walmart, but was later released to other retailers. The Spanish songs were not included on international editions of the Deluxe Edition and were replaced by B'Day Anthology Video Album as the bonus DVD. Beyoncé promoted the Deluxe Edition of B'Day in April 2007 by performing the Spanglish version of "Irreplaceable" and "Green Light" on Today on April 2, and "Beautiful Liar" on an episode of The Early Show which aired on April 6. She performed "Get Me Bodied" at the BET Awards 2007 at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles on June 26, wearing a gold robot gear, which she wittled down to sleek lamé gold pants and a matching bra top. As she continued singing, her younger sister Solange and former Destiny's Child bandmate Michelle Williams appeared onstage as her backup dancers; a few moments later, Beyoncé introduced her former Destiny's Child bandmate Kelly Rowland, who performed her song "Like This" with Eve. After Rowland's performance, Beyoncé, Solange and Williams appeared onstage with Rowland to complete the Destiny's Child reunion.
In mid-2006, Beyoncé looked for an all-female band for her tour The Beyoncé Experience (2007) to promote the album. She held an audition for keyboard players, bassists, guitarists, horn players, percussionists and drummers around the world. Beyoncé named the band Suga Mama, after the album track "Suga Mama". Although the band only consisted of women, both male and female backup dancers performed onstage. As well as singing songs from B'Day, Beyoncé also performed songs from Dangerously in Love, and gave a medley of Destiny's Child songs. She embarked on the tour in Japan on April 10, 2007 and concluded it in Tapei, Taiwan on November 12. During the Los Angeles show on September 2, Jay-Z and Destiny's Child bandmates Rowland and Williams made guest appearances. Footage from this show was filmed and released on November 20 as a live album titled The Beyoncé Experience Live.
Singles
"Déjà Vu", featuring Jay-Z, was released as the lead single from B'Day on June 24, 2006, to mixed critical reception. A commercial success, it peaked at number four on the US Billboard Hot 100 and atop US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, being certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Internationally, it peaked atop the UK Singles Chart, while reaching the top ten in 11 countries. The song and its Freemasons club mix received three nominations at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards (2007). The accompanying music video for "Déjà Vu", directed by Sophie Muller, was a subject of controversy due to its sexually suggestive content.
"Ring the Alarm" was released as the second single from B'Day exclusively in the United States on September 10, 2006. The song received mixed reviews from the music critics, who noticed it was different from Beyoncé's earlier works; while some commended her willingness to take risks, others were polarized about her aggressive vocals. Commercially, it became her highest-debuting single, opening at number 12 on the US Billboard Hot 100. However, it peaked at number 11, becoming Beyoncé's first solo single not to peak within the top ten. The song was nominated for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards. Its accompanying music video, Beyoncé's second consecutive to be directed by Muller, remakes a scene from the 1992 film Basic Instinct, and was choreographed by then-16-year-old Teyana Taylor.
"Irreplaceable" was released as the second international and third overall single from B'Day on October 23, 2006. It received widespread critical acclaim, with some critics calling it the best track on the album. It was a commercial success, peaking atop the US Billboard Hot 100 and spending ten weeks atop the chart. Internationally, it reached the summit in Australia, Hungary, Ireland and New Zealand. It was ranked atop the 2007 year-end Billboard Hot 100, and was the tenth best-selling digital single of 2007 worldwide, having sold over four million copies worldwide by the end of the year. At the 50th Annual Grammy Awards (2008), "Irreplaceable" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year. The song was ranked at number 25 on the 2000s decade-end Billboard Hot 100. Its Anthony Mandler-directed accompanying music video features the debut performance of the Suga Mamas, Beyoncé's all-female band.
After leaking onto the Internet in early February 2007, "Beautiful Liar", a duet with Shakira, was released as the sole single from the Deluxe Edition and the fourth single from B'Day on February 12. The song registered the largest ever upward movement on the US Billboard Hot 100 at the time, when it leaped 91 places from number 94 to number three in its second week, which became its peak position. Internationally, it peaked atop the European Hot 100 Singles and on charts in Croatia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and Venezuela. Critically acclaimed, it was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards. Its accompanying music video, directed by Jake Nava, features Beyoncé and Shakira dancing against different backgrounds, either together or separately.
"Get Me Bodied" was released as the fifth single from B'Day on July 10, 2007, exclusively in the US. It originally peaked at number 68 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in August, becoming Beyoncé's lowest-peaking single on the chart at the time. However, as a video of a woman named Deborah Cohen and her doctors dancing to "Get Me Bodied" before she underwent a double mastectomy was posted onto YouTube and went viral in 2013, the song found a new peak position at number 46 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song's 1960s-influenced accompanying music video was directed by Mandler and features Beyoncé's sister Solange and former Destiny's Child bandmates Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams.
"Green Light" was released as the fourth and final international single from B'Day on July 27, 2007. It was originally planned to be released as the second single for the international markets, but Columbia Records opted for "Irreplaceable" instead. The remix extended play (EP) titled Green Light: Freemasons EP was released for digital download simultaneously with the single. The single was also planned to be released physically in the United Kingdom, but the plans were cancelled last-minute, which resulted with it not obtaining a higher peak than number 12 on the UK Singles Chart. Beyoncé co-directed the song's accompanying music video with Melina Matsoukas; the video features the second appearance by the Suga Mamas.
Although they were not released as singles, "Upgrade U", "Kitty Kat" and "Freakum Dress" appeared on several Billboard charts. "Upgrade U", featuring Jay-Z, was released as a promotional single in the United States on November 27, 2006, and reached numbers 59 and 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, respectively. "Kitty Kat" peaked at number 66 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. "Freakum Dress", which was cited as a possible second single from B'Day in June 2006, peaked at number 25 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles and at number 16 on the US Bubbling Under R&B/Hip-Hop Singles. In 2020, "Freakum Dress" went viral on TikTok and Instagram as part of the "Freakum Dress Challenge", appearing on many videos created by users of the platforms.
Critical reception
B'Day received generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 70, based on 23 reviews. Jody Rosen, writing for Entertainment Weekly, commented that the album's songs "arrive in huge gusts of rhythm and emotion, with Beyoncé's voice rippling over clattery beats". Jonah Weiner of Blender commented that "sweaty up-tempo numbers prove the best platform for Beyoncé's rapperly phrasing and pipe-flaunting fireballs". Andy Kellman of AllMusic felt that, despite "no songs with the smooth elegance" of "Me, Myself and I" or "Be with You", the album is "lean in a beneficial way". The Boston Globes Sarah Rodman commented that the production team helped Beyoncé "focus on edgier, up-tempo tracks that take her sweet soprano to new places". Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian felt that, "apart from a few pop-R&B space-fillers, there's not much to dislike about B'Day". Robert Christgau from MSN Music said "on most of [the songs] she's wronged yet still in control because she's got so much money" and felt that Beyoncé "earns her props" if "opulence can signify liberation in this grotesquely materialistic time, as in hip-hop it can".
In a mixed review, Jon Pareles of The New York Times found the album "tense, high-strung and obsessive", and said that it was neither "ingratiating or seductive". Richard Cromelin of the Los Angeles Times observed that Beyoncé "heads into a new, more challenging terrain", but "some of the experiments don't click". Although he found the album "solid", Mike Joseph of PopMatters said that "aside from its relatively short running time, it sounds suspiciously under produced". Brian Hiatt of Rolling Stone averred that "while the mostly up-tempo disc never lacks for energy, some of the more beat-driven tracks feel harmonically and melodically undercooked, with hooks that don't live up to 'Crazy in Love' or the best Destiny's Child hits". Priya Elan of NME cited only "Freakum Dress" and "Ring the Alarm" as highlights and criticized that "too many tracks sound like updated versions of former glories", with no song on-par with "Crazy in Love".
Accolades
Awards and nominations
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! scope="row"| 2007
| Grammy Award
| Best Contemporary R&B Album
| rowspan="4"| B'Day
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! scope="row"| 2007
| NAACP Image Award
| Outstanding Album
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! scope="row"| 2007
| Soul Train Music Award
| Best R&B/Soul Album – Female
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! scope="row"| 2007
| American Music Award
| Favorite Soul/R&B Album
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Listings
Commercial performance
Despite an average commercial performance of the album's first two singles, "Déjà Vu" and "Ring the Alarm", B'Day debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 on September 23, 2006, selling over 541,000 units in its first week. B'Day scored Beyoncé's highest debut-week album sales, until it was surpassed by her self-titled fifth studio album (2013), which sold 617,213 digital copies in its first three days. The album gave Beyoncé her second number-one debut on the chart following Dangerously in Love (2003), which was noted by Keith Caulfield of Billboard, surmising that perhaps "its handsome debut was generated by goodwill earned from the performance of her smash first album Dangerously in Love". B'Day fell to number three in its second week, and to number six the following week, falling out of the top ten in its fourth week at number 11. After seven weeks of being outside the top ten, B'Day reached number nine on the chart dated December 2, due to the success of its single "Irreplaceable", which helped the album regain its strength. It climbed to number six the following week, becoming the week's "greatest gainer", before exiting the top ten again. By the end of 2006, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and became the 38th best-selling album of that year in the United States.
B'Day re-entered the top ten again at number six on the chart dated January 27, 2007, while Dreamgirls: Music from the Motion Picture was at the top. It remained within the top ten the following week at number ten, before falling to number 13 on the chart dated February 10. The RIAA re-certified B'Day triple platinum on April 16, combining the sales from the standard and Deluxe Edition releases. On the Billboard 200 chart dated April 21, B'Day jumped from number 69 to number six due to the release of its Deluxe Edition, gaining 903% in sales and becoming the week's "greatest gainer". It remained within the top ten the following week at number seven, before falling to number 13 on the chart dated May 5. The album has spent a total of 74 weeks on the Billboard 200. It became the 11th best-selling album of 2007 in the US. As of August 2022, the album has sold 5 million copies in the country.
Internationally, B'Day was met with similar success. In Canada, it reached number two on the Canadian Albums Chart, staying at the position for two weeks. It was certified platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA). On Oricon Albums Chart in Japan, the standard edition of the album debuted and peaked at number four, selling 72,921 copies in its first week, while the Deluxe Edition debuted at number nine with first-week sales of 17,519 copies, and peaked at number five in its second week on the chart, selling 23,153 copies that week. The standard edition was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for shipments of 250,000 copies in Japan, while the Deluxe Edition was certified gold for shipments of 100,000 copies. The album's standard edition peaked at number six on Top 100 Mexico, while its Deluxe Edition peaked at number nine. It was certified gold by the Mexican Association of Producers of Phonograms and Videograms (AMPROFON) for shipments of 50,000 copies in Mexico. Across Oceania, it had the same reception, debuting at number eight in both Australia and New Zealand the same week, on September 11, 2006. B'Day remained on the charts for 20 and 25 weeks, respectively, and was certified platinum by both the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) and the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ).
In the United Kingdom, B'Day debuted at numbers three and one on the UK Albums Charts and UK R&B Albums Chart, respectively, on September 11, 2006, selling 35,012 copies in its first week. Its Deluxe Edition peaked at numbers eight and three on the UK Albums Chart and UK R&B Albums Chart, respectively, on April 29, 2007. The British Phonographic Industry (BPI) certified the standard edition platinum for shipping 300,000 units, and the Deluxe Edition gold for shipping 100,000 units. As of July 3, 2011, B'Day has sold 385,078 copies in the United Kingdom. Throughout Europe, the album peaked at number three on the European Top 100 Albums, while reaching the top ten in Denmark, Flanders, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland. It was certified platinum in Europe by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) for sales of one million copies within the continent. As of 2013, B'Day has sold eight million copies worldwide.
Controversies
B'Day was a subject of various controversies. The music video for its lead single "Déjà Vu" caused controversy due to its sexually suggestive content. A news article published by Hindustan Times reported that a particular scene in the video is suggestive of oral sex. Natalie Y. Moore of In These Times echoed the latter's commentary, writing that the video showcases Beyoncé "strutting her sexuality", and that in Jay-Z's scenes it "looks as if any minute now she'll give him fellatio". The video later appeared on Yahoo! Music News' list "Real Turkeys: The Worst Videos of All Time", which pointed to the negative fan reaction and stated: "It's probably the least horrific video listed ... but as far as Beyoncé videos go, it is a stinker." According to an MTV News staff report, as of July 2006, over two thousand people had signed an online petition addressed to Beyoncé's record label Columbia Records, demanding a reshoot for the video. By the end of August 2006, over five thousand additional fans had signed it. The petition requested the video to be taped again because it was considered to be "an underwhelming representation of the talent and quality of previous music-video projects of Ms. Beyoncé". Included in the list of offenses towards the video were "a lack of theme, dizzying editing, over-the-top wardrobe choices, and unacceptable interactions" between Beyoncé and Jay-Z. Beyoncé's dance moves were also called into question by the petition, qualifying them as "erratic, confusing and alarming at times". Additionally, fans complained about sexual theme depicted in the video, describing that some scenes as "unacceptable interactions [between Beyoncé and Jay-Z]" while also complaining of a "non-existent sexual chemistry" between the two.
The lyrics of "Ring the Alarm" were rumored to be about Barbadian singer Rihanna's relationship with rapper and Beyoncé's now-husband Jay-Z. According to a media speculation, Beyoncé, Rihanna and Jay-Z were part of a love triangle in 2006. It was rumored that Jay-Z had always been faithful to Beyoncé until he met Rihanna, whose popularity grew considerably during that year, who tempted Jay-Z to be in a romantic relationship with her while he was still with Beyoncé. As commented by Tom Breihan of The Village Voice, Beyoncé took advantage of "[people's] sympathy and unleash[ed] a burst of public rage in the form of ['Ring the Alarm']". In an interview for Seventeen, she, however, clarified that the lyrics had no connection with Rihanna, before adding that she was unaware of the rumors that had been circulating. Concerned that someone was trying to sabotage the release of B'Day, her father and manager Mathew Knowles released an official statement:
It is apparent that there is a consistent plan by some to create chaos around Beyoncé's B'Day album release on September 4 in the US. First, it was a petition against the single, 'Déjà Vu', then a rumor regarding conflict between Beyoncé and Rihanna, seizures caused by the 'Ring the Alarm' video, putting out a single to compete with LeToya's album and now to add to all the ridiculous rumors, is my plan to postpone the release of her 'B'Day' album. What will be next? Beyoncé's cut off all her hair? Dyed it green? Maybe she's singing the songs in reverse with some hidden subliminal message!
The cover artwork for the single "Ring the Alarm" fueled controversy after Beyoncé used alligators during the photo shoot. Beyoncé revealed that using the alligators and taping their mouths shut was her idea. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), an animal rights organization which had previously confronted her after she had used furs for her fashion line's clothing design, contacted a biologist who later wrote a letter to her, stating: "As a specialist in reptile biology and welfare, I'm concerned about your posing with a terrified baby alligator for your new album cover. Humans and alligators are not natural bedfellows, and the two should not mix at events such as photo shoots. In my view, doing so is arguably abusive to an animal."
Controversy also arose over the writing credits on "Irreplaceable". Ne-Yo, who co-wrote the song, told MTV: "Apparently Beyoncé was at a show somewhere and right before the song came on she said, 'I wrote this for all my ladies' and then the song came on ... The song is a co-write. I wrote the lyrics, I wrote all the lyrics. Beyoncé helped me with the melodies and the harmonies and the vocal arrangement and that makes it a co-write. Meaning my contribution and her contribution made that song what it is." In 2011, Ne-Yo said that he wrote the song for himself, but thought that it would suit Beyoncé better, and later regretted giving the song to her. Some of Beyoncé's fans read Ne-Yo's remark as disrespectful towards her. However, he clarified his comment later through Twitter, writing: "I said I originally wrote the song for me. ... Once I realized how the song comes across if sung by a guy, that's when I decided to give it away."
In 2007, Beyoncé appeared on billboards and newspapers across Australia holding an antiquated cigarette holder. Taken from the back cover artwork of B'Day, the image provoked response from an anti-smoking group, stating that she did not need to add the cigarette holder "to make herself appear more sophisticated". The same year, three weeks after their release, the Deluxe Edition of B'Day and the B'Day Anthology Video Album were temporarily ceased for retail in stores. A copyright infringement lawsuit was filed due to breach of contract of using "Still in Love (Kissing You)", a cover version of British singer Des'ree's original song "Kissing You". Not intended for the album's inclusion, Des'ree's deal also stipulated that the title of the song was not to be altered, and a music video was not to be made. After the infringement case, the song was removed from the reissue of the Deluxe Edition, and was replaced by "If". The lawsuit was dismissed with prejudice in October 2007.
Impact and legacy
According to an editor of web publication The Boombox in an article published on September 4, 2016, to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the release of B'Day, the album was a "monumental moment for music fans worldwide and would elevate Beyoncé from princess-in-waiting to a full-fledged queen in the musical landscape". The editor also called the album Beyoncé's "most liberating body of work and its impact still echoes ten years later." In an article published by Revolt on the same day, B'Day was called Beyoncé's "first REAL visual album", as she would later release two "visual albums" Beyoncé (2013) and Lemonade (2016), and as almost every song from B'Day had an accompanying music video, which was "something we hadn't seen before". The same day, website EST. 1997 published an article about B'Day as well, and wrote that the album's singles became "essential parts" of pop culture, also writing that "Get Me Bodied" is "now cemented as one of those songs that gets played by a DJ to get the crowd dancing at a wedding".
The website also wrote an article about B'Day Anthology Video Album on April 3, 2017, the tenth anniversary of its release, also calling it Beyoncé's first "visual album" and stating that it "laid the groundwork for Beyoncé to become the pioneering visual artist she is revered to as today." Billboard published "Beyoncé's Best Fashion Moments from Her Decade-Old 'B'Day Anthology Video Album'" on the same day, the list in which editor Da'Shan Smith commented on ten best outfits Beyoncé wore in the music videos, stating: "The project has delivered audiences some of the singer's most iconic looks. In every frame she appears in, Beyoncé oozes a radiant confidence, wearing stunning outfits and costumes to match." Vibe published a list in which Smith ranked all thirteen music videos from the worst to the best, stating: "B'Day Video Anthology Album must be heralded as an important pop culture artifact. As expressed before, it's the birther of Beyoncé's passion for providing fans visual sequences they need to tell an album's story. Imagine a B'Day without its Anthology—although the go-go and funk infused tracks already made an impression upon audio listens only, the visuals made the record pop to life."
Track listing
Retailer-exclusive bonus tracks
Digital standard Walmart edition includes "Déjà Vu (The Remix)" (featuring Jay-Z).
Standard Circuit City edition includes "Back Up". "Back Up" is written by B. Knowles, Jerkins, LaShawn Daniels, Delisha Thomas, Fred Jerkins III, Anesha Birchett, Antea Birchett and Beyincé, and produced by Darkchild and B. Knowles.
International standard iTunes Store pre-order and New Zealand iTunes Store editions include "Lost Yo Mind". "Lost Yo Mind" is written by B. Knowles, Dean and Garrett, and produced by Swizz Beatz, B. Knowles and Garrett.
Best Buy exclusive Deluxe Edition includes "First Time" as a hidden track. "First Time" is written by B. Knowles, Williams and Chad Hugo, and produced by The Neptunes and B. Knowles.
Notes
Some standard edition digital releases of B'Day do not include the album's hidden tracks.
"If" replaced "Still in Love (Kissing You)" on all Deluxe Edition releases, following a copyright infringement lawsuit. "Still in Love (Kissing You)" was removed entirely from DVD releases. "Still in Love (Kissing You)" is written by B. Knowles, Desree Weekes and Timothy Atack, and produced by Knowles and Nellee Hooper.
signifies an additional producer
signifies a co-producer
signifies a vocal producer
Sample credits
"Suga Mama" contains a sample from "Searching for Soul" by Jake Wade and the Soul Searchers.
"Upgrade U" contains a sample from "Girls Can't Do What the Guys Do" by Betty Wright.
"Resentment" contains a sample from "Think" by Curtis Mayfield.
Personnel
Credits are adapted from the deluxe edition liner notes of B'Day.
Jason Agel – engineering assistance (track 5)
Omar Al-Musfi – Arabic percussion (track 1)
Roberto Almodovar – engineering (track 1)
Allen "Al Geez" Arthur – horns (track 12)
April Baldwin – A&R administration
Aureo Baqueiro – vocal direction (track 18)
Reyli Barba – songwriting (track 18)
Robert Becker – viola (track 15)
Andres Bermudez – engineering (track 18), engineering assistance (track 5)
Angela Beyince – songwriting (tracks 6, 9, 10, 16 and 17)
Beyoncé – executive production, mixing (track 12), production (all tracks), songwriting (all tracks), vocal production (tracks 14 and 17), vocals (all tracks)
Amund Bjørklund – songwriting (track 2)
Tim Blacksmith – management
Aaron Brougher – A&R coordination
Denyse Buffum – viola (track 15)
Bun B – songwriting (track 17), vocals (track 17)
Eduardo "Visitante" Cabra – additional production (tracks 1 and 19), programming (track 1), remix production (track 19)
David Campbell – string arrangement (track 15), string conducting (track 15)
Roberto Cani – violin (track 15)
Tim Carmon – keyboards (track 15)
Sean Carrington – guitar (track 16)
Jim Caruana – engineering (tracks 1–4, 6–14 and 17)
Gustavo Celis – engineering (track 1), mixing (track 1)
Olgui Chirino – vocal production (track 1)
Fusako Chubachi – art direction, design
Willie Clarke – songwriting (track 6)
Andrew Coleman – engineering assistance (tracks 3 and 4)
Larry Corbett – cello (track 15)
Tom Coyne – mastering (tracks 1, 5, 7, 8 and 19)
Jasmin Cruz – backing vocals (track 18)
Scott Cutler – songwriting (track 15)
Danny D. – management
LaShawn Daniels – songwriting (track 16)
Mario Deleon – violin (track 15)
Ian Dench – songwriting (tracks 1 and 19)
Robert "LB" Dorsey – engineering assistance (tracks 5, 7 and 8)
Andrew Duckles – viola (track 15)
Bruce Dukov – violin concertmastering (track 15)
Nathan East – bass (track 15)
Paco "El Sevillano" – gypsy chanting (track 18)
Alejandro Fernández – vocals (track 18)
Jaime Flores – songwriting (track 18)
Paul Forat – A&R
Brian "Big Bass" Gardner – mastering (tracks 2–4, 6 and 9–17)
Sean Garrett – production (tracks 9, 13), songwriting (tracks 3, 6, 9, 13, 16 and 17)
Amanda Ghost – songwriting (tracks 1 and 19)
Jason Goldstein – mixing (tracks 2–4, 6 and 9–14)
Aaron "Goody" Goode – horns (track 12)
Erwin Gorostiza – art direction
Max Gousse – A&R
Alan Grunfeld – violin (track 15)
Rich Harrison – mixing (tracks 10 and 11), production (tracks 10 and 11), songwriting (tracks 10 and 11)
Geraldo Hilera – violin (track 15)
Jean-Marie Horvat – mixing (tracks 1, 5, 7, 8 and 16)
Dabling "Hobby Boy" Howard – engineering (track 15)
Ty Hunter – styling
ILoveDust – logo design
Jun Ishizeki – engineering (track 12)
Eric Jackson – guitars (track 15)
Quincy S. Jackson – marketing
Jay-Z – songwriting (tracks 4–6 and 12), vocals (tracks 5, 6 and 12)
Nathan Jenkins – engineering (track 17)
Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins – horn arrangement (track 12), instrumentation (track 12), mixing (track 12), production (tracks 12 and 16), songwriting (track 12)
James Johnson – bass (track 15)
Jon Jon – bass (track 12), production assistance (track 12)
Ronald Judge – horns (track 12)
Suzie Katayama – cello (track 15)
Gimel "Young Guru" Keaton – engineering (track 5)
Hannah Khoury – viola (track 1), violin (track 1)
Kimberly Kimble – hair styling
Rob Kinelski – engineering assistance (tracks 1–4, 6 and 9–14)
Julia Knapp – A&R operation
Mathew Knowles – A&R, executive production, management
Solange Knowles – songwriting (tracks 6, 7 and 9)
Tina Knowles – styling
Henry Krieger – songwriting (track 15)
Ricky Lawson – drums (track 15)
Jolie Levine – music contracting (track 15)
Espen Lind – guitar (track 2), songwriting (track 2)
Dave "D-Lo" Lopez – engineering assistance (tracks 14 and 18), mixing assistance (track 18), Pro Tools editing (track 14)
Riley Mackin – engineering assistance (track 15)
Manny Marroquin – mixing (track 15)
Harvey Mason Jr. – percussion (track 15)
Curtis Mayfield – songwriting (track 14)
Vlado Meller – mastering (track 18)
Chuck Middleton – songwriting (track 11)
Colin Miller – digital prep engineering (tracks 7 and 8), mixing assistance (track 1), Pro Tools prep (track 16)
Walter W. "Lil Walt" Millsap III – engineering (track 14), instrumentation (track 14), Pro Tools editing (track 14), production (track 14), songwriting (track 14)
MK – songwriting (track 6)
Mo Horns – horns (track 16)
Naser Musa – oud (track 1)
Candice "G.G." Nelson – instrumentation (track 14), production (track 14), songwriting (track 14)
The Neptunes – production (tracks 3 and 4)
Sara Parkins – violin (track 15)
Dave "Hard Drive" Pensado – mixing (track 17)
Rudy Pérez – arrangement (track 18), backing vocals (track 18), keyboards (track 18), production (track 18), programming (track 18), Spanish guitar (track 18), vocal direction (track 18), vocal production (track 1)
Clay Perry – engineering (track 18), keyboards (track 18), Pro Tools editing (track 18), programming (track 18)
Denaun Porter – programming (track 1)
Anne Preven – songwriting (track 15)
Keli Nicole Price – songwriting (track 12)
Boujemaa Razgui – ney (track 1)
Clarence Reid – songwriting (track 6)
Aaron Renner – engineering (track 15)
Geoff Rice – engineering (track 2)
Michele Richards – violin (track 15)
Makeba Riddick – songwriting (tracks 4, 6, 9–12 and 16)
Jared Robbins – engineering assistance (track 15)
Jamie Rosenberg – engineering assistance (track 10)
Kareem Roustom – additional string arrangement (track 1), violin arrangement (track 1)
Shakira – arrangement (track 1), production (tracks 1 and 19), violin arrangement (track 1), remix production (track 19), vocal production (track 1), vocals (tracks 1 and 19)
Haim Shtrum – violin (track 15)
Dexter Simmons – mixing (track 17)
Slim Thug – songwriting (track 17), vocals (track 17)
Daniel Smith – cello (track 15)
Chris Spilfogel – engineering (track 15)
Stargate – arrangement (track 1), engineering (track 1), instrumentation (tracks 1, 2 and 8), production (tracks 1, 2, 8 and 19), programming (track 1), songwriting (tracks 1, 2, 8 and 19), strings (track 8), string arrangement (track 8)
David Stearns – engineering assistance (track 1)
Swizz Beatz – additional production (track 6), mixing (tracks 9 and 13), production (tracks 9, 13 and 17), songwriting (tracks 9, 13 and 17)
Shaffer "Ne-Yo" Smith – production (tracks 2, 7 and 8), songwriting (tracks 2, 5, 7 and 8)
Chris Spilfogel – engineering (track 15)
Syience – production (track 5), songwriting (track 5)
Shea Taylor – production (track 7), songwriting (track 7)
Delisha Thomas – songwriting (track 12)
Michael Tocci – engineering (track 7)
Rene Luis Toledo – Spanish guitar (track 18)
Steve Tolle – mixing assistance (tracks 2–4, 6, 9–11, 13 and 14)
Francesca Tolot – make-up
The Underdogs – production (track 15)
Max Vadukul – photography
Jeff Villanueva – engineering (tracks 12 and 16)
Rommel Nino Villanueva – engineering (track 15)
Cameron Wallace – production (track 6)
Bruce Weeden – mixing (track 18)
John Weston – engineering (track 1), string digital editing (track 1)
Pharrell Williams – songwriting (tracks 3 and 4)
John Wittenburg – violin (track 15)
Shane Woodley – engineering (track 7), engineering assistance (track 18)
Kenneth Yerke – violin (track 15)
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
All-time charts
Certifications
|-
! scope="row"| Romania (UPFR)
| Gold
|
|-
Release history
See also
B'Day Anthology Video Album
Beyoncé discography
List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2006
List of Billboard number-one R&B albums of 2006
List of Billboard number-one R&B albums of 2007
List of number-one albums of 2006 (Canada)
List of UK R&B Albums Chart number ones of 2006
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Official website
B'Day at Metacritic
2006 albums
Albums produced by Rich Harrison
Albums produced by Rodney Jerkins
Albums produced by Sean Garrett
Albums produced by Stargate
Albums produced by Ne-Yo
Albums produced by Swizz Beatz
Albums produced by the Neptunes
Beyoncé albums
Columbia Records albums
Grammy Award for Best Contemporary R&B Album
Albums involved in plagiarism controversies
Albums produced by Beyoncé
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20University%20of%20Melbourne%20people
|
List of University of Melbourne people
|
This is a list of University of Melbourne people, including alumni and staff.
Alumni
Academia
Sir John Behan, educator; Australia's first Rhodes Scholar
Geoff Bowker, professor of informatics at the University of California, Irvine
Alec Broers, Baron Broers, electrical engineer, former Vice Chancellor of the University of Cambridge
Karen Burns, architectural historian
Joseph Camilleri, professor at La Trobe University
Simon Chesterman, Dean of Law at the National University of Singapore
Michael Clyne, linguist
Greg Craven, Vice-Chancellor of Australian Catholic University
John Deeble, architect of Medicare Australia
Ding Dyason, medical historian
Alan Ebringer, immunologist, professor at King's College in the University of London
Arie Freiberg, , legal academic
Germaine Greer, feminist
Maria Gough, art historian at Harvard University
Bella Guerin, educator and activist; first female university graduate in Australia
John Alexander Gunn, philosophy professor
Peter Karmel, former vice-chancellor of Australian National University and Flinders University
Hugh Gemmell Lamb-Smith, Australian educator; landed at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915.
Arthur Lucas, principal of King's College London (1993–2003)
Robert Manne, professor of politics at La Trobe University
Samaresh Mitra, bioinorganic chemist, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate
Peter McPhee, Provost of the University of Melbourne
Fulvio Melia, professor of physics and astronomy at the University of Arizona and associate editor of the Astrophysical Journal
Bruce Mitchell, fellow of St Edmund Hall, Oxford
David S. Oderberg, professor of philosophy at the University of Reading
Richard G. Pestell, Executive Vice President at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia USA
Abbas Rajabifard, professor and head of the Department of Infrastructure Engineering in the Melbourne School of Engineering
Michael Roe, historian
David Shallcross, chemical engineer
James Simpson, Harvard University professor
Alexander Smits, Eugene Higgins Professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at Princeton University
John Tasioulas, Professor of Ethics and Legal Philosophy, Oxford University
Gillian Triggs, international legal academic and President of the Australian Human Rights Commission
Frances Valintine, education futurist
Sally Walker, Vice-Chancellor of Deakin University
Frank T. M. White, Foundation Professor, Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, University of Queensland; Macdonald Professor of Mining Engineering and Applied Geophysics, McGill University
Architecture
Douglas Alexandra
James Birrell
Gregory Burgess
Peter Corrigan
Norman Day
John Denton
Roy Grounds
Ellison Harvie
John Hipwell
Peter Ho
Nonda Katsalidis
Hijjas Kasturi
Barry Patten
Louise St John Kennedy
Business
Leigh Clifford, Chairman of Qantas
Robert Champion de Crespigny
Margaret Dick
Anthony Di Pietro, President of Melbourne Victory Football Club and CEO of Premier Fresh Australia
John Elliott, President of Liberal Party of Australia & Carlton Football Club
Aubrey Gibson
Charles Goode, Chairman of Australia & New Zealand Banking Group
James P. Gorman, Chairman and CEO of Morgan Stanley
David Hains
John Holland, founder of John Holland Group
Margaret Jackson
Ananda Krishnan, CEO, Usaha Tegas Sdn Bhd
Hugh Morgan, former board member of the Reserve Bank of Australia
Rupert Myer, director, Myer Family Company
Richard Pratt
James Riady, Chairman, Lippo Group
Graeme Samuel,
Karl Siegling, funds manager
Peter Smedley, CEO of Colonial Group, Mayne Nickless
Evan Thornley, entrepreneur
Community activism
Julian Assange, Wikileaks spokesperson and founder (did not graduate)
Waleed Aly
Helen Durham, international humanitarian lawyer
Avery Ng, Hong Kong activist
Tilman Ruff, public health scholar and founder of International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN), winner of the 2017 Nobel Peace Prize.
Government
Governors General of Australia
Richard Casey, Baron Casey, , 16th Governor-General of Australia (did not graduate)
Sir Zelman Cowen,
Peter Hollingworth,
Sir Isaac Isaacs, , also former Chief Justice of Australia
Sir Ninian Stephen, , also a previous Justice of the High Court of Australia
Governors of Victoria
Alex Chernov,
Professor David de Kretser
Sir James Gobbo, , also a previous Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria
John Landy
Richard McGarvie
Sir Henry Winneke, , also a previous Chief Justice of Victoria
Governors of other jurisdictions
Sir Bede Clifford , , , Governor of The Bahamas, then Governor of Mauritius and then Governor of Trinidad and Tobago
Politicians
Prime Ministers of Australia
Alfred Deakin
Julia Gillard,
Harold Holt,
Sir Robert Menzies,
Premiers of Victoria
Ted Baillieu
John Brumby
John Cain II
Rupert Hamer
Sir William Irvine, , also a former Chief Justice of Victoria
Joan Kirner
William Shiels
Lindsay Thompson
Premier of Queeensland
Thomas Ryan
Federal politicians
Lyn Allison, former Member of the Australian Senate and leader of the Australian Democrats
Richard Alston, , former Member of the Australian Senate
Kevin Andrews, , Member of the Australian House of Representatives
Bruce Baird, , former Member of the Australian House of Representatives
Maurice Blackburn, lawyer and former Member of the Australian House of Representatives
Neil Brown, , former Member of the Australian House of Representatives
Anna Burke, , Member of the Australian House of Representatives
John Button, former Member of the Australian Senate
Jim Cairns, former Deputy Prime Minister of Australia
Sam Cohen, former Member of the Australian Senate
Barney Cooney, former Member of the Australian Senate
Mark Dreyfus, , Member of Australian House of Representatives
Gareth Evans, , international policymaker, academic, and former Member of the Australian Senate
John Alexander Forrest
Petro Georgiou, former Member of Australian House of Representatives
Andrew Giles, Member of Australian House of Representatives
Ivor Greenwood, former Member of the Australian Senate
Ray Groom, , former Member of the Australian House of Representatives and Premier of Tasmania
H. B. Higgins, former Attorney-General of Australia and Justice of the High Court of Australia
Greg Hunt, , Member of Australian House of Representatives
Dennis Jensen, Member of Australian House of Representatives
Barry Jones, AC former Member of Australian House of Representatives and Parliament of Victoria.
David Kemp, former Member of Australian House of Representatives
John Langmore, Member of Australian House of Representatives
William Maloney, Member of Australian House of Representatives
Richard Marles, Member of Australian House of Representatives
Peter McGauran, former Member of Australian House of Representatives
Kelly O'Dwyer, , Member of Australian House of Representatives
Andrew Peacock, , former Member of Australian House of Representatives
Sir Arthur Robinson, , former Member of Australian House of Representatives
Nicola Roxon, former Member of the Australian House of Representatives
Roger Shipton, , former Member of the Australian House of Representatives
Bill Shorten, , Member of Australian House of Representatives
Bruce Smith, , former Member of Australian House of Representatives
Sir John Spicer, former Member of the Australian Senate
Sid Spindler, former Member of the Australian Senate
Lindsay Tanner, former Member of the Australian House of Representatives
Ralph Willis, , former Member of the Australian House of Representatives
Agar Wynne, former Member of the Australian House of Representatives
Australian state and territory politicians
Sir Clifden Eager , former President of the Victorian Legislative Council
Maurice Blackburn, lawyer and former Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
John Bourke, lawyer and former Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
Thomas Brennan, political journalist and former Member of the Victorian Legislative Council
Bruce Chamberlain, , former Member of both the Victorian Legislative Assembly and Council
Robert Clark, former Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
Neil Cole, former Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly and playwright and researcher
Robert Dean, former Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
Frank Field, former Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
John Galbally, , former Member of both the Victorian Legislative Assembly and Council
Matthew Groom, , Member of the Tasmanian House of Assembly
Ray Groom, , former Premier of Tasmania and Member of the Australian House of Representatives
Tim Holding, former Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
Robert Wilfred Holt, Minister for Lands in the Cain government 1952–54
Trevor Oldham, former Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly, serving as Deputy Premier
Herbert Postle, former Member of the Tasmanian House of Assembly
Robert Ramsay, former Member of both the Victorian Legislative Assembly
Edward Reynolds, , former Member of both the Victorian Legislative Assembly
T. J. Ryan, , former Premier of Queensland
Sir Arthur Rylah, , former Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly and Deputy Premier
Prue Sibree, former Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
Oswald Snowball, former Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly, serving as Speaker
Alan Stockdale, former Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly, serving as Treasurer
Shane Stone, , former Chief Minister of the Northern Territory
Richard Ward, , former Member of the Northern Territory Legislative Council and Supreme Court judge
Sir Henry Wrixon, , former Member of both the Victorian Legislative Assembly and Council
Agar Wynne, former Member of the Victorian Legislative Council
International politicians
Kirsty Sword Gusmão, First Lady of East Timor
Ismail Abdul Rahman, former Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia
Tajol Rosli Mohd Ghazali, former Menteri Besar of Perak
Dato' Sri Mustapa Mohamed, Member of Parliament of Jeli, former Malaysian Minister of International Trade and Industry
Baru Bian, Member of Parliament of Selangau, former Malaysian Minister of Works
Raja Kamarul Bahrin, former Malaysian Deputy Minister of Housing and Local Government
Mark Regev, spokesman for the Israeli Prime Minister
Public servants
William Macmahon Ball, diplomat
Jean-Pierre Blais, Canadian bureaucrat; Chairman of the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission
Peta Credlin, political advisor
Francis Patrick Donovan, , diplomat and jurist
Bill Paterson, Australian Ambassador to Republic of Korea; previously Australian Ambassador to Thailand and Australian Ambassador for Counter-Terrorism
Trevor Ashmore Pyman, diplomat.
John So, Lord Mayor of Melbourne
Fred Whitlam, Crown Solicitor; father of Gough
Danielle Wood, economist and incoming chair of the Productivity Commission
Humanities
Arts
Angela Brennan, artist
Steve Cox, painter and watercolourist
John Dahlsen, environmental artist
Hugh Davies, mixed media artist
Bill Henson, photographer and Venice Biennale representative
Ali Hogg, photographer and activist
Pamela Irving, artist and educator
Anastasia Klose, video artist and Biennale of Sydney representative
Doris McKellar, photographer
Azlan McLennan, artist and activist
Lewis Miller, Archibald Prize winning painter
Victor O'Connor, artist
Shaun Parker, award-winning choreographer, founder of Shaun Parker & Company
Stieg Persson, painter
Patricia Piccinini, sculptor and Venice Biennale representative
Van Thanh Rudd, artist and activist
Anne-Louise Sarks, theatre director and writer
Matt Scholten, theatre director, teacher and writer
Ricky Swallow, sculptor and Venice Biennale representative
Timothy James Webb, artist
Bradd Westmoreland, artist
Marcus Wills, Archibald Prize winning painter
Film and television
Adam Arkapaw, cinematographer (True Detective, Animal Kingdom, Snowtown)
Gillian Armstrong, director (Charlotte Gray, Little Women)
Tony Ayres, Australian Film Institute award-winning director (The Home Song Stories, Walking on Water)
Alison Bell, Australian Academy of Cinema and Television Arts Award nominated actor (I Rock, Laid)
Tahir Raj Bhasin, Indian actor
Jill Bilcock, Academy Award-nominated editor (Elizabeth, Moulin Rouge!, Red Dog)
Hamish Blake, comedian (did not graduate)
Cate Blanchett, actress (did not graduate)
Jamie Blanks, director (Urban Legend, Valentine)
John Bluthal, actor
Sibylla Budd, actor and documentary presenter (All Saints, Sea Patrol, The Secret Life of Us)
Ronny Chieng, comedian
Santo Cilauro, television and feature film producer
Vince Colosimo, Australian Film Institute Award winning actor (Body of Lies, Chopper, Lantana)
Marg Downey, comedian and actress
Elizabeth Debicki, actress
Adam Elliot, Academy Award-winning animator (Harvie Krumpet, Mary and Max)
Alexander England, actor
Alice Garner, historian, musician and actress
Antony I. Ginnane, film producer
Tom Gleisner, director, producer, writer, comedian, actor and author
Libbi Gorr, comedian
Barry Humphries, comedian
Red Hong Yi, artist and architectural designer
Sammy J, comedian
Clayton Jacobson, director (Kenny)
Justin Kurzel, director (Snowtown, Macbeth (2015), Assassin's Creed)
Andy Lee, comedian
Anthony Lucas, Academy Award nominated animator (The Mysterious Geographic Explorations of Jasper Morello)
Robert Luketic, director (21, Legally Blonde, Monster-in-Law)
Catherine Mack-Hancock, actress
Lara Jean Marshall, actress best known for her role on The Saddle Club
Belinda McClory, actor and screenwriter (Acolytes, Blue Heelers, The Matrix)
David Michôd, director (Animal Kingdom)
Rhys Muldoon, actor
Lloyd Newson, director, dancer and choreographer
Michael Pattinson, producer (Ground Zero, Secrets)
Hannie Rayson, Australian Writers' Guild Award and Sidney Myer Performing Arts Award winning playwright and actor (SeaChange)
Glenn Robbins, comedian and actor
Portia de Rossi, actress
Pallavi Sharda, Indian actor
Jonathan M. Shiff, Australian Film Institute and British Academy of Film and Television Arts award-winning producer (Ocean Girl, Thunderstone)
Rob Sitch, co-writer and co-director of the movies The Castle and The Dish; co-host of The Panel
Matt Scholten, director
Simon Stone, director and actor
Sam Strong, director, artistic director, Queensland Theatre
Magda Szubanski, comedian and actress
Nadia Townsend, actor and theatre director (City Homicide, Fireflies, Knowing)
Andrew Upton, director and playwright
Steve Vizard, television and radio presenter, lawyer, comedian, producer, author and screenwriter
Luke Walker, director/producer (Beyond Our Ken, Lasseter's Bones)
Sarah Watt, director and animator (Look Both Ways, My Year Without Sex)
Angela White, pornographic actress, director
Alison Whyte, Logie Award-winning actor (Frontline, Satisfaction)
Geoffrey Wright, director (Macbeth (2006), Metal Skin, Romper Stomper)
Julia Zemiro, television presenter
Randeep Hooda, Indian actor
Yashma Gill, Pakistani actor
Lydia Zimmermann, director (Aro Tolbukhin. En la mente del asesino)
Ashley Zukerman, Logie Award nominated actor (Lowdown, The Pacific, Rush)
History
Geoffrey Blainey, one of the Australian Living Treasures
Manning Clark
Charles Coppel, former barrister and historian
Keith Hancock
Stuart Macintyre
Michael Roe, historian and academic
A. G. L. Shaw
Journalism
Tiffiny Hall, journalist, author and television personality
Joe Hildebrand, journalist, social commentator and news columnist
Christine Kenneally, New York City-based journalist
Matt Tinney, newsreader
Bill Tipping, former journalist, social commentator and activist
Literature, writing and poetry
Randa Abdel-Fattah, Australian Muslim author and lawyer
Russell Blackford, writer, philosopher and critic
Vincent Buckley
Anna Ciddor, author and illustrator
Helen Garner, author
Kerry Greenwood, crime writer
Germaine Greer, feminist writer and academic
Jack Hibberd
Fulvio Melia
Gerald Murnane, novelist and short story writer
Chris Wallace-Crabbe, Visiting Professor of Australian Studies at Harvard University
Lynne Kelly (science writer), writer, researcher and science educator
Music
Harry James Angus, trumpeter and vocalist (The Cat Empire)
Wouter De Backer, musician known as 'Gotye'
Cheryl Barker, opera singer
Michael Barker, drummer (John Butler Trio, Split Enz)
Don Banks, composer
Nicole Car, opera singer
Arthur Chanter 1866–1950, composer
Diana Doherty, oboe soloist (New York Philharmonic)
Leonard Dommett, violinist and conductor
Julian Gavin, opera singer
Antoinette Halloran, opera singer
Phil Harvey, creative director (Coldplay)
Missy Higgins, singer-songwriter
Rex Hobcroft, pianist and administrator
Tania de Jong, soprano and social entrepreneur
Liza Lim, composer
John McAll, pianist and musical director
Mona McBurney 1867–1932 composer
Ryan Monro, bassist (The Cat Empire)
Ian Munro, pianist and composer
Patrick Savage, film composer and former principal first violin (Royal Philharmonic Orchestra)
Peter Sculthorpe, composer
Dudley Simpson, conductor and television composer
Jan Skubiszewski, multi-award-winning record producer film composer
Red Symons, musician, television and radio personality
Penelope Thwaites, musicologist and pianist
Yelian He, cellist
Charles Zwar, songwriter, composer, lyricist, pianist and music director
David Burd, US rapper, known as Lil Dicky
Philosophy
Samuel Alexander
Leslie Cannold
Raimond Gaita
Charles Leonard Hamblin
Frank Cameron Jackson
Graham Oppy
Toby Ord
Brian O'Shaughnessy
Graham Priest
Ian Robinson
Peter Singer
John Tasioulas, moral and legal philosopher
Nick Trakakis
John Weckert
Damon Young
Law
Chief Justices of Australia
Sir Owen Dixon,
Sir Frank Gavan Duffy,
Sir Isaac Isaacs,
Sir John Latham,
Justices of the High Court of Australia
Sir Keith Aickin, , former justice
Susan Crennan
Sir Daryl Dawson, , former justice
Sir Wilfred Fullagar, , former justice
Kenneth Hayne
H. B. Higgins, former justice
Sir Douglas Menzies, former justice
Geoffrey Nettle
Sir Ninian Stephen, , also a previous Governor-General of Australia
Chief Justice of the Federal Court of Australia
Michael Black, , former Chief Justice
Justices of the Federal Court of Australia
Geoffrey Giudice
Sir Edward Woodward, , also served as a Royal Commissioner and Director-General of Security
Chief Justice of the Family Court of Australia
Diana Bryant, , Chief Justice since 2004
Alastair Nicholson, , former Chief Justice
Justices of the Family Court of Australia
Linda Dessau, , former justice
Chief Justices of Victoria
Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring, , also a former Lieutenant Governor of Victoria
Sir William Irvine, , also a former Premier of Victoria
Sir John Madden, , also a former Vice-Chancellor and Chancellor of the University
Sir Frederick Mann, , also a former Lieutenant Governor of Victoria
John Harber Phillips, , also a former Victorian Director of Public Prosecutions and Director of the National Crime Authority
Sir Henry Winneke, , also a former Governor of Victoria
Sir John Young,
Justices of the Supreme Court of Victoria
Sir Kevin Anderson,
Sir Arthur Dean,
Sir James Gobbo, , also a former Governor of Victoria
Sir George Pape
Joseph Santamaria
Presidents of the Victorian Court of Appeal
Chris Maxwell
John Winneke,
Other legal professionals
Philip Alston, international law scholar; former United Nations Special Rapporteur
John Bennett, civil libertarian
Matthew Collins, barrister and Senior Fellow at the Melbourne Law School
Mario Condello, lawyer; murdered during Melbourne gangland killings
Frank Costigan, , lawyer, Royal Commissioner and social justice activist
Rowan Downing, , barrister and international jurist
Frank Galbally, , criminal defence lawyer
Flos Greig, first woman to be admitted to practise as a barrister and solicitor in Australia
Philip Griffiths, , jurist
Francis Gurry, international intellectual property lawyer and bureaucrat
Colin Lovitt, , criminal barrister
Julian McMahon, A.C., barrister, humanitarian, campaigner against death penalty
Rob Stary, criminal defence lawyer
Lord Uthwatt, Judge, Chancery Division, High Court of Justice of England and Wales, Lord of Appeal in Ordinary, House of Lords
Kissana Phathanacharoen, Deputy Commander of Cyber Crime Investigation Bureau and Deputy Spokesman of the Royal Thai Police
Military
Group Captain John Balmer, , World War II RAAF bomber pilot
Major General Sir Julius Bruche, , Second Boer War and World War I army officer
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Rupert Downes, army doctor and World War II general
Sir Edward 'Weary' Dunlop, army doctor and humanitarian
Major General Harold 'Pompey' Elliott, , politician and World War I army general
Sir Neil Hamilton Fairley, army doctor
Brigadier General William Grant, , World War I general
Sir James Whiteside McCay, politician and World War I general
Sir John Monash, World War I general
Sir Kingsley Norris, army doctor and major general
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Ian Upjohn, , Army Reserve officer and barrister
Religious leaders
Rabbi Raymond Apple
Sciences
Agriculture
Yvonne Aitken, botanist, first woman to earn a PhD in Agriculture form the University of Melbourne in 1970
Biology
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Computing
Andrew Freeman FACS – Fellow of the Australian Computer Society (elected in 1997), and an Honorary Life Member (HLM) of the ACS (elected in 2018)
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Norman Greenwood
Chemistry
Cyril Callister, creator of Vegemite
Beryl Splatt
Shu Jie Lam
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Engineering
Sir Walter Bassett
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Frank Caruso
Mathematics
Robert Bartnik
Keith Briggs
Danny Calegari
Robert William Chapman
Thomas MacFarland Cherry
Ian G. Enting
Greg Hjorth
Mark S. Joshi
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Brendan McKay
Samuel McLaren
John Henry Michell
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Jonathan Pila
E. J. G. Pitman
J. Hyam Rubinstein
Hans Schwerdtfeger
Ian Sloan
Geoffrey Watson
William Parkinson Wilson
Medicine
Lilian Helen Alexander, one of the first women to study medicine at the university
Ellen Balaam, first woman surgeon in Melbourne
David Bowen, deregistered medical practitioner
Marjorie Bick, biochemist
Vera Scantlebury Brown
Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1960 "for the discovery that the immune system of the fetus learns how to distinguish between self and non-self"
Sir John Carew Eccles, awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1963 "for describing the electric transmission of impulses along nerves"
Aditya Tedjaseputra, inventor of pain-free speculum
Constance Ellis, first woman to receive a Doctor of Medicine from the university
Mavis Freeman, bacteriologist and biochemist
Jane Stocks Greig, public health specialist
Janet Greig, Victoria's first female anaesthetist
David Handelsman, Australia's first professor in reproductive endocrinology and andrology
James Lawson, public health doctor and scientist
Elizabeth Scarr, associate professor at the Department of Psychiatry, project leader of Cooperative Research Centre for Mental Health, and leader of the Psychiatric Neuropathology laboratory at the university
Helen Sexton, surgeon, one of the first women to study medicine at the university
Rajaratnam Sundarason, surgeon, one of the founders of International House
Sydney James Van Pelt, pioneer of modern hypnotherapy
Physics
Nicole Bell
Walter Boas
Samuel L. Braunstein
John M. Cowley
Rod Crewther
Richard Dalitz – inventor of the Dalitz plot
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Colin J. Gillespie
Kerr Grant
Peter Hannaford
Alan Head
T. H. Laby
Rodney Marks
Leslie H. Martin
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Helen Quinn – former president of the American Physical Society; recipient of the Dirac Medal in 2000 and the Sakurai Prize in 2013
William Sutherland
Psychology
Vicki Anderson (psychologist), pediatric neuropsychologist
Kathleen Funder, researcher, Australian Institute of Family Studies
Peter O'Connor (psychologist), psychologist
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Cyril Seelenmeyer – VFL footballer, veterinary surgeon, winner of Military Cross
Harold Addison Woodruff – Professor of veterinary pathology and director of the veterinary institute
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Kim Crow, London Olympics silver and bronze medallist for doubles and singles sculling respectively
Eva Duldig (born 1938), Austrian-born Australian and Dutch tennis player, author
Bev Francis, IFBB professional Australian female bodybuilder, powerlifter, and national shot put champion
Geoff Grover, VFL and VFA footballer; VFA interstate representative (1966 Hobart Carnival)
John Robinson, VFL Footballer; recipient of the Distinguished Conduct Medal (1917)
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Joshua Thomas Noble Anderson
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Lisa Cameron
Henri Daniel Rathgeber
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Dolly Kikon, School of Social and Political Sciences
Administration
Chancellors
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References
External links
Prominent alumni – from the University of Melbourne website
Melbourne
University
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mintons
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Mintons
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Mintons was a major company in Staffordshire pottery, "Europe's leading ceramic factory during the Victorian era", an independent business from 1793 to 1968. It was a leader in ceramic design, working in a number of different ceramic bodies, decorative techniques, and "a glorious pot-pourri of styles - Rococo shapes with Oriental motifs, Classical shapes with Medieval designs and Art Nouveau borders were among the many wonderful concoctions". As well as pottery vessels and sculptures, the firm was a leading manufacturer of tiles and other architectural ceramics, producing work for both the Houses of Parliament and United States Capitol.
The family continued to control the business until the mid-20th century. Mintons had the usual Staffordshire variety of company and trading names over the years, and the products of all periods are generally referred to as either "Minton", as in "Minton china", or "Mintons", the mark used on many. Mintons Ltd was the company name from 1879 onwards.
History
1793 to 1850
The firm began in 1793 when Thomas Minton (1765–1836) founded his pottery factory in Stoke-upon-Trent, Staffordshire, England as "Thomas Minton and Sons", producing earthenware. He formed a partnership, Minton & Poulson, c.1796, with Joseph Poulson who made bone china from c.1798 in his new near-by china pottery. When Poulson died in 1808, Minton carried on alone, using Poulson's pottery for china until 1816. He built a new china pottery in 1824. No very early earthenware is marked, and perhaps a good deal of it was made for other potters. On the other hand, some very early factory records survive in the Minton Archive, which is much more complete than those of most Staffordshire firms, and the early porcelain is marked with pattern numbers, which can be tied to the surviving pattern-books.
Early Mintons products were mostly standard domestic tableware in blue transfer-printed or painted earthenware, including the ever-popular Willow pattern. Minton had trained as an engraver for transfer printing with Thomas Turner. From c 1798 production included bone china from his partner Joseph Poulson's near-by china pottery. China production ceased c. 1816 following Joseph Poulson's death in 1808, recommencing in a new pottery in 1824.
Minton was a prime mover, and the main shareholder in the Hendra Company, formed in 1800 to exploit china clay and other minerals from Cornwall. Named after Hendra Common, St Dennis, Cornwall, the partners included Minton, Poulson, Wedgwood, William Adams, and the owners of New Hall porcelain. The company was profitable for many years, reducing the cost of materials to the owning potters, and selling to other firms.
Early Mintons porcelain was "decorated in the restrained Regency style", much of it just with edging patterns rather than fully painted scenes, thus keeping prices within the reach of a relatively large section of the middle class.
Early porcelain
Minton's two sons, Thomas and Herbert, were taken into partnership in 1817, but Thomas went in to the church and was ordained in 1825. Herbert had been working in the business since 1808, when he was 16, initially as a travelling salesman. On his death in 1836, Minton was succeeded by his son Herbert Minton (1793–1858), who took John Boyle as a partner to help him the same year, given the size of the business; by 1842 they had parted company. Herbert developed new production techniques and took the business into new fields, notably including decorative encaustic tile making, through his association with leading architects and designers including Augustus Pugin and, it is said, Prince Albert.
Minton entered into partnership with Michael Hollins in 1845 and formed the tile making firm of Minton, Hollins & Company, which was at the forefront of a large newly developing market as suppliers of durable decorative finishes for walls and floors in churches, public buildings, grand palaces and simple domestic houses. The firm exhibited widely at trade exhibitions throughout the world and examples of its exhibition displays are held at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. where the company gained many prestigious contracts including tiled flooring for the United States Capitol. The "encaustic" technique allowed clays of different colours to be used in the same tile, allowing far greater decorative possibilities. Great numbers of new churches and public buildings were given floors in the tiles, and despite the protests of William Morris, many medieval church floors were "updated" with them.
Hard white unglazed "statuary porcelain", later called Parian ware due to its resemblance to Parian marble, was first introduced by Spode in the 1840s. It was further developed by Minton who employed John Bell, Hiram Powers and other famous sculptors to produce figures for reproduction. Mintons had already been making some figures in the more demanding medium of biscuit porcelain, and reused some of these moulds in Parian.
In the year ended 1842, the sales of the main company Minton & Co totalled (all round £'000s) £45K, divided as follows:
Porcelain: gilt £13K and ungilt £8K
Earthenware: enamelled £6K, printed £10K, "cream-colour" £4K, coloured bodies £2K
Ironstone: 2K
Much of the transfer printing was done by outside specialists, and "engraving done off the Works" cost £641, while "engraving done on the Works" cost £183.
1820 to 1850
Mid-Victorian period
In 1849 Minton engaged a young French ceramicist Léon Arnoux as art director who remained with the Minton Company until 1892. This and other enterprising appointments enabled the company greatly to widen its product ranges. It was Arnoux who formulated the tin-glaze used for Minton’s rare tin-glazed Majolica together with the in-glaze metallic oxide enamels with which it was painted. He also developed the colored lead glazes and kiln technology for Minton’s highly successful lead-glazed Palissy ware, later also called ‘majolica’. This product transformed Minton’s profitability for the next thirty years.
Minton tin-glazed Majolica imitated the process and style of Italian Renaissance tin-glazed maiolica resulting in fine in-glaze brush-painted decoration on an opaque whitish ground. Minton coloured glaze decorated Palissy ware/ majolica employed an existing process much improved and with an extended range of coloured lead glazes applied to the biscuit body and fired. Both products were launched at The Great Exhibition of 1851. Along with the majolica of multiple other English factories all are now grouped as Victorian majolica. The coloured glazes of Palissy ware became a Mintons staple, as well as being copied by many other firms in England and abroad.
Mintons made special pieces for the major exhibitions that were a feature of the period, beginning with the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, where they had considerable success, winning the bronze medal for "beauty and originality of design". They followed this with a gold medal at the Exposition Universelle of 1855 in Paris. In London Queen Victoria bought Parian pieces and, for 1,000 guineas, a dessert service in a mix of bone china and Parian, which she gave to Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria; it remains in the Hofburg in Vienna.
Lead-glazed "majolica", and grand Victorian showpieces
The next twenty-five years saw Mintons develop several new specialities in design and technique, while production of established styles continued unabated. As at Sèvres itself, and many other factories, wares evoking Sèvres porcelain of the 18th century had become popular from about the 1830s, and Arnoux perfected Mintons' blue and pink ground colours, essential for the Sèvres style, but much used for other wares. The Sèvres pink was called rose Pompadour, leading Mintons to call theirs rose du Barry after another royal mistress. Alexandre Brongniart (1770-1847), artistic director of Sèvres had given Mintons plaster casts of some original moulds, which enabled them to make very close copies. At the end of the century, when the husband of Georgina Ward, Countess of Dudley, sold his original Sèvres pot-pourri vase in the shape of a ship, a famous, spectacular and rare Sèvres shape of the 1760s (now Getty Museum) in the 1880s, Mintons were commissioned to make a copy.
Parian ware, introduced in the 1840s, had become a strong area for Mintons, whose catalogue of 1852 already offered 226 figures in it, priced from an extremely modest two shillings for a dog, to six guineas for a classical figure. In that decade partly-tinted Parian figures were introduced, and part-gilded ones. Copies of contemporary sculptures that had been hits at the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition or elsewhere were produced at a much-reduced scale in Parian. The American sculptor Hiram Powers' hit sculpture The Greek Slave was first made in 1843 in Florence, and by the end of the decade some of the five life-size versions he made had toured several countries. Mintons first made a copy in 1848; by the version illustrated here, from 1849, the figure had lost the heavy chains between her hands, which were perhaps too expensive to make for a popular product.
Arnoux had an interest in reviving Saint-Porchaire ware, then generally known as "Henri II ware". This was very high-quality lead-glazed earthenware made from the 1520s to the 1540s in France; in 1898 the pottery was located to the village of Saint-Porchaire (nowadays a part of Bressuire, Poitou). Perhaps sixty original pieces survive, and at the time the ware had a legendary repution. This was a very complicated ware to make, with much use of inlays of clay with different colours. Arnoux mastered the technique and then taught Charles Toft, perhaps Mintons' top modeller, who produced a small number of pieces. In addition to his influence on the production of encaustic tiles and mosaics, Arnoux also developed and produced azulejos in the Portuguese style.
At some point before 1867 Mintons began to work with Christopher Dresser, often regarded as the most important British designer of the later 19th century. At that time he was beginning what became a strong interest in ceramic design, leading him to work with several other companies. His work with Mintons continued for several decades, and although the Minton Archive has many designs certainly in his hand, other pieces in his style can only be attributed to him. Dresser had travelled to Japan, and in the 1870s produced a number of designs reflecting Japanese ceramics, catching the rising fashion for Japonism in all areas of design. He was also interested in what might be called the "Anglo-Oriental" style, evoking both Islamic and East Asian design, but without precisely following anything.
On his death in 1858 Herbert Minton was succeeded by his equally dynamic nephew Colin Minton Campbell who had joined the partnership in 1849, with a 1/3 share. Herbert had decreased his involvement in day-to-day management in the years before his death. He took the company into a highly successful exploration of Chinese cloisonné enamels, Japanese lacquer and Turkish pottery.
Eclectic revival styles
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870 gave Arnoux the opportunity to recruit the modeller Marc-Louis Solon who had developed the technique of pâte-sur-pâte at Sèvres and brought it with him to Minton. In this process the design is built up in relief with layers of liquid slip, with each layer being allowed to dry before the next is applied. There was great demand for Solon's plaques and vases, featuring maidens and cherubs, and Minton assigned him apprentices to help the firm become the unrivaled leader in this field.
Others introduced to Minton by Arnoux included the sculptor Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse and the painter Antoine Boullemier.
In 1870 Mintons opened an art pottery studio in Kensington, London directed by William Stephen Coleman and encouraged both amateur and professional artists to become involved in pottery decoration and design. This might be in hand-painted plaques, or in producing designs to be replicated in larger quantities in the Stoke factory. When the studio was destroyed by fire in 1875, it was not rebuilt.
Mid-Victorian painting, 1865-1880
Late Victorian and 20th century
From the mid-1890s onwards, Mintons made major contributions to Art Nouveau ceramics with a fine range of slip-trailed majolica ware, many designed by Marc-Louis Solon's son Leon Solon and his colleague John Wadsworth. Leon Solon was hired by Mintons after his work was published in the hugely influential design magazine The Studio and he worked for the company from 1895–1905, including a brief stint as Art Director. Solon introduced designs influenced by the Vienna Secession art movement, founded by Gustav Klimt and others, and a range in earthenware made from about 1901 to 1916 was branded as "Secessionist Ware". It was made mostly using industrial techniques that kept it relatively cheap, and was aimed at a broad market. The range concentrated on items bought singly or in pairs, such as jugs or vases, rather than full table services.
The Secessionist range covered both practical and ornamental wares including cheese dishes, plates, teapots, jugs and comports, vases and large jardinières. The shapes of ornamental vases included inverted trumpets, elongated cylinders and exaggerated bottle forms, although tableware shapes were conventional. Early Secessionist patterns featured realistic renderings of natural motifs—flowers, birds and human figures—but under the combined influence of Solon and Wadsworth, these became increasingly exaggerated and stylised, with the characteristic convoluted plant forms and floral motifs reaching extravagant heights.
"Secessionist Ware" was arguably the last boldly innovative move made by Mintons in terms of design. After World War I wares became rather more conventional. The Minton factory in the centre of Stoke was rebuilt and modernised after the Second World War by the then managing director, J. E. Hartill, a great-great-great grandson of Thomas Minton. But the firm shared in the overall decline of the Staffordshire pottery industry in the post-war period. The tableware division was always the mainstay of Minton's fortunes and the post-1950 rationalisation of the British pottery industry took Mintons into a merger with Royal Doulton Tableware Ltd. By the 1980s Mintons was only producing a few different shapes but still employed highly skilled decorators.
Legacy
Minton Archive
The Minton Archive comprises papers and drawings of the designs, manufacture and production of Mintons. It was acquired by Waterford Wedgwood in 2005 along with other assets of the Royal Doulton group. At one time it seemed the archive would become part of the Wedgwood Museum collection. In the event, the archive was presented by the Art Fund to the City of Stoke-on-Trent, but it was envisaged that some material would be displayed at Barlaston as well as the Potteries Museum and Art Gallery.
Buildings
The main factory on London Road, Stoke-on-Trent was demolished in the 1990s, and the other factory, including office accommodation and a Minton Museum, was demolished in 2002 as part of rationalisation within the Royal Doulton group. Royal Doulton was taken over in turn by the Waterford Wedgwood group in January 2005. As a result of these changes, the ceramics collection formerly in the Minton Museum was partly dispersed. On the other hand, the Minton Archive has been kept together with help from the Art Fund, being transferred to the City of Stoke-on-Trent in 2015.
The Victorian building on Shelton Old Road, Stoke, which used to be the Minton Hollins tileworks is on a separate site from the former Minton pottery. It was threatened with demolition in the 1980s but was listed in 1986 and has been preserved.
Notes
References
Battie, David, ed., Sotheby's Concise Encyclopedia of Porcelain, 1990, Conran Octopus,
Godden, Geoffrey, English China, 1985, Barrie & Jenkins,
Savage, George, Pottery Through the Ages, Penguin, 1959
Further reading
Atterbury, Paul, and Batkin, Maureen, Dictionary of Minton, Antique Collectors' Club, 1990.
External links
The Minton Archive
Famous Potters of Stoke-on-Trent – Thomas Minton
Explore historic Minton pottery online
The Majolica Society
Stoke Museums: home to the former Minton Museum collection
Ceramics manufacturers of England
Companies based in Stoke-on-Trent
British companies established in 1793
Staffordshire pottery
Art Nouveau
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirsten%20Flipkens
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Kirsten Flipkens
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Kirsten "Flipper" Flipkens (; born 10 January 1986) is a Belgian former professional tennis player and coach. She reached a career-high ranking of No. 13 by the Women's Tennis Association (WTA). Flipkens has won one singles title on the WTA Tour, winning the 2012 Tournoi de Québec, as well as seven doubles titles. She also won 13 singles and two doubles titles on the ITF Women's Circuit, and one singles title on the WTA Challenger Tour.
She had success as a junior, winning the girls' doubles title at the 2002 US Open and the singles titles at the 2003 Wimbledon Championships and the 2003 US Open. Her best Grand Slam performance as a senior was at the 2013 Wimbledon Championships, where she reached the semifinal. In the same year, she was crowned Sportswoman of the Year at the Belgian Sport Awards. In 2016, Flipkens entered her first Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro and made it to the third round in singles. She is also the Belgian player who has played the most years in Fed Cup (16 years as of 2019). For this reason, she received the Fed Cup Commitment Award in 2016.
Early life
Flipkens was born on 10 January 1986 in Geel, Belgium as the only child of a car dealer and a housewife. She began playing tennis at four years old. Flipkens played tennis, football, volleyball and basketball before eventually deciding to pursue a career as a tennis player at the age of 12. She then went to the tennis academy in Wilrijk where she became friends with Kim Clijsters. At the age of 17, after winning Wimbledon and the US Open as a junior, she dropped out of school to continue her career as a professional tennis player. She speaks Dutch, English, French and German. One of her trademarks is her prescription glasses, which she needs to wear due to being near-sighted.
Junior career
In 2001, Flipkens won the bronze medal at the European Youth Olympic Festival in Murcia, Spain.
In 2002, Flipkens and Elke Clijsters won the US Open girls' doubles title, beating Shadisha Robsinon and Tory Zawacki in the final with 6–1, 6–3.
In 2003, Flipkens won the Wimbledon Championships in girls' singles, beating Anna Chakvetadze 6–4, 3–6, 6–3 and the US Open in girls' singles, defeating Michaëlla Krajicek, 6–3, 7–5. Following her two wins in two major juniors events, Flipkens was selected to join the Belgium Fed Cup team for the 2003 Fed Cup's semifinal opposing the United States. She played her first Fed Cup match against then WTA No. 17, Meghann Shaughnessy and lost 7–6, 6–7, 7–9. She finished 2003 as world No. 1 of the junior rankings in both singles and doubles. At the end of the year, she was awarded Best Belgian Talent and named ITF Junior World Champion.
Professional career
2001–08: First steps, problem with injuries
Flipkens played her first professional match on the ITF Women's Circuit in 2001 at the age of 15. Next year, she won her first ITF singles title at a $10k event in Pétange, when she defeated German qualifier Tanja Hirschauer, and two weeks later another $10k title in Koksijde. The following year, Flipkens made her debut at the WTA Tour, at the Diamonds Games in Antwerp, but finished her participation at the beginning of the tournament. 2004 was the first year when she attempted to qualify in Wimbledon into the main draw of a major. After a first-round loss at the Gaz de France Stars in September, Flipkens stated that she struggled with a congenital back injury during the second half of 2004. She was unable to play for several months.
She made her return at $50k event in Saint-Gaudens in May 2005, but lost in her first match. In late May, she made her debut in the qualifying of the French Open. Later, she also failed in qualifying for Wimbledon and the US Open. In 2006, Flipkens made big steps further, reaching the main draws at the French Open, Wimbledon and the US Open. At the French Open, she recorded her first Grand Slam match win, defeating qualifier Virginie Pichet, but lost in the next round to Flavia Pennetta. At the US Open, she got to the same stage of tournament, falling to eventual semifinalist Jelena Janković, while at Wimbledon, she lost in the first round. She also partnered with British No. 2, Andy Murray, in mixed doubles at Wimbledon.
Flipkens started 2007 season with modest results, including only first rounds at the Australian Open and Diamond Games. In May, she stated that she suffered from a wrist injury, which resulted in not being able to play for several months. She returned in September, playing mostly at the ITF Circuit, with reaching only one final at the $50k event in Deauville, where she lost. In 2008, due to injury from previous year that caused falling in the rankings, she was forced to play mostly at ITF tournaments. She reached four finals, winning three of them, inclung a $75k title at the Open Féminin de Marseille. She started the year as world No. 287, but climbed till the end to No. 104.
2009–10: Breakthrough into the top 100, continues with injuries
Flipkens played at the Australian Open, where she recorded her first win there, defeating Rossana de los Ríos, before she was knocked out the tournament by top seed Jelena Janković. On her next appearances, she was eliminated in the first round at U.S. National Indoors, Barcelona Open, Estoril Open and Internationaux de Strasbourg. She then reached another Grand Slam second round at the French Open. She started the grass-court season with a loss at the Rosmalen Championships, but then reached her first Major third round at Wimbledon. She failed to reach her first round of 16, losing to top-seeded Dinara Safina, 5–7, 1–6, after having a set point in the first set.
At the US Open, she reached another Grand Slam third round, after straight-sets victories over Jelena Dokic and Anabel Medina Garrigues. She suffered a defeat in the third round, losing to compatriot and eventual champion Kim Clijsters, 0–6, 2–6. In October 2009, she again defeated Medina Garrigues to reach the quarterfinals of the Luxembourg Open, where her compatriot Yanina Wickmayer stopped her from reaching the first semifinal on the WTA Tour. Flipkens reached the top 100 for the first time in her career at the end of 2009.
Flipkens continued her good results in 2010. She first reached the quarterfinals at the Hobart International, where she went through qualifying. In the quarterfinal match, she lost to Sara Erani in straight sets. At the Australian Open, Flipkens lost in the first round to another unseeded (her comeback) Justine Henin, 4–6, 3–6. In March, she made her debut at the Premier 5/Premier Mandatory tournaments. On her way to the third round at Indian Wells, she beat Timea Bacsinszky and Aleksandra Wozniack, before she was eliminated by Elena Dementieva.
At the French Open, she defeated Ayumi Morita in the first round, 6–1, 6–4, before Maria Sharapova defeated her in straight sets in the second. In the week before Wimbledon, she reached semifinals of the Rosmalen Championships but lost to Andrea Petkovic. At Wimbledon, she lost in the second round to Yanina Wickmayer. At the US Open, she failed to repeat her third-round appearance of the previous year, losing in the first round to Patty Schnyder. By the end of the year, she reached two International-level quarterfinals, at the Korea Open and Luxembourg Open. She had been troubled by a recurring wrist injury and underwent surgery at the end of the 2010 season.
2011–12: First WTA Tour title
Flipkens struggled at the beginning of 2011, starting with a first-round loss at the Australian Open and did not win one singles match on the WTA Tour in main draws until May. She then reached the semifinals at the Morocco Open in Fes, during the clay-court season. At the Rosmalen Championships, she teamed up with CoCo Vandeweghe to reach the semifinals in doubles. By the end of the year, she didn't make any significant result, primarily losing in the first rounds and failing in the qualifyings.
After weak results in the second half of 2011, she returned to the ITF Circuit. She made two $25k level finals but failed to win the title in both of them. Then in April 2012, doctors discovered four life-threatening blood clots in her calf, which prevented her from playing for two months. During this time, her ranking dropped to No. 262, and she lost her funding from the Flemish Tennis Association (VTV). She returned to the WTA Tour at the Rosmalen Championships, where she beat Samantha Stosur in the first round and later reached semifinals, before she lost to Nadia Petrova. She qualified for the US Open and made it to the second round, where she was defeated by eventual finalist, Victoria Azarenka. She also partnered with Kim Clijsters in doubles, but they were beaten in the first round.
In September 2012, she won the Tournoi de Québec that also was her first WTA title, after wins over top-seeded Dominika Cibulková, Mona Barthel and Lucie Hradecká, among others. She continued with success, participating at the Generali Ladies Linz tournament in October, where she won through qualifying and got onto the main draw. She then defeated Alizé Cornet in the first round, a qualifier in the second round, and second seed Ana Ivanovic 6–4, 6–0 in the quarterfinals. She then lost in three sets to Julia Görges in the semifinals. This result brought her to a career-high 58th position in the WTA rankings. During this month, Kim Clijsters announced that she would help her as a part-coach.
2013: Wimbledon semifinalist, breakthrough into the top 15
Flipkens started her 2013 season really well, reaching quarterfinal at the ASB Classic, where she lost from her compatriot Yanina Wickmayer. Next week, at the Hobart International, she defeated Francesca Schiavone in the first round and continued with wins over Bojana Jovanovski and Monica Niculescu, before falling to Mona Barthel in the semifinals. Her next tournament was the first Grand Slam of the year, the Australian Open. She defeated Mandy Minella, Klara Zakopalová, and Valeria Savinykh in the first rounds to advance to the fourth round where she lost 1–6, 0–6 to Maria Sharapova. That was the first time she reached that stage at any Grand Slam tournament.
She then proceeded to reach the quarterfinal of the U.S. Indoor Championships, losing there to Magdaléna Rybáriková. At the Indian Wells Open, she got bye for the first round, then beat Monica Niculescu in the second round before she lost from Victoria Azarenka. Next, she reached quarterfinal of the Miami Open, where she also got bye for the first round, and then beating Petra Kvitová in the second round before eventually falling to Agnieszka Radwańska. She started the French Open as 21st seed, and beat Flavia Pennetta in the first round before losing to 2010-champion Francesca Schiavone. She also played in mixed doubles, partnering Colin Fleming, but they lost in the first round. After the French Open, Flipkens reached top 20 for the first time.
To prepare for Wimbledon, Flipkens participated in the Birmingham Classic. Top-seeded, with a bye in the first round, she beat qualifier Ajla Tomljanović, before she lost to Magdaléna Rybáriková in the third round. A week later, at the Rosmalen Grass Court Championships, Flipkens advanced to the final but was ultimately beaten by Simona Halep. Flipkens played at Wimbledon as the 20th seed having not even played in the qualifiers the previous year due to her low ranking. She exceeded expectations by advancing to the semifinals of a Grand Slam for the first time in her career, beating Flavia Pennetta in the fourth round and former champion Petra Kvitová with in the quarterfinals. However, she was defeated 6–1, 6–2 by eventual champion Marion Bartoli in the semifinals. During her semifinal match, Flipkens suffered a knee injury, due to which she didn't play for one month. A month after this performance, Flipkens reached a career-high ranking of 13th in the world.
In the first round of the Canadian Open, she beat Venus Williams and reached the quarterfinal before losing to world No. 1, Serena Williams. She began the US Open as 12th seed. However, she was beaten in straight sets in the first round by two-time champion Venus Williams, who took revenge for her loss against Flipkens two weeks earlier in Toronto. In October, she reached the quarterfinals at the Linz Open, losing there to Carla Suárez Navarro. In December, she took part in the Kim Clijsters Invitational, an exhibition tournament where she won against Ana Ivanovic in a singles match and lost against Kim Clijsters and Xavier Malisse, whilst partnering Henri Leconte in a mixed doubles match. She finished the year as world No. 20.
2014–15: Solid results
Flipkens began the year by reaching the semifinals at the Auckland Open, losing 0–6, 6–7 to Ana Ivanovic. The next week, she reached the quarterfinals of the Hobart International, before losing to Garbiñe Muguruza. She then beat Laura Robson in the Australian Open, where she ended up reaching the second round in which she was defeated by Casey Dellacqua. In February, she made it into the quarterfinals of Open GDF Suez in Paris, but lost to Maria Sharapova. Month later, she reached the fourth round at the Miami Open, before losing to Sharapova again.
In the French Open, Flipkens lost in the second round to Julia Glushko. Flipkens withdrew from the second round in doubles, with Dominika Cibulková, after she had fainted on court during training and doctors at the site had sent her to the hospital where she would spend the night on intensive care since heart problems were feared. However, later tests revealed that she was healthy and fit to play.
Flipkens started grass-court season with the quarterfinals of the Birmingham Classic, where she was beaten by Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová. Next week, she reached second round of the Mallorca Open, being knocked out the tournament by Elina Svitolina. At Wimbledon, she won against two lower-ranking players in the first two rounds, before losing to No. 9 seed Angelique Kerber.
In the second half of the season, Flipkens was less successful. As a wildcard in the tournament of Connecticut Open in New Haven, she made it into the quarterfinal after an epic match against Andrea Petkovic but was eventually beaten by Samantha Stosur. At Premier 5-level Cincinnati Open, she recorded her first win there, defeating qualifier Polona Hercog, but later was eliminated by No. 2 seed Simona Halep. At the US Open, she repeated last year result, losing in the first round. Later she played at the Wuhan Open, defeating two qualifiers, before she lost to Alizé Cornet. At the last three WTA tournaments of the year, she finished with first-round losses, at China Open, Linz Open and Luxembourg Open.
At the end of the season, she took part in the first edition of the International Premier Tennis League, where she played for the Manila Mavericks and was teammate with – amongst others – Maria Sharapova, Andy Murray and Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. In this two-and-a-half-week during event, Flipkens mainly excelled as a mixed-doubles player, alongside multiple champion Daniel Nestor. The Manila Mavericks ended third in the competition. Flipkens finished the season as No. 46 in the world.
Flipkens started 2015 with a knee injury and only won one match during the Australian season (against Johanna Larsson in Auckland). In the Australian Open 2015, she was beaten by friend and doubles partner Dominika Cibulková. She reached her first quarterfinal of the season at the Katowice Open, where she lost to compatriot Alison Van Uytvanck. During the Premier-level Stuttgart Open in April, she was forced to retire in qualification, because of an 11.5 cm tear in her upper leg. This healed better than expected and against all the odds she made it into the French Open, where she lost the first round against Elena Vesnina. She won only one match on grass-court season in 2015, defeating Annika beck at the Wimbledon, before she played the second round against former No. 1, Victoria Azarenka, but lost 4–6, 2–6. After Wimbledon, she fell out of the top 100 for the first time since 2012.
In July, she played her first semifinal in 2015 at İstanbul Cup, beating amongst others Francesca Schiavone and Alizé Cornet. The following week, she reached quarterfinal of International-level tournament at the Baku Cup. Thanks to these two good results, she made it back into the top 100. She proceeded to play the final of the $100k Vancouver Open, where she lost to Johanna Konta. At the US Open, she was beaten in the first round by Varvara Lepchenko. In doubles, she played alongside Laura Robson. They reached the second round, where they were beaten by fifth seeds Caroline Garcia and Katarina Srebotnik. After the US Open, Flipkens was diagnosed with a cyst on the wrist, which made her unable to play, resulting in her dropping out of the top 100 again. She made her comeback at the Linz Open. This comeback was successful for Flipkens, reaching the semifinal, where she beat amongst others the former No. 1, Caroline Wozniacki, before eventually falling to Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova. She officially finished the year 2015 as No. 93 in the world.
2016: Olympic debut, first doubles title
Flipkens started the year with a quarterfinal in Auckland. She then reached the second round of the Australian Open, where she lost to third seed Garbiñe Muguruza. In doubles, she and her partner Dominika Cibulková had their best Grand Slam result yet. They reached the fourth round where they lost to Anastasia and Arina Rodionova. At the St. Petersburg Ladies' Trophy and Qatar Ladies Open, Flipkens lost in the first round. At the following tournament, the Monterrey Open, she advanced to the final beating Francesca Schiavone, Alison Van Uytvanck, Johanna Konta and Anett Kontaveit. She lost the final to Heather Watson. This good result was rewarded with a place back in the top 60, at No. 59. After missing to qualify at the Indian Wells Open and Miami Open, Flipkens went on to play the quarterfinals of Katowice, in which she was defeated by Camila Giorgi.
During the clay-court season Flipkens was plagued by a wrist injury, and only managed to win a single match, against Donna Vekić at the İstanbul Cup. At the French Open, she was eliminated by Alizé Cornet in the first round, winning only one game. In doubles, she and her partner Dominika Cibulková reached the second round, before they retired against fourth seeds Babos/Shvedova. At the Mallorca Open, Flipkens stunned versus freshly crowned French Open champion and world No. 2, Garbiñe Muguruza, beating her in the first round in straight sets. She proceeded to reach semifinals but was beaten by the eventual tournament winner, Caroline Garcia. Flipkens also reached the semifinals in doubles, partnered with Ana Ivanovic. At Wimbledon, Flipkens reached the second round, in which she lost to ninth seed Madison Keys.
Flipkens entered her first Olympics ever in both singles and doubles. In singles, she stunned the gold medalist from Sydney 2000, and three times doubles champion, Venus Williams, in the first round, defeating her in an epic match with 4–6, 6–3, 7–6. In the second round, Flipkens beat Lucie Šafářová, who retired after losing the first set with 6–2. Eventually, Flipkens was beaten in the round of 16 by Laura Siegemund from Germany. In doubles, Flipkens played alongside Yanina Wickmayer. In the first round, the Belgians faced Kazakh duo Shvedova/Voskoboeva, who retired after losing the first set 1–6. However, Flipkens and Wickmayer were defeated in the round of 16 by the Spanish team Muguruza/Suárez Navarro, the fourth seeds.
She then travelled to the United States and played at the Cincinnati Open, but failed to qualify. However, she reached quarterfinals of the Connecticut Open, before being beaten by Agnieszka Radwańska. She closed out her U.S. hardcourt tour with a first round-loss at the US Open, losing to fifth seed Simona Halep with 0–6, 2–6. In doubles, she also lost in the first round, alongside Belinda Bencic. By the end of the year, she marked her first doubles title at the Korea Open; partnering with Swedish player Johanna Larsson, she defeated Akiko Omae and Peangtarn Plipuech in the final.
At the end of the season, Flipkens took part in the IPTL for the third time in a row, as a member of the Micromax Indian Aces. The team ended runner-up, losing to the Singapore Slammers with 30–14. She was one of the players to receive the Fed Cup Commitment Award at the end of 2016 for being the Belgian player who's represented her country in the Fed Cup the longest: a total of 13 years in 2016. Flipkens was also nominated at the WTA Awards in the category of Shot of the Year for a spectacular behind-the-back winner she scored against Kristýna Plíšková in Seoul. Flipkens finished the year as No. 63 in the world.
2017–20: Success in doubles
In 2017, Flipkens had few significant results in singles. At the Australian Open, she lost in the first round, while at the other three major events, she won one match per tournament, but then lost in the second round. During the 2017 season, she reached two quarterfinals, first at the International-level Monterrey Open in late February, and then at the Premier-level Connecticut Open in August. She also reached the third round of the Miami Open, being knocked out of the tournament by Dominika Cibulková. At Indian Wells and the Canadian Open, she only reached the second round.
Nevertheless, Flipkens had success in doubles in 2017. In the first week of the season, she reached a semifinal, partnering with Jeļena Ostapenko. After a disappointing second-round loss at the Australian Open, she made the final of the Nuremberg Cup, partnered with Johanna Larsson, losing a tense match against Melichar and Smith. She then reached quarterfinals of the French Open, partnering with Francesca Schiavone. After that, she debuted in the top 50, getting to No. 43. Things get even better during the grass-court season, when Flipkens won her second career-doubles title, winning the Rosmalen Grass Court Championships alongside Cibulková. She then partnered with Sania Mirza at Wimbledon, where they got to the third round. After subsequent unimpressive results, she finished the year making the final at the Luxembourg Open.
2022–23: Sixth and seventh doubles titles, Retirement
She announced that 2022 Wimbledon Championships would be her last ever singles tournament. She lost in the second round to Simona Halep in straight sets, after leading by a break in both sets.
However, she won her seventh title on WTA Tour at the 2023 Hobart International alongside Laura Siegemund, with whom she had also won her sixth title at the Transylvania Open in Cluj-Napoca in October 2022.
She played her last doubles match at the 2023 Wimbledon Championships where she reached the third round with Timea Babos.
National representation
Fed Cup / Billie Jean King Cup
In September 2006, she replaced the injured Kim Clijsters as the second member of the Belgian Fed Cup team in the final against Italy, alongside Justine Henin-Hardenne. Flipkens lost both her singles matches (against Schiavone and Santangelo). She and Henin-Hardenne then played the decisive doubles together, but had to retire in the third and final set due to Henin-Hardenne tearing a muscle in her leg, which led to Belgium losing the final with 2–3.
During the 2015 Fed Cup, she and her teammates failed to bring Belgium back to the World Group II after the team lost their final tie against Croatia.
In 2016, Flipkens was part of the Belgian Fed Cup team against Serbia as the two nations were competing for a spot in World Group II. As Belgium's second player (after Yanina Wickmayer), Flipkens played two singles matches. She lost the first one against Aleksandra Krunić, but beat the 18-year-old Ivana Jorović in the decider, and with this victory ensured Belgium of a place back into World Group II after three consecutive years in the Europe-Africa Zone I.
In the 2017 Fed Cup tie against Romania, Flipkens won her singles match against Monica Niculescu and thusly aided the Belgian team in securing a place in the World Group play-offs, since the team beat the Romanians with 3–1. At the Hungarian Ladies Open, Flipkens was defeated in the first round by qualifier Aliaksandra Sasnovich.
Playing style
Flipkens describes herself as "an all court player" whose biggest strength is her "serve and all round game". She makes up for her short height and relative lack of physical strength with her good forehand and serve, her quickness and agility, and her ability to play almost every shot (which results in her frequently being awarded with "Shot of the Day" by the WTA). Her trademark shot is backhand slice and she often plays serve-and-volley. She prefers fast courts. Her favorite surface is grass.
Coaching team
In December 2012, Maxime Braeckman became her new coach full-time coach, but she still occasionally worked with Clijsters. In October 2013, it was announced that Flipkens would stop working with Maxime Braeckman due to Braeckman wanting to stay more at home with his family.
In May 2014, Flipkens announced that she would begin to work with ex-tennis player Xavier Malisse. However, their cooperation ended already in June same year, after the French Open.
Sponsors
Flipkens is sponsored by Babolat for tennis rackets. Her glasses are sponsored by Oakley. She used to wear Adidas clothing, but as of 2017 she launched her own clothing line and now plays in clothes she's designed herself. She also designed the official outfits of the Belgian Fed Cup team.
Awards
At the end of the 2012 season, she was nominated for "Comeback Player of the Year" at the WTA Awards, an award that would eventually go to Yaroslava Shvedova. In December, Flipkens received the VTV Award for "Belgian Player of the Year". On 22 December 2013, she received the prestigious award for Sportswoman of the Year in Belgium as well as the VTV Award for "Belgian Player of the Year" for the second year in a row. In 2016, she received the Fed Cup Commitment Award in 2016 for being player who played the most year for the Belgian Fed Cup team (16 years as of 2019).
Career statistics
Grand Slam tournament finals
Mixed doubles: 1 (runner-up)
Grand Slam tournament performance timelines
Singles
Doubles
Mixed doubles
This table is current through the 2023 Wimbledon Championships.
References
External links
(archive)
1986 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Geel
Belgian female tennis players
Wimbledon junior champions
US Open (tennis) junior champions
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in girls' singles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in girls' doubles
Olympic tennis players for Belgium
Tennis players at the 2016 Summer Olympics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20cruiser%20Azuma
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Japanese cruiser Azuma
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(sometimes transliterated (archaically) as Adzuma) was an armored cruiser (Sōkō jun'yōkan) built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) in the late 1890s. As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships herself, the ship was built in France. She participated in most of the naval battles of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 and was lightly damaged during the Battle off Ulsan and the Battle of Tsushima. Azuma began the first of five training cruises in 1912 and saw no combat during World War I. She was never formally reclassified as a training ship although she exclusively served in that role from 1921 until she was disarmed and hulked in 1941. Azuma was badly damaged in an American carrier raid in 1945, and subsequently scrapped in 1946.
Background and design
The 1896 Naval Expansion Plan was made after the First Sino-Japanese War, and included four armored cruisers in addition to four more battleships, all of which had to be ordered from overseas shipyards as Japan lacked the capability to build them itself. Further consideration of the Russian building program caused the IJN to believe that the battleships ordered under the original plan would not be sufficient to counter the Imperial Russian Navy. Budgetary limitations prevented ordering more battleships and the IJN decided to expand the number of more affordable armored cruisers to be ordered from four to six ships, believing that the recent introduction of tougher Krupp cemented armor would allow them to stand in the line of battle. The revised plan is commonly known as the "Six-Six Fleet". The first four ships were built by Armstrong Whitworth in the United Kingdom, but the last two ships were built in Germany and France. To ensure ammunition compatibility, the IJN required their builders to use the same British guns as the other four ships. In general, the IJN provided only a sketch design and specifications that each builder had to comply with; otherwise each builder was free to build the ships as they saw fit. Unlike most of their contemporaries which were designed for commerce raiding or to defend colonies and trade routes, Azuma and her half-sisters were intended as fleet scouts and to be employed in the battleline.
Description
The ship was long overall and between perpendiculars. She had a beam of and had an average draft of . Azuma displaced at normal load and at deep load. The ship had a metacentric height of . She had a double bottom and her hull was subdivided into 213 watertight compartments. Her crew consisted of 670 officers and enlisted men.
Azuma had two 4-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines, each driving a single propeller shaft. Steam for the engines was provided by 24 Belleville boilers and the engines were rated at a total of . The ship had a designed speed of . She carried up to of coal and could steam for at a speed of .
Armament
The main armament for all of the "Six-Six Fleet" armored cruisers was four Armstrong Whitworth-built 45-caliber eight-inch guns in twin-gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure. The electrically operated turrets were capable of 130° rotation left and right, and the guns could be elevated to +30° and depressed to −5°. The turret accommodated 65 shells, but could only be reloaded through doors in the turret floor and the ship's deck that allowed the electric winch in the turret to hoist shells up from the shell room deep in the hull. The guns were manually loaded and had a rate of fire about 1.2 rounds per minute. The 203-millimeter gun fired armor-piercing (AP) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of to a range of .
The secondary armament consisted of a dozen Elswick Ordnance Company "Pattern Z" quick-firing (QF), 40-caliber, 6-inch guns. All but four of these guns were mounted in armored casemates on the main and upper decks, and their mounts on the upper deck were protected by gun shields. Their AP shells were fired at a muzzle velocity of . Azuma was also equipped with a dozen 40-caliber QF 12-pounder 12-cwt guns and eight QF 2.5-pounder Yamauchi guns as close-range defense against torpedo boats. The former gun fired , projectiles at a muzzle velocity of .
Azuma was equipped with five torpedo tubes, one above water in the bow and four submerged tubes, two on each broadside. The Type 30 torpedo had a warhead and three range/speed settings: at , at or at .
Armor
All of the "Six-Six Fleet" armored cruisers used the same armor scheme with some minor differences, one of which was that the four later ships all used Krupp cemented armor. The waterline belt ran the full length of the ship and its thickness varied from amidships to at the bow and stern. It had a height of , of which was normally underwater. The upper strake of belt armor was thick and extended from the upper edge of the waterline belt to the main deck. It extended from the forward to the rear barbette. Azuma had only a single transverse 76 mm armored bulkhead that closed off the forward end of the central armored citadel.
The barbettes, gun turrets and the front of the casemates were all 152 millimeters thick while the sides and rear of the casemates were protected by of armor. The deck was thick and the armor protecting the conning tower was in thickness.
Construction and career
The contract for Azuma, named after the Kantō region, was signed on 12 October 1897 with Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire, and the ship was laid down at their shipyard in Saint-Nazaire on 1 February 1898. She was launched on 24 June 1898 and completed on 29 July 1900. Azuma left for Japan the next day and arrived in Yokosuka on 29 October. Captain Fujii Kōichi assumed command before the start of the Russo-Japanese War in February 1904, until he was relieved in January 1905 by Captain Murakami Kakuichi.
Russo-Japanese War
At the start of the Russo-Japanese War, Azuma was assigned to the 2nd Division of the 2nd Fleet. She participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904, when Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the Combined Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur. Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his destroyers to be much more successful than it was, anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened, but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack. The Japanese ships were spotted by the protected cruiser , which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russians. Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defenses with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns. Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese eight- and six-inch guns inflicted little damage on the Russian ships, which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect. Although many ships on both sides were hit, Russian casualties numbered some 150, while the Japanese suffered roughly 90 killed and wounded before Tōgō disengaged.
In early March, Vice Admiral Kamimura Hikonojō was tasked to take the reinforced 2nd Division north and make a diversion off Vladivostok. While scouting for Russian ships in the area, the Japanese cruisers bombarded the harbor and defenses of Vladivostok on 6 March to little effect. Upon their return to Japan a few days later, the 2nd Division was ordered to escort the transports ferrying the Imperial Guards Division to Korea and then to join the ships blockading Port Arthur. Kamimura was ordered north in mid-April to cover the Sea of Japan and defend the Korea Strait against any attempt by the Vladivostok Independent Cruiser Squadron, under the command of Rear Admiral Karl Jessen, to break through and unite with the Pacific Squadron. The two units narrowly missed each other on the 24th in heavy fog, and the Japanese proceeded to Vladivostok, where they laid several minefields before arriving back at Wonsan on the 30th.
The division failed to intercept the Russian squadron as it attacked several transports south of Okinoshima Island on 15 June, due to heavy rain and fog. The Russians sortied again on 30 June, and Kamimura finally was able to intercept them the next day near Okinoshima. The light was failing when they were spotted and the Russians were able to disengage in the darkness. Jessen's ships sortied again on 17 July, headed for the eastern coast of Japan to act as a diversion and pull Japanese forces out of the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea. The Russian ships passed through Tsugaru Strait two days later and began capturing ships bound for Japan. The arrival of the Russians off Tokyo Bay on the 24th caused the Naval General Staff to order Kamimura to sail for Cape Toi Misaki, Kyūshū, fearing that Jessen would circumnavigate Japan to reach Port Arthur. Two days later he was ordered north to the Kii Channel and then to Tokyo Bay on the 28th. The General Staff finally ordered him back to Tsushima Island on the 30th; later that day he received word that Jessen's ships had passed through the Tsugaru Strait early that morning and reached Vladivostok on 1 August.
Battle off Ulsan
On 10 August, the ships at Port Arthur attempted a breakout to Vladivostok, but were turned back in the Battle of the Yellow Sea. Jessen was ordered to rendezvous with them, but the order was delayed. His three armored cruisers, , , and , had to raise steam, so he did not sortie until the evening of 13 August. By dawn he had reached Tsushima, but turned back when he failed to see any ships from the Port Arthur squadron. north of the island he encountered Kamimura's squadron, which consisted of four modern armored cruisers, , , , and Azuma. The two squadrons had passed during the night without spotting one another and each had reversed course around first light. This put the Japanese ships astride the Russian route to Vladivostok.
Jessen ordered his ships to turn to the northeast when he spotted the Japanese at 05:00 and they followed suit, albeit on a slightly converging course. Both sides opened fire around 05:23 at a range of . The Japanese ships concentrated their fire on Rurik, the rear ship of the Russian formation. She was hit fairly quickly and began to fall astern of the other two ships. Jessen turned southeast in an attempt to open the range, but this blinded the Russian gunners with the rising sun and prevented any of their broadside guns from bearing on the Japanese. About 06:00, Jessen turned 180° to starboard in an attempt to reach the Korean coast and to allow Rurik to rejoin the squadron. Kamimura followed suit around 06:10, but turned to port, which opened the range between the squadrons. Azuma then developed engine problems and the Japanese squadron slowed to conform with her best speed. Firing recommenced at 06:24 and Rurik was hit three times in the stern, flooding her steering compartment; she had to be steered with her engines. Her speed continued to decrease, further exposing her to Japanese fire, and her steering jammed to port around 06:40.
Jessen made another 180° turn in an attempt to interpose his two ships between the Japanese and Rurik, but the latter ship suddenly turned to starboard and increased speed and passed between Jessen's ships and the Japanese. Kamimura turned 180° as well so that both squadrons were heading southeast on parallel courses, but Jessen quickly made another 180° turn so that they headed on opposing courses. The Russians reversed course for the third time around 07:45 in another attempt to support Rurik although Rossia was on fire herself; her fires were extinguished about twenty minutes later. Kamimura circled Rurik to the south at 08:00, then allowed the other two Russian ships to get to his north and gave them an uncontested route to Vladivostok. Despite this, Jessen turned back once more at 08:15 and ordered Rurik to make her own way back to Vladivostok before turning north at his maximum speed, about .
About this time Kamimura's two elderly protected cruisers, and , were approaching from the south. Their arrival allowed Kamimura to pursue Jessen with all of his armored cruisers while the two new arrivals dealt with Rurik. They fought a running battle with the Russians for the next hour and a half; scoring enough hits on them to force their speed down to . Azumas engines again broke down during this chase and she was replaced in the line by Tokiwa. The Japanese closed to a minimum of about , but Kamimura then opened the range up to .
About 10:00, Kamimura's gunnery officer erroneously informed him that Izumo had expended three-quarters of her ammunition, and he turned back after a five-minute rapid-fire barrage. He did not wish to leave the Tsushima Strait unguarded and thought that he could use his remaining ammunition on Rurik. By this time she had been sunk by Naniwa and Takachiho, which had closed to within of Rurik in order to finish her off. They had radioed Kamimura that she was sunk, but he did not receive the message. Shortly after the Japanese turned back, Gromoboi and Rossia were forced to heave-to to make repairs. None of the Japanese ships were seriously damaged and Azuma only suffered eight men wounded during the battle.
On 30 December, Azuma and the armored cruiser were ordered to patrol Tsugaru Strait to prevent any blockade runners from reaching Vladivostok. In mid-February, Azuma was relieved by Iwate so the former could be refitted.
Battle of Tsushima
As the Russian 2nd and 3rd Pacific Squadrons approached Japan on 27 May, having sailed from the Baltic Sea, Yakumo was assigned to Kamimura's 2nd Division of the 2nd Fleet. The Russians were spotted by patrolling Japanese ships early that morning, but visibility was limited and radio reception poor. The preliminary reports were enough to cause Tōgō to order his ships to put to sea and the 2nd Division spotted the Russian ships under the command of Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky at around 11:30. Kamimura closed to about a range of before sheering off under fire to join Tōgō's battleships. Azuma was second of six when Tōgō opened fire on the 2nd Pacific Squadron at 14:10 and, unlike most of the ships in the division, initially engaged the battleship . At 14:50, a shell knocked out Azumas aft right 8-inch gun. By 15:00, the Russian formation was in disorder and Knyaz Suvorov suddenly appeared out of the mist at 15:35 at a range of about . All of Kamimura's ships engaged her for five minutes or so, with Azuma and the armored cruiser also firing torpedoes at the Russian ship without effect.
After 17:30 Kamimura led his division in a fruitless pursuit of some of the Russian cruisers, leaving Tōgō's battleships to their own devices. He abandoned his chase around 18:03 and turned northwards to rejoin Tōgō. His ships spotted the rear of the Russian battleline around 18:30 and opened fire when the range closed to . Nothing is known of any effect on the Russians and they ceased fire by 19:30 and rejoined Tōgō at 20:08 as night was falling. The surviving Russian ships were spotted the next morning and the Japanese ships opened fire around 10:30, staying beyond the range at which the Russian ships could effectively reply. Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov therefore decided to surrender his ships as he could neither return fire nor close the range. Over the course of the entire battle, Azuma was struck by seven large shells, mostly 12 inch, four 6- and about four 75-millimeter shells. They inflicted only minor damage other than destroying one 6-inch and one 12-pounder gun mounts.
On 14 June, Azuma (along with Yakumo, the armored cruisers and ) was assigned of the 3rd Fleet, under the command of Vice Admiral Kataoka Shichirō, for the capture of Sakhalin in July.
Subsequent career
Azuma was assigned to the Training Squadron on 20 April 1912, where she conducted long-distance oceanic navigation and officer training for cadets in the Imperial Japanese Navy Academy. From 5 December 1912 to 21 April 1913, the ship accompanied the ex-Russian protected cruiser on a training cruise to Australia and Southeast Asia, the first of five overseas training cruises that she would make. Azuma was briefly relieved of her assignment from 1 May to 1 December before beginning another training cruise to North America and Hawaii, together with Asama, on 20 April–11 August 1914. The ship was again relieved of her assignment with the Training Squadron on 18 August, and was not reassigned until 1 September 1915 in preparation for her next training cruise that lasted from 20 April to 22 August 1916, and visited Australia and Southeast Asia again. The next month she was relieved of her assignment and then became the flagship of Destroyer Squadron (Suiraisentai) 2 from 1 December 1916 to 28 March 1917, and then again from 4 August to 24 January 1918. In early 1917, Azuma was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to return the body to the United States of George W. Guthrie, the Ambassador to Japan, who had died while in office. The ship rejoined the Training Squadron on 10 August 1918, together with Tokiwa, and made her last two training cruises over the next two years. From 1 March to 26 July 1919, the cruisers visited Australia and Southeast Asia and then the Mediterranean from 24 November to 20 May 1920. Azuma left the Training Squadron on 6 June.
Final years
On 1 September 1921, the ship was re-designated as a 1st-class coast-defense ship. By this time her engines were in bad shape and she became a training ship for the Maizuru Naval Corps a week later. In 1924, four of Azumas 12-pounder guns were removed, as were all of her QF 2.5-pounder guns, and a single 8 cm/40 3rd Year Type anti-aircraft gun was added. In addition three of her torpedo tubes were removed. On 1 October 1927, she became a stationary training ship for the Maizuru engineering school. Azuma was refitted again in 1930; this included replacement of her boilers that reduced her horsepower to and her speed to . Four of each of her 6-inch and 12-pounder guns were removed during the refit.
Azuma was stricken from the navy list, hulked, and disarmed in 1941. On 18 July 1945, she was badly damaged by aircraft from the United States Navy TF-38 when they attacked Yokosuka. The ship was scrapped in 1946.
Notes
Footnotes
References
External links
Materials of the IJN
Cruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy
Ships built in France
1899 ships
Russo-Japanese War cruisers of Japan
World War I cruisers of Japan
Cruisers sunk by aircraft
Ships sunk by US aircraft
Ships with Belleville boilers
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